CHAPTER 1

1.1. Describe the structure and properties of some fiber reinforced composites that occur in
nature.
1.1 Bone is a major structural-material that supports the human body. It is a composite material
consisting of a mineral matrix, hydroxyapatite containing organic fibers, and collagen. The
organization of the two constituents varies according to the functional needs. Cortical (dense) bone
has a concentric ring like structure extending along the shaft of the bone. Cancellous (spongy)
bone consists of a space filling network of small beams of bone resulting in a porous, compliant
material. Many long bones consist of hollow tubes of cortical bone with enlarged extremities filled
with cancellous bone fibers oriented along the principal stress directions resulting from the major
loading. As expected, cortical bone is stronger in the axial direction than in the transverse direction.
Wood is another versatile natural composite. It consists of crystalline cellulose fibers embedded
in an amorphous matrix of lignin and hemicellulose. The matrix contributes to the stiffness of the
wood as well as serves to protect the crystalline fibrous cellulose from moisture. Generally, the
fiber volume fraction in wood is about 50% and it has a high strength to weight ratio and toughness.
It should be pointed out this fiber reinforced composite material forms the cellular walls and this
structure is essentially the same in all woods This composite is about as strong as aluminum but
less stiff. The overall structure of wood is that of a foam composite with the foam cells and the
cellulose fibers aligned predominantly long the wood grain. The different wood types have
different properties mainly owing to different shapes and sizes of their cells. The cell wall material
is a fibrous composite and is about the same in different woods.

1.2. Many ceramic-based composite materials are used in the electronics industry. Describe
some of these electroceramic composites.
1.2 Capacitors with enhanced permitivity can be made of BaTiO3, i.e., ferroelectric grains and in
an antiferroelectric matrix (e.g., NaNbO3). The resulting composite shows relatively little
variation in the dielectric constant with voltage and shows a higher capacitance than either
component at high bias field (see Fig. 1.2). In a magnetoelectric composite consisting of BaTiO3
and cobalt ferrite, the interaction of different properties in the two phases results in a third (product)
property. When a magnetic field is applied to the composite, the ferrite grains change shape
because of magnetostriction. This strain serves as input to the piezoelectric grains and causes
electrical polarization. Magnetoelectric effects a hundred times larger than those in Cr2O3 can be
obtained (1, 2) . A composite consisting of lithium flouride filled with alumina can be used as a
humidity sensor (3). The differential contraction between LiF and Al2O3 leads to microcracking
in the composite. Moisture penetrates into these microcracks and changes the surface resistivity.
The surface resistance is a very sensitive measure of moisture absorbed and it is this characteristic
that is exploited in the making of A12O3/LiF sensors.

1.3. Describe the use of composite materials in the Voyager airplane that circled the globe
for the first time without refueling in flight.
1.3 The Voyager became the first plane to fly around the world without refueling in December,
1986. The Voyager covered 4272 km (2670 miles) on less than 3200 kg (~ 5120 lbs) of fuel. The
plane had to be the lightest thing possible and the payload essentially consisted of fuel. The plane
was sandwich construction: two plies of carbon fiber/epoxy tapes and a Nomex honey comb core.
Epoxy was used as matrix and adhesive. Few fasteners were used. The wings and fuselage
contained about 8 kg (12.8 lbs) of metals. Its takeoff weight was 9700 lbs (6062 kg), of which
7000 lbs (4375 kg) was fuel. All wing and fuselage structures were loaded with fuel.

CHAPTER 2

2.1. Nonwoven fibrous mats can be formed through entanglement and/or fibers bonded in
the form of webs or yarns by chemical or mechanical means. What are the advantages?
2.1 Nonwoven fibrous mats are cheaper to produce because the number of steps required, in going
from fiber to mat, is s all. Weaving, on the other hand, can be very complex and consequently
expensive.

Nonwoven mats are porous and have lower strength as well as flexibility compared to the woven
fabrics.

