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Glass fibers

Chapter · December 2017

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-101871-2.00005-9

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Chapter 5

Glass Fibers
Aref Cevahir

1. History of Glass Fiber

2- Glass Fiber Manufacturing
3. Types of Glass Fiber
4. Glass fiber Products

4.1 Chopped strands

4.2 Direct Draw Rovings

4.3 Assembled Roving
4.4 Chopped and Continuous Strand Mat

5. Glass fiber Sizing

5.1 Film Forming Agents

5.2 Coupling Agents (Adhesion promoter)

5.3 Lubricating Agents

5.4 Surface Active and Emulsifying Agents

5.5 Antistatic Agents

5.6 Antioxidizing Agents

5.7 Plastifying Agents

5.8 Biocides

6. Composite Interphase
6.1 Thermosets
6.2 Thermoplastics

7. Conclusion
References
1. History of Glass Fiber

Glass makers experimented glass fiber production from the ancient time but mass
manufacture of glass fiber started in 1893 by Edward Drummond Libbey who exhibited a dress made
from fabric combining silk and glass fiber [1]. Russell Games Slayter in 1938 issued first patent
considering glass wool production [2]. The produced fiber showed a good electrical insulation
properties and for this reason glass fiber products named as electrical glass or E-glass. Starting from
1939 glass fibers were used as insulators in the warships of US navy. Furthermore, during worldwar
II glass fiber manufacturing and development in the production of unsaturated polyester resin was
the driving force to produce radar domes (radoms) and structural parts of the aircrafts using hand lay
up technique. For the first time in 1953 General Motors started mass production of the entire body
of Chevrolet Corvette sport cars using glass fiber and utilising sheet molding compound (SMC)
technique

Improvements in the technology, consumer awareness and government regulations resulted

that glass fibeer manufacturers spent millions of dollars to minimize waste. Reducing furnace
emission is the major challenge for glass fiber maufacturers in which dust, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides plays the importan role. The use of oxygen combustion makes advantage of decreasing the
emission of nitrogen oxide to the environment. Glass makers produces fluorine and boron free glasses
to eliminate fluorine pollution and minimize air pollutants in manufacturing. Industrial demends are
always a driving force to produce fibers with high mechanical strength, corrosion resistance and etc.
In this regard, S glass, ECR glass, Boron free and many other type of glasses are produced.

2. Glass Fiber Manufacturing

In the modern glass fiber manufacturing plant direct manufacturing process is prefered. In
this process raw materials are stored separately in the silo and metered to the mixing tank by accurate
weighing followed by transfer to the batch silo to charge to the furnace. This system is computer
controlled and air tight in away to prevent spreading of dust.

The raw materials that is used in the manufacturing of E-glass are; sand for silica, clay for
alumina, colemanite or boric acid for boron oxide and limestone or calcite for calcium oxide. E-glass
furnace is generally rectangular with a short channel at the exit that is connected to the narrow
forehearth channel along which fiber forming is done, Fig. 2.1.
 Figure 2.1 Continuous Glass Fiber manufacturing process. (From Agy, Advanced Glass
Fiber Yarn Co. Inc. High Strength Glass Fibers, TECHNICAL PAPER) [3]

The best refractory material that is used to build the wall of furnace is dense chromium oxide
which is resistant to the corrosive molten E-glass. The refractory is baked by zircon blocks and
another layer of of clay blocks. The fuel that is used is usually natural gas which produces the
tempreture of around 1600oC to melt the raw materials as they feed to the furnace. During formation
of the E-glass and as it moves to the furnace exit the electrodes and bubblers in the bottom of furnace
produce convection of the liquid glass in addition to romoving of gasses evolved and to finalize the
chemical reactions.

