Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes

Tectonothermal evolution of the Banded Gneissic Complex in central Rajasthan,

NW India: Present status and correlation
Santanu Kumar Bhowmik a,⇑, Somnath Dasgupta b
a
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721 302, India
b
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, DC-35/1, Sector 1, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700 064, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, we make a critical synthesis of the available magmatic, metamorphic and geochronological
Available online 17 August 2011 data, particularly from the Banded Gneissic Complex of central Rajasthan in northwestern India. Based on
well-constrained database, we demonstrate that the Precambrian crust of this segment of Peninsular
Keywords: India records a protracted sedimentational, tectono-magmatic and tectono-metamorphic history over a
Precambrian crust period of >1 Ga from c. 2.2–2.1 Ga to 0.95–0.88 Ga that can be correlated with the accretion and dispersal
Northwestern India of two supercontinents, namely Columbia and Rodinia. Following the stability of the Archean craton at
Banded Gneissic Complex
2.5 Ga, the Aravalli basin opened up by 2.2–2.1 Ga on a tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite–amphib-
Supercontinent evolution
Tectonics
olite basement, and closed at 1.8–1.9 Ga due to westward subduction of the Aravalli crust during the
Aravalli orogeny. This can be correlated with the global accretionary process associated with the forma-
tion of Columbia. A-type granite magmatism in the North-Delhi Fold Belt at 1.7 Ga and the formation of
medium-pressure granulites, synchronous with mafic and felsic magmatism with or without orthopyrox-
ene at 1.74–1.72 Ga in the Sandmata Metamorphic Complex (SMC) are related to a switching of tectonic
style from subduction to extension or from subduction to a cycle of back-arc extension and back-arc clo-
sure. The supracrustal and metaigneous granulites of the SMC and the A-type granites of the North-Delhi
Fold Belt acted as basement for the opening up of two Mesoproterozoic sedimentary basins: the Delhi
Basin to the west and the Mangalwar Basin to the east. These basins were closed with the onset of a con-
tinent–continent collisional orogeny at 0.95–0.88 Ga (cf. Grenvillian orogeny), producing an extensive,
amalgamated crustal domain, involving the inverted Delhi and Mangalwar basins, their reworked base-
ment rocks and the cratonic domains lying to the east and the west of these basins. Crustal amalgama-
tions and stitching of cratons/microcontinents at c. 1.0 Ga in northwestern India are also correlatable
with collisional tectonics in other Proterozoic mobile belts of central, eastern and southeastern India,
and constitute an important part on the growth and the assembly of the Greater Indian Landmass in
Rodinia.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction mely diverse in terms of rock associations, metamorphic grade

and geological antiquity. In the southern Rajasthan, the BGC
Much of our knowledge on the crustal growth to produce the (termed as BGC-I by Gupta (1934)) is a tonalite–trondjhemite–
Aravalli Craton, Rajasthan, northwestern India, originated from granite (TTG) gneiss–migmatite-intrusive granitoid–amphibolite
numerous structural, petrological, geochemical and geochronolog- rock association with supracrustal components (Heron, 1953;
ical investigations of the stratigraphic unit named the ‘Banded Crawford, 1970; Naqvi and Rogers, 1987; Roy, 1988; Sharma,
Gneissic Complex’ (BGC) (reviewed in Roy and Jakhar (2002), 1988; Gopalan et al., 1990; Upadhyaya et al., 1992). This segment
Sharma (2009), Santosh (in press) and references therein). The of the BGC recorded the presence of an Archean nucleii of 3.3–
term BGC (Fig. 1) was originally defined by Heron (1953) as a 3.2 Ga age (Gopalan et al., 1990; Wiedenbeck and Goswami,
heterogeneous mixture of migmatites, infolded metasedimentary 1994; Roy and Kröner, 1996), which evolved into a single, coherent
sequences, granites, pegmatites, aplites and metabasic rocks. crustal block by the Late Archean time following extensive granite
Heron (1953) considered this as the oldest stratigraphic unit of magmatism and coeval metamorphism at 2.54–2.45 Ga (Gopalan
Rajasthan. Studies over the years revealed that the BGC is extre- et al., 1990; Wiedenbeck and Goswami, 1994; Wiedenbeck et al.,
1996a). This cratonic block, which acted as a basement for the
overlying Palaeoproterozoic supracrustal successions of the Arav-
⇑ Corresponding author. alli Supergroup, remained largely unaffected by the succeeding
E-mail address: santanu@gg.iitkgp.ernet.in (S.K. Bhowmik). Proterozoic tectonothermal events.

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.07.025
340 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348

Part of these problems is linked to incomplete understanding of

the different stages of structural and metamorphic transformations
that modified or largely obliterated the original protolith history of
both the magmatic and sedimentary components of the BGC and
their stratigraphic relationships. The problem has compounded be-
cause of the polymetamorphic nature of the enclave granulites
(Dasgupta et al., 1997; Saha et al., 2008; Buick et al., 2010). As a re-
sult, there are wide diversities in opinion regarding the peak P–T
conditions of metamorphism, the P–T trajectories and their tec-
tonic interpretations. This led to divergent views on geodynamic
processes that led to the growth and the stability of the two con-
trasting litho-tectonic domains.
Resolution of these outstanding issues is central to understand-
ing of multistage orogenic evolution of the Aravalli-Delhi Mobile
Belt (ADMB) and its correlation with other orogenic belts in the
context of both Precambrian crustal architecture of Peninsular In-
dia and supercontinent history. The ADMB is defined here in a gen-
eral way as ‘‘the 700 km long, NNE–SSW trending orogenic belt in
northwestern India, which is a collage of two spatially and tempo-
rally separate Proterozoic supracrustal belts, namely the Aravalli
and Delhi belts and their variously reworked basement gneisses
(cf. BGC)’’. This realization has led to renewed interest shown by
various groups of workers in recent years, which showed that a
combination of metamorphic and geochronological tools can be
profitably utilized to resolve some of these problems. In this com-
munication, we provide a critical appraisal of the current state of
knowledge on the BGC in central Rajasthan within the framework
of Precambrian geological evolution of northwestern India and
make an attempt to obtain a holistic picture through an integrated
tectonic model.