2.2 Glass fibers are complex mixtures of silicates and boro-silicates containing mixed sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, and other oxides. Such a glass fiber can be regarded as an
inorganic polymeric fiber. Do you think you can provide the chemical structure of such a
inorganic fiber chain?
2.2 Inorganic, silica-based glasses are analogous to organic glassy polymers in that they are
amorphous, i.e., devoid of any long-range order that is characteristic of a crystalline material. Pure,
crystalline silica melts at 1,800 _C. However, by adding some metal oxides, we can break the Si–
O bonds and obtain a series of amorphous glasses with rather low glass transition temperatures.
Figure 2.6a shows a two dimensional network of silica glass. Each polyhedron consists of oxygen
atoms bonded covalently to silicon. What happens to this structure when Na2O is added to the
glass is shown in Fig. 2.6b. Sodium ions are linked ionically with oxygen but they do not join the
network directly. Too much Na2O will impair the tendency for glassy structure formation. The
addition of other metal oxide types (Table 2.1) serves to alter the network structure and the bonding
and, consequently, the properties. Note the isotropic, three-dimensional network structure of glass
(Fig. 2.6); this leads to the more or less isotropic properties of glass fibers. That is, for the glass
fiber, Young’s modulus and thermal expansion coefficients are the same along the fiber axis and
perpendicular to it. This is unlike many other fibers, such as aramid and carbon, which are highly
anisotropic
Here is one possible inorganic polymeric chain structure of glass fiber:

2.3. A special kind of glass fiber is used as a medium for the transmission of light signals.
Discuss the specific requirements for such an optical fiber.
2.3 Optical glass fiber is a thin, flexible, and transparent guide through which light can be
transmitted. Absorption and scattering of light traveling through such fibers result in signal
attenuation. Intrinsic signal attenuation is a function of the wavelength and this component of
optical loss is the lowest in GeO2 - SiO2glasses. Extrinsic absorption losses occur from transition
metal and OH impurities. These are present to a considerable degree in the glass fiber produced
by direct melting. In the vapor phase deposited GeO2 - SiO2 glasses, transition metal ion
impurities can be reduced to < 1 ppb. OH absorption can be reduced by carefully preparing dry
glass fibers. Complete elimination of OH is difficult.

Strength loss sources in such fibers are mainly surface damage due to contamination and the
presence of microcracks (e.g., bubbles, etc.). Polymer surface coatings are used to minimize the
damage. Fibers are also proof tested to breaking strains in the range of 0.5 - 1%.

Optical fibers are generally made from GeO2 - SiO2 glass system. A modified chemical vapor
deposition (MCVD) technique is used to obtain a fiber consisting of a GeO2 - SiO2core and pure
SiO2 cladding. First the cladding is deposited on the inside of a hot silica tube. When sufficient
cladding has been obtained, the reactants are changed to obtain the core glass. In the final stage,
the temperature is increased and the tube is collapsed to form a solid preform rod. This preform is
converted into a fine filament by a drawing process and protective polymeric layers are applied. A
clean atmosphere must be maintained throughout all these operations to avoid introduction of
impurities. 5-10 km long fibers (strain to fracture 2-3%) can generally be pulled.

Direct melt techniques are used under certain circumstances.

If we did the same exercise for Kevlar 29 fiber, we would find the rod diameter to be 2.6 mm.

2.5. Several types of Kevlar aramid fibers are available commercially. Draw schematically
the stress–strain curves of Kevlar 49 and Kevlar 29. Describe how much of the strain is elastic
(linear or nonlinear). What microstructural processes occur during their deformation?

2.5 Figure below shows the stress-strain curves of Kelvar 49 and Kevlar 29. The strain to fracture
values for Kevlar 49 and Kevlar 29 are 2.4% and 4.0%, respectively. Kevlar 49 shows an almost
linear stress-strain curve right up to fracture. Both the fibers are semi-crystalline. The straining
involves crystal lattice elongation through valence angle deformation and bond stretching of the
polymer chain. In the case of Kevlar 29, the deviation from linearity starts at 1% strain. This
corresponds to chain breakage and other irreversible processes such as crystallite rotation toward
the fiber axis.
2.6. Aramid fiber, when fractured in tension, shows characteristically longitudinal splitting,
i.e., micro-fibrillation is observed. Explain why.
2.6

Crack propagation is easy along the longitudinal axis since it only requires rupture of weak
hydrogen bonds. Even when the predominant fracture is transverse to the fiber axis, there is always
present fibrillation along the fiber axis.