As the molten E-glass leaves the furnace it enters to the forehearth channel and conveys into
bushing where fibre is formed. The bushing is like spinneret of the synthetic fiber industry, however,
it is rectangular in shape and made of platinum and rhodium alloy to withstand high temperature and
corossion of molten E-glass, Fig. 3.2. Presence of rhodium in the alloy increases the hardness and
stifness that enhances the lifetime of bushing. A bushing contains small holes, nozzles, with the
number up to several thousands, e.g., 6000. The bushing is heated electrically for better temperature
control and uniformity of the fibers that flow through tips, holes. The orifices of tips ranging from
0.75 to 2.0 mm and as winder or chopper pulls the fibers the linear speed of it may rise up to 60 m/s
[4].
Figure 2.2 Flow of the glass fiber from bushing [5,6]

By variation in the winder or chopper speed or output capacity of the bushing the fiber
diameters can be changed and therefore fibers with various diameters are produced. Fibers with
different diameters are named as it is seen in Table 2.1 [7].

Table 2.1 Letter designation of glass fiber diameter

Filament Average
Design Diameter (µ)
D 5.33
E 7.32
G 9.50
H 10.67
J 11.75
K 14.19
M 15.86
N 17.38
T 23.52

E-glass melt should have a narrow range of viscosity between 600 to 1000P. The rate of fiber
production at the nozzle is the function of the rate of flow of glass and can be described by the
Poiseuille’s equation:

𝑟4ℎ
𝐹 ∝
𝑙η

where F is the rate of flow, r is the radius of the nozzle at its narrowest cylindrical section, h is the
height of the glass above the nozzle and η is the viscosity of the glass [7].
 As the liquid glass leaves the tip of the nozzle, it is quenched rapidly by circulating cold air
and spraying water. The glass will be fully soldified when it reaches to the size applicator that is few
meter under bushing, Fig. 2.3. In this stage the aqeous size is applied to the glass surface by either
roller or belt applicator [1].

Applicator

Since the glass filaments is wetted by water and size, it can be gathered through split shoes
which are usually rotatable grooved disks.

Figure 2.3 Continuous filament forming process [8]

 The attenuated glass fibers are traditionally wound on collet which is cylindir powered by
winder. The fibers are usually wound on the paper or plastic tube that is slid onto the collet. The
function of the tube is to facillitate handling of the forming cakes. The rotation speed of the collet is
the key parameter to determine the fiber diameter in the final form. Also, the temperature adjustment
of the bushings affect the filaments diameter as well. The other important part of the winder is the
traverse that places individual strands to the collet in such fashion that the cake has even build up and
the strands can be easily wound after drying [1,9,10].

Traverse Cake

3. Types of Glass Fiber

In genereal, E-glass named as calcium alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% alkali
oxide, Na2O. Most glasses contain small amount of flouride which assist the dissolution of raw
materials and lower the liquidus temperature of the glass. The E-glass, occasionally, has density of
2.62 g/cm3 and refractive index of 1.562.

The composition of E-glass after long producing time is varying as a result of some factors
the encourage or force manufacturers to revise the formulation. The need to reduce the atmospheric
pollution due to gasses and dust discharged from E-glass furnaces causes production problems and
cost of raw materials. Also, the need to improve some properties like corrosion resistance and higher
mechanical performance leads to production of new types of glass fibers, Table 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 [1,8].

Table 3.1 Glass fibers by commercial melt process [11]

 As it is seen in the table 3.1 different types of glass fibers were made to fulfill the industrial
needs and this just was possible by modifying formulations.

Table 3.2 Shows some physical and mechanical performance of various type of glass fibers.

Table 3.2 Physical and mechanical properties of comercial glass fibers [11]
Table 3.3 Evolution of commercial pupose E-glass fibers [8]

In table 3.3 evolution of E-glass is shown. At the beggining E-glass manufacturing was started
with Boron free compositon and then in 1943 by addition of Boron processing temperature reduced
from 1288 to 1200oC. In 1951 the batch cost was reduced by simplifying the E-glass composition
and as a result the amount of B2O3 reduced from 10 to 5-7%. Moreover, the amount of MgO was
reduced significantly and the standard formulation for E-glass was stablished [8]. By the 1960’s
emision of boron and flourine from melt in a commercial furnace into the atmosphere became an
important issue from environment and health point of view. Costly pollution control devices resulted
to the design of new flourine free and essentially boron free E-glass compositions that
commercialized in 1996 [8]. From the beggining of 2000’s more challenges were done to produce
low energy and environmentally friendly E-glass for general purpose apllications and as it can be
seen from table 3.3 addition of TiO2, flux, in combination with boron reduces cost and processing,
viscosity of melt.

