General Physics (Phys1011)

Winter 2019 Semester I,

2019/20 Academic Year
 Chapter 4
Heat and Thermodynamics
 contents of Chapter 4
• Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
• The Concept Heat and Work
• Specific Heat and Latent Heat
• Heat Transfer Mechanism
• Thermal Expansion
• Energy Conservation: First Law of
Thermodynamics
 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
Definition of heat:
Heat is the energy transferred between objects because of
a temperature difference.
Objects are in thermal contact if heat can flow between
them.
Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects
would not exchange energy by heat or electromagnetic
radiation if they were placed in thermal contact.
.
Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics:

If object A is in thermal equilibrium with object B, and object C is
also in thermal equilibrium with object B, then objects A and C will
be in thermal equilibrium if brought into thermal contact.

Now we can think of temperature as the property that determines

whether an object is in thermal equilibrium with other objects.
That is, temperature is the only factor that determines whether two
objects in thermal contact are in thermal equilibrium or not.
Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
 Temperature Scales

The Celsius scale:

Water freezes at 0° Celsius.
Water boils at 100° Celsius.

The Fahrenheit scale:

Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit .
Water boils at 212° Fahrenheit .
 Temperature Scales

Converting between Celsius and Fahrenheit:

Converting between Fahrenheit and Celsius :

 Temperature Scales
The pressure in a gas is proportional to its
temperature. The proportionality constant is
different for different gases, but they all reach zero
pressure at the same temperature, which we call
absolute zero:
 Temperature Scales
The Kelvin scale is similar to the Celsius scale, except
that the Kelvin scale has its zero at absolute zero.
Conversion between a Celsius temperature and a
Kelvin temperature:
 Temperature Scales
The three temperature scales compared:
 The Concept Heat and Work
Heat (Q)
 Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of
a system due to a temperature difference between the system
and its surroundings.
 Heat transfer obeys the law of conservation of energy (if no
heat is lost to the surroundings):
 Cont. …
Work:
 We said that heat is a way of changing the energy of a system by
virtue of a temperature difference only. Any other means for
changing the energy of a system is called work.

 Work, is a non-spontaneous energy transfer into or out of a system

due to force acting through a displacement.

 We can have push-pull work (e.g. in a piston-cylinder, lifting a

weight), electric and magnetic work (e.g. an electric motor),
chemical work, surface tension work, elastic work, etc.
 Cont. …
 In defining work, we focus on the effects that the system (e.g. an
engine) has on its surroundings. Thus we define work as being
positive when the system does work on the surroundings (energy
leaves the system). If work is done on the system (energy added to
the system), the work is negative.

 Heat and work are two possible ways of transferring energy from
one system to another

 The distinction between Heat and Work is important in the field of

thermodynamics. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between
systems, while work is the transfer of mechanical energy between two
systems
 Heat and Mechanical Work
One kilocalorie (kcal) is defined as the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from
14.5° C to 15.5° C.
Through experiments such as Joule’s, it was possible
to find the mechanical equivalent:
 Specific Heat

 When energy is added to a system and there is no change in the

kinetic or potential energy of the system, the temperature of
the system usually rises.

 If the system consists of a sample of a substance, we find that

the quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of a
given mass of the substance by some amount varies from one
substance to another.

 For example, the quantity of energy required to raise the

temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C is 4 186 J, but the quantity
of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of copper
by 1°C is only 387 J.
 The heat capacity C of a particular sample of a
substance is defined as the amount of energy needed
to raise the temperature of that sample by 1°C.

 The specific heat capacity c of a substance is the

quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin) at
a constant pressure..

 Q is positive if ΔT is positive; that is, if heat is added to a system.

 Q is negative if ΔT is negative; that is, if heat is removed from a system.

 Then we can relate the energy Q transferred between a

sample of mass m of a material and its surroundings to
a temperature change ΔT as
 Specific Heats
Here are some
specific heats of
various materials:
 Conservation of Energy: Calorimeter

 One technique for measuring specific heat involves heating a

sample to some known temperature Tx , placing it in a vessel
containing water of known mass and temperature Tw < Tx ,
and measuring the temperature of the water after equilibrium
has been reached.
 This technique is called calorimetry, and devices in which this
energy transfer occurs are called calorimeters.
 If the system of the sample and the water is isolated, the law of
the conservation of energy requires that the amount of energy
that leaves the sample (of unknown specific heat) equal the
amount of energy that enters the water.
 A calorimeter is an apparatus designed to experimentally measure
heat changes that physical or chemical transformations.
 cont. …
 Conservation of energy allows us to write the mathematical
representation of this energy statement as