2.7. Describe the structural differences between Kevlar and Nomex (both aramids) that are
responsible for their different mechanical characteristics.
2.7

Both Kevlar and Nomex are aramid fibers. The chemical stmcture of Kevlar has ph!'a- phenylene
rings (PPDT or PPTA) while Nomex (MPD-l) has meta-linked rings. The two chemical structures
are shown below:

Kevlar: p-phenylenediamine (PPD-T) or p-poly (p-phenyleneterephthalamide) or PPTA

The aromatic linkages in the para position result in a linear configuration parallel to the fiber axis.
The result is a high degree of crystallinity because of ease of packing, high strength, high modulus,
but low to strain fracture. Nomex: m-phenylenodiamine and iso-phthaloyl chloride (MPD-1)

The aromatic linkages in the meta position result in an irregular chain configuration, consequently
a lower degree of crystallinity, lower modulus and strength than K-49 fiber.. The bending and
breaking of bonds at an angle to the fiber requires very low stress.

The essential difference between Kevlar and Nomex is thus in the orientation of the aromatic rings.
This, o f course, results i n a spectacular difference in strain -to- fracture values for the two: 28%
for Nomex and 2-4% for Kevlar. Kevlar h a s also slightly higher thermal stability.

2.8. What is asbestos fiber and why is it considered to be a health hazard?

2.8 Asbestos is the name of several naturally occurring minerals which are silicate-based and are
fibrous in form. They have a crystalline structure and are very resistant to heat, acids, alkalis, other
chemicals. Asbestos fibers have relatively low strength but they are not attacked by insects or
microorganisms as is the case with the vegetable fibers.
Its use is being curbed because it has been shown to cause lung cancer if inhaled. It is thought that
the generally large aspect ratio (length/ diameter) of asbestos fiber is related to causing the tumor.
Some respiratory diseases are also caused by inhalation of asbestos fibers.

2.9. Describe the problems involved in mechanical testing of short fibers such as whiskers.
2.9

(i) Gripping of extremely small whiskers is very difficult.

(ii) Proper axial alignment of whiskers is difficult.

(iii) Precise measurements of the length and diameter is difficult In particular, an error diameter
will be squared when the cross-sectional area is computed.

(iv) Any nonuniformity in the cross-sectional area along the length will also make things difficult.

In general, precise measurement of load and elongation is difficult.

CHAPTER 3

3.1. Ductility, the ability to deform plastically in response to stresses, is more of a

In metals, the outermost electrons of each atom form a cloud of electrons. This cloud of electrons
is shared among the atoms of a metal, which results in a nondirectional cohesion or bonding in
metals. The stress at a crack tip or at a dislocation is easy to relieve in metals because it requires
only a small shear stress to make the dislocation move. In a ceramic or polymer, there exist
directional and very local chemical bonds which lead to a highly directional and localized electron
sharing. Consequently, the motion of a defect, such as a dislocation, requires the breaking and
reestablishment of such bonds. Such an activity requires, frequently, a force to move a defect
greater than that to cause fracture. That is why a tiny cracklike defect can cause catastrophic failure
under stress in ceramics and polymers.

3.2. Ceramic materials generally have some residual porosity. How does the presence of
porosity affect the elastic constants of ceramic materials? How does it affect the fracture
energy of ceramics?
3.2

Elastic constants are decreased by the presence of porosity. Pores are like a second phase with a
zero modulus. Various expressions are used. According to Ishai and Cohen (1)

where E and Eo are the Young’s moduli at porosity volume fraction p and 0, respectively.

From an expression due to Mackenzie (2) for relative shear moduli, we get the following
expression for Young’s moduli:

where v and

Coble and Kingery(3) assumed that E = 0 at p= 1 and found C = -0.91 with v0 = 0.3. Assuming
that v does not vary with porosity, i.e., v = Vo for all p, the Mackenzie equation becomes

Phani and Muker jee (4) de r ived semi-empirically the following equation

where b is a pore distribution geometry factor and n depends on pore geometry. For spherical pores,
b has a value between 1 and 1.91 and 2.

(1) 0. Ishai and L.J. Cohen, Inst. J. Mech. Sci., 9 (1967) 539. (2) J.K. Mackenzie, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London) 63B (1950) 2. (3) R.L. Coble and W.D. Kingery1 J. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 39 (1956) 377.
(4) K.K. Phani and R.N. Mukerjee, J. Materials Sci., 22 (1987) 3453.

3.3. Explain why it is difficult to compare the stress–strain behavior of polymers (particularly
thermoplastics) with that of metals.
3.3

(i) Polymers show much more pronounced mechanical relaxation processes than do metals, e.g.,
stress relaxation, creep, mechanical hysteresis, etc. These processes make the mechanical
properties of polymers much more time and temperature dependent than metals.