Viscosity of molten glass is another important parameter by which production variables,

energy and fiber forming is affected. As it is seen in fig. 3.1 decreasing the amount of boron in the
glass formulatıon results higher viscosity and consequently rising the peocessing temperature to the
amount of about 90oC for glass fiber manufacturing [11].
Figure 3.1 Viscosity of boron free and boron containing E-glass [8,11]

4. Glass Fiber Products

Figure 4.1 Shematic illustration of glass fiber manufacturing and products, Courtesy of Camelyaf
 Glass fiber products are categorized in 4 major groups; Chopped strands, Direct draw rovings,
Assembled Rovings and Mat products [8].

4.1 Chopped strands

Chopped strands are manufactured according to the 3 processes; dry chopping, semi wet and
direct chopping.

Dry chopping process: In this process glass fibers are attenuated from bushing and after
applying size fibers are split into strands and wound in the form of cake or roving onto cardboard
tube. Subsequently, wound fibers are drying in the air drying or radio frequency ovens. Dried cakes
or rovings strands are unwinding, wetting with water and chopping (rotating glass cutter) followed
by drying in the vibrational or fluidized bed driers. Finally, dried chopped strands are packaged.

Semi wet chopping process: In this process glass fibers are attenuated from bushing and after
applying size fiber splits are winding in the form roving onto cardboard tubes. Wet rovings are
covered with envelope to minimize evaporation of moisture. Semi wet rovings strands are unwinding
and chopping followed by drying in the vibrational or fluidized bed driers. Then, Dried chopped
strands are packaged.

Direct chopping process: In this process glass fibers are attenuated from bushing and after
applying size fiber strands are conducted to the chopper. Chopped fibers are drying in the vibrational
or fluidized bed driers and finally dried chopped strands are packaged. Direct chopping process
minimize the labor cost and because of continuosly flow of glass without interruption this process is
the most cost effective one.

Chopped strands products are used in;

- injection moulding procees to reinforce wide range of thermoplastic polymers.

- dough moulding compound or bulk moulding compound in which thermoset resins are pressed or
injected to the molds to produce objects with complex shapes.
- water dispersing systems to manufacture glass felt or tissue to reinforce plaster and gypsum.

4.2 Direct draw rovings

Direct draw roving glass fiber products are rovings at which glass fiber filaments are gathered
into one single strand and the bundle of filaments is wound onto cardboard tubes. Wet rovings are
dried using radio frequency driers and are commonly used in weaving, filament winding and
pultrusion applications in which either unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester or epoxy resins are used.

4.3 Assembled rovings

In this process first multi strand rovings are wound on collet in the form of cake and dried by
conventional drying techniques. Then, several strands from cakes bring together and winding to
produce a cylindrical package contains bundles of individual strands.

A major application of assembeled rovings are spray deposion (spray roving or gun roving)
in which rovings are chopped or cut into separate strands and sprayed in combination with the resin
to the mould. Assembled rovings are also used in sheet molding compound process in that fiber
strands chopped over paste and mixed with thermoset dough and after certain period of time
(maturation) pressed in the hot mold without loosing strand integrity too much.

Translusent panel manufacturing SMC paste manufacturing

 4.4 Chopped and continuous strand mats

In this procees first, glass strands are chopped in the uniform lenght of 50 mm or continuous
glass strands are distributed randomly over the conveyor belt [8]. As conveyor belt moves adhesive
powders (polyester) or adhesive emulsions (Poly(vinyl acetate)) are applied to the fiber strands to
make adhesion in the contact points of strands in oder to keep uniformity of glass strands mat.
Adhesive powders or emulsion are dried and melt while conveyor belt goes through the drying oven.
At the end of mat production line adhered fiber strands passes between cooling press rollers and form
a blanket shape products, Fig. 4.1. Produced mat are usually named as powder bonded and emulsion
bonded mat.