Example
 A 0.050-kg ingot of metal is heated to 200.0°C and then
dropped into a beaker containing 0.400 kg of water initially at
20.0°C. If the final equilibrium temperature of the mixed
system is 22.4°C, find the specific heat of the metal.
Example
 A cowboy fires a silver bullet with a muzzle speed of
200 m/s into the pine wall of a saloon. Assume that all
the internal energy generated by the impact remains
with the bullet. If the specific heat of siliver is given
by c=234 J/kg . °C
 What is the temperature change of the bullet?
 Solution
 The kinetic energy of the bullet is

 Because nothing in the environment is hotter than the bullet,

the bullet gains no energy by heat. Its temperature increases
because the kinetic energy is transformed to extra internal
energy when the bullet is stopped by the wall. The temperature
change is the same as that which would take place if energy Q
= K were transferred by heat from a stove to the bullet. If we
imagine this latter process taking place, we can calculate ΔT
from our previous equation Equation.

 Note that the result does not depend on the mass of the bullet.
Exercise
 Suppose that the cowboy runs out of silver bullets and
fires a lead bullet at the same speed into the wall. Will
the temperature change of the bullet be larger or
smaller?
 Latent Heat (phase change)
 A substance often undergoes a change in temperature when energy is
transferred between it and its surroundings.

 There are situations, however, in which the transfer of energy does

not result in a change in temperature. This is the case whenever the
physical characteristics of the substance change from one form to
another; such a change is commonly referred to as a phase change.

 the heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapour, or a liquid

into a vapour, without change of temperature.
 Two common phase changes are from solid to liquid (melting) and
from liquid to gas (boiling); another is a change in the crystalline
structure of a solid. All such phase changes involve a change in
internal energy but no change in temperature.
 The increase in internal energy in boiling, for example, is
represented by the breaking of bonds between molecules
in the liquid state; this bond breaking allows the molecules
to move farther apart in the gaseous state, with a
corresponding increase in intermolecular potential energy.
 The amount of energy transferred during a phase change
depends on the amount of substance involved.
 If a quantity Q of energy transfer is required to change the
phase of a mass m of a substance, the ratio L=Q/m
characterizes an important thermal property of that
substance.
 Because this added or removed energy does not result in a
temperature change, the quantity L is called the latent heat
(literally, the “hidden” heat) of the substance. The value of L
for a substance depends on the nature of the phase change,
as well as on the properties of the substance.

 Latent heat of fusion Lf is the amount of heat energy released

or absorbed when a solid changing to liquid at atmospheric
pressure at its melting point i.e when the phase change is from
solid to liquid (to fuse means “to combine by melting”), and
latent heat of vaporization Lv is the term used when the
phase change is from liquid to gas (the liquid “vaporizes”).
Exercise
 What mass of steam initially at 130°C is needed to
warm 200 g of water in a 100-g glass container from
20.0°C to 50.0°C?
 Heat Transfer Mechanism

Conduction, convection, and radiation are three

ways that heat can be exchanged.
Conduction is the flow of heat directly through a
physical material.
 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

Experimentally, it is found that the amount of heat

Q that flows through a rod:
• Increases proportionally to the cross-sectional
area A
• Increases proportionally to the temperature
difference from one end to the other
• Increases steadily with time
• decreases with the length of the rod
 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

Combining, we find:

The constant k is called the thermal conductivity

of the rod.
 Rate of energy transfer
 Temperature gradient
 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

Some typical thermal

conductivities:

Substances with high

thermal conductivities are
good conductors of heat;
those with low thermal
conductivities are good
insulators.
 Example
• Two slabs of thickness L1 and L2 and thermal conductivities k1
and k2 are in thermal contact with each other, as shown in the
Figure below. The temperatures of their outer surfaces are Tc
and Th , respectively, and Th > Tc . Determine the temperature
at the interface and the rate of energy transfer by conduction
through the slabs in the steady-state condition.
Solution
 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

Convection is the flow of

fluid due to a difference in
temperatures, such as warm
air rising. The fluid
“carries” the heat with it as
it moves.
 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

 All objects give off energy in the form of radiation, as

electromagnetic waves – infrared, visible light,
ultraviolet which, unlike conduction and convection, can
transport heat through a vacuum.
 Objects that are hot enough will glow first red, then
yellow, white, and blue. Objects at body temperature
radiate in the infrared, and can be seen with night vision
binoculars.
 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

 The amount of energy radiated by an object due to its

temperature is proportional to its surface area and also to
the fourth power of its temperature.
 It also depends on the emissivity, which is a number
between 0 and 1 that indicates how effective a radiator the
object is; a perfect radiator would have an emissivity of 1.
 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