(ii) Elastomeric polymers can undergo large amounts of , nonlinear, elastic, and reversible strains
than can metals.
3.5. What is the effect of the degree of crystallinity on fatigue resistance of polymers?
3.5

In general, the fatigue resistance of a polymer improves with the degree of crystallinity. Semi-
crystalline polymers seem to have a high resistance to fatigue crack propagation than amorphous
polymers mainly because of their ability to undergo plastic deformation at the crack tip. Crystalline
polymers also dissipate energy more efficiently when crystallites are deformed. It is also thought
(see, for example, R.W. Hertzberg and J.A. Manson, Fatigue of Engineering Plastics, Academic
Press, New York, 1980, p. 130) that the fatigue process modifies the polymer substructure, some
kind of cold drawing, which makes the polymer exceedingly strong. A fourfold decrease in fatigue
crack propagation rate in high-density polyethylene was observed when the crystallinity increased
from 47 to 55 percent (1).

3.6. Discuss the importance of thermal effects (hysteretic heating) on fatigue of polymers.
3.6

In thermal effects on fatigue in polymers, the most important parameter is the cycling frequency.
Thus, if the cycling frequency is so high that isothermal conditions do not prevail, then the
hysteretic heating effect in each cycle will cause the elastic modulus of the polymer to decrease,
resulting in a premature failure. In this regard, it is worth noting that carbon fibers being better
thermal conductors than most other nonmetallic fibers, carbon fiber reinforced polymers would be
expected to show lower hysteretic heating and thus better fatigue resistance.

3.7. Glass-ceramics combine the generally superior mechanical properties of crystalline

Processing is done at high temperatures and in a glassy state, say, between 1000 – 1400° C. The
ease of glass flow is exploited to form intricate shapes. The nucleation of crystals may take place
between 450 – 700 °C while the growth of these crystals may occur between 600 – 900°C.
CHAPTER 4

4.2. In order to study the interfacial reactions between the fiber and matrix, oftentimes one
uses very high temperatures in order to reduce the time necessary for the experiment. What
are the objections to such accelerated tests?
4.2

Diffusion and reaction kinetics, in general, increase in a nonlinear way with temperature. Thus,
accelerated tests done at high temperatures cannot be translated to low temperatures unless the
variation of diffusion and reaction kinetics data with temperature is known. Besides, it is quite
possible that at high temperatures reaction products may form which are thermodynamically not
predicted at low temperatures.

4.3. What are the objections to the use of short beam shear test to measure the interlaminar
shear strength (ILSS)?
4.3

The short beam shear test for measuring interlaminar shear stress exploits the fact that in a three-
point bend test the ratio of the shear stress, τ in the beam interior and the tensile stress, σ in the
outermost layer of the beam is given by

where h is the beam height and S is the span of the bend specimen. Thus, by making the beam
small enough, we can make r so large that the composite will fail by interlaminar shear.

Among the problems of this test are:

• Difficult to avoid damage under the loading points. • If tensile failure of fibers precedes the shear
failure or if a combination of tensile and

shear failures occur, then the test is invalid. Thus, any transverse tensile or compressive stresses
present will complicate the situation.

• In laminated composites, the results will depend on the ply stacking sequence. The maximum
shear stress will not necessarily occur at the center of the beam.

The short beam test, in summary, works for a composite beam which can be treated as a
homogeneous material.
CHAPTER 5

5.1. Why are prepregs so important in polymer matrix composites? What are their
advantages? Describe the different types of prepregs.
5.1

A prepreg is a thin lamina of unidirectional (or sometimes woven) fiber/polymer composite

• handling ease

• prefixed volume fractions of components

• no mixing of resin, hardener, and catalyst required

• shelf life at room temperature of a few weeks

• Deep freeze shelf can be many months

• good control of polymer viscosity → easy processing, low porosity laminates

• quality control of fiber/polymer composite performance before making the actual component

5.2. Randomly distributed short fibers should result in more or less isotropic properties in
an injection molded composite. But this is generally not true. Why? What are the other
limitations of injection molding process?
5.2

Injection molding techniques suffer from tremendous flow variations during mold filling, which
result in a heterogeneous distribution of fibers (see Fig. in the text). Other limitations:

i. rather low fiber volume fractions.

ii. difficult to incorporate continuous or very long fibers.