Chopped strand mat products are widely used in hand lay up application. Continuous strand
mat products are used either in hand lay up or resin transfer moulding applications to manufacture
composites.

Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of chopped strand mat production line

5. Glass Fiber Sizing

When one think about manufacturing of glass fibers products with diameter form 10.5 to 24.0
mikron diameter, we should think about protectection of these thiny filaments from damage either
during manufacturing or during custom service. Therefore, the fuctionality of the size components
during all process stages is considered.
In general, size of the glass fiber products contains;

- film forming agents,

- coupling agents,

- lubricating agents,

- surface active and emulsifying agents,

- antistatic agents,

- antioxidizing agents,

- plastifying agents and biosides[1,7].

5.1 Film Forming Agents

Film forming agents are water based polymeric materials that protect fibers from damage
during processing and also keeps filaments together. Film formers are mostly emulsions in which
emulsifying agents adsorbed to the surface of polymer micelles and enhance dispersing in water.
Existing of the film former emulsions in the size prevent loss of the chemicals during winding of
glass fibers. As glass fibers are wound resultant centrifugal force and vibration from pulling fiber
strands cause throwing out and loss of size.

The compatibility between matrix polymer and film formers can affect reinforcing properties
of the produced composite [4]. On the other hand, reactivity of the film formers cause possible
chemical rection between film former- coupling agents, film former-polymer matrix and film former-
film formers. Blocked polyurethanes are reactive film formers that upon heating at certain
temperature deblocking will occur and isocyanates are formed. New formed isocyanates are reactive
towards coupling agents, chain end groups of the matrix polymers and polyols of the other film
formers. Table 5.1 shows the possible compatibility between film former polymers and composite
matrices. It can be deduced from table 5.1 to use hybride (combination) of film formers to achive a
synergy or to obtain films with new properties. In the case of size compatible with polypropylene one
choose modified polypropylene which is maleic unhydride grafted polypropylene, PPgMAH.

Figure 5.1 Chemical structure of maleic anhydride grafted PP (PPgMAH)[9]

 In contrast to polypropylene homopolymer grafted one can be dispersed in water in
combination with emulsifying agents and maleic acid neutralizing agents, alkyl amines, which in
somehow facilitate dispersing of PPgMAH in water. Dispersion of polypropylene is done at high
pressure (~ 9.0 bar) and high temperature (~ 175oC) with vigorous aggitation [12]. According to the
required propeties grafted amorphous, atactic, or crystalline, isotactic, polypropylene is selected to
be dispersed in water and used in the size formulation.

Table 5.1 Compatibility between film formers and polymer matrices

Film former polymer Matrix polymer

Poly(vinyl acetate), PVAc Unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy
Poluurethane polyamides, polyester (PET), polycarbonate
Polyester Unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy
Epoxy Unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, polyester (PET)
Modified polypropylene Polypropylene

5.2 Coupling Agents (Adhesion promoters)

Coupling agents are chemicals which enhance adhesion or bonding between fiber surface and
polymer matrix. These types of chemicals are mostly organofunctional silane compounds that;

i) displaced adsorbed water on the glass surface,

ii) create hydrophobic surface of the correct thermodynamic characteristics for complete wetting
by the matrix and

iii) Develop strong interfacial bonds between the fiber and resin. These may involve covalent
bonding or, in the case of thermoplastics, long compatible molecular chains that are
completely solubilised into the polymer matrix, in analogy to graft and block copolymers
employed in polymer blends.