Fig. 1. (a) Aravalli-Delhi Mobile Belt (ADMB) in the tectonic framework of 2. The Banded Gneissic Complex in central Rajasthan: Lithology,
Peninsular India. The Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) and the Eastern Ghats classification, sedimentary and magmatic protoliths
Mobile Belt (EGMB) are the adjoining mobile belts that wrap around the North and
the South Indian Blocks (NIB and SIB). The latter consists of the Archaean nuclei of
It is evident that the BGC in central Rajasthan (the BGC II of
Bundelkhand (BKN) and Singhbhum (SN)–Bastar (BN)–Karnataka (KN) respectively.
(b) Distribution of different lithotectonic components in the ADMB (after Heron Gupta, 1934) shows variations both in the nature of protolith
(1953), Gupta et al. (1997) and Saha et al. (2008)). Also shown are the magmatic and in metamorphic grade. The granulite facies enclaves are best
emplacement ages of TTG gneisses and granites in the Banded Gneissic Complex exposed around Sandmata and adjoining areas, and also around
(BGC), which is classified into BGC-I and BGC-II (after Gupta (1934)). Data sources Bhinai (Fig. 2) and have been extensively studied (Sharma et al.,
for magmatic emplacement ages are subscripted as follows: (1) Buick et al. (2006);
(2) Sarkar et al. (1989); (3) Biju-Sekhar et al. (2003); (4) Wiedenbeck et al. (1996a);
1987; Sharma, 1988; Guha and Bhattacharya, 1995; Dasgupta
(5) Wiedenbeck et al. (1996b); (6) Gopalan et al. (1990); (7) Wiedenbeck and et al., 1997; Thomas, 2005; Roy et al., 2005; Saha et al., 2008;
Goswami (1994); (8) Dharma Rao et al. (2011b). Also included are two Archaean Bhowmik et al., 2009, 2010). Principal lithologic types in the gran-
metamorphic dates from the BGC-II for which the data source is superscripted. ulite ensemble are metapelitic granulites, leptynite and two pyrox-
ene granulite with minor calc-silicate granulites, metanorite and
The BGC of the central Rajasthan (Fig. 2), in contrast, is com- basic dykes, intruded by orthopyroxene-bearing megacrystic gran-
posed of two lithotectonic domains of contrasting metamorphic itoid. The granitoid has both migmatitic and non-migmatitic vari-
grade: (1) a suite of supracrustal and metaigneous granulites and eties with the former occurring near the contact with both the
intrusive megacrystic granitoids with or without orthopyroxene granulite enclave and the Delhi Supergroup rocks in zones of in-
and (2) an amphibolite facies ensemble of TTG gneisses-amphibo- tense ductile strain (Bhowmik et al., 2009).This granulite ensemble
lites and a metasedimentary sequence of quartzite, pelitic schist, was named as the Sandmata Metamorphic Complex (SMC) by
marble and calc-silicate gneiss (Gupta, 1934; Gupta et al., 1980, Gupta et al. (1980), and most of the later workers adopted this ter-
1997). The granulites occur as shear-zone bounded pods and lenses minology. It is generally agreed that the granulite complex/enclave
of various dimensions within the amphibolite facies felsic gneisses is bounded by shear zones separating it from the surrounding
(Dasgupta et al., 1997; Roy et al., 2005). These can be traced on a amphibolite facies ortho- and paragneisses/schists (Sharma,
regional scale from Sandmata in the south to Bhinai in north 1988; Guha and Bhattacharya, 1995; Dasgupta et al., 1997; Roy
(Fig. 2). et al., 2005; Saha et al., 2008). The amphibolite facies ortho- and
Regarding the status of the BGC in this sector, opinions range paragneisses/schists, collectively termed as the Mangalwar Com-
from (a) the BGC is migmatised metasediments of Proterozoic plex (MC) (Gupta et al., 1980; Guha and Bhattacharya, 1995) are
Aravalli and Raialo stratigraphic units (Crookshank, 1948; Naha lithologically complex. The principal ortho component is a mig-
and Halyburton, 1974; Roy et al., 1981), (b) the BGC is of Archean matitic/augen gneiss of TTG composition (Gupta et al., 1980; Guha
age, but underwent extensive reworking and remobilization during and Bhattacharya, 1995; Dasgupta et al., 1997; Sharma, 1988; Roy
the Palaeoproterozoic period (Guha and Bhattacharya, 1995; et al., 2005). The TTG gneiss is locally intercalated with orthoam-
Sharma, 1988; Roy et al., 2005), (c) the whole of BGC has Protero- phibolite and both these constituents may contain minor orthopy-
zoic ancestry (Buick et al., 2006, 2010), and (d) some of the felsic roxene near the contact with the SMC (Roy Choudhury, 2007). At
gneisses have an Archean lineage (Dharma Rao et al., 2011b). these places, distinction between the TTG gneisses and the
 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348 341

migmatitic megacrystic graniotoids becomes difficult. Other mag- shear zone-bound features (with respect to the surrounding
matic rocks include intrusive granite (Amet and Anjana granite, amphibolite facies Mangalwar Complex) can be considered as a
Guha and Bhattacharya, 1995). litho-tectonic domain in the BGC-II. The MC, however, is lithologi-
A variety of supracrustal rocks are present in the MC. These in- cally too complex to be clubbed as a single litho-tectonic package.
clude normal pelite (in staurolite- and kyanite zones), aluminous Further, it is possible to distinguish the gneissic components of the
pelites, silica-undersaturated aluminous pelites, quartzite, marble MC (TTG and other orthogneisses, often clubbed as a banded gneiss
and calc-silicate rocks (Sharma and McRae, 1981; Sharma and by previous workers) from the supracrustal schistose rocks (mostly
Joshi, 1984; Sharma et al., 1985; Sharma, 1988; Guha and Bhat- metasedimentary) of the MC. Whether this lithological distinction
tacharya, 1995). corresponds to definite tectonic units or not, can be decided only
In addition to the ortho- and paragneiss/schist associations, a after extensive isotopic investigations, particularly zircon Lu–Hf
third association has been described by Saha et al. (2008), which and whole rock Nd isotopic studies. Nevertheless, the lithological
occurs as lenses (a) within the SMC pelitic granulites, (b) at the characteristics permit us to divide the MC into two components:
contact of the pelitic granulites and the migmatitic metagranitoids, Mangalwar Gneissic Complex (MGC) and the Mangalwar Metasedi-
and (c) rarely within the metagranitoids. This association is com- mentary Complex (MMC).
prised of interlayered upper amphibolite to granulite facies pelitic Admittedly limited isotopic data is a hindrance to deduce the
to psammopelitic schist/migmatite and garnetiferous metabasites. protolith history (both magmatic and sedimentary) of the SMC,
Rocks of this sequence are distinct from the supracrustal and the MGC and MMC components of the BGC-II. U–Pb zircon dates (LA-
metaigneous granulite ensemble of the SMC, and have been corre- ICP-MS) of orthogneisses from the different sectors of the MGC,
lated with the MC sequence (Saha et al., 2008; Bhowmik et al., considered to be the magmatic protolith ages, are found to be
2010). 1716 ± 8 Ma to 1692 ± 6 Ma (Buick et al., 2006) and 1729 ± 14 Ma
Summarizing, the SMC with its distinct lithology of granulite fa- to 1708 ± 12 Ma (Dharma Rao et al., 2011b). Earlier Fareeduddin
cies rocks and intrusive megacrystic granitoids and with invariable and Kröner (1998) used single zircon evaporation technique to

Fig. 2. Geological map of the BGC-II, central Rajasthan, NW India (partially modified after Gupta et al. (1997)) (see text for details). The regional variations in peak
metamorphic conditions across the different litho-tectonic components of the BGC-II, during the c. 1.0 Ga tectonothermal event are shown with the help of reconstructed
metamorphic P–T paths.
342 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348