5.3. In a thermally cured PMC, the fiber surface treatments have been well established for
certain systems. For example, silanes are used on glass fiber in an epoxy matrix while an
oxidizing treatment to carbon fiber for use in an epoxy matrix. What would be the effect of
electron beam curing on the interface development in a PMC?
5.3

In a thermally cured PMC, the fiber surface treatments have been established over the years for
certain systems. For example, carbon fibers meant for use in an epoxy matrix are given an
oxidizing treatment while silanes are put on glass fibers for use in an epoxy matrix. Electron beam
curing may not be effective in developing an appropriate interface. In the conventional

thermal curing, initially there is a decrease in viscosity of the matrix (exothermic curing reaction)
followed by an increase in viscosity as the curing proceeds. This initial viscosity decrease allows
the polymeric matrix to wet the fibers. This important stage showing a decrease in viscosity is
missing in electron beam curing.

5.5. What are the important factors in regard to fire resistance of PMCs?

5.5

Some polymers, when heated to a certain temperature, decompose and form flammable gaseous
compounds. Following are the important aspects in imparting fire resistance to polymers and
PMCs.

Modify the polymer by impregnation by or adding flame retardants that release scavenging agents
that remove free radicals normally involved in flame initiation and propagation. This can be
accomplished by adding halogenated compounds such as chlorinated paraffins, alicyclic
compounds, and bromo-aromatic additive. The flame retardant and/or its decomposition products
volatilize simultaneously with the gases generated by the polymer and thus inhibit the vapor phase
combustion of the fuel gases.

Flame retardants such as antimony oxides, and some bromide and chloride compounds, tend to
reduce the decomposition products of some polymers.

Heat stabilizers (for example some metal carboxylates and organic compounds) react with
polymers such that they interrupt the degradative chain reaction.

If the fuel used during combustion is a condensed phase, then flame retardancy can be achieved
by modifying the decomposition products. The flame retardant alters the pathway of thermal
degradation by providing a low energy process such carbonization rather than generate
combustible gases. In some cases, the flame retardant forms a protective coating that insulates the
polymer.

Addition of antioxidants reduces the amount of free radicals. Hydroperoxides play a key role in
the oxidation of hydrocarbons via a degradative free-radical chain reaction.

CHAPTER 6

6.1. Pressure casting is frequently used to prepare metal matrix composite. Explain why.
6.1 The greatest advantage of casting methods is that they give a near-net shape of the product,
i.e., it requires little or no further maching or finishing. Hence, the casting processes are generally
cheaper than other processes.

The greatest disadvantage of casting methods is the presence of porosity. Porosity can result from
either normal shrinkage during the liquid to solid transformation or gas evolution. Some of the
excessive porosity can be eliminated by good casting practice, e.g., avoiding turbulence in the melt,
solidifying under a small pressure, etc. The latter technique is used to a great advantage in squeeze
casting. Nonmetallic inclusions are another problem in the casting route. Filteration of the metal,
through ceramic foam filters or steel mesh pads, is one way out.

Some of the advantages of pressure casting are:

• Independent of wettability of reinforcement by the liquid metal.

• Can use a wide range of alloys as a matrix.

• Near net shape capability, can produce complex shapes with good details.

• Superior properties in the as cast state because of solidification under pressure because the
process results in a high solidification rate and low porosity, which in turn give the as cast alloy
matrix properties equal to those of a wrought alloy matrix.

• Relatively simple and cost effective process.

6.2 Describe some of the advantages of metal matrix composites over monolithic metals.
6.2 Following are some of the advantages of metal matrix composites over monolithic metals.

• Weight savings over monolithic metals

• Higher strength and stiffness than conventional metals

• Higher temperature capability than conventional metals

• Improved cyclic fatigue properties

6.3. Discuss the advantages of metal matrix composites vis a` vis polymer matrix composite.
6.3

Some of the advantages of metal matrix composites vis à vis polymer matrix composites are.

• Higher operating temperature

• Higher thermal conductivity

• Higher electrical conductivity

• No problems of grounding, space charging

• Better properties in the transverse direction

• Better resistance to radiation (laser, UV, nuclear, etc.)

• Little or no outgassing

• Little or no moisture absorption

6.6. The metallic matrix will generally undergo constrained plastic flow in the presence of a
moderately high volume fraction of high modulus fibers. Draw schematically the stress–
strain curves of a constrained metal matrix (i.e., insitu behavior) and an unconstrained metal
(i.e., 100% matrix metal). Explain the difference.