Table 5.2 Compatibility between Coupling Agents and polymer matrices

Coupling Agent Formulation Matrix polymer

Amino silane 3- aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APS) Polyamides, polypropylene, polycarbonate,
epoxy and polyester (PET)
Methacryl silane 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS) Unsaturated polyester and vinyl ester
Vinyl silane Vinyl triethoxysilane (VTS) Unsaturated polyester and vinyl ester
Epoxy silane 3-glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPS) Epoxy, polyester (PET) and polycarbonate
 The compatibility between coupling agent and matrix polymer directly affects the
reinforcement properties of the composite. Table 5.2 represents the compatibility between coupling
agents and composite matrices [7]

In general, the silanes given in the Table 5.2 all have the following structure:

where R/ is a polymer- compatible or reactable organic group, R is either ethyl or methyl.

In aqueous solution and usually in the presence of acetic acid which is used to adjust pH (of
the size emulsion) to approximately 4, the alkoxy (RO) groups are hydrolysed and can polymerise
(oligomer) to give linear and branched poly (hydroxy siloxane)[13].

This equilibrium polymerisation is strongly dependent on the nature of R/ so that the concentration
at which only the silane triol exists in aqueous solution (in the absence of other auxilaries) varies.

Considering glass surface one can say that the silicone at the surface of glass will have
hydroxy groups atached and therefore the hydrolysed silane will be in competition for condensation
with silanols of glass surface or through self-condensation. Moreover, coating the fiber with
aminosilane solution followed by hot water extraction leaves a deposite that is highly hydrolytically
resistant and have been referred as; physiosorbed layers, the loosely chemisorbed layer and strongly
chemisorbed layer, Fig.5.2 [7, 14,15,16].
 Figure 5.2 Schematic of the structure of hydrolysed APS on E-glass showing the
presence of the denuded glass surface and quaternary ammonium ions.

5.3 Lubricating Agents

During glass fiber manufacturing or composite production lines fiber filaments should pass
through metal or ceramic guides, metal bars and pipes without any breakage or damage. Inorder to
fulfil this condition water based lubricating agents are added to the size. Lubricating agents are
generally in the form of wax dispersions of long alkyl groups or modified polyethylene glycol (PEG)
type chemicals. PEG 400, 600 or longer chains are modified with fatty acids and are widely used as
lubricating agents.

5.4 Surface Active and Emulsifying Agents

When size is coming into contact with the fiber filaments, it should wet the glass fiber surface
and therefore film formers and other auxilaries of the size cover the fiber furface. Surface active
agents are the chemicals that reduces surface tension of the solution to some extent and enhances
wetting of the fiber surface. Surface active agents an emulsifying agents are classified according to
the polarity of their chemicals. In general, salts of fatty acids (anionic), quaternary amine salts
(cationic) and modified PEG derivatives (nonionic) are the chemicals which are utilized in size.
People who are expert in size prefered non ionic chemiclas since most of the film formers are non
ionic or weakly anionic dispersions.
5.5 Antistatic Agents

Glass fibers are naturally charged by accumulating static electricity. Therefore, during
processing or manufacturing of glass fibers electrically charged fiber strands may cause unwanted
gathering of fiber strands and filaments, sparks and even electrical shock. To overcome these
problems water soluble antistatic agents are added to the size or applied to the glass strands during
manufacturing of assembled rovings. Derivatives of quaternized ammonium salts, imidazolium ion
salts and modified PEG (poyethylene glycol or polyoxyethylene) are mostly prefered as antistatic
agents. Antistatic agents are chosen according to the compatibility with other size ingradients and the
polymer matrix which will be used since migration of the antistatic agents in the final composite form
is not wanted.

5.6 Antioxidizing Agents

Size materials which are oraganic compounds are susciptible to oxidation due to the
processing conditions at which high temperature drying (>100oC) is applied. Therfore, to inhibit
oxidative degradation of silanes or film formers some antioxidizing agents are added to the size.
Hindered phenols, hindered amines or sodium phosphinate type compounds are mostly used [16].
Antioxidizing agents are chosen considering solubility in the size and not interfering with curing of
the composite. Also, antioxidizing agents should not affect the color of the composite products.