obtain an age of 1690 Ma from the MGC. The magmatic emplace- equilibria (cf. Lasaga, 1983; Frost and Chacko, 1989; Selverstone
ment age of the megacrystic orthopyroxene-bearing granitoid, and Chamberlain, 1990; Chakraborty and Ganguly, 1992; Spear
intruding the SMC has been shown to be 1723þ14 7 Ma (Sarkar and Florence, 1992; Pattison and Bégin, 1994; Fitzsimons and Har-
et al., 1989, ID-TIMS, U–Pb, zircon age) and 1716 ± 6 Ma (Buick ley, 1994; Pattison et al., 2003; Ganguly, 2010). Development of
et al., 2006, LA-ICP-MS, U–Pb, zircon). Emplacement of orthopyrox- coronal garnet in metabasic and allied rocks, interpreted as due
ene-free granitic rocks at comparable ages was earlier reported by to loading (Sharma, 1988), and later thought to be due to cooling
Biju-Sekhar et al. (2003) and Wiedenbeck et al. (1996b). Summa- (Sharma, 2009), cannot be taken as a conclusive evidence in favor
rizing, both the MGC and the SMC suites are characterized by of near isobaric cooling in polymetamorphic rocks (see for exam-
emplacement of both orthopyroxene-free and orthopyroxene- ple, Goscombe (1992) on apparent isobaric cooling trajectory).
bearing granitoid (calc alkaline) magmas at 1.7 Ga, which is def- Likewise, it is imperative to provide evidence of the prograde path
initely a period of intense crust building activity in northwestern of metamorphism in order to conclude about clockwise or counter-
India. clockwise P–T trajectory (Harley, 1989). Therefore, counterclock-
Interestingly, Dharma Rao et al. (2011b) also obtained wise P–T trajectory, inferred on the basis of coronal garnet
207
Pb–206Pb ages of 2698 ± 49 Ma and 2750 ± 44 Ma from two formation (cooling?) (Roy et al., 2005), is suspect. Most of the stud-
other samples from the MGC, which they interpreted as the timing ies used outdated mineralogical geothermobarometers or those
of an Archean metamorphic event. Buick et al. (2006) reported having large uncertainties (see Sharma (1988) for the different for-
inherited zircon cores in the range, 2120 ± 28 Ma to 2057 ± 24 Ma mulations used for two pyroxene, garnet–orthopyroxene and gar-
from the 1.72 Ga orthogneiss components of the MGC, which imply net–clinopyroxene thermometry and Roy et al. (2005) for large
possible existence of an older Palaeoproterozoic crust in the MGC. error in Thermocalc average T and P estimates), that too in metaig-
Earlier, Tobisch et al. (1994) had obtained Nd-model ages of neous rocks, where it is difficult to distinguish between subsolidus
2900 Ma from a BGC-II inlier within the Delhi supracrustal that cooling and cooling from post-peak metamorphism. In the absence
corroborates presence of older crustal components in the MGC. of mineral chemical data (such as Zn in spinel, Al in orthopyroxene,
These data indicate a possibility that MGC is by itself composite Harley, 1998, 2008), the mineral assemblages described by Guha
and has Neoarchean to Palaeoproterozoic ancestory, superimposed and Bhattacharya (1995) are not diagnostic of ultrahigh tempera-
by the major crustal accretion at 1.7 Ga. Clearly the available ture metamorphism, as claimed. None of these studies attempted
database is inadequate, but there is so far no indication of events to model rigorously the compositional evolution of metamorphic
at 3.2–3.3 Ga in the MGC, similar to that recorded from the minerals in response to polymetamorphism, the scale of resetting
BGC-I of southern Rajasthan. of mineral compositions in late ductile shear zones and the role
Even less information is available about the sedimentation his- of bulk compositional variations (including fluid loss/gain or melt
tory of the SMC and MMC. Buick et al. (2006) obtained detrital zir- loss) in stabilization of mineral assemblages. Finally, these earlier
con ages of 2290–1840 Ma from the SMC and 1700 Ma from the studies did not apply well-constrained thermobarometry to evalu-
MMC. Although by no means conclusive, an apparent younger sed- ate metamorphic P–T conditions considering kinetic factors. The
imentation age for the MMC is thus suggested. It is possible that expected outcome of such unconstrained investigations is a wide
parts of the MGC acted as a basement for both the SMC and array of peak P–T conditions of metamorphism (s) and a multitude
MMC sediments. We will attempt an integration of the meager of P–T paths and their interpretation. It is also inconceivable how
data with the better known sedimentation history of other basins metamorphic ages were assigned without geochronologic studies
in northwestern India (Aravalli and Delhi) in the concluding sec- (cf. Sharma, 1988; Guha and Bhattacharya, 1995).
tion, because knowledge of timing and mechanism of basin open- Several recent robust petrological–geochronological investiga-
ing and closure is a pre-requisite to get a holistic picture on the tions on the rocks of the SMC and MMC integrated mineral compo-
geodynamic evolution of the ADMB. sitional (including trace and rare earth element) zonation and
textural analysis with well-constrained thermobarometry, petro-
genetic grid and calculated P–T pseudosections (Saha et al., 2008;
3. Metamorphic evolution of the BGC-II and geochronological Bhowmik et al., 2009), and also allowed accessory mineral (mona-
constraints zite and zircon) growth to be correlated with discrete metamor-
phic stages (Buick et al., 2006, 2010). In combination with
At the outset, this section is not intended to provide a critique geochronological investigations that included LA-ICP-MS dating
on the conflicting ideas and results obtained by several groups of of zircon and chemical and SHRIMP dating study of monazite
workers, who researched on the metamorphic evolutionary history (Buick et al., 2006, 2010; Bhowmik et al., 2010; Dharma Rao
of the ‘‘podiform’’ SMC granulites occurring in amphibolite facies et al., 2011b), this metamorphic quantification helped to address
MMC and MGC rock ensemble. The reason is simply because many some of the lacunae mentioned in the previous section. These stud-
of these studies provided inconclusive database, adopted inappro- ies have provided a framework of tectonothermal evolution of the
priate methodologies, and did not take into consideration alternate Banded Gneissic Complex in central Rajasthan. According to these
possible explanations. In support of the above statement, we studies, the SMC granulites are polymetamorphic with an early
would, however, provide some examples. Most of the workers, medium-pressure (MP) granulite facies metamorphism in the sta-
however, converged on the conclusion that the rocks of the BGC- bility field of sillimanite with partial melting at 7.5–8 kbar,
II are polymetamorphic, which is, therefore, a convenient starting 800 °C (M1) at 1.74–1.72 Ga (with syn-metamorphic orthopyrox-
point of the discussion. It is customary to adopt some precautions ene-bearing granitoid magmatism), followed by partial melt segre-
to interpret metamorphic textures in polymetamorphic rocks. For gation, and re-metamorphism (M2) along a clockwise P–T
example, the counterclockwise P–T trajectory of evolution of the trajectory at greater depth, corresponding to a pressure of maxi-
SMC granulites inferred by Sharma (1988) is based on the transfor- mum 14–15 kbar and 800–850 °C (Fig. 2) at 0.95–0.88 Ga. The
mation sequence kyanite ? sillimanite ? kyanite in metapelites. It MMC rocks, on the other hand, are monocyclic having suffered only
was never established whether the transformations are the prod- the later high pressure metamorphism. Saha et al. (2008) attrib-
ucts of a single cycle of metamorphism, a fundamental requisite. uted the preserved prograde segment of the CW P–T loop of
Further, it is not desirable to connect discrete P–T points obtained increasing dP/dT to crustal thickening or continental subduction
from various ortho-and para gneisses to obtain a P–T path (Sharma, during a short-lived orogenic cycle. Simultaneous burial and
1988) without any kinetic consideration of different mineral heating during prograde metamorphism was possibly caused by
 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348 343

a combination of crustal stacking on top and thermal relaxation at and the M1 metamorphism in question was achieved only at a
depth. M2 was followed by a two-stage partial exhumation and ret- depth of 25 km. Further, the conclusion that the 1.72 Ga megac-
rogression (M2R) accompanying fluid fluxing and shearing at shal- rystic granitoid is undeformed, (Sharma, 2009, page 157) is not
lower depths (Saha et al., 2008). The Late Mesoproterozoic to supported by field observations (Bhowmik et al., 2009).
Neoproterozoic event was tentatively correlated with the timing The MGC rocks have been the least investigated, but the pres-
of shear zone-controlled reworking of the Palaeoproterozoic gran- ence of orthopyroxene-bearing leucosomes in some of the tonalitic
ulites, which led to the exhumation and the tectonic juxtaposition gneisses and in their metabasic enclaves (Roy Choudhury, 2007)
of the Sandmata Complex with the MGC (Buick et al., 2006, 2010; adjoining the SMC granulites is possible imprint of M1 metamor-
also see Sarkar et al., 1989; Dasgupta et al., 1997). While such a phism. Subsequent metamorphic overprint at 8.1 kbar, 675 °C, pro-
possibility can not be ruled out, we would insist on exercising cau- ducing pervasive garnet–quartz symplectites in these lithologies
tion as some of the shear zones were identified by Bhowmik et al. (Roy Choudhury, 2007) is similar to the M2 metamorphism from
(2009) as contemporary with burial during the M2 (Fig. 2). Earlier the spatially adjacent MMC rock. Limited geochronological data
studies by Dasgupta et al. (1997) and Roy et al. (2005) recorded (Buick et al., 2010) showed renewed growth of zircon at 0.95–
M1 and M2R, but M2 was overlooked. The two metamorphic events 0.93 Ga over 1.72 Ga magmatic cores, which suggests polymeta-
M1 and M2 have contrasting metamorphic field gradients: M1 with morphism also in the MGC. Thus, unlike the MMC, which is clearly
a minimum thermal gradient of 30 °C/km, while M2 with a ther- involved only in M2, the MGC is more complex, and possibly com-
mal gradient ranging from 19 °C/km to 16 °C/km. Additionally, posite, with some components involved in both M1 and M2, and
Bhowmik et al. (2010) documented a regional variation in PMax of others in M2 only. It was mentioned in the previous section that
M2 metamorphism (Fig. 2), interpreted as due to preservation of the 1.72 Ga megacrystic granitoids of the SMC were converted
an oblique lower crustal section, with the deepest section exposed to ‘‘banded gneiss’’ due to late shearing and hydration near the
at the contact with the Delhi Supergroup of rocks. peripheries and resemble the TTG gneisses of the MGC. Therefore,
It is not out of the context to point out that Sharma (2009) has it is necessary to investigate the MGC in more details (preferably
considered the finding of Saha et al. (2008) untenable because it is by Sm–Nd and Lu–Hf isotopic systems) to unravel its composite
(a) not consistent with regional geologic and geochronologic data, character. This is a significant gap in knowledge and merits careful
(b) not possible to reach higher pressure conditions subsequent to petrological and geochronological investigations.
granulite facies metamorphism, and (c) metamorphism in the Summarizing the analysis presented in Sections 2 and 3 and col-
Aravalli and Delhi Supergroup of rocks is monocyclic. The SMC lating information on the geological history of other basins in the
rocks described by Saha et al. (2008) have no relation with the Del- region, we propose a generalized model of the sequence of events
hi and Aravalli Supergroup of rocks, and, therefore, there is no basis in northwestern India in Table 1.
of the objection enumerated under (c). The finding is entirely con-
sistent with regional geologic and geochronologic data, as shown 4. Geodynamic evolution of the Northwestern India and its
by Buick et al. (2006, 2010), Bhowmik et al. (2009, 2010). We note significance in transcontinental correlation
no conflict with re-metamorphism to greater depths due to an
unrelated orogeny, which has been documented in innumerable The updated account of the sedimentational, magmatic and
studies (Hoek et al., 1992; Goscombe et al., 1998 to name a few), metamorphic history of the Banded Gneissic Complex in central