6.6

An unconstrained annealed metal, i.e., unreinforced matrix metal, will show a characteristically
large amount of plastic deformation and a low work hardening rate. When a composite is made by
introducing fibers into a metal, the generally strong bond between the metal and the fiber will
make the insitu deformation of the matrix quite constrained. The constraint comes from the fact
that the metal is not free to contract laterally. The difference in the Poisson’s ratio of the fiber and
the matrix () results in transverse stresses even when a uniaxial stress is applied. The constrained
matrix under a triaxial stress will show a stress-strain curve higher than that of the unconstrained
metal. (see Fig. below) The important point is that the insitu stress-strain behavior of matrix is
different from that of the same metal when in an unreinforced condition.

6.9. Discuss the problem of thermal stability of unidirectionally solidified eutectic (in situ)
metallic composites.
6.9

Fiber reinforced composites in general and eutectic composites in particular are characterized by
an extraordinarily large amount of interfacial surface area. A volume of 1 mm3 of a lamellar
eutectic can easily have more 400 mm2 of interfacial area. This would lead to an extensive
tendency for spheroidization of lamellar eutectic microstructure when exposed to high
temperatures due to inter diffusion of the two phases. When these interfaces are of a low energy
variety, the eutectic microstructure may exhibit an unusually high thermal stability. If the interface
has a high energy, structural changes will occur first at the sites of large mismatch. For example,
pits may form at lamellar faults. Another possibility is that of interphase boundary sliding at high
temperatures. Thermal stresses due to the expansion coefficient mismatch represent another
serious problem in any kind of composite. Interlamellar sliding, due to thermal cycling, has been
observed in Al-CuAl2. Coarsening or degeneration of the reinforcing phase can result on thermal
cycling, especially under conditions of large temperature gradients. For example, it was observed
(1) that under a temperature gradient of 5 K mm-1, perpendicular to the fiber axis, in Al3Ni/Al
composite, the fibrous phase (Al3Ni) coarsened 5 times more rapidly than under isothermal
conditions. It would appear that systems having sluggish interfacial kinetics will do well.

CHAPTER 7

7.1. What are the sources of fiber degradation during processing of ceramic matrix
composites?
7.1 Mechanical damage of fibers can occur at excessively high pressures. At very high processing
temperatures one must guard against grain growth or softening in the reinforcement as well as any
adverse chemical reaction between the fiber and the matrix. For example, oxidation of carbon
fibers at high temperature is highly undesirable. 7.2
i. A greater control of the composition as well as the degree of homogeneity is attainable ii.
Possibility of forming unique multiphase matrices

iii. The fluid starting materials have a relative ease of penetrating a fibrous perform. iv. Lower
processing temperatures.

7.3. Explain how a carbon fiber reinforced glass–ceramic composite can be obtained with an
almost zero in-plane coefficient of thermal expansion.
7.3 Carbon fibers have a negative axial coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Thus,
appropriately combining them with a glass or glass-ceramic matrix can result in a composite with
an almost zero in-plane CTE over a range of temperature. Figure below shows the in-plane CTE
as a function of fiber content for 0/90 cross-ply carbon fiber/glass (1).

Fig. In plane coefficient of thermal expansion (-20º to +80ºC) as a function of fiber content for
0/90 cross-ply HM-carbon-fiber-reinforced borosilicate glass

CHAPTER 8

8.1. The terms voids and cracks are frequently used interchangeably but in reality they are
not synonymous. Specifically, in regard to C/C composites, distinguish between voids and
microcracks in terms of their form and origin.
8.1 This is a very serious problem. Cutting and trimming of prepregs results in a considerable
quantity of scrap. Recovery and recycling of carbon fibers is an economical proposition because
of the high cost of carbon fibers. Carbon fibers in a thermoset matrix are the biggest problem. Use
as landfill is perhaps the least desirable method. There are two methods that can be used to recover
the carbon fibers:

i. Epoxy in the prepreg is only partially cured and thus is soluble in common organic solvents such
as acetone or methyl ethyl ketone. This process can be used to remove resin and the fiber sizing.
It is important that the carbon fiber surface should not suffer any damage because that will affect
its subsequent use as a short fiber reinforcement.

ii. Thermal degradation. Essentially, this method is to burn the resin matrix and recover the carbon
fibers. Carbon fibers get oxidized in air at about 400ºC when heated in air. Therefore, one should
remove the resin matrix at temperatures less than 400ºC in air or at higher temperatures in an inert
atmosphere.