5.7 Plastifying Agents

Modification of film formers is a method to maintain new peoprties to size and consequently
to the glass fiber whis is produced. For instance softening or increasing flexibility of the film former
polymers may cause either softer or flexible glass fiber strands with better drapability and also
increasing the wetting of the fiber strands by resin. Alkyl benzoate derivatives are mostly used to
plastify PVAc emulsions.

5.8 Biocides

Size formulations contain polymeric and organic compounds which are suitable for bacterial
and fungi growth. Existing of such microbials in the size causes sedimentation or agglomeration of
the chemicals which means damaging of size. More over, to inhibit the activity of microbials some
chemicals, biocides, are added to size, ppm, to stop the growth of microbials. The chemicals which
are used for this purpose should not disturb the stability of the size. Therefore the best choices in this
regard are salt of come organic acids (e.g., sodium citrate) or quaternized amines.

Coating the glass fiber filaments bring this idea into our mind that the coating covers the fiber
surface homogenously. However, AFM picture (Fig.5.2) show that size covers glass surface partially.
Also, size adheres the fibers and brings fiber filaments together. Fig. 5.3 illustrate the schematic
picture of distribution of size on the filaments and in the strand bundles.
Figure 5.2 AFM picture of glass fiber product of WR6 from Cam Elyaf San. A.S., Courtesy of
Sisecam.

Figure 5.3 Schematic picture of distribution of size layer in the glass fiber strands [17]

6. Composite interphase

Since 1990 the concept of fiber-matrix interface has expanded from two dimensional
boundary into that of a fiber matrix interphase that exists in three dimensions, Fig. 6.1.
 In a composite, the interphase exists from some point in the fiber were the local properties
begin to change from the fiber bulk properties, through the actual fiber-matrix interface, into the
matrix were the local properties again equal the bulk properties. During composite formation fiber
surface and matrix come into contact and therefore chemical and physical bonds can form at the
interface. Surface chemical groups can react with chemical groups in the matrix to form chemical
bonds.Van der Waals attractive forces, hydrogen bonds and electrostatic bonds can also be formed
[18].

Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of the fiber-matrix interphase and some of the factors that
contribute to its formation [19]

6.1 Thermosets

In the manufacturing process of thermoset resins wetting of the fibers are expressed by two
means, wet through and wet out. Wet through terminology means wetting of fiber with resin.
However, wet out of the fiber means absorbing or impregnation of the resin by fiber followed by
swelling and dissolution of size. In the processes like translucent panel or pipe manufacturing size of
the glass fiber are easily wet out and therefore one can say that film formers are compatible with resin
due to the matching of surface energies of resin and glass fiber surface. On the contrary, in the
composite manufacturing processes like sheet molding compound (SMC) or bulk molding compound
(BMC) size is not wet out by the matrix resin easily (size does not absorb or swell by resin because
of high viscosity of paste) and just after a long period of time (maturation) size will absorb the resin.
This phenomenon indicates low solubility of the film formers in the matrix resin. Degree of solubility
or dissolution of size in matrix resin in some cases directly affects the surface properties or roughness
in addition to the bulk properties of the obtained composites. A-class surfaces of the composites
manufactured by BMC or SMC processes are the examples that show how size governs the surface
appearance of articles made by those methods.
6.2 Thermoplastics

During manufacturing of thermoplastic composites reinforcing agents, glass fiber, and

auxiliaries like fillers are kneaded in the extruder and converted to the granules or directly injected
to the mold. In the course of kneading and even molding thermoplastics are getting into contact with
glass fiber surface under high temperature (150-350oC), high pressure and high shear force and
therefore, interactions (reactions) between matrix polymers, film formers, coupling agents and
additives of the size may happen. Fig. 7.1 illustrate the schematic composite interphase where a
reacted IPN (interpenetrating polymer network) between network silane, filmformer, and resin matrix
(R) forms.

Figure 6.1 Schematic composite interphase [14,20]

Existence of the interphase in the composites is shown in Fig. 6.2. As it is seen the boundary
between interphase and both glass surface and matrix polymer is clearly seen [21].