This behavior is contained in the Stefan-Boltzmann

law:

where p is the power in watts radiated from the surface of

the object, A is the surface area of the object, e is the
emissivity, and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant:
Overall, heat transfer

 By conduction, or the transfer of energy from matter to adjacent

matter by direct contact, without intermixing or flow of any material.

 by convection, or the transfer of energy by the bulk mixing of

clumps of material. In natural convection it is the difference in density
of hot and cold fluid which causes the mixing.

 by radiation such as light, infrared, ultraviolet and radio waves

which emanate from a hot body and are absorbed by a cooler body
 Thermal Expansion
 Most substances expand when heated; the change in length or
volume is typically proportional to the change in temperature.
 The proportionality constant is called the coefficient of linear
expansion.
 Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in the average
separation between the atoms in an object.

 Suppose that an object has an initial length Li along some direction

at some temperature and that the length increases by an amount
delta L for a change in temperature delta T.
 Because it is convenient to consider the fractional change in length
per degree of temperature change, we define the average coefficient
of linear expansion as
 Thermal Expansion
Some typical coefficients of thermal expansion:
 Thermal Expansion
A bimetallic strip consists of two metals of different coefficients of
thermal expansion, A and B in the figure below. It will bend when
heated or cooled.
 Thermal Expansion
The expansion of an area of a flat substance is derived
from the linear expansion in both directions:

Holes expand as well:

 Thermal Expansion
The change in volume of a solid is also derived from
the linear expansion:

For liquids and gases, only the coefficient of volume

expansion is defined:
 Thermal Expansion
Some typical coefficients of volume expansion:
Thermal Expansion

Water also expands when it is

heated, except when it is close to
freezing; it actually expands when
cooling from 4° C to 0° C. This is
why ice floats and frozen bottles
burst.
Example


Solution
A)

B)
 Thermodynamic Processes
 State variable; Temperature, volume, pressure and internal
energy. They describe the state of a system.
 Moreover, State variables are characteristic of a system in
thermal equilibrium.
 Transfer variables; are zero unless a process in which an
energy transfer occurs across the boundary.
 Likewise, Transfer variables are characteristic of a process in
which energy is transferred between a system and its
environment.
 Heat and work are transfer variables
 Here we investigate the work done on a deformable
system - a gas.
 Consider the figure above, initially the system is in
equilibrium in figure A with volume V and applying
uniform pressure P.
 The gas will apply a force F=PA on the piston of cross
sectional area A
 When the piston is pushed in quasi-statically as in figure
B with downward force Fj through a displacement dyj.
 The work done on the gas according to the basic definition
of work is
 Then since the change in volume is dV = ydA
 The work done cone be rewritten as: dW = -Pdv
 Energy transfer by heat, like work done, depends on the
initial, final, and intermediate states of the system
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
 To better understand these ideas on a quantitative basis, suppose that
a system undergoes a change from an initial state to a final state.
 During this change, energy transfer by heat Q to the system occurs,
and work W is done on the system. As an example, suppose that the
system is a gas in which the pressure and volume change from Pi and
Vi to Pf and Vf .
 If the quantity Q + W is measured for various paths connecting the
initial and final equilibrium states, we find that it is the same for all
paths connecting the two states.
 We conclude that the quantity Q+ W is determined completely by the
initial and final states of the system, and we call this quantity the
change in the internal energy of the system.
 Although Q and W both depend on the path, the quantity Q+W is
independent of the path. If we use the symbol Eint to represent the
internal energy, then the change in internal energy ΔEint can be
expressed as
 Cont..,
 One form of work may be converted into another,
 or, work may be converted to heat,
 or, heat may be converted to work,
 but, final energy = initial energy

 In General, First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can

neither be created nor destroyed!
 Key Differences Between Heat and Temperature
 The differences between heat and temperature can be drawn clearly on the
following grounds:
 Heat is nothing but the amount of energy in a body. As against this, temperature is
something that measures the intensity of heat.
 Heat measures both kinetic and potential energy contained by molecules in an
object. On the other hand, temperature measures average kinetic energy of
molecules in substance.
 The main feature of heat is that it travels from hotter region to cooler region.
Unlike temperature, which rises when heated and falls when cooled.
 Heat possesses the ability to work, but the temperature is used exclusively to gauge
the extent of heat.
 The standard unit of measurement of heat is Joules, while that of temperature is
Kelvin, but it can also be measured in Celsius and Fahrenheit.
 Calorimeter is a device, which is used to measure the heat. On the other hand,
temperature can be measured by thermometer.
 Heat is represented by ‘Q’ whereas ‘T’ is used to represent temperature.