There is no economical way as yet to remove a thermoset resin such as an epoxy from fully cured
laminates. That is where thermoplastic matrix composites come in. They have the advantage that
they can be repeatedly melted and reprocessed. But, it should be pointed out that the resin
properties degrade with each heat exposure. Thus, it is likely that the aerospace scrap or a used
aircraft part consisting of a thermoplastic matrix containing carbon fibers will be recycled for use
in some sector that does not have very rigorous and high specifications. 8.2 Epoxy and less
frequently polyester resins are typical examples of thermosetting resins. Polyimide resins can have
a use-temperature between 225º and 300 ºC. Chemically, condensation-type polymides are
thermoplastic. Examples are LARC TPI and Avimid N. Addition-type polymides are thermosets.
Examples include bismaleimide resins such as PMR- 15, Thermid MC-600, and IP-600. A variety
of thermoplastic resins is available. These have a linear molecular structure and are repeatedly
meltable, i.e., unlike thermosets, thermoplastics can be reprocessed. Some of the commercial, so-
called high temperature thermoplastics are: polyetheretherketone (PEEK), Polysulfone (Udel P-
1700), Polyphenylene sulfide (Ryton), etc. 8.3 Interface is the essentially bidimensional region
between any two phases. If another phase is introduced deliberately or if it forms due to a reaction
between the matrix and reinforcement, then this new phase will be called an interphase. Note that
the presence of an interphase will create two interfaces: reinforcement/interphase and
interphase/matrix.

8.6. Describe the NASA’s Columbia shuttle disaster in which all seven astronauts lost their
lives in 2003. Highlight the role of carbon/carbon composites in this disaster. How and why
did the disaster occur? Describe the modifications instituted by NASA to prevent such a
disaster in the future.
8.6 The failure of Columbia space shuttle was initiated by the impact of the thermal protection
system (TPS) by a piece of insulating foam from an external tank. This foam impact caused a hole
in the TPS made of C/C panel. This resulted in a breach of the thermal protection system on the
leading edge of the left wing. During reentry of the vehicle, hot gases entered the shuttle through
the hole, melted the aluminum structure and led to the tragedy.
CHAPTER 9

9.1. There are many known superconducting A15 compounds. Of these Nb3Al, Nb3Ga, and
Nb3Ge have higher values of Tc and Hc2 than do Nb3Sn and V3Ga. How then does one
explain the fact that only Nb3Sn and to a lesser extent V3Ga are available commercially?
9.1

Nb3Al, Nb3Ga, and Nb3Ge cannot be prepared directly by reacting solid Nb with an appropriate
liquid or by a solid state diffusional reaction between Nb and an appropriate bronze. In each case,
one or more solute-rich compounds form which are more stable.

In Nb-Sn and V-Ga system, the Al5 compounds are the only compounds formed by solid state
diffusion.

9.2. It is believed that grain boundaries are the imperfections responsible for the flux-pinning
in high-Jc materials like Nb3Sn and V3Ga. How does Jc vary with grain size?
9.2

Jc of Nb3Sn at high magnetic fields is inversely proportional to its grain size until the grain
diameter becomes less than 30-50 nm. Below this grain size, Jc decreases. If no special efforts are
made, the grain size in Nb3Sn and V3Ga tends to be several hundreds of nm. The bronze route
allows the use of low temperatures suited to minimizing the grain size and maximizing the grain
boundary area and current densities.

9.3. What is the effect of any excess unreacted bronze leftover in the manufacture of Nb3Sn
superconductor composite via the bronze route?
9.3

Any left over, unreacted bronze will dilute the intrinsic superconducting critical current density of
the Al5 compound. Similar is the effect of any non-superconducting metallic reinforcing elements
and the pure copper which is used for electrical stability.

9.4. Examine the Nb–Sn phase diagram. At what temperature does the A15 compound
(Nb3Sn) become unstable? Nb3Sn is formed by solid state diffusion in Nb/Cu–Sn composites
at 700 _C or below. Is this in accord with information from the phase diagram? Explain.
9.4

Nb3Sn, the Al5 compound, becomes unstable below ~ 775ºC. Thus, either the phase diagram is
wrong or the presence of copper in the bronze extends the stability range of the Al5 compound to
lower temperatures.

9.5. Do you think it is important to study the effect of irradiation on superconducting

Yes, because a very large scale use of superconductors is in fusion reactors and high energy
accelerators (e.g., the superconducting supercollider) where irradiation is likely to introduce
defects which, in turn, will affect the Tc, Jc, and Hc2 values.