Mäder claims that measuring the moduli of the bulk polymer, interphase and fiber can show
the extent of reinforcement and the quality of the interphase and of course performance of the glass
fiber size [4, 22, 23]. Therefore, it can be concluded that choosing appropriate film formers, coupling
agents and auxilaries for certain reinforcing aim results better interphase [24].
Figure 6.2 AFM phase images of glass fiber reinforced polypropylene (PP) interphase (glass
fiber/aminosilane-PP size/ PPmatrix) [22]

7. Conclusion

Using glass fiber as a reinforcing agent in the composite industry shows a big trend since the
price of the glass fiber is low in comparison to carbon fiber or Kevlar. For general purpose application
E-glass is seen to be a best choice and also for high technology applications various types of glass
fiber like S glass or ECR glasses are present in the market. Glass fiber products have the advantages
that it can be used either in the traditional composite manufacturing processes (hand lay up) or it can
be used in high technology composite manufacturing techniques like RTM.

As it was explained, existing compatibility between matrix and the size is the main issue that
should be considered during composite design. Also, in designing of a size formulation compatibility
and harmony among components and with matrix is must.

In the transportation and otomotive industries the idea of lightweight vehicles is the dirving
force for composite manufacturers and according to the demand of customers one can use glass fiber.
From performance point of view, cost and availability on the market glass fiber fulfil the market
requests.

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are also the tools that would affect the performance of the
composites. For instance, addition of nanoclay, carbon nanotube or grapheme to the size increased
the mechanical strength of the glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite. Moreover, addition of
nanoclay also increases corrosion resistancy of the epoxy composite [26].
 From the beginning of 21’st century shortage of the energy is the main problem in the industry
and to solve this problem two solution is proposed; create either new energy sources or reduce energy
consumption. Solar enregy, wind turbine and hydroelectric energy are the most common solutions in
this respect. On the other hand, saving weigth in transportation and in automotive industries is another
solution to decrease energy consumption and thereforeit looks that glass fiber reinforced composites
is the most logical solution. Glass fiber reinforced composites are used either in manufacturing wind
turbine blade or pipes for water delivery channel in addition to use in automotive industries and
transportation.

In the recent years trend in the composite manufacturing increases in Europe and consequently
the production of glass fiber increases as well, table 7.1. In the table 7.1 maufacturing of LFT (long
fiber thermoplastic) and GMT (glass mat thermoplastic) inceases sharply in comparison to thermoset
manufacturing processes. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that consumption of glass fiber products
in European market rises.

Table 7.1 Development tendensies of the composite processes/parts [27]

(Kt = Kilotonns, 2015* = estimated)

Refrences

1. K.L. Lowenstein, The manufacturing technology of continuous glass fibers, Elsevier,

Amsterdam (1983).
2. G. Slayter, U.S. Patent 2133 235 (1938)
3. agy (Advanced Fiber Glass Yarn Co. Inc.) High Strength Glass Fibers, Technical paper,
Continuous glass fiber manufacturing process, March 2004.
4. J.L. Thomason, Proceeding of 28’th RisØ International Symposium on Materials Science:
Interface Design of Polymer Matrix Composites-Mechanics, Chemistry, Modelling and
Manufacturing, Interfaces and Interfacial Effects in Glass Reinforced thermoplastics,
Roskilde, Denmark (2007).
5. M. Koch and D. Lupton, Preceeding of HVG-Colloquium ‘‘Production, Properties and
Applications of Refractory and Platinum Group Metals for the Contact with Glass Melts,
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Düsseldorf, Germany.
6. K.L. Lowenstein, Platinum Metals Rev., 19 (3), 82-87 (1975).
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12. C.S. Temple, US Pat. 5130 197 (1992).
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Interphases, and Their Influence on the Mechanical Behaviour of Interfaces, Roskilde,
Denmark (2007).
16. G. Akovalı, Ed. The Interfacial Interactions in Polymeric Composites, Kluwer Academic
Publishers,, Netherlands (1993).
17. P.L. Schell, L.A. Meesters and R. Subramanian, US Pat. 6207 737 (2001).
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