Republic of the Philippines

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Course CHEM111E (Chemistry for Engineers)

Title of the
UNIT 1 – Fundamentals of Chemistry
Module
Module No. Module 1 - 1

Learning Objectives:

Learning At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
Objectives A. Describe different ways to identify atoms.
B. Combine simple ions to write formulas and names of some ionic
compounds.

I. Atoms and Molecules

II. Chemical Formulas
Content
III. Ionic and Ionic Compounds
IV. Nomenclature of Compounds

Introduction:
This world around us is composed of all sorts of substances like bricks, concrete, wood,
metal, and many others. To understand and appreciate these substances we need to know what
atoms they composed of and how the atoms are attached and bonded to each other. We also need
to learn and understand chemical reactions to how initial substances are converted into another
substance. We use chemical reactions to create many useful products such as steel for cars and
buildings, ammonia for fertilizers, and chips for computers and electronics.
Since chemical reactions involve rearrangement of atoms, we need to know how many atoms
are present in a given samples of starting materials when we run a reaction. However, because
atoms are too small to count directly, we need an indirect technique to count them that is useful in
factories and laboratories. In this unit, we will learn how many atoms counted by weighing
samples of them and by chemical reactions.

I. ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Greek philosopher Democritus stated the belief that all matter consists of very small,
indivisible particles, which he named atomos (meaning uncuttable or indivisible).
The postulates about the nature of matter on which Dalton’s atomic theory is based can
be summarized as follows:
 Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
 All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical
properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
 Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the ratio of

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a simple
fraction.
 A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it
does not result in their creation or destruction.

Law of definite proportions states

that different samples of the same
compound always contain its constituent
elements in the same proportion by mass.

Different compounds are made up of the

same elements but differ in the number of
atoms of each kind that combine.

The law of multiple proportions For example, carbon forms two stable
states that if two elements can combine compounds with oxygen, namely, carbon
to form more than one compound, the monoxide and carbon dioxide.
masses of one element that combine with
a fixed mass of the other element are in
ratios of small whole numbers.

law of conservation of mass states

that The total mass of substances
present at the end of a chemical process
is the same as the mass of substances
present before the process took place.

A. Structure of the Atom

Through research and experimentation, scientists have found out that an atom is composed of
three elementary particles: proton, electron, and neutron. The proton has a positive charge, the
electron has a negative charge, and the neutron has no charge. Protons and neutrons are located
in the nucleus, a small region at the center of the atom, while electrons are spread out about the
nucleus at some distance from it.

The table below shows the characteristics of the atom’s subatomic particle.

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Mass
Particle Atomic Mass Charge
Grams
Units
Electron 9.109383 x 10 -28 0.0005485799 -1
Proton 1.672622 x 10 -24 1.007285 +1
Neutron 1.674927 x 10 -24 1.008665 0

B. Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

All atoms can be identified according to the number of protons and neutrons they contain.
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in
the nucleus of each atom of an element. In a neutral
atom the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons; therefor the atomic number
also indicates the number of electrons present in the
atom. Example:
23
The mass number (A) is the sum of the number of 11𝑁𝑎

neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an Atomic number = 11

atom of an element. Except for the most common form Mass number = 23
of hydrogen, because it has has one proton and no No. of protons = 11
neutrons, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and No. of electrons = 11
neutrons. In general, the mass number is given by No. of neutron = 23 – 11 = 12

mass number = number of protons + number of

neutrons
= atomic number + number of neutrons

Some atoms of a given element do not all have the

Example:
same mass. Most elements have two or more
isotopes. Isotopes are elements that have the 1
1𝐻 Hydrogen, has one proton and
same atomic number but different mass no neutrons.
numbers. 2
1𝐻 The deuterium isotope contains
one proton and one neutron.
3
1𝐻tritium has one proton and two
neutrons

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

C. Molecules
A molecule is a group of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by
chemical forces (also called chemical bonds). A molecule may comprise atoms of the same element
or atoms of two or more elements joined in a fixed ratio, in accordance with the law of definite
proportions. Thus, a molecule is not necessarily a compound, which, by definition, is made up of
two or more elements. Hydrogen gas, H2, for example, is a pure element, but it composed of
molecules made up of two H atoms each.
The hydrogen molecule, symbolized as H2, is called a diatomic molecule because
it contains only two atoms. Other elements that usually exist as diatomic molecules are nitrogen
(N2) and oxygen (O2), as well as the Group 7A elements—fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine
(Br2), and iodine (I2). Of course, a diatomic molecule can contain atoms of different elements.

Molecules comprising more than two atoms are called polyatomic molecules. Like ozone,
water (H2O) and ammonia (NH3) are polyatomic molecules.

Self-learning Assessment 1:

1. The atoms of elements A (blue)

and B (orange) form two
compounds shown here. Do
these compounds obey the law
of multiple proportions?

2. Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of the following species:
(a) 20 11Na, (b) 22 11Na, (c) 17O, and (d) carbon-14.

3. One isotope of a metallic element has mass number 65 and 35 neutrons in the nucleus. The
cation derived from the isotope has 28 electrons. Write the symbol for this cation.

II. CHEMICAL FORMULAS

A chemical formula is used by chemist to express the composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbols. By composition we mean not only the elements present
but also the ratios or percentages in which the atoms are combined. Here we have three types of
formulas: molecular formulas, empirical formulas and structural formulas. We will only focus on
the first two because structural formulas will be dealt on organic chemistry.

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Example:
A molecular formula shows the exact
number of atoms of each element in the The molecular formula of hydrogen
smallest unit of a substance. peroxide, a substance used as an
antiseptic and as a bleaching agent for
textiles and hair, is H2O2. This formula
indicates that each hydrogen peroxide
molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms
and two oxygen atoms.
The empirical formula tells us
which elements are present and the
simplest whole-number ratio of their The empirical formula of hydrogen
atoms, but not necessarily the actual peroxide is HO.
number of atoms in a given molecule.

The structural formula, which

shows how atoms are bonded to one
another in a molecule.

Example 2.1:
Problem: Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:
(a) acetylene (C2H2), which is used in welding torches;
(b) glucose (C6H12O6), a substance known as blood sugar; and
(c) nitrous oxide (N2O), a gas that is used as an anesthetic gas (“laughing gas”) and as an
aerosol propellant for whipped creams

Strategy
Recall that to write the empirical formula, we need to make sure that the subscripts in the
molecular formula must be converted to the smallest possible whole numbers.

Solution
(a) There are two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms in acetylene. So we can divide the
subscripts by 2, so that we will obtain the empirical formula CH.

(b) In glucose there are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms.
The smallest possible whole number is 6 therefore dividing the subscripts by 6; we obtain the
empirical formula CH2O. Note that if we had divided the subscripts by 3, we would have
obtained the formula C2H4O2. Although the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen atoms in
C2H4O2 is the same as that in C6H12O6 (1:2:1), C2H4O2 is not the simplest formula because its
subscripts are not in the smallest whole-number ratio.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

(c) Because the subscripts in N2O are already the smallest possible whole numbers, the
empirical formula for nitrous oxide is the same as its molecular formula.

Self-learning Assessment 2:
1. Write the empirical formula for caffeine (C8H10N4O2), a stimulant found in tea and coffee

III. IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge. The
number of positively charged protons present in the nucleus of an atom remains the same during
ordinary chemical changes (called chemical reactions), but negatively charged electrons may be
lost or gained.

The loss of one or more electrons from a neutral atom results in a cation, an ion with a net
positive charge. For example, a potassium atom (K) can readily lose an electron to become a
potassium cation, which is represented by K+. On the other hand, an anion is an ion whose net
charge is negative due to an increase in the number of electrons. A chlorine atom (Cl), for instance,
can gain an electron to become the chloride ion Cl-.
For ionic compounds to be electrically neutral, the sum of the charges on the cation and
anion in each formula unit must be zero. If the charges on the cation and anion are numerically
different, we apply the following rule to make the formula electrically neutral: The subscript of
the cation is numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and the subscript of the
anion is numerically equal to the charge on the cation. If the charges are numerically equal,
then no subscripts are necessary. This rule follows from the fact that because the formulas of ionic
compounds are usually empirical formulas, the subscripts must always be reduced to the smallest
ratios.

Let us consider some examples.

The potassium cation K+ and the bromine anion Br- is combined

Potassium
to form the ionic compound potassium bromide.
Bromide.
The sum of the charges is (+1) + (-1) = 0, therefore no subscripts
are necessary. The formula is KBr.

The zinc cation Zn2+ and the iodine anion I- is combined to form
zinciodide.
Zinc Iodide.
The sum of the charges of one Zn2+ ion and one I- ion is +2 + (-1)
= +1. To make the charges add up to zero we multiply the -1
charge of the anion by 2 and add the subscript “2” to the symbol

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

for iodine. Therefore the formula for zinc iodide is ZnI2.

Aluminum Oxide. The cation is Al3+ and the oxygen anion is O2-. The following
diagram helps us determine the subscripts for the compound
formed by the cation and the anion:

The sum of the charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0. Thus, the formula for
aluminum oxide is Al2O3

Self-learning Assessment 3:
Write the formulas of the following ionic compounds:
(a) chromium sulfate (containing the Cr3+ and SO42- ions)
(b) Titanium oxide (containing the Ti4+ and O2- ions).

IV. NOMENCLATURE OF COMPOUNDS

To begin our discussion of chemical nomenclature, the naming of chemical compounds, we
must first differentiate inorganic and organic compounds. Organic compounds contain carbon,
usually in combination with elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. All other
compounds are classified as inorganic compounds. But some carbon-containing compounds,
such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon disulfde (CS2), compounds containing
the cyanide group (CN-), and carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) groups are considered to
be inorganic compounds.
To organize and simplify our course into naming compounds, we can divide inorganic
compounds into four categories: ionic compounds, molecular compounds, acids and bases, and
hydrates.
A. Ionic Compounds
From the previous topic, we learned that ionic compounds are made up of cations (positive ions)
and anions (negative ions).

With the important exception of the

ammonium ion, NH4 +, all cations of
interest to us are derived from metal
atoms. Metal cations take their
names from the elements.

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

For example, NaCl is sodium chloride. The

anion is named by taking the first part of the
Many ionic compounds are binary
element name (chlorine) and adding “-ide.”
compounds, or compounds formed
from just two elements. For binary
compounds, the first element named
is the metal cation, followed by the
nonmetallic anion.

For example, hydroxide (OH-) and cyanide (CN-

Ternary compounds are ionic
). Thus, the compounds LiOH and KCN are
compounds consisting of three
named lithium hydroxide and potassium
elements.
cyanide, respectively.

An older nomenclature system that is

still in limited use assigns the ending
“-ous” to the cation with fewer
The names of the compounds that these iron
positive charges and the ending “-ic”
ions form with chlorine would thus be
to the cation with more positive
charges:

Note: This method of naming ions

has some distinct limitations. First, Thus, the ferric ion is Fe3+, but the cation of
the “-ous” and “-ic” suffixes do not copper named cupric has
provide information regarding the the formula Cu2+.
actual charges of the two cations
involved.

Some metallic elements can assume For example, manganese (Mn) atoms can
three or more different positive assume several different positive charges:
charges in compounds. Therefore, it
has become increasingly common to
designate different cations with
Roman numerals. This is called the
Stock system. In this system, the These names are pronounced “manganese-two
Roman numeral I indicates one oxide,” “manganese-three oxide,” and
positive charge, II means two “manganese-four oxide.”
positive charges, and so on.

B. Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds usually consist of nonmetallic elements. Many molecular compounds
are binary compounds and are similar to naming binary ionic compounds.
We place the name of the first element in the formula first, and the second element is named by
adding -ide to the root of the element name. Some examples are

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

Confusion in naming the compounds is avoided by the use of Greek prefixes to denote the number
of atoms of each element present (Table 2.4). Consider the following examples:

Exceptions to the use of Greek prefixes are molecular compounds containing hydrogen.
Traditionally, in most cases, many of these compounds are called either by their common,
nonsystematic names or by names that do not specifically indicate the number of H atoms present:

The following guidelines are helpful in naming

compounds with prefxes:

• The prefx “mono-” may be omitted for the first

element.
For example, PCl3 is named phosphorus
trichloride, not monophosphorus trichloride.
Thus, the absence of a prefix for the first
element usually means there is only one atom
of that element present in the molecule.

• For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is

sometimes omitted.
For example, N2O4 may be called dinitrogen
tetroxide rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide.

Note that even the order of writing the elements in the formulas for hydrogen compounds is
irregular. In water and hydrogen sulfide, H is written first, whereas it appears last in the other
compounds.

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

Example 4.1 :
Problem:
Name the following molecular compounds:
(a) SiCl4 (b) P4O10.
Strategy
We refer to Table 2.4 for prefixes.
In (a) there is only one Si atom so we do not use the prefx “mono.”
Solution
(a) Because there are four chlorine atoms present, the compound is silicon tetrachloride.
(b) There are four phosphorus atoms and ten oxygen atoms present, so the compound is
tetraphosphorus decoxide. Note that the “a” is omitted in “deca.”
Example 4.22.8
Problem:
Write chemical formulas for the following molecular compounds:
(a) carbon disulfide and (b) disilicon hexabromide.

Strategy
Here we need to convert prefixes to numbers of atoms (see Table 2.4). Because
there is no prefix for carbon in (a), it means that there is only one carbon atom present.
Solution
(a) Because there are two sulfur atoms and one carbon atom present, the
formula is CS2.
(b) There are two silicon atoms and six bromine atoms present, so the formula is Si2Br6.

Self-learning Assessment 2:

1. Name the following molecular compounds: (a) NF3 and (b) Cl2O7.
2. Write chemical formulas for the following molecular compounds:
(a) sulfur tetrafluoride and (b) dinitrogen pentoxide.

References:
1. Zumdhal, Steven S., Zumdhal, Susan A.(2012). Chemisrty: An Atoms First Approach
(International Edition). Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
2. Chang, Raymond (2010). CHEMISTRY (10th ed). McGraw-Hill

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Course CHEM111E (Chemistry for Engineers)

Title of the
UNIT 1 – Fundamentals of Chemistry
Module
Module No. Module 1 - 2

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
Learning A. Interconvert masses, moles, and formulas.
Objectives B. Write balanced equations to describe chemical reactions.
C. Carry out calculations related to the use of solutions in chemical
reactions.

V. Moles and Molar Masses

Content
VI. Determination of Chemical Formulas

V. MOLES AND MOLAR MASSES

A. Atomic Mass

From the previous module, we’ve learned that the mass of an atom depends on the
number of electrons, protons, and neutrons it contains. Understanding an atom’s mass is
significant in laboratory work but atoms are extremely small particles. Imagine the
smallest speck of dust that our eyes can see contains as many as 1x 1016 atoms! Clearly it is
impossible to weigh a single atom, but it is possible to determine the mass of one atom
relative to another experimentally. Primarily, this is done by assigning a value to the mass
of one atom of a given element so that it can be used as a standard.

By international agreement, atomic mass (sometimes called atomic weight) is the

mass of the atom in atomic mass units (amu). One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass
exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope
that contains six protons and six neutrons. Therefore, setting the atomic mass of carbon-12
at 12 amu provides the standard for measuring the atomic mass of the other elements.

Example:
 Experiments have shown that, on average, a hydrogen atom is only 8.400
percent as massive as the carbon-12 atom.
Thus, if the mass of one carbon- 12 atom is exactly 12 amu, the atomic mass of
hydrogen must be 0.084(12.00) amu or 1.008 amu.

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

Similar calculations show that the atomic mass of oxygen is 16.00 amu
and that of iron is 55.85 amu.

B. Average Atomic Mass

When you look up the atomic mass of carbon in the periodic table, you will
notice that its value is not 12.00 amu but 12.01 amu. This is because most
naturally occurring elements (including carbon) have more than one
isotope. This means that when we measure the atomic mass of an
element, we must generally settle for the average mass of the naturally
occurring mixture of isotopes.

Example 5.1
Copper, a metal known since ancient times, is used in electrical cables and pennies,
among other things. The atomic masses of its two stable isotopes, 29 63Cu (69.09 percent)
and 2965Cu (30.91 percent), are 62.93 amu and 64.9278 amu, respectively. Calculate the
average atomic mass of copper. The relative abundances are given in parentheses.

Strategy:
Each isotope contributes to the average atomic mass based on its relative abundance.
Multiplying the mass of an isotope by its fractional abundance (not percent) will give the
contribution to the average atomic mass of that particular isotope.
The average atomic mass of carbon can be calculated as follows:
Average atomic mass of Copper, Cu = {(% abundance of 29 63Cu)( Atomic mass of Cu)}
+ {(% abundance of 2965Cu)( Atomic mass of Cu)}

Solution:
First the percent are converted to fractions: 69.09 percent to 69.09/100 or 0.6909 and
30.91 percent to 30.91/100 or 0.3091. Second is to find the contribution to the average
atomic mass for each isotope, and then finally, add the contributions together to get the
average atomic mass.
Average atomic mass of Copper, Cu = {(0.69.09)(62.93) + (0.3091)(64.9278)}
Average atomic mass of Copper, Cu =
Average atomic mass of Copper, Cu = 63.55 amu
Check
The average atomic mass should be between the two isotopic masses; therefore,
the answer is reasonable. Note that because there are more 2963Cu than 2965Cu isotopes,

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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the average atomic mass is closer to 62.93 amu than to 64.9278 amu.

C. Mole
Atomic mass units provide a relative scale in the determination of elements masses. But
because atoms have extremely small masses, no practical scale can be utilized to them in
calibrated units of atomic mass units. Therefore, it is easier to have a special unit to define
a very large number of atoms. Actually, the idea of a unit to denote a particular number of
objects is not new. We are already used to it in our everyday life, for example, the pair (2
items), the dozen (12 items), and the gross (144 items) are all familiar units. In chemistry,
atoms and molecules are measured by moles.

In the SI system the mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many
elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly
12 g (or 0.012 kg) of the carbon-12 isotope. The actual number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12
is determined experimentally. This number is called Avogadro’s number (NA), in honor of
the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. The currently accepted value is

𝑵𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑

Generally, we round Avogardro’s number to 6.022x1023. Thus, just as one dozen apples
contain 12 apples, 1 mole of hydrogen atoms contains 6.022x1023 H atoms.
The size of Avogadro’s number is difficult to imagine. And because atoms (and molecules)
are so small, we need a huge number to study them conveniently.

We have seen that 1 mole of carbon-12

an atom has a mass of exactly 12 g and
contains 6.022x1023 atoms. This mass of
carbon-12 is its molar mass (m),
defned as the mass (in grams or Note that the molar mass of carbon-12 (in
grams) is numerically equal to its atomic
kilograms) of 1 mole of units (such as
mass in amu. Likewise, the atomic mass of
atoms or molecules) of a substance. sodium (Na) is 22.99 amu and its molar
mass
is 22.99 g; the atomic mass of phosphorus is
30.97 amu and its molar mass is 30.97 g;
and so on.

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If we know the atomic mass of an element, we also know its molar mass.
Knowing the molar mass and Avogadro’s number, we can calculate the mass of a single
atom in grams.

Example 5.2
Helium (He) is a valuable gas used in industry, low-temperature research, deep-sea
diving tanks, and balloons. How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of He?

Strategy
We are given grams of helium and asked to solve for moles of helium. What conversion
factor do we need to convert grams to moles? Arrange the suitable conversion factor so
that grams will cancel and the unit moles will be obtained for your answer.

Solution
The conversion factor needed to convert between grams and moles is the
molar mass. In the periodic table, that the molar mass of He is 4.003 g. This can be
expressed as
1 mol He = 4.003 g He

From this equality, we can write two conversion factors

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑒 4.003 𝑔 𝐻𝑒
and
4.003 𝑔 𝐻𝑒 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑒

The conversion factor on the left is the correct one. Grams will cancel, leaving the unit
mol for the answer, that is,

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑒
6.46 𝑔 𝐻𝑒 𝑥 4.003 𝑔 𝐻𝑒
= 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝒆

Thus, there are 1.61 moles of He atoms in 6.46 g of He.

Check
Because the given mass (6.46 g) is larger than the molar mass of He, we expect to have
more than 1 mole of He.

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Example 5.3
Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal that is used in making brass (with copper) and in plating iron
to prevent corrosion. How many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mole of Zn?

Strategy
Since we are trying to solve for grams of zinc, what conversion factor do we need to
convert moles to grams? Arrange the suitable conversion factor so that moles will cancel
and the unit grams will be obtained for your answer.

Solution
The conversion factor needed to convert moles to grams is the molar mass. In the periodic
table, the molar mass of Zn is 65.39 g. This can be expressed as

1 mol Zn = 65.39 g Zn

From this equality, we can write two conversion factors

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛 65.39 𝑔 𝑍𝑛
and
65.39 𝑔 𝑍𝑛 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛

The conversion factor on the right is the correct one. Moles will cancel, leaving unit of
grams for the answer. The number of grams of Zn is

65.39 𝑔 𝑍𝑛
0.356 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛 𝑥 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛
= 𝟐𝟑. 𝟑 𝒈 𝒁𝒏

Thus, there are 23.3 g of Zn in 0.356 mole of Zn.

Check
Does a mass of 23.3 g for 0.356 mole of Zn seem reasonable? What is the
mass of 1 mole of Zn?

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College of Engineering and Architecture

Example 5.4
Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal. When coal is burned, sulfur
is converted to sulfur dioxide and eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise to the acid
rain phenomenon. How many atoms are in 16.3 g of S?

Strategy
The question asks for atoms of sulfur. We cannot convert directly from grams to atoms
of sulfur. What unit do we need to convert grams of sulfur to in order to convert to
atoms? What does Avogadro’s number represent?

Solution
We need two conversions: first from grams to moles and then from moles to number of
particles (atoms).
Because 1 mol S = 32.07 g S

the conversion factor is

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆
32.7 𝑔 𝑆

Avogadro’s number is the key to the second step. We have

1 mol = 6.022x1023 particles (atoms)

and the conversion factors are

6.022𝑥1023 𝑆 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆

and
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆 6.022𝑥1023 𝑆 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

The conversion factor on the left is the one we need because it has number of S atoms in
the numerator. We can solve the problem by first calculating the number of moles
contained in 16.3 g of S, and then calculating the number of S atoms from the number
of moles of S:
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 → 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 → 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

We can combine these conversions in one step as follows:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆 6.022 ×1023 𝑆 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

16.3𝑔 𝑆 × 32.07 𝑔 𝑆
× 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆
= 𝟑. 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝑺 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔

Thus, there are 3.06 x1023 atoms of S in 16.3 g of S.

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D. Molecular Mass

Since we already know how to compute for the atomic masses of the component atoms, we
can now calculate the mass of a molecule. The molecular mass (sometimes called molecular
weight) is the sum of their atomic masses (in amu) in the molecule.
For example, the molecular mass of H2O is
2(atomic mass of H) + atomic mass of O
2(1.008 amu) + 16.00 amu = 18.02 amu
Generally, we just need to multiply the atomic mass of each element by the number of atoms
of that element present in the molecule then get the sum over all the elements.

Example 5.5
Calculate the molecular masses (in amu) of the following compounds:
(a) sulfur dioxide(SO2)
(b) caffeine (C8H10N4O2).

Strategy
How do atomic masses of different elements combine to give the molecular mass of a
compound?

Solution
To be able to calculate the molecular mass, we need to sum all the atomic masses in the
molecule. For each element, we need to multiply the atomic mass of the element by the
number of atoms of that element in the molecule. We may use the periodic table of
elements to find atomic masses of a particular element.
(a) There are two O atoms and one S atom in SO2, so that

molecular mass of SO2 = 32.07 amu + 2(16.00 amu) = 64.07 amu

(b) There are eight C atoms, ten H atoms, four N atoms, and two O atoms in caffeine,
so the molecular mass of C8H10N4O2 is given by

Molecular mass of C8H10N4O2 = (No. C atoms)(Atomic mass C) + (No. H atoms)

(Atomic mass H) + (No. N atoms) (Atomic mass N) + (No. O atoms)(Atomic mass O)

Substituting,
8(12.01 amu) + 10(1.008 amu) + 4(14.01 amu) + 2(16.00 amu) = 194.20 amu

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Example 5.6
Methane (CH4) is the principal component of natural gas. How many moles of CH4 are
present in 6.07 g of CH4?

Strategy
We are given grams of CH4 and asked to solve for moles of CH4. What conversion factor do
we need to convert between grams and moles? Arrange the suitable conversion factor so
that grams cancel and the unit moles will be obtained for your answer.

Solution
The conversion factor needed to convert between grams and moles is the molar mass. First
we need to calculate the molar mass of CH4.

Molar mass of CH4 = (No. C atoms)(Atomic mass C) + (No. H atoms)(Atomic mass H)

molar mass of CH4 = 12.01 g + 4(1.008 g) = 16.04 g

therefore,
1 mol CH4 = 16.04 g CH4

the conversion factor we need should have grams in the denominator so that the unit g
will cancel, leaving the unit mol in the numerator:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4
16.04 𝑔 𝐶𝐻4

We can now write

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4
6.07𝑔 𝐶𝐻4 × = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟖 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑪𝑯𝟒
16.04 𝑔 𝐶𝐻4

Thus, there is 0.378 mole of CH4 in 6.07 g of CH4

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Example 5.7
How many hydrogen atoms are present in 25.6 g of urea [(NH2)2CO], which is used as a
fertilizer, in animal feed, and in the manufacture of polymers? The molar mass of urea
is 60.06 g.

Strategy
We are required to solve for atoms of hydrogen in 25.6 g of urea. We cannot convert
directly from grams of urea to atoms of hydrogen. How should molar mass and
Avogadro’s number be used in this calculation? How many moles of H are in 1 mole of
urea?

Solution
To calculate the number of H atoms,
1. We must first convert grams of urea to moles of urea using the molar mass of
urea.
2. The molecular formula of urea shows there are four moles of H atoms in one
mole of urea molecule, therefore, the mole ratio is 4:1.
3. Finally, after knowing the number of moles of H atoms, we can now calculate
the number of H atoms using Avogadro’s number. We need two conversion
factors: molar mass and Avogadro’s number. We can combine these conversions

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎 → 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎 → 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻 → 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝐻

Step1 Step 2 Step 3

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 6.022 × 1023 𝐻 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

25.6 𝑔 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂 × 60.06 𝑔 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂
× 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂
× 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻

= 1.03 x 1024 H atoms

Self-learning Assessment:

1. The atomic masses of the two stable isotopes of boron, 105B (19.78 percent) and 115B (80.22
percent), are 10.0129 amu and 11.0093 amu, respectively.
Calculate the average atomic mass of boron.
2. Chlorine is one of the most used elements in the industry. It is mainly used in making

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plastics, solvents for dry cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles, agrochemicals and
pharmaceuticals, insecticides, dyestuffs, and household cleaning products. The atomic
masses of 3517Cl (75.53 %) and 3717Cl (24.47 %) are 34.968 amu and 36.956 amu,
respectively.
a. What is the relative mass of 3517Cl?
b. What is the relative mass of 3717Cl?
c. What is the average atomic mass of Chlorine?
3. Gallium arsenide is used on semiconductor production mainly for laser diodes, light
emitting diodes, and solar panels (www.chemicool.com). The gallium element has two
isotopes with an average atomic mass of 69.72 amu. Its isotopes are 6931Ga and 7131Ga that
has a relative masses 68.9256 amu and 70.9247 amu, respectively.
a. What is the relative abundance of 6931Ga?
b. What is the relative abundance of 7131Ga?
4. How many moles of magnesium (Mg) are there in 87.3 g of Mg?
5. Calculate the number of grams of lead (Pb) in 12.4 moles of lead.
6. How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of isopropanol (rubbing alcohol), C3H8O?
7. How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in 0.334 g of C2H6?
8. Calculate the number of C, H, and O atoms in 1.50 g of glucose (C6H12O6), a sugar.
9. The density of water is 1.00 g/mL at 48C. How many water molecules are present in 2.56 mL
of water at this temperature?
10. Earth’s population is about 6.5 billion. Suppose that every person on Earth participates in a process of
counting identical particles at the rate of two particles per second. How many years would it take to
count 6.0 x 1023 particles? Assume that there are 365 days in a year.

VI. DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS

A. PERCENT COMPOSTION OF COMPOUNDS

As we have learned from the previous topics, the formula of a compound could tells us the
numbers of atoms of each element in a unit of the compound. However, we also need to validate
the purity of a compound for use in a laboratory experiment. From the chemical formula, we
could calculate the percentage of the total mass of the compound contributed by each of the
element. Then, by comparing the result to the percent composition obtained experimentally for
our sample, we could determine the purity of the sample.
The percent composition by mass is the percent by mass of each element in a compound. It is
obtained by dividing the mass of each element in 1 mole of the compound by the molar mass of
the compound and multiplying by 100 percent. Mathematically, the percent composition of an
element in a compound is expressed as
(no.of atoms of an element in compound) (molar mass of element)
percent composition of an element = molar mass ofcompound
× 100%

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where n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound.

Example 6.1
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a colorless, syrupy liquid used in detergents, fertilizers,
toothpastes, and in carbonated beverages for a “tangy” flavor. Calculate the percent
composition by mass of H, P, and O in this compound.
Strategy
1. Recall the procedure for calculating a percentage.
2. Assume that we have 1 mole of H3PO4.
3. The percent by mass of each element (H, P, and O) is given by the combined
molar mass of the atoms of the element in 1 mole of H3PO4 divided by the molar
mass of H3PO4, then multiplied by 100 percent.
Solution
From our previous topics we’ve learned how to compute for Molar mass, therefore the
molar mass of H3PO4 is 97.99 g/mole. The percent by mass of each of the elements in
H3PO4 is calculated as follows:

(no. of atoms of an element in compound)(molar mass of element)

percent composition of an element = × 100%
molar mass ofcompound

3 (1.008 𝑔) 𝐻
%𝐻 = × 100% = 3.086 %
97.99 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4

1 (30.97 𝑔) 𝑃
%𝑃 = × 100% = 31.61 %
97.99 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4

4 (16.00 𝑔)𝑂
%𝑂 = × 100% = 65.31 %
97.99 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4
Check
Do the percentages add to 100 percent? The sum of the percentages is (3.086% +
31.61% + 65.31%) = 100.01%. The small discrepancy from 100 percent is due to the
way we rounded off.

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Self-learning Assessment 6.1:

Review Questions:
1. Use ammonia (NH3) to explain what is meant by the percent composition by mass of a
compound.
2. If we know the empirical formula of a compound, what additional information do we need to
determine its molecular formula?
3. Calculate the percent composition by mass of each of the elements in sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

B. DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

The process used in the above example can be reversed if needed. Given the percent composition by
mass of a compound, we can now determine the empirical formula of the compound. And since we
are dealing with percentages and the sum of all the percentages is 100 percent, it is convenient to
assume that we started with 100 g of a compound.
Example 6.2
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy. It is composed of 40.92 percent carbon (C), 4.58
percent hydrogen (H), and 54.50 percent oxygen (O) by mass. Determine its empirical
formula.

Strategy
In a chemical formula, the subscripts represent the ratio of the number of
moles of each element that combine to form one mole of the compound.
1. How can we convert from mass percent to moles?
2. If we assume an exactly 100-g sample of the compound, do we know the mass of
each element in the compound?
3. How do we then convert from grams to moles?

Solution
If we have 100 g of ascorbic acid, then each percentage can be converted directly
to grams. In this sample, there will be 40.92 g of C, 4.58 g of H, and 54.50 g of
O. Because the subscripts in the formula represent a mole ratio, we need to
convert the grams of each element to moles. The conversion factor needed is the
molar mass of each element. Let n represent the number of moles of each
element so that

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
𝑛𝐶 = 40.92 𝑔 𝐶 × 12.01 𝑔 𝐶
= 3.407 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
𝑛𝐻 = 4.58𝑔 𝐻 × 1.008 𝑔 𝐻
= 4.54 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻

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1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
𝑛𝑂 = 54.50 𝑔 𝑂 × 16.00 𝑔 𝑂
= 3.406 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂

Thus, we obtained the formula C3.407H4.54O3.406, which gives the identity and the mole
ratios of atoms present. However, chemical formulas are written with whole
numbers.
We need to convert to whole numbers by dividing all the subscripts by the
smallest subscript which is 3.406.
3.407 4.54 3.406
𝐶= =1 𝐻= = 1.33 𝑂= =1
3.406 3.406 3.406

Where the ≈ sign means “approximately equal to.” This gives CH1.33O as the
formula for ascorbic acid. Next, we need to convert 1.33, the subscript for H, into
an integer. This can be done by a trial-and-error procedure:

1.33 x 1 = 1.33
1.33 x 2 = 2.66
1.33 x 3 = 3.99 ≈ 4

Because 1.33 x 3 gives us an integer (4), we multiply all the subscripts by 3 and
obtain C3H4O3 as the empirical formula for ascorbic acid.

Self-learning Assessment 6.2

1. Determine the empirical formula of a compound having the following
percent composition by mass: K: 24.75 percent; Mn: 34.77 percent; O: 40.51
percent. ANS: KMnO4 (potassium permanganate).

C. Determination of Molecular Mass

To be able to calculate the actual, molecular formula we must know the approximate molar
mass of the compound in addition to its empirical formula.

Example 6.3
A sample of a compound contains 1.53 g of nitrogen (N) and 3.49 g of oxygen (O). The
molar mass of this compound is between 90 g and 95 g. Determine the molecular
formula and the accurate molar mass of the compound.

Strategy
1. To determine the molecular formula, we first need to determine the empirical
formula.
2. We need convert between grams and moles.
3. Comparing the empirical molar mass to the experimentally determined molar
mass will reveal the relationship of the empirical formula and molecular
formula.

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Solution
We are given grams of N and O.
1. Use molar mass as a conversion factor to convert grams to moles of each
element. Let n represent the number of moles of each element. We write

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁
𝑛𝑁 = 1.53𝑔 𝑁 × = 0.109 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁
14.01 𝑔 𝑁

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
𝑛𝑂 = 3.49 𝑔 𝑂 × = 0.218 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
16.00 𝑔 𝑂

Thus, we obtained the formula N0.109O0.218, which provides the identity and
the ratios of atoms present. However, chemical formulas are written with
whole numbers. Try to convert to whole numbers by dividing the subscripts
by the smaller subscript (0.109).

0.109 0.218
𝑁= =1 𝐻= =2
0.109 0.109

After rounding off, we obtain NO2 as the empirical formula.

Given the Empirical molar mass, we can now tell the relationship of the
empirical formula and molecular formula.

Empirical molar mass, NO2 = 14.01 g + 2(16.00 g) = 46.01 g

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 90 𝑔
= ≈2
𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 46.01 𝑔

Thus molar mass is twice the empirical molar mass. This means that there
are two NO2 units in each molecule of the compound, and the molecular
formula is (NO2)2 or N2O4. The actual molar mass of the compound is two
times the empirical molar mass, that is, 2(46.01 g) or 92.02 g, which is
between 90 g and 95 g.

Self-learning Assessment 6.3

1. A sample of a compound containing boron (B) and hydrogen (H) contains 6.444 g
of B and 1.803 g of H. The molar mass of the compound is about 30 g. What is
its molecular formula? ANS: B2H6

SUMMARY: Divide by
Convert to Change to
the
grams and integer
smallest
divide by molar subscripts
number of
mass Moles of each moles Mole ratios of
Mass percent Empirical Formula
element element

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Procedure for calculating the empirical formula of a compound from its percent
compositions.

References:
1. Zumdhal, Steven S., Zumdhal, Susan A.(2012). Chemisrty: An Atoms First Approach
(International Edition). Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
2. Chang, Raymond (2010). CHEMISTRY (10th ed). McGraw-Hill

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Course CHEM111E (Chemistry for Engineers)

Title of the
Unit I. Fundamentals of Chemistry
Module
Module No. Module 1 – 3
At the end of this module, the student shall be able:
a. To identify different representation of solution concentration and
Learning
its selection based on the purpose of the experiment.
Objectives
b. To carry out calculations related to the concentration of solution
and the amount of its components.
Content VII. Mixtures and Solutions

Introduction
A substance is defined as a form of matter that has a
definite (constant) composition and distinct properties. Each
substance has a specific composition and property. A
combination of two or more substances form a mixture.
Mixtures do not have constant composition, e.g. air, blood,
seawater, and can be categorized as homogenous, its
composition is uniform in the whole mixture, and
heterogenous mixture, uneven composition in the mixture.

A homogeneous mixture containing two or more

substances is called a solution. It contains solvent, or the component with larger
amount in the mixture (e.g. water), and solute, or the dissolved component. A solution
that use water as a solvent are called aqueous solution.

In this section we study quantitative methods for expressing the various

components present in a given amount of solution used in a chemical reaction.
VII. Mixtures and Solutions
A. Solution Concentration
Quantitative study of a solution requires knowing its concentration. The
concentration is defined as the amount of solute present in a given amount of
solution or the amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent. It is
represented by several different units.

1. Percent by Mass
The percent by mass (also called percent by weight or weight percent) is the
ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of the solution, multiplied by 100 percent. The
percent by mass is a unitless number because it is a ratio of two similar quantities.

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𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = × 100% 𝐸𝑞. (7.1)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= × 100% 𝐸𝑞. (7.2)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
_______________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity: A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in
54.6 g of water. What is the percent by mass of KCl in the solution?

Strategy: Given the amount of solute and solvent, we can calculate percent by mass
using Eq. 7.1

Solution:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = × 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
0.892 𝑔
= × 100%
0.892 𝑔 + 54.6 𝑔
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 1.61%
_______________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity: Calculate the mass of nickel (II) sulfate, NiSO4, contained in 200
g of a 6.00% solution of NiSO4.

Strategy: Considering a basis of 100 g solution, we let 6% percentage mass of solution

be the unit factor. This gives us 6 g of NiSO4 in 100 g of solution.

Solution:
From the given, there is 200 g of 6% NiSO4 solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) × [ ]
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
6 𝑔 𝑁𝑖𝑆𝑂4
= 200 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 × [ ]
100 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 12 𝑔 𝑁𝑖𝑆𝑂4
_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity: A 6.00% NiSO4 solution contains 40.0 g of NiSO4. Calculate the
mass of the solution.

Strategy: Considering a basis of 100 g solution, we let 6 g of NiSO4 in 100 g of

solution as our unit factor.

Solution:
If there is 40 g of NiSO4 in 6% NiSO4 solution then,
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒) × [ ]
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
100 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
= 40 𝑔 𝑁𝑖𝑆𝑂4 × [ ]
6 𝑔 𝑁𝑖𝑆𝑂4
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 = 667𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity: Calculate the mass of NiSO4 present in 200 mL of a 6.00%
solution of NiSO4. The density of the solution is 1.06 g/mL at 25°C.

Strategy: Steps on solving the problem: (a) Calculate the mass of the solution using
the given volume and density of the solution; (b) Calculate the mass of NiSO4 present
in the solution using the 6% solution of NiSO4 as unit factor.

Solution:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛) × (𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 × [ ]
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
1.06 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
= 200 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 × [ ]
1.00 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 = 212 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) × [ ]
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
6 𝑔 𝑁𝑖𝑆𝑂4
= 212 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 × [ ]
100 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 12.72 𝑔 𝑁𝑖𝑆𝑂4

2. Mole Fraction (X)

The mole fraction is a dimensionless quantity that expresses the ratio of the
number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of all components
present. The mole fraction is also unitless, because it too is a ratio of two similar
quantities. Considering the mole fraction of a component of a solution, component A, is
written XA and is defined as

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴 = × 100%
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑛𝐴
𝑋𝐴 = × 100% 𝐸𝑞 (7.3)
𝑛𝑇
3. Molarity (M)
Molarity or molar concentration was defined as the number of moles of solute

Chemical Engineering Department Module 1 - 3: Page 3

 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

per liter of solution with units mol/L; that is,

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑛
𝑀 = 𝐸𝑞 (7.4)
𝑉
_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity: Calculate the molarity (M ) of a solution that contains 3.65 g of
HCl in 2.00 L of solution.

Strategy: Steps on solving the problem: (a) Calculate moles of HCl considering the
given amount of HCl and its molecular weight (36.46 g/mol); (b) Calculate molarity
(M) using Eq. 7.4.

Solution:
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙) × [𝑀𝑊𝐻𝐶𝑙 ]
1
= (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙) × [ ]
𝑀𝑊𝐻𝐶𝑙
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
= (3.65 𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙) × [ ]
36.46 𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 0.1001 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
0.1001 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
=
2 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑀 = 0.0501
𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
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Learning Activity: Calculate the mass of Ba(OH)2 required to prepare 2.50 L of a
0.0600 M solution of barium hydroxide.

Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a) Calculate number of moles of Ba(OH)2; (b) Use the
calculated number of moles of solute and multiply with the molecular weight of
Ba(OH)2

Solution:
Re-arranging Eq 7.4.
𝑛
𝑀 =
𝑉
𝑛𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 = 𝑀×𝑉

Chemical Engineering Department Module 1 - 3: Page 4

 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
= [0.0600 ] × (2.50 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛)
𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝑛𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 = 0.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 × 𝑀𝑊𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
𝑔 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
0.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 × [171.34 ]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
𝑚𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 = 25.70 𝑔 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity: A sample of commercial sulfuric acid is 96.4% H2SO4 by mass,
and its specific gravity is 1.84. Calculate the molarity of this sulfuric acid solution.

Strategy: Steps for calculation: (a) Relate the given specific gravity to the density of
the solution since they are numerically equal; (b) On the basis of 100 g solution, relate
the calculated density and the percentage mass of H2SO4 given; (c) Calculate molarity
by relating the results from (b)

Solution:
Basis of 100 g solution
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
1.84 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 1000 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
= ×
𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝜌 = 1.84 × 103 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛/𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 𝜌 × (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
1.84 × 103 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 96.4 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= [ ]×[ ]
𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 100 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 1.77 × 103 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 /𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1
𝑀 = ( ′
)×[ ]
𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑛 𝑀𝑊𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
1.77 × 103 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
= [ ]×[ ]
𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 98.1 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

𝑀 = 18.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 /𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛

4. Molality (m)
Molality is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg (1000 g) of solvent. It
is represented on below equation with mol/kg unit

Chemical Engineering Department Module 1 - 3: Page 5

 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸𝑞. (7.5)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity: Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4
g of sulfuric acid in 198 g of water. The molar mass of sulfuric acid is 98.09 g.

Strategy: Steps for calculation: (a) Calculate the number of moles of solute
considering the given molecular weight of sulfuric acid; (b) Calculate molality using
Eq 7.5 with calculated value from (a) and the given mass of solvent.

Solution:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = 24.4𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ×
98.09 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
= 0.249 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
0.249 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
=
0.198 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑚 = 1.26 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 /𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂
_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity: The density of a 2.45 M aqueous solution of methanol (CH3OH) is
0.976 g/mL. What is the molality of the solution? The molar mass of methanol is 32.04
g.

Strategy: Steps for calculation: (a) Considering a basis of 1 L solution and the given,
calculate the mass of solution; (c) Relate the given molarity of the solution with the
molecular weight of methanol to calculate for the mass of solute; (d) Calculate mass of
the solvent; (e) Calculate for molality.

Solution:
On the basis of 1 L solution, we calculate mass of the solution using the given density
of the solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) × (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛)
𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 1000 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
= [0.976 × ] × (1 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛)
𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 976 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛

In addition, the molarity given indicates that the solution contains 2.45 moles of
methanol. Thus, mass of solute and mass of water is calculated as

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

32.04 𝑔 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻
= 976 𝑔 − (2.45 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 × )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻
= 898 𝑔 𝑜𝑟 0.898 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂

Using Eq. 7.5, the molality of the solution is calculated

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
2.45 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻
=
0.898 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂
= 2.73 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻/𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂
_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Calculate the molality of a 35.4 percent (by mass) aqueous
solution of phosphoric acid (H3PO4). The molar mass of phosphoric acid is 97.99 g.

Strategy: Considering 100 g solution as basis, 35.4 % by mass or 35.4 g is H3PO4.

Thus, 64.4 g is water. Then, mol of H3PO4 can be calculated for molality.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂
100 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛 = 35.4 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 + 64.6 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂
Solution:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 = 35.4 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 ×
97.99 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4
= 0.361 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4

The mass of water is 64.6 g, or 0.0646 kg. Therefore, the molality is given by
0.361 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
0.0646 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂
= 5.59 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 /𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂

B. Dilution of Solutions
We recall from Eq. 7.4 that
= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Multiplying the equation by the volume of solution, we obtain the number of moles of
solute
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦) × (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= ( ) × (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑛 = 𝑀𝑉 𝐸𝑞. (7.6)

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College of Engineering and Architecture

When diluting a solution, adding more solvent, the amount of solute present in a
solution does not change but the volume and concentration of the solution change. The
addition of solvent increases the volume of solution causing the molarity to decrease.
Dilution of concentrated solution is represented by the formula below:
[(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)1 × (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)1 ] = [(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)2 × (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)2 ]
𝑉2 𝑀2 (for dilution only)
𝑉1 𝑀1 =
𝐸𝑞. (7.7)
Subscript 1 represent the original and concentrated solution while subscript 2
represent the dilute and new solution.
________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity How many milliliters of 18.0 M H2SO4 are required to prepare
1.00 L of a 0.900 M solution of H2SO4?
Strategy: Since the volume and concentration of the new solution and considering the
concentration of the concentrated solution, Eq. 7.7 can be used to calculate volume of
the original solution used for dilution.
Solution:
𝑉1 𝑀1 = 𝑉2 𝑀2
𝑉2 𝑀2
𝑉1 =
𝑀1
(1.00 𝐿)(0.900 𝑀)
=
18.0 𝑀
𝑉1 = 0.0500 𝐿 = 50.0 𝑚𝐿

The choice of concentration units is selected based on the purpose of the

experiment. Mole fractions are used for calculating partial pressures of gases and
dealing with vapor pressure of solutions. It is not used to express the concentrations of
solutions for titrations and gravimetric analyses. While molarity gives an ease to
measure the volume of a solution using a precisely calibrated volumetric flasks, than
to weigh the solvent. And molality is independent of temperature, because the
concentration is expressed in number of moles of solute and mass of solvent. The
volume of a solution typically increases with increasing temperature. Due to the
dependence on temperature, molality is preferred instead of molarity in order to not
affect the accuracy of an experiment. Percent mass is also independent of
temperature. The molar mass is not needed since it can be calculated from the ratio of
mass of solute to mass of solution.
Self-Assessment Activity VII:
1. The density of an 18.0% solution of ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4, is 1.10 g/mL.
What mass of (NH4)2SO4 is required to prepare 750.0 mL of this solution?
2. A solution made by dissolving 16.0 g of CaCl2 in 64.0 g of water has a density of
1.180 g/mL at 20°C. (a) What is the percent by mass of CaCl 2 in the solution? (b)
What is the molarity of CaCl2 in the solution?

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

3. Commercial concentrated hydrochloric acid is 12.0 M HCl. What volume of

concentrated hydrochloric acid is required to prepare 2.00 L of 1.50 M HCl
solution?
References:
Atkins, P. and Jones, L. Chemical Principles, The Quest for Insight (5th Ed). W.H.
Freeman and Company, NY. ISBN 1-4292-1955-6
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th Ed). Mc-Graw-Hill Companies, Inc, NY. ISBN 978–
0–07–351109–2
Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E., Peck, M.L., and Stanley, G.G. (2014). Chemistry (10th Ed).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, CA. ISBN 978-1-133-61066-3

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Course CHEM111E (Chemistry for Engineers)

Title of the
Unit I. Fundamentals of Chemistry
Module
Module No. Module 1 – 4
At the end of this module, the student shall be able:
Learning a. To determine basic types of chemical reaction and distinguish it from
Objectives other reactions.
b. To write balanced chemical equations to describe chemical reactions.
Content VIII. Chemical Reactions

Introduction
Chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances, reactants, are
converted into one or more new substances, products. It is represented by a chemical
equation and include relative amount of the reactants and products. A chemical
reaction is denoted by an arrow in a skeletal chemical equation and assumed to
proceed from left to right. Thus, reactants and products, represented in chemical
formulas, are placed in the right side and left side of the arrow, respectively. The
number before each chemical formula, or coefficients, represent the number of
molecules of reactants and products. In order to conform with the law of conservation
of mass, the number of molecules of each atom must be equal on both side of the
reaction or the chemical equation must be balanced.
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 ⟶ 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

VIII. Chemical Reactions

A. Basic Types of Chemical Reaction
1. Combination Reactions
It is a type of reaction where two or more substances combine to form a single
compound. They may involve (1) the combination of two elements to form a compound,
(2) the combination of an element and a compound to form a single new compound, or
(3) the combination of two compounds to form a single new compound.
a. 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 + 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 ⟶ 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
This type of combination reaction can also be categorized as redox reaction
because each single uncombined element, with zero oxidation, form a compound
where oxidation state is not zero.
 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 + 𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 ⟶ 𝑩𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑰𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
Metals of low electronegativity react with nonmetals of high electronegativity to
form binary ionic compounds. The Group 1A metals combine with the Group 7A
nonmetals to form binary ionic compounds and represented as
2𝑀(𝑠) + 𝑋2 ⟶ 2(𝑀+ 𝑋 − )(𝑠)
Where M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and X = F, Cl, Br, I. Examine below equation as an

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example
2𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) ⟶ 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑠)
The Group 2A metals also combine with the Group 7A nonmetals to form binary
compounds. Except for BeCl2, BeBr2, and BeI2, these are ionic compounds. This
combination reaction may be represented as:
𝑀(𝑠) + 𝑋2 ⟶ 𝑀𝑋2 (𝑠)
Where M = Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and X = F, Cl, Br, I. This reaction is demonstrated
on below equation
𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐹2 ⟶ 𝑀𝑔𝐹2 (𝑠)
 𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 + 𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 ⟶ 𝑩𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
A binary covalent compound is formed when two nonmetals combine with each
other, where the oxidation state of the element with the more positive oxidation
state is often variable, depending on reaction conditions. In general, a higher
oxidation state of a nonmetal is formed when it reacts with an excess of another
more electronegative nonmetal.
For example (Whitten et al., 2014), phosphorus (Group 5A) combines with a
limited amount of chlorine to form phosphorus trichloride, in which phosphorus
exhibits the 13 oxidation state.

With an excess of chlorine, the product is phosphorus pentachloride, which

contains phosphorus in the 15 oxidation state:

b. 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 + 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 ⟶ 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

This type of combination reaction can also be categorized as redox reaction since
oxidation states are converted during the reaction. As an example, phosphorus in the
13 oxidation state in PCl3 molecules can be converted to the 15 state in PCl5 by
combination with chlorine:

Sulfur in the 14 state is converted to the 16 state when SF4 reacts with fluorine to
form SF6:

c. 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 + 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 ⟶ 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

An example of reactions in this category is the combination of calcium oxide with
carbon dioxide to produce calcium carbonate:
𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠)

Pyrosulfuric acid is produced by dissolving sulfur trioxide in concentrated sulfuric

acid:
𝑆𝑂3 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (ℓ) ⟶ 𝐻2 𝑆2 𝑂7 (ℓ)

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Pyrosulfuric acid, H2S2O7, is then diluted with water to make H2SO4:

𝐻2 𝑆2 𝑂7 (ℓ) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) ⟶ 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (ℓ)

Oxides of the Group 1A and 2A metals react with water to form metal hydroxides,
e.g.:
𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑎𝑞)
2. Decomposition Reactions
It is a type of reaction where a compound decomposes to produce (1) two
elements, (2) one or more elements and one or more compounds, or (3) two or more
compounds.

a. 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 ⟶ 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 + 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

Decomposition of a compound such as electrolysis of water produces two
elements.

Thermal decomposition liberates amounts of oxygen from oxygen-containing

compounds.

b. 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 ⟶ 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 + 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

The alkali metal chlorates, such as KClO3, decompose when heated to produce
the corresponding chlorides and liberate small amounts of oxygen.

Nitrate salts of alkali metals or alkaline earth metals decompose to form metal
nitrites and oxygen.
2𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 (𝑠) ⟶ 2𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂2 (𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form water and oxygen even at room temperature.
2𝐻2 𝑂2 (ℓ) ⟶ 2𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)

c. 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 ⟶ 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 + 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) and other carbonates
produces two compounds, a metal oxide and carbon dioxide. This is an important
reaction in the production of cement. Calcium oxide (commonly called lime) is also
used as a base in industrial processes.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)
When some solid hydroxides are heated, they decompose to form a metal oxide
and water vapor. Magnesium oxide, MgO, is pressed into sheets for use as a thermal
insulating material in oven walls.
𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑠) ⟶ 𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)

3. Single Displacement Reaction

Reactions are categorized as displacement reaction when one element displaces

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another from a compound. These reactions are always redox reactions. More active
(less electronegative) metals displace less active (more electronegative) metals or
hydrogen from their compounds in aqueous solution to form the oxidized form of the
more active metal and the reduced (free metal) form of the other metal or hydrogen
gas.

𝑴𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍+

a. [𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍
] ⟶ [𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍+
𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍
]

As an example, a large piece of zinc metal is placed in a copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4,

solution. The blue solution becomes colorless as finely divided copper metal falls to
the bottom of the container. The resulting solution contains zinc sulfate, ZnSO 4. The
metals zinc and copper are not ionized or dissociated in contact with H2O. Since both
CuSO4 and ZnSO4 are soluble salts, they are written in ionic form.
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞)
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + [𝐶𝑢2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂42− (𝑎𝑞)] ⟶ 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + [𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂42− (𝑎𝑞)]
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢2+ (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞)
In this displacement reaction, the more active metal, zinc, displaces the ions of the
less active metal, copper, from aqueous solution.
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 + 𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 +
b. [𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒛𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒅] ⟶ [ 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒄𝒊𝒅 ]
A metal (e.g. Li, K, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb) dissolves
and produce hydrogen and salt when it is added to a solution of nonoxidizing acid
such as hydrochloric acid, HCl, or sulfuric acid, H2SO4. While it produce oxides of
nitrogen instead of hydrogen, H2, when it is added to nitric acid, HNO3.
As an example, zinc is dissolved in H2SO4 (strong acid) to produce zinc sulfate
(ZnSO4, a soluble salt); hydrogen is displaced from the acid, and it bubbles off as
gaseous H2.
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + [2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂42− (𝑎𝑞)] ⟶ [𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂42− (𝑎𝑞)] + 𝐻2 (𝑔)
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐻2 (𝑔) + 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞)

An active metal (e.g. Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe) can displace hydrogen from steam
while other metal (e.g. Li, K, Ca, Na) can displace hydrogen from cold water. The
displacement reaction with Group 1A and water are dangerous due to the generation
of heat that cause explosive ignition of the hydrogen.
𝐶𝑎(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) ⟶ 𝐻2 (𝑔) + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑎𝑞)
𝐶𝑎(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) ⟶ 𝐻2 (𝑔) + [𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)]
𝐶𝑎(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) ⟶ 𝐻2 (𝑔) + 𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)

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𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 +
c. [𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍
] ⟶ [𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒕𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 +
𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍
]
Many nonmetals displace less active nonmetals from combination with a metal or
other cation. For example, when chlorine (Cl2) is bubbled through a solution
containing bromide ions (derived from a soluble salt such as sodium bromide, NaBr),
chlorine displaces bromide ions to form elemental bromine (Br2) and chloride ions (as
aqueous sodium chloride):
𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) + 2[𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑟 − (𝑎𝑞)] ⟶ 2[𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)] + 𝐵𝑟2 (ℓ)

Similarly, when bromine is added to a solution containing iodide ions, the iodide ions
are displaced by bromine to form iodine and bromide ions:
𝐵𝑟2 (ℓ) + 2[𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐼 − (𝑎𝑞)] ⟶ 2[𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑟 − (𝑎𝑞)] + 𝐼2 (𝑠)
Each halogen, in order of decreasing activities 𝐹2 > 𝐶𝑙2 > 𝐵𝑟2 > 𝐼2 , will displace less
active (less electronegative) halogens from their binary salts. However, a halogen
will not displace more active (more electronegative) members from their salts: 𝐼2 (𝑠) +
2𝐹 − ⟶ 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

4. Double Displacement Reaction

This reaction exists between two compounds that undergo double displacement
and formed two new compounds with no change in oxidation numbers. It can be
represented in below equation where A and B are positive ions (cations) and X and Y
are negative ions (anions):
𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑌 ⟶ 𝐴𝑌 + 𝐵𝑋
As an example, silver chloride (AgCl) and dissolved sodium nitrate (NaNO 3) are
formed in the reaction of silver nitrate (AgNO3) and sodium chloride (NaCl):
𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
Chemical species involved in this type of reaction undergoes exchanges in bonds
causing removal of ions from the solution. This reaction can be classified based from
the removal of ions:
 Formation of non-ionized molecules (weak or nonelectrolytes such as water) in
solution
 Formation of insoluble solid, precipitate, which separates from the solution
B. Balancing Chemical Equations:
The Law of Conservation of Mass had been the guiding principle on balancing
chemical equations and performing quantitative calculations and analysis. In order to
balance chemical equations, the following steps are performed:
1. Identify and write correct formulas of reactants and products on the left side and
right side of the equation, respectively.
2. Check for elements on each side of the equation. The elements with the same
total number of atoms, considering its coefficients and subscript, doesn’t need
adjustment at this point. While adjustment on coefficients must be done on
elements with unequal number of atoms.
3. Balance the equation by changing the coefficients of the chemical formulas of
reactants and products. (Note: Subscripts, number within formulas, cannot be

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changed since it would change the identity of the substance.)

4. Check the balanced equation by counting the total number of atoms in each
element considering the coefficients and subscripts.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_
Learning Activity The combustion (burning) of natural gas, a reaction used to heat
buildings and cook food. Natural gas is a mixture of several substances, but the
principal component is methane, CH4. The equation represents that methane reacts
with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. It specifically state that a molecule
of methane (CH4) reacts with two molecules of oxygen (O2) and produces one molecule
of carbon dioxide (CO2) and two molecules of water (H2O) as shown on below equation.
The equation that describes the reaction of methane with excess oxygen is:

Figure 8.1. Illustration of chemical reaction represented using

(a) ball-and-stick models and (b) chemical formulas (Source: Whitten et al., 2014)
_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Dimethyl ether, C2H6O, burns in an excess of oxygen to give
carbon dioxide and water. In unbalanced form, the equation is
𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂 + 𝑂2 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Below table summarizes the number of atoms for each element in right side and
left side before balancing:
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐶 1 2 2 𝐶 1 1 1
𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂 𝐻 1 6 6 𝐶𝑂2 𝐻 − − −
𝑂 1 1 1 𝑂 1 2 2
𝑂2 𝐶 − − − 𝐻2 𝑂 𝐶 − − −

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𝐻 − − − 𝐻 1 2 2
𝑂 1 2 2 𝑂 1 1 1
𝐶 2 𝐶 1
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐻 6 𝐻 2
𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑂 3 𝑂 3
*Subscripts are multiplied to coefficients to get the total number of atoms in each
element.
We start balancing carbon and hydrogen elements since it only appears in one
compound on each side of the reaction. The subscripts on the carbon and hydrogen
atoms in C2H6O guide us in assigning the coefficients on the product side:

The adjusted coefficient of CO2 and H2O formed unbalanced total number of oxygen
with 3 atoms of O on the reactant side and 7 atoms of O on the product side. Adding
two more O2 molecules (total of 4 oxygen atoms) on the reactant side gives a total of 7
atoms of O:

Checking the final equation for balanced number of atoms in each element:
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐶 1 2 2 𝐶 2 1 2
𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂 𝐻 1 6 6 𝐶𝑂2 𝐻 − − −
𝑂 1 1 1 𝑂 2 2 4
𝐶 − − − 𝐶 − − −
𝑂2 𝐻 − − − 𝐻2 𝑂 𝐻 3 2 6
𝑂 3 2 6 𝑂 3 1 3
𝐶 2 𝐶 2
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐻 6 𝐻 6
𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑂 7 𝑂 7

Below is molecular view of this balanced equation using ball and stick models
(element color coding: black 5 C, red 5 O, white 5 H):

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_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Butane, C4H10, is used in many lighters. The combustion reaction
with O2 is initially written in unbalanced form as:
𝐶4 𝐻10 + 𝑂2 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
We start balancing carbon and hydrogen elements since it only appears in one
compound on each side of the reaction. The subscripts on the carbon and hydrogen
atoms in C4H10 guide us in assigning the coefficients on the product side:

The adjusted coefficients of CO2 and H2O on the product side formed an unbalanced O
atom. An additional 11 atoms of O in the reactant side is needed to balance the
equation. Adding a 5.5 O2 molecules on the reactant side gives:

However, chemists do not ordinarily use fractional coefficients in chemical equations.

An integer value is multiplied to the entire balanced equation to convert the fractional
value into the smallest integer value. In this case, a factor of 2 is multiplied to the
entire equation to produce the final balanced equation:

_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Balance the chemical equation:
𝑃4 𝑂10 + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 ⟶ 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

Strategy: Element will be balanced at a time by inspection.

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑃 1 4 4 𝑃 1 1×2 2
𝐻 − − − 𝐻 − − −
𝑃4 𝑂10 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2
𝑂 1 10 10 𝑂 1 4×2 8
𝐶𝑎 − − − 𝐶𝑎 1 3 3
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 𝑃 − − − 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑃 − − −

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𝐻 1 1×2 2 𝐻 1 2 2
𝑂 1 1×2 2 𝑂 1 1 1
𝐶𝑎 1 1 1 𝐶𝑎 − − −
𝑃 4 𝑃 2
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐻 2 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐻 2
𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑂 12 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑂 9
𝐶𝑎 1 𝐶𝑎 3

Solution:
Balancing P first by multiplying 2 to 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2
𝑃4 𝑂10 + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 ⟶ 2𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Then, balancing Ca by multiplying 6 to 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
𝑃4 𝑂10 + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 ⟶ 2𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

And balancing H by multiplying 6 to 𝐻2 𝑂

𝑃4 𝑂10 + 6𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 ⟶ 2𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂

Checking the elements after coefficient adjustment

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑃 1 4 4 𝑃 2 1×2 4
𝐻 − − − 𝐻 − − −
𝑃4 𝑂10 2𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2
𝑂 1 10 10 𝑂 2 4×2 16
𝐶𝑎 − − − 𝐶𝑎 2 3 6
𝑃 − − − 𝑃 − − −
𝐻 6 1×2 12 𝐻 6 2 12
6𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 6𝐻2 𝑂
𝑂 6 1×2 12 𝑂 6 1 6
𝐶𝑎 6 1 6 𝐶𝑎 − − −
𝑃 4 𝑃 4
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐻 12 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐻 12
𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑂 22 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑂 22
𝐶𝑎 6 𝐶𝑎 6

Balancing chemical equations “by inspection” is a trial-and-error approach.

Nevertheless, the smallest whole number coefficients must be used.

Additional Learning Activity:

 Summarized steps on balancing chemical equations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmdxMlb88Fs
 Interactive worksheet on balancing equations
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/chemical-reactions-stoichiome/balancing-
chemical-equations/e/balancing_chemical_equations
 Offline practice problems on balancing equations with answer key
https://www.deanza.edu/faculty/muzzicinzia/Balancing%20Equations.pdf

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

Self-Assessment Activity VIII:

Balance the chemical equation and identify the type of reaction in the following
equation:
1. 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑂 ⟶ 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐶𝑂2
2. 𝑅𝑏 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⟶ 𝑅𝑏𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2
3. 𝐾 + 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 ⟶ 𝐾2 𝑂 + 𝑁2
4. (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 ⟶ 𝑁2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3
5. 𝐴𝑙 + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3 ⟶ 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑟

References:
Atkins, P. and Jones, L. Chemical Principles, The Quest for Insight (5th Ed). W.H.
Freeman and Company, NY. ISBN 1-4292-1955-6
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th Ed). Mc-Graw-Hill Companies, Inc, NY. ISBN 978–
0–07–351109–2
Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E., Peck, M.L., and Stanley, G.G. (2014). Chemistry (10th Ed).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, CA. ISBN 978-1-133-61066-3

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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Course CHEM111E (Chemistry for Engineers)

Title of the
Unit I. Fundamentals of Chemistry
Module
Module No. Module 1 – 5
At the end of this module, the student shall be able:
Learning
a. To determine and distinguish other types of chemical reactions.
Objectives
b. To relate md
Content IX. Other Types of Chemical Reactions

IX.Other Types of Chemical Reactions

A. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions:
Oxidation is defined as an increase in oxidation state and corresponds to the
loss, or apparent loss, of electrons. Reduction is a decrease in oxidation state and
corresponds to the gain, or apparent gain, of electrons.

Since electrons are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions, oxidation
and reduction reactions occur simultaneously and call it as redox reactions. This
type of reaction involves oxidizing and reducing agents. Oxidizing agents are species
that (1) oxidize other substances, (2) contain atoms that are reduced, and (3) gain (or
appear to gain) electrons. Reducing agents are species that (1) reduce other
substances, (2) contain atoms that are oxidized, and (3) lose (or appear to lose)
electrons.

The following equations represent examples of redox reactions. Oxidation states are
shown above the formulas, and oxidizing and reducing agents are indicated:

0 0 +3 21
The above equation can also be represented as as total ionic and net ionic equations.
Considering the second reaction:
2[𝐹𝑒 3+ (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐵𝑟 − (𝑎𝑞)] + 3𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) ⟶ 2[𝐹𝑒 3+ (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)] + 3𝐵𝑟2 (ℓ)

In order to distinguish between actual charges on ions and oxidation states, oxidation
numbers are denoted as +𝑛 or −𝑛 in circles just above the symbols of the elements
while actual charges are denoted as 𝑛 + or 𝑛 − above and to the right side of formula
of ions. The above redox equation can be simplified by the cancellation of Fe 3+ since it
does not participate in electron transfer and considered as spectator ion. Thus, the
equation can be simplified on the oxidizing agent, Cl2 (g), and the reducing agent, Br2
(aq)
2𝐵𝑟 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) ⟶ 2𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑟2 (ℓ)

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A disproportionation reaction is a redox reaction in which the same element is

oxidized and reduced. An example is:

B. Metathesis Reaction
We recall from the previous module that this type of reaction was classified based
from the removal of ions.

1. Acid-Base (Neutralization) Reactions: Formation of a Nonelectrolyte

A neutralization reaction occurs when the properties of acids and bases involved
in the reaction are neutralized. Typical example includes reaction of an acid with a
metal hydroxide base produces a salt and water. Where H+ (aq) from an acid
combined with and OH-(aq) from a base (or a base plus water) forms water
molecules. Thus, the net ionic equation below represents reaction of strong acids
with strong bases forming soluble salts and water:
𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)

Below is an example of reaction of strong acid with strong base:

𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
[𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)] + [𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)] ⟶ 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) + [𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)]
𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)

The net ionic equation from the reaction of weak monoprotic acids with strong
bases to form soluble salts can be represented as below equation where HA is the
weak acid and A- is its anion:
𝐻𝐴(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐴− + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)

Below is an example of reaction of strong base, potassium hydroxide (KOH), and

weak acid, acetic acid (CH3COOH), forming a soluble salt (potassium acetate,
KCH3COO).
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐾𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + [𝐾 + (𝑎𝑞) −
+ 𝑂𝐻 (𝑎𝑞)] ⟶ [𝐾 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞)] + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)

2. Precipitation Reactions
A precipitation reaction occurs when there is a strong attraction between cations
and anions resulting to the removal of ions from the solution forming an insoluble
solid or precipitate. A typical example of this type of reaction is our teeth and bones
(mostly calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2) that were formed under slow rate and
deposited in the correct geometric arrangements. Another typical example is the
formation of insoluble carbonates such as limestone that consists mostly of calcium
carbonate, CaCO3, and significant amount of magnesium carbonate, MgCO3.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(ℓ)
[𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)] + [2𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞)] ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) + 2[𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)]

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𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠)

C. Gas-Formation Reactions
Gas-formation reaction involves formation of insoluble or slightly soluble gas
from the reaction of non-gaseous reactants. HCl(g) and NH3(g) are the only common
gas that are very soluble in water. The low solubility of other gases can force a
reaction to proceed if they are formed as a reaction product. An example of this type of
reaction includes a product from the first reaction and acts as a reactant on the second
reaction.

The first reaction involves hydrochloric acid (HCl) and calcium carbonate (CaCO 3)
producing carbonic acid (H2CO3):
2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) ⟶ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)
2[𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)] + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) ⟶ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + [𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)]

2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) ⟶ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞)

The carbonic acid formed from reaction decomposes due to the heat generated in the
first reaction. The thermal decomposition of carbonic acid produced CO 2 bubbles and
water.
𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)

Considering that all the limiting reactant present was converted, the ionic species
were converted to non-ionized molecules. Thus, the complete reaction can be
represented as:
2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) ⟶ 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)

Self-Assessment Activity IX:

1. Determine which of the following are oxidation–reduction reactions. For those that
are, identify the oxidizing and reducing agents.
(a) 𝐻𝑔𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐾𝐼(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐻𝑔𝐼2 (𝑠) + 2𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
(b) 4𝑁𝐻3 (𝑔) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔) ⟶ 2𝑁2 (𝑔) + 6𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)
(c) 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)
(d) 𝑃𝐶𝑙3 (ℓ) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ) ⟶ 3𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)

2. Classify each of these exchange reactions as an acid-base reaction, a precipitation

reaction, or a gas-forming reaction. Predict the products of the reaction, and then
balance the completed equation.
(a) 𝑀𝑛𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞) ⟶
(b) 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) ⟶
(c) 𝐾2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞)𝑠 ⟶
References:
Atkins, P. and Jones, L. Chemical Principles, The Quest for Insight (5th Ed). W.H.
Freeman and Company, NY. ISBN 1-4292-1955-6

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th Ed). Mc-Graw-Hill Companies, Inc, NY. ISBN 978–
0–07–351109–2
Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E., Peck, M.L., and Stanley, G.G. (2014). Chemistry (10th Ed).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, CA. ISBN 978-1-133-61066-3

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Course CHEM111E (Chemistry for Engineers)

Title of the
Unit I. Fundamentals of Chemistry
Module
Module No. Module 1 – 6
At the end of this module, the student shall be able:
a. To interpret balanced chemical equations to calculate the
amount of reactants and products involved in each of the
reactions.
Learning
b. To compare the amount of substance actually formed in a
Objectives
reaction (actual yield) with the predicted amount (theoretical
yield), and determine the percent yield.
c. To carry out calculations related to the used of solutions in
chemical reactions.
Content X. Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry

X. Chemical Equations and Reaction Stoichiometry

A. Calculations Based on Chemical Equations
After balancing the chemical equations, the reactants and products can be
studied and interpreted quantitatively by stoichiometry. In order to solve problems
in chemical reaction thru stoichiometry, the following steps are performed:

1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

2. Convert the given amount of the reactant (in grams or other units) to number of
moles.
3. Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to calculate the number of moles of
product formed.
4. Convert the moles of product to grams (or other units) of product.

Figure 2. Stoichiometric calculations by mole method (Source: Chang, 2010)

_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity The food we eat is degraded, or broken down, in our bodies to
provide energy for growth and function. A general overall equation for this very
complex process represents the degradation of glucose (C6H12O6) to carbon dioxide

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

(CO2) and water (H2O):

𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 ⟶ 6𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂

If 856 g of C6H12O6 is consumed by a person over a certain period, what is the mass of
CO2 produced?
Strategy: Steps for calculation: (a) Check if the given equation is balanced and adjust
coefficients if it’s unbalanced; (b) Convert mass of C6H12O6 to mol by multiplying its
molecular weight (180.2 g/mol C6H12O6); (c) Relate molecules of C6H12O6 and CO2
based from the balanced chemical equation; and (d) Calculate the mass of CO2
produced by multiplying the calculated mol to CO2 molecular weight (44.01 g/mol
CO2).

Solution:
Since the equation is already balanced, we convert the given mass to mol:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6
856 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 × = 4.750 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6
180.2 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6

Based from the balanced equation, 1 mol of C6H12O6 and 6 mol of O2 produced 6 mol of
CO2 and 6 mol of H2O
6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
4.750 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 × = 28.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6

Thus, the mass of CO2 formed

44.01 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2
28.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 × = 1.25 × 103 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2

_________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity How many moles of water could be produced by the reaction of 3.5
moles of methane with excess oxygen (i.e., more than a sufficient amount of oxygen is
present)?

Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a) Write and consider the balanced equation for the
combustion of methane; and (b) Relate the given mol of methane to amount of water
produced

Solution:
The balanced equation for the combustion of methane
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

showing 1 mol of methane (CH4) reacts with 2 mol of oxygen (O2) to form 1 mol of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and 2 mol of water (H2O). Thus,
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
3.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4 × = 7.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4

Check by comparing the amount of reactants used with the amount of products
formed:

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

Amount 1 mol 2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
Mol x 16.0 g 2(32.0 44.0 g 2(18.0 g)
MW g)
16.0 g 64.0 g 44.0 g 36.0 g
Total 80.0 g reactants 80.0 g products

The table show reaction ratios, mole ratios and mass ratios, of reactants and products
indicating the Law of Conservation of Matter is satisfied.

B. Limiting Reactant (Reagent) Concept:

The proportions of the reactants indicated in balanced equation are usually not
present in exact stoichiometric amounts. An excess amount of one reactant is
supplied to ensure the more expensive reactant is completely converted and the
maximum amount of desired products was formed. Consequently, some reactant will
be left over at the end of the reaction.

The limiting reagent is the reactant used up first since the maximum amount
of product formed depends on how much of this reactant was originally present. There
will be no more product can be formed when this reactant is used up. While excess
reagents are the reactants present in quantities greater than necessary to react with
the quantity of the limiting reagent.

Consider the industrial synthesis of methanol (CH3OH)

𝐶𝑂(𝑔) + 2𝐻2 (𝑔) ⟶ 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻(𝑔)

Suppose initially, 2 moles of CO and 6 moles of H2 reacts to produce CH3OH. Giving

2𝐶𝑂(𝑔) + 6𝐻2 (𝑔) ⟶ 2𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻(𝑔) + 2𝐻2 (𝑔)

In the equation, an excess two mols of H2 is present to react with the CO molecules
present. By inspection, there was not enough amount of CO to react with H2 thus, CO
is the limiting reactant.

________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity What is the maximum mass of Ni(OH)2 that could be prepared by
mixing two solutions that contain 25.9 g of NiCl2 and 10.0 g of NaOH, respectively?
𝑁𝑖𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙

Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a) Check and adjust coefficients to balance the
equation; (b) Relate the given amount of substance with the product to determine
limiting reactant; and (c) Calculate the amount of product formed based from the
amount of the limiting reactant present

𝑁𝑖𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙

Amount 1 mol 2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
Mol x 129.6 g 2(40.0 92.7 g 2(58.4 g)
MW g)

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Solution:
Since the equation is balanced, we consider the given amount of reactants
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖𝐶𝑙2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2
25.9 𝑔 𝑁𝑖𝐶𝑙2 × × = 0.200 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2
129.6 𝑔 𝑁𝑖𝐶𝑙2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖𝐶𝑙2

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2

10.0 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 × × = 0