9.7. Superconducting composites in large magnets can be subjected to high mechanical loads.
Describe the sources of such loadings.
9.7

The main sources of mechanical loading in superconducting composites in large magnets are:

i. Fabrication induced stresses such as the bending stress as the superconductor wire is wound into
a coil and the uniaxial tension due to pre-tensioning of wire.

ii. Thermal expansion and contraction differences between the superconductor and any of the
support structure. Temperature gradients may result during cooling or heating. In particular, when
a portion of the superconductors reverts (quenches) to the normal high temperature state, the
remainder of the superconductor will be put in tension. Temperature gradients exacerbate the
already complex situation due to the differential in the expansion of different components.

iii. Electromagnetic forces of very high magnitude can develop in large solenoids due to the
Lorentz forces. These are also called magnetic stresses and they come into being when the
superconducting winding is energized. The magnetic hoop stress in each wire in a solenoid is given
by

σ = J.B.R
where J is the current density, B is the magnetic field strength, and R is the radius of winding.
Clearly, Lorentz force increases linearly with the size of the magnet (radius). In small research
magnets, this stress will generally be less than 0.1 Gpa. But in a large magnet having a bore several
meters in diameter, the magnetic hoop stress can be greater than 1 Gpa, i.e., much more than the
fracture strength of the superconductor or any of the support structure materials. This is generally
taken care of by providing a rigid clamping system.

CHAPTER 10

10.2. Consider a 40 % Vf SiC whisker-reinforced aluminum composite. Ef ¼ 400 GPa, Em

Halpin-Tsai equaitons

10.5. Consider a fiber reinforced composite system in which the fiber has an aspect ratio of
1,000. Estimate the minimum interfacial shear strength ti, as a percentage of the tensile stress
in fiber, sf, which is necessary to avoid interface failure in the composite.
10.5

For fiber failure to occur, i.e., to avoid interface failure, we have the following condition Taking
ℓ/d (=1000) of the fiber equal to (ℓ/d)c, we get the minimum interfacial strength required to avoid
interface failure:

10.10. Consider a composite made of aligned, continuous boron fibers in an aluminum matrix.
Compute the elastic moduli, parallel, and transverse to the fibers. Take Vf ¼ 0.50.
10.10

Note, we have taken Ef2 to be 162 GPa, slightly less than 05 Ef1.

10.13. Carbon fibers (Vf ¼ 50 %) and polyimide matrix have the following parameters:
Ef ¼ 280 GPa Em ¼ 276MPa
vf ¼ 0:2 vm ¼ 0:3
(a) Compute the elastic modulus in the fiber direction, E11, and transverse to the fiber
direction, E22.

(b) Compute the Poisson ratios, n12 and n21.

10.13

E11 = Vf Ef1 + Em Vm

10.14. Copper or aluminum wires with steel cores are used for electrical power transmission.
Consider a Cu/steel composite wire having the following data: inner diameter = 1 mm outer
diameter = 2 mm

(a) The composite wire is loaded in tension. Which of the two components will yield
plastically first? Why?
(b) Compute the tensile load that the wire will support before any plastic strain occurs.
(c) Compute the Young’s modulus and CTE of the composite wire.

10.14

(a) For tensile loading of the compsoite wire, we have

The component that has a lower yeild strain will yield plastically first. The yield strain of a

component can be found by using Hooke’s law: ey = σy/E. Thus,

Therefore, copper will yield first.

(b)

Using the rule-of-mixtures, we have the composite yield strength as the strength corresponding

to a strain of 6.6 10 –4 (see part (a) above)(c)

13.1. List some of the possible fatigue crack initiating sites in particle, short fiber, and
continuous fiber reinforced composites.
13.1

Fatigue crack initiation sites:

• Voids

• Inclusions

• Interface between the reinforcement and the matrix

• Interface between laminae

• Free edges of a laminate with a ply sequence that results in out of plane stresses at the

free edge

• Extremities of short fiber or whiskers

13.4. Discuss the effects of frequency of cycling in regard to hysteretic heating in PMCs and
CMCs.
13.4

Hysteretic heating can be a problem in PMCs. Polymers, being poor conductors of heat, do not
dissipate heat easily. It is not uncommon to generate temperature differences between the surface
and the interior of a PMC under conditions of cyclic fatigue. All other things being equal, the
hysteretic heating will increase as a function of frequency. Such heating can lead to a decrease in
the fatigue life of the PMC. Similar effects can be expected in CMC but the softening due to
heating may not be as critical as in PMCs.