Table 1
Generalised model of the tectonothermal evolution of the Banded Gneissic Complex in central Rajasthan.

Age (in Ga) MGC SMC MMC Equivalent stratigraphic units

0.95–0.88 Ga Amphibolite facies HP granulite (P  14–15 kbar, T  800 °C) to HP amphibolite (P  10 kbar, Amphibolite facies metamorphism and
metamorphism at 8 T  675 °C) facies metamorphism (M2) of the SMC and the MMS protoliths; P–T granite plutonism at c. 1.0 Ga in the Delhi
kbar, 675 °C; renewed path has a CW trajectory; Renewed burial of continental crust to 50–30 km belt. Formation of Sendra arc terrane at the
zircon growth at 0.95– depth and its subsequent exhumation to mid-crustal condition due to a eastern margin of the Delhi belt.
0.93 Ga continent–continent collisional orogeny
1.72–0.95 Ga Development of sedimentary basin Opening up of the Delhi basin,
on the combined MGC and the SMC synchronously (?) in north and south.
basement; Formation of protolith of Formation of oceanic crust in the eastern
metasedimentary and metabasic margin of the Delhi basin (cf. Phulad
sequence of the MMC ophiolite suite)
Relaxation of high heat flow, leading to cratonization of the BGC-II and components of the NDFB and the
SDFB too. Nature of exhumation of 1.72 Ga granulites unknown
c. 1.72 Ga Part of the MGC MP granulite facies metamorphism of the Voluminous felsic magmatism in the NDFB
metamorphosed to SMC protolith at 7–8 kbar, 800–820 °C. in an extensional tectonic setting
granulite facies; felsic Syn-metamorphic emplacement of
magmatism at c. megacrystic granitoid with or without
1.72 Ga Opx. Emplacement of noritic dyke (?).
Basement-cover relation completely
obliterated
1.8–1.72 Ga Development of sedimentary basin on the
MGC basement; formation of pelitic–
psammopelitic–calcareous protolith of
the SMC. Emplacement of gabbroic
intrusions in the SMC
c. 1.85–1.8 Ga Co-eval felsic magmatism and metamorphism in between 1.84 and 1.82 Ga in the basement rocks for cf. Aravalli orogeny; Felsic plutonism in the
SMC and MMC NDFB, in BGC-II inlier at Anasagar, Ajmer
Pre-1.85–1.8 Ga Possible presence of Pre-SMC metasediments; Opening up of sedimentary basin on Archaean cratonic Opening up of Aravalli basin (cf. Aravalli
basement Supergroup)
Archaean Formation of older component of TTG gneiss-amphibolite protolith, which stabilized in Late Archaean Part of BGC-I in central Rajasthan
following a possible high-grade metamorphism

Abbreviations: MP/HP: Medium/high pressure; NDFB/SDFB: North/South Delhi Fold Belt; See text for other abbreviations.
344 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348

Rajasthan, summarized in Table 1, can now be discussed in the zoic events. The tectonic model proposed in this work is shown in
context of the geodynamic evolution of northwestern India and Fig. 3. Sharma (2009) provided a review of the geodynamic models
transcontinental inter-orogen correlation over a protracted period proposed so far (Sinha-Roy, 1988; Roy, 1990; Sugden et al., 1990;
of time. Critical to establishing a viable tectonic model for this ter- Roy and Jakhar, 2002), and pointed out several weaknesses in all,
rain is to relate the tectonothermal events at c. 1.85–1.8 Ga, c. and he, himself propounded a model revising his own earlier mod-
1.72 Ga and 0.95–0.88 Ga and the development of three sedimen- els (Sharma, 1999, 2003). Santosh (in press) has provided a suc-
tary basins before 1.85 Ga (cf.Aravalli Basin), between 1.8 and cinct summary of Palaeoproterozoic events in India and modeled
1.74 Ga (Sandmata Basin) and between 1.72 and 0.95 Ga (Delhi the evolution of northwestern India through accretionary growth
and equivalent Mangalwar Basins) to an evolving geodynamic set- around a Pacific-type margin, followed by subduction and exhu-
ting for a period of over 1 billion years. While there is compelling mation of deep crustal rocks. We agree with Sharma (2009, page
metamorphic evidence for a continent–continent collisional orog- 166) that metamorphism is key to the understanding of tectono-
eny for the Early Neoproterozoic tectonothermal event, geological thermal evolution of fold belts, but insist upon the adoption of
setting, rock associations and metamorphic P–T condition appear appropriate methodologies and conclusions that are based on care-
to support an accretionary orogenesis model for the Palaeoprotero- ful consideration of thermodynamic and kinetic constraints.

Fig. 3. Cartoon diagrams showing the different stages of evolution of the Aravalli-Delhi Mobile Belt (ADMB), NW India. (a and b) Stages 1A and 1B in the Palaeoproterozoic,
which relate to the initiation of rifting of the Archaean Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) and opening of the Aravalli basin. This is marked by mafic volcanism and
sedimentation. By 2.2–2.1 Ga, the rifting led to the formation of the Aravalli ocean basin. (c) Stage 2 at c. 1.85–1.8 Ga marks the beginning of an accretionary orogenesis. The
westward subduction of the Aravalli oceanic crust produced continental arcs and the Aravalli Fold Belt. (d and e) Continuation of the Palaeoproterozoic accretionary
orogenesis (stages 3A and 3B) at c. 1.72 Ga marks a new cycle of crustal extension and compression in response to sequential slab roll-back and slab advancement
movements. The cycle led to the formation of the protoliths of the SMC granulites in possible back-arc setting and their subsequent granulite facies metamorphism at mid-
lower crustal conditions (cf. SMC granulites). (f) Crustal extension in the Mesoproterozoic (Stage 4) led to the rifting of the 1.72 Ga cratonised crust, producing two separate
basins: Mangalwar to the east and the main Delhi basin to the west. (g) Collisional orogenesis at c. 1.0 Ga (Stage 5) led to the closure of the Mangalwar and the Delhi basins
and amalgamation of the continental blocks. Note the formation of granulite facies rocks in the root zones of both the basins.
 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348 345

Fig. 3 (continued)

The earliest continental crust in this region is represented by at least some of the sedimentary protoliths of the SMC might have
the TTG gneisses and amphibolites of BGC-I (Bhilwara gneisses, formed at this stage. This intuitive proposal requires validation
Sinha-Roy et al., 1995) and their equivalents in BGC-II, designated through more extensive studies, such as those carried out by Kaur
as the earlier components of MGC. Available geochronological data et al. (2011a) for the Delhi sedimentation.
shows a spread from 3.3 Ga to 2.6 Ga, but an Archean basement The Aravalli orogeny closed at 1.9–1.8 Ga in an island arc/con-
complex of TTG and amphibolite constituted the nucleus of the tinental arc collisional setting with subduction of Aravalli oceanic
craton by 2.5 Ga (Wiedenbeck et al., 1996a; Sharma, 2009; Dhar- crust, probably correlatable with the amalgamation of Columbia
ma Rao et al., 2011b; Santosh, in press). Taking cue from Ahmad (Kaur et al., 2009, 2011a; Dharma Rao et al., 2011a,b; Santosh, in
and Tarney (1994), Sharma (2009) suggested development of press; Meert et al., 2011). This is indeed an attractive proposition,
extensional Aravalli basin at 2.2 Ga due to impingement of a as evidence of accretion/subduction at 1.9–1.8 Ga is otherwise very
mantle plume. Rifting (due to asthenospheric upwelling) was also rare in the Indian subcontinent (Vijaya Kumar et al., 2010; Dharma
suggested by Sinha-Roy (1988, 2007) for the development of the Rao et al., 2011b; Bose et al., 2011; Naganjaneyulu and Santosh, in
Aravalli basin. The existing database does indicate onset of Aravalli press), unlike that, for example, in north China craton (Zhao, 2001;
sedimentation at around 2.2 Ga. Isotopic, geochemical and geo- Santosh, 2010; Santosh et al., in press; Tsunogae et al., 2011; Zhai
chronological studies of the mafic and ultramafic lavas of the and Santosh, 2011). The record of tectonothermal and tectonomag-
Delwara volcanics in the basal Aravalli sequence (Ahmad and matic event of this age in the BGC-II is preserved in 1.84–1.82 Ga
Tarney, 1994; Mallikarjuna Rao et al., 1995; Deb and Thorpe, magmatic and metamorphic zircon and monazite grains as detrital
2004; Ahmad et al., 2008) indicate the ocean opening of the components in the metasediments of the SMC and MMC (Buick
Aravalli basin was complete by 2.2–2.1 Ga (Stages 1A and 1B in et al., 2006, 2010), emplacement of calc-alkaline plutons in the
Fig. 3a–b). We infer, based on available detrital zircon ages, that North Delhi Fold Belt (Kaur et al., 2009), and magmatism in the
346 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348

Anasagar granite gneiss (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2000) (Table 1). A the Delhi and Mangalwar basins are related to two westerly direc-
probable tectonic setting for this event could be ridge subduction ted subduction systems, producing amalgamated crustal domains
and slab window development in an arc environment (Santosh at the end of the collisional orogeny. In the BGC-II, the collisional
and Kusky, 2010). The direction of subduction is, however, not orogeny led to the final excavation of the SMC granulites. In the
clear, as geological data suggests eastward subduction (Sinha- Delhi basin, westward subduction of the Delhi oceanic crust pro-
Roy, 1988) contrasting with westward polarity indicated by geo- duced a magmatic arc terrane (Ambaji–Sendra terrane, Deb et al.,
physical data (Rajendra Prasad et al., 1988; Naganjaneyulu and 2001) to the west of the Delhi basin, and granulite facies metamor-
Santosh, in press). At this stage the current model (Fig. 3c) deviates phism in the lower crust, the latter now exposed at Pilwa-Chinwali
from that of Sharma (2009) because we do not have any evidence area (Fareeduddin et al., 1994) and metamorphosed at around 1 Ga
of granulite formation at this time anywhere in the sequence, and (our unpublished monazite chemical data).
the database is insufficient to predict mantle delamination. Correlation with other orogenic belts in India led Bhowmik et al.
A switching of tectonic mode at 1.74–1.72 Ga from subduction (2010) to suggest that the crustal architecture of India developed at
to extension is evidenced by emplacement of voluminous A-type this time through stitching of several microcontinents, although
granitoids in the North Delhi Fold Belt (Kaur et al., 2011b). This the geographical location where such amalgamation occurred re-
event, tentatively correlated with initiation of the breakup of mains uncertain because of rather small paleomagnetic data base
Columbia (Kaur et al., 2011a,b; Dharma Rao et al., 2011b), must (summarized in Li et al. (2008)). The Precambrian history of north-
have caused upbending of mantle and crustal isotherms, melting western India wrapped up with the emplacement of the Malani
in the mantle and the crust, high heat flow and a resultant elevated Igneous Suite at 700–800 Ma (Gregory et al., 2009; references
geotherm, conducive for the formation of granulite facies meta- therein), which could be the manifestation of rifting of the Rodinia
morphism of the SMC at 25 km depth. Sharma (2009) proposed supercontinent.
subductional tectonics to account for the medium pressure-high
temperature granulite facies metamorphism at 1.74–1.72 Ga. It
Acknowledgements
remains to be seen how the subduction-related granulite produc-
tion postulated by Sharma (2009, Fig. 4.8f) at this period is consis-
S.K.B. acknowledges fruitful discussions with his Ph.D. and
tent with his counterclockwise P–T path for the SMC granulites
M.Sc. students over the years and financial support from the
(Sharma, 1988). We propose that the deposition of the SMC proto-
Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of In-
liths on an extended Palaeoproterozoic crust and the synchronous
dia. S.D.G. acknowledges financial support through J.C. Bose Fel-
medium-pressure granulite facies metamorphism and felsic (cf.
lowship from the DST. We are thankful to Prof. M. Santosh, the
megacrystic granitoids with or without orthopyroxene) and mafic
Special Issue Managing Editor of the Journal of Asian Earth Sci-
(cf. gabbro-norite, norite and mafic microgranular enclaves in the
ences for encouragement and consideration of a late submission.
granitoids) magmatism in the SMC can be explained within the
Comments from two anonymous reviewers and Prof. Wenjiao-
realm of an accretionary orogenesis model (Collins, 2002; Cawood
Xiao, the Guest Editor of the special issue of the Journal of Asian
and Buchan, 2007) of back arc extension and back-arc closure in re-
Earth Sciences on Central Asia Correlations have helped to im-
sponse to sequential slab roll back (Stage 3A, Fig. 3d) and slab
prove the manuscript.
advancement (Stage 3B, Fig. 3e). The globally significant tectono-
thermal event during the period 1.76–1.6 Ga (cited in Bhowmik
et al. (in press), Dharma Rao et al. (2011a,b), Bose et al. (2011) References
and Santosh (in press) is usually correlated with accretionary
Ahmad, T., Tarney, J., 1994. Geochemistry and petrogenesis of Late Archaean
growth of Columbia (Zhao et al., 2003, 2004; Rogers and Santosh, Aravalli volcanics, basement enclaves and granitoids, Rajasthan. Precambrian
2002, 2009; Santosh et al., 2009; Santosh, 2010). Research 6, 1–23.
It may be speculated that the origin of the Delhi basin is related Ahmad, T., Dragusanu, C., Tanaka, T., 2008. Provenance of Proterozoic basal Aravalli
mafic volcanic rocks from Rajasthan, Northwestern India: Nd isotopes evidence
to this extensional event, which may also be responsible for open- for enriched mantle reservoirs. Precambrian Research 162, 150–159.
ing up of smaller basins at the upper crust (overlying the granu- Bhowmik, S.K., Saha, L., Dasgupta, S., Fukuoka, M., 2009. Metamorphic phase
lites) in which the sediments of the MMC were deposited (Stage relations in orthopyroxene-bearing granitoids: implication for high-pressure
metamorphism and prograde melting in the continental crust. Journal of
4 in Fig. 3f). This implies a temporal equivalence of the MMC sed-
Metamorphic Geology 27, 295–315.
imentation with the Delhi sedimentation – a provocative, yet un- Bhowmik, S.K., Bernhardt, H.J., Dasgupta, S., 2010. Grenvillian age high-pressure
tested suggestion. upper amphibolite–granulite metamorphism in the Aravalli–Delhi Mobile Belt,
The geological history of northwestern India during the period North-western India: new evidence from monazite chemical age and its
implication. Precambrian Research 178, 168–184.
<1.7 Ga >1.0 Ga can be the least characterized, other than continu- Bhowmik, S.K., Wilde, S.A., Bhandari, A., in press. Zircon U-Pb/Lu-Hf and monazite
ation of Delhi and equivalent sedimentation and local thermal per- chemical dating of the Tirodi Biotite Gneiss: implication for latest
turbations evident from emplacement of several granitic bodies Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic Orogenesis in the Central Indian
Tectonic Zone. Geological Journal. doi:10.1002/gj.1299.
(reviewed in Sharma (2009)). This rather tectonically inactive per- Biju-Sekhar, S., Yokoyama, K., Pandit, M.K., Okudaira, T., Yoshida, M., Santosh, M.,
iod (as of the current database) suggests ‘‘cratonization’’ in north- 2003. Late Paleo-proterozoic magmatism in Delhi Fold Belt, NW India and its
western India, when intracratonic basins developed in the implication: evidence from EPMA chemical ages of zircons. Journal of Asian
Earth Sciences 22, 189–207.
adjoining regions (Vindhyan (1625–1100 Ma; Rasmussen et al., Bose, S., Dunkley, D.J., Dasgupta, S., Das, K., Arima, M., 2011. India–Antarctica–
2002: Malone et al., 2008); and Chhattisgarh (1525–1000 Ma; Australia–Laurentia connection in the Paleoproterozoic–Mesoproterozoic
Patranabis-Deb et al., 2007; Das et al., 2009)), which were filled revisited: Evidence from new zircon U–Pb and monazite chemical age data
from the Eastern Ghats Belt, India. Bulletin Geological Society of America.
up mostly by stable shelf sediments and minor volacanics/tuffs. doi:10.1130/B30336.1.
This rather tectonically passive period ended with the onset of Buick, I.S., Allen, C., Pandit, M., Rubatto, D., Herman, J., 2006. The Proterozoic
the Grenvillian orogeny (Stage 5 in Fig. 3g), responsible for trans- magmatic and metamorphic history of the banded gneissic complex, central
Rajasthan, India: LA-ICP-MS U–Pb zircon constraints. Precambrian Research
portation of crustal materials to 50 km depth (whole of BGC-II)
151, 119–142.
(Saha et al., 2008; Bhowmik et al., 2009) by continental collision Buick, I.S., Clark, C., Rubatto, D., Hermann, J., Pandit, M., Hand, M., 2010. Constraints
(Bhowmik et al., 2010) and closure of the Delhi basin (Volpe and on the Proterozoic evolution of the Aravalli-Delhi Orogenic belt (NW India)
Macdaugall, 1990: Deb et al., 2001; Biju-Sekhar et al., 2003; Kaur from monazite geochronology and mineral trace element geochemistry. Lithos
120, 511–528.
et al., 2007; Pant et al., 2008), as a part of the amalgamation pro- Cawood, P.A., Buchan, C.A., 2007. Linking accretionary orogenesis with
cess of Rodinia (0.95–0.88 Ga). We propose that the inversion of supercontinent assembly. Earth Science Reviews 82, 217–256.
 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348 347

Chakraborty, S., Ganguly, J., 1992. Cation diffusion in aluminosilicate garnets: implications for late Palaeoproterozoic crustal evolution of the Aravalli craton.
experimental determination in spessartine–almandine diffusion couples, Geological Magazine 144, 361–378.
evaluation of effective binary diffusion coefficients, and applications. Kaur, P., Chaudhri, N., Racsek, I., Kroner, A., Hofmann, A.W., 2009. Record of 1.82 Ga
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 111, 74–86. Andean-type continental arc magmatism in NE Rajasthan, India: insights from
Collins, W.J., 2002. Hot orogens, tectonic switching and creation of continental zircon and Sm–Nd ages, combined with Nd–Sr isotope geochemistry.
crust. Geology 30, 535–538. Gondwana Research 16, 56–71.
Crawford, A.R., 1970. The Precambrian geochronology of Rajasthan and Kaur, P., Zeh, A., Chaudhri, N., Gerdes, A., Okrusch, M., 2011a. Archaean to
Bundelkhand, Northern India. Canadian Journal of Earth Science 7, 91–110. Palaeoproterozoic crustal evolution of the Aravalli mountain range, NW India,
Crookshank, H., 1948. Minerals of the Rajputana Pegmatites. Transactions of Mining and its hinterland: The U–Pb and Hf isotope record of detrital zircon.
Geology and Metallurgical Institute of India 42, 105–189. Precambrian Research. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2011.03.005.
Das, K., Yokoyama, K., Chakraborty, P.P., Sarkar, A., 2009. Basal tuffs and Kaur, P., Chaudhri, N., Raczek, I., Kröner, A., Hofmann, A.W., Okrusch, M., 2011b.
contemporaneity of the Chattisgarh and Khariar Basins based on new dates Zircon ages of late Palaeoproterozoic (ca. 1.72–1.70 Ga) extension-related
and geochemistry. Journal of Geology 117, 88–102. granitoids in NE Rajasthan, India: regional and tectonic significance.
Dasgupta, S., Guha, D., Sengupta, P., Miura, H., Ehl, J., 1997. Pressure-temperature- Gondwana Research 19, 1040–1053. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.09.009.
fluid evolutionary history of the polymetamorphic Sandmata granulite Lasaga, A.C., 1983. Geospeedometry: an extension of geothermometry. In: Saxena,
complex, Northwestern India. Precambrian Research 83, 267–290. S.K. (Ed.), Kinetics and Equilibrium in Mineral Reactions. Springer, New York,
Deb, M., Thorpe, R.I., 2004. Geochronological constraints in the Precambrian pp. 81–114.
geology of Rajasthan and their metallogenic implications. In: Deb, M., Li, Z.X., Bogdanova, S.V., Collins, A.S., Davidson, A., De Waele, B., Ernst, R.E.,
Goodfellow, W.D. (Eds.), Sediment-hosted Lead–Zinc Sulphide Deposits. Fitzsimons, I.C.W., Fuck, R.A., Gladkochub, D.P., Jacobs, J., Karlstrom, K.E., Lu, S.,
Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, pp. 246–263. Natapov, L.M., Pease, V., Pisarevsky, S.A., Thrane, K., Vernikovsky, V., 2008.
Deb, M., Thorpe, R.I., Kristic, D., Corfu, F., Davis, D.W., 2001. Zircon U–Pb and galena Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis.
Pb isotope evidence for an approximate 1.0 Ga terrane constituting the western Precambrian Research 160, 179–210.
margin of the Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt, northwestern India. Precambrian Mallikarjuna Rao, J., Bhattacharji, S., Rao, M.N., Hermes, O.D., 1995.40Ar–39Ar ages
Research 108, 195–213. and geochemical characteristics of dolerite dykes around the Proterozoic
Dharma Rao, C.V., Santosh, M., Wu, Y., 2011a. Mesoproterozoic ophiolite mélange Cuddapah Basin, South India. In: Devaraju, T.C., (Ed.), Mafic Dyke Swarms of
from the SE periphery of Indian plate: U–Pb zircon ages and tectonic Peninsular India. Geological Society of India Memoir 33, pp. 307–328.
implications. Gondwana Research 19, 384–401. Malone, S.J., Meert, J.G., Banerjee, D.M., Pandit, M.K., Tamrat, E., Kamenova, G.D.,
Dharma Rao, C.V., Santosh, M., Purohit, R., Wang, J., Jiang, X., Kusky, T., 2011b. LA- Pradhana, V.R., Sohl, L.E., 2008. Paleomagnetism and detrital zircon
ICP-MS U–Pb zircon age constraints on the Paleoproterozoic and Neoarchean geochronology of the Upper Vindhyan Sequence, Son Valley and Rajasthan,
history of the Sandmata Complex in Rajasthan within the NW Indian Plate. India: a ca. 1000 Ma Closure age for the Purana Basins? Precambrian Research
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42, 286–305. 164, 137–159.
Fareeduddin, Kröner, A., 1998. Single zircon age constraints on the evolution of Meert, J.G., Pandit, M.K., Pradhan, V.R., Kamenov, G., 2011. Preliminary report on the
Rajasthan granulite. In: Paliwal, B.S. (Ed.), The Indian Precambrian. Scientific paleomagnetism of 1.88 Ga dykes from the Bastar and Dharwar cratons,
Publishers, India, , pp. 547–556. Peninsular India. Gondwana Research 20, 335–343.
Fareeduddin, Shankar, M., Basvalingu, B., Janardhan, A.S., 1994. Metamorphic P–T Mukhopadhyay, D., Bhattacharya, T., Chattopadhyay, N., Lopez, R., Tobisch, O. T.,
conditions of pelitic granulites and associated charnockites of Chinwali area, 2000. Anasagar gneiss: A folded granitoid pluton in the Proterozoic South Delhi
west of Delhi fold belt, Rajasthan. Journal of the Geological Society of India 43, Fold Belt, central Rajasthan. In: Proceedings Indian Academy of Sciences (Earth
169–178. and Planetary Science) 109, pp. 21–37.
Fitzsimons, I.C.W., Harley, S.L., 1994. The influence of retrograde cation exchange on Naganjaneyulu, K., Santosh, M., in press. Tracing the Proterozoic continental colli-
granulite P–T estimates and a convergence technique for the recovery of peak sion in NW India: a geophysical approach. Geological Journal. doi: 10.1002/
metamorphic conditions. Journal of Petrology 35, 543–576. gj.1307.
Frost, B.R., Chacko, T., 1989. The granulite uncertainty principle: limitations on Naha, K., Halyburton, R.V., 1974. Early Precambrian Stratigraphy of central and
thermobarometry in granulites. Journal of Geology 97, 435–450. southern Rajasthan, India. Precambrian Research 1, 55–73.
Ganguly, J., 2010. Cation diffusion kinetics in aluminosilicate garnets and geological Naqvi, S.M., Rogers, J.J.W., 1987. Precambrian Geology of India. Oxford University of
applications. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 72, 559–601. Press 1, 233.
Gopalan, K., Macdougall, J.D., Roy, A.B., Murali, A.V., 1990. Sm–Nd evidence for Pant, N.C., Kundu, A., Joshi, S., 2008. Age of metamorphism of Delhi supergroup
3.3 Ga old rock in Rajasthan, north-western India. Precambrian Research 48, rocks—electron microprobe ages from Mahendragarh district, Haryana. Journal
287–297. of the Geological Society of India 72, 365–372.
Goscombe, B., 1992. High-grade reworking of central Australian granulites: Patranabis-Deb, S., Bickford, M.E., Hill, B., Chaudhuri, A.K., Basu, A., 2007. SHRIMP
metamorphic evolution of the Arunta complex. Journal of Petrology 33, 917–962. ages of zircon in the uppermost tuff in Chattisgarh basin in central India require
Goscombe, B., Armstrong, R., Barton, J.M., 1998. Tectonometamorphic evolution of 500 Ma adjustment in Indian Proterozoic stratigraphy. Journal of Geology 115,
the Chewore inliers: partial re-equilibration of high-grade basement during the 407–415.
pan-African orogeny. Journal of Petrology 39, 1347–1384. Pattison, D.R.M., Bégin, N.J., 1994. Hierarchy of closure temperature in granulite and
Gregory, L.C., Meert, J.G., Bingen, B., Pandit, M.K., Torsvik, T.H., 2009. the importance of an irregular exchange medium (melt?) in controlling maximum
Paleomagnetism and geochronology of the Malani Igneous Suite, Northwest Fe–Mg exchange temperatures. Mineralogical Magazine 58A, 694–695.
India: implications for the configuration of Rodinia and the assembly of Pattison, D.R.M., Chacko, T., Farquhar, J., McFarlane, C.R.M., 2003. Temperatures of
Gondwana. Precambrian Research 170, 13–26. granulite-facies metamorphism: constraints from experimental phase
Guha, D.B., Bhattacharya, A.K., 1995. Metamorphic evolution and high-grade equilibria and thermobarometry corrected for retrograde exchange. Journal of
reworking of the Sandmata Complex granulites. In: Gupta, K.R., Sinha-Roy, S. Petrology 44, 867–900.
(Eds.), Continental Crust of Northwestern and Central India. Memoirs of the Rajendra Prasad, B., Tewari, H.C., Vijaya Rao, V.V., Dixit, M.M., 1988. Structure and
Geological Society of India 31, pp. 163–198. tectonics of the Proterozoic Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt in northwestern India from
Gupta, B.C., 1934. The geology of central Mewar. Memoir Geological Survey of India deep seismic reflection studies. Tectonophysics 288, 31–33.
65, 107–168. Rasmussen, B., Bose, P.K., Sakar, S., Banerjee, S., Fletcher, I.R., McNaughton, N.J.,
Gupta, S.N., Arora, Y.K., Mathur, R.K., Iqballuddin, Prasad, B., Sahai, T.N., Sharma, S.B., 2002. 1.6 Ga U–Pb zircon age for the Chorhat Sandstone, Lower Vindhyan, India:
1980. Lithostratigraphic map of Aravalli region. Geological Survey of India, possible implications for the early evolution of animals. Geology 20, 103–106.
Calcutta. Scale 1:1000,000. Rogers, J.J.W., Santosh, M., 2002. Configuration of Columbia, a Mesoproterozoic
Gupta, S.N., Arora, Y.K., Mathur, R.K., Iqbaluddin, Prasad, B., Sahai, T.N., Sharma, S.B., supercontinent. Gondwana Research 5, 5–22.
1997. The Precambrian geology of the Aravalli region, southern Rajasthan and Rogers, J.J.W., Santosh, M., 2009. Tectonics and surface effects of the supercontinent.
north-eastern Gujarat. Memoir Geological Survey of India 123, 262. Columbia Gondwana Research 15, 373–380.
Harley, S.L., 1989. The origin of granulites: a metamorphic perspective. Geological Roy, A.B., 1988. Stratigraphic and tectonic framework of the Aravalli Mountain
Magazine 126, 215–247. Range. In: Roy, A.B. (Ed.), Precambrian of the Aravalli Mountain, Rajasthan,
Harley, S.L., 1998. On the occurrence and characterisation of ultrahigh temperature India. Memoir of the Geological Society of India 7, pp. 3–31.
(UHT) crustal metamorphism. In: Treloar, P.J., O’Brien, P. (Eds.), What Controls Roy, A.B., 1990. Evolution of the Precambrian crust of the Aravalli Mountain range.
Metamorphism and Metamorphic Reactions? Geological Society London, In: Naqvi, S.M. (Ed.), Precambrian Continental Crust and its Economic
Special Publication 138, pp. 75–101. Resources. Development in Precambrian Geology, Elsevier, pp. 327–348.
Harley, S.L., 2008. Refining the P–T records of UHT crustal metamorphism. Journal of Roy, A.B., Jakhar, S.R., 2002. Geology of Rajasthan (Northwest India) Precambrian to
Metamorphic Geology 26, 125–154. Recent. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, 421 pp.
Heron, A.M., 1953. Geology of Central Rajputana. Memoir of the Geological Survey Roy, A.B., KrÖner, A., 1996. Single zircon evaporation ages constraining the growth
of India 79, 389. of the Archean Aravalli Craton, northwestern Indian shield. Geological
Hoek, J.D., Dirks, P.H.G.M., Passchier, C.W., 1992. A Late-Proterozoic extensional– Magazine 133, 333–342.
compressional tectonic cycle in East Antarctica. In: Yoshida et al. (Eds.), Recent Roy Choudhury, S., 2007. Constraining Polyphase High-grade Metamorphism of the
Progress in Antarctic Earth Science. Terra Scientific Publishing Company Banded Gneissic Complex, Central Rajasthan. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis. Indian
(Terrapub), Tokyo, pp. 137–143. Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.
Kaur, P., Chaudhri, N., Raczek, I., Kröner, A., Hofmann, A.W., 2007. Geochemistry, Roy, A.B., Somani, M.K., Sharma, N.K., 1981. Aravalli–Pre-Aravalli relationship – a
zircon ages and whole-rock Nd isotopic systematics for Palaeoproterozoic A- study from Bhindar, south-central Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Earth Science 8,
type granitoids in the northern part of the Delhi belt, Rajasthan, NW India: 119–130.
348 S.K. Bhowmik, S. Dasgupta / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49 (2012) 339–348

Roy, A.B., KrÖner, A., Bhattacharya, P.K., Rathore, S., 2005. Metamorphic evolution in Northwestern and Central India, Memoir Geological Society of India 31, pp.
and zircon geochronology of Early Proterozoic granulites in the Aravalli 63–90.
Mountains of northwestern India. Geological Magazine 142, 287–302. Spear, F.S., Florence, F.P., 1992. Thermobarometry in granulites: pitfalls and new
Saha, L., Bhowmik, S.K., Fukuoka, M., Dasgupta, S., 2008. Contrasting episodes of approaches. Precambrian Research 55, 209–241.
regional granulite facies metamorphism in enclaves and host gneisses from the Sugden, T.J., Deb, M., Windley, B., 1990. Tectonic setting of mineralisation in the
Aravalli-Delhi Mobile Belt, NW India. Journal of Petrology 49, 107–128. Proterozoic Aravalli-Delhi Orogenic belts, NW India. In: Precambrian
Santosh, M., 2010. Assembling North China Craton within the Columbia Continental Crust and its Economic Resources, Development in Precambrian
supercontinent: the role of double-sided subduction. Precambrian Research Geology. Elsevier, pp. 367–396.
178, 149–167. Thomas, H., 2005. Polymetamorphism in the Archaean gneiss Complex of Shivpura-
Santosh, M., in press. India’s Paleoproterzoic legacy. Geological Society of London Gyangarh, District Bhilwara, Rajasthan. In: Thomas, H. (Ed.), Metamorphism
Special Publication. and Crustal Evolution. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, pp. 123–
Santosh, M., Kusky, T., 2010. Origin of paired high pressure–ultrahigh temperature 147.
orogens: a ridge subduction and slab window model. Terra Nova 22, 35–42. Tobisch, O.T., Collerson, K.D., Bhattacharya, T., Mukhopadhyay, D., 1994. Structural
Santosh, M., Maruyama, S., Yamamoto, S., 2009. The making and breaking of relationship and SmNd isotopic systematics of polymetamorphic granite
supercontinents: some speculations based on superplume, superdownwelling gneisses and granitic rocks from central Rajasthan: implications for the
and the role of tectosphere. Gondwana Research 15, 324–341. evolution of Aravalli craton. Precambrian Research 65, 319–339.
Santosh, M., Liu, S.-J., Tsunogae, T., Li, J.-H., in press. Paleoproterozoic ultrahigh- Tsunogae, T., Liu, S.J., Santosh, M., Shimizu, H., Li, J.H., 2011. Ultrahigh-temperature
temperature granulites in the North China Craton: Implications for tectonic metamorphism in Daqingshan, Inner Mongolia Suture Zone, North China
models on extreme crustal metamorphism. Precambrian Research. doi: Craton. Gondwana Research 20, 36–47.
10.1016/j.precamres.2011.05.003. Upadhyaya, R., Sharma Jr., B.L., Sharma Sr., B.L., Roy, A.B., 1992. Remnants of
Sarkar, G., Ray Barman, T., Corfu, F., 1989. Timing of continental arc magmatism in Greenstone sequence from the Archean rocks of Rajasthan. Current Science 63,
northwest India: evidence from U–Pb zircon geochronology. Journal of Geology 87–92.
97, 607–612. Vijaya Kumar, K., Ernst, W.G., Leelanandam, C., Wooden, J.L., Grove, M.J., 2010. First
Selverstone, J., Chamberlain, C.P., 1990. Apparent isobaric cooling paths from Paleoproterozoic ophiolite from Gondwana: geochronologic–geochemical
granulites: two counterexamples from British Columbia and New Hampshire. documentation of ancient oceanic crust from Kandra, SE India.
Geology 18, 307–310. Tectonophysics 487, 22–32.
Sharma, R.S., 1988. Patterns of metamorphism in the Precambrian rocks of the Volpe, A.M., Macdaugall, J.D., 1990. Geochemistry and isotopic characteristics of
Aravalli mountain belt. In: Roy, A.B. (Ed.), Precambrian of the Aravalli mafic (Phulad Ophiolite) and related rocks in the Delhi Supergroup, Rajasthan,
Mountains, Rajasthan, India. Memoir Geological Society of India 7, pp. 33–76. India: implications for rifting in the Proterozoic. Precambrian Research 48, 167–
Sharma, R.S., 1999. Crustal development in Rajasthan craton. Indian Journal of 191.
Geology 71, 65–80. Wiedenbeck, M., Goswami, J.N., 1994. An ion-probe single zircon 207Pb/206Pb age
Sharma, R.S., 2003. Evolution of Proterozoic fold belts of India: a case of the Aravalli from the Mewar Gneiss at Jhamarkotra, Rajasthan. Geochimica et
mountain belt of Rajasthan, NW India. Memoir of the Geological Society of India Cosmochimica Acta 58, 2135–2141.
52, 145–162. Wiedenbeck, M., Goswami, J.N., Roy, A.B., 1996a. Stabilisation of the Aravalli craton
Sharma, R., 2009. Aravalli Mountain Belt. Cratons and fold belts of India. Lecture of the north-western India at 2.5 Ga: an ion-microprobe zircon study. Chemical
Notes in Earth Sciences 127, 143–176. Geology 129, 325–340.
Sharma, R.S., Joshi, M., 1984. Sandmata granulites: a case of deep-level exposure of Wiedenbeck, M., Goswami, J.N., Roy, A.B., 1996b. An ion microprobe study of single
Precambrian crust in the NW Indian Shield. In: Seminar volume on ‘‘Crustal zircons from the Amet granite, Rajasthan. Journal of the Geological Society of
evolution of the Indian Shield and its bearing on Metallogeny,’’ Calcutta India 48, 127–137.
(Abstract), pp. 35–36. Zhai, M.G., Santosh, M., 2011. The early Precambrian odyssey of the North China
Sharma, R.S., McRae, N.D., 1981. Paragenetic relation in gedrite–cordierite– Craton: a synoptic overview. Gondwana Research 20, 6–25.
staurolite–biotite–sillimanite–kyanite gneiss at Ajitpura, Rajasthan, India. Zhao, G.C., 2001. Palaeoproterozoic assembly of the North China Craton. Geological
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 78, 46–60. Magazine 138, 87–91.
Sharma, R.S., Althaus, E., Wilson, R.N., 1985. Kornerupine in aluminous enclaves of Zhao, G., Sun, M., Wilde, S.A., Li, S., 2003. Assembly, accretion and breakup of the
the Archean Complex from Rajasthan, NW India: Paragenesis and stability. Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Columbia Supercontinent: records in the North China
Terra Cognita 5, 328. Craton. Gondwana Research 6, 417–434.
Sharma, R.S., Sills, J., Joshi, M., 1987. Mineralogy and metamorphic history of norite Zhao, G.C., Sun, M., Wilde, S.A., Li, S., 2004. A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic
dykes within granulite facies gneisses from Sand Mata, Rajasthan, NW India. supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup. Earth-Science Reviews 67,
Mineralogical Magazine 5, 207–215. 91–123.
Sinha-Roy, S., 1988. Proterozoic Wilson cycles in Rajasthan. In: Roy, A.B. (Ed.),
Precambrians of Aravalli Mountain Range, Memoir Geological Society of India 7,
pp. 95–108.
Further reading
Sinha-Roy, S., 2007. Evolution of Precambrian terrains and crustal-scale structures
in Rajasthan craton, NW India : a kinematic model. IAGR Memoir No.10, 23–40. Naganjaneyulu, K., Santosh, M., 2010. The Central India Tectonic Zone: a
Sinha-Roy, S., Malhotra, G., Guha, D.B., 1995. A transect across Rajasthan geophysical perspective on continental amalgamation along a
Precambrian terrane in relation to geology, tectonics and crustal evolution in Mesoproterozoic suture. Gondwana Research 18, 547–564.
south-central Rajasthan. In: Sinha-Roy, S., Gupta, K.R. (Eds.), Continental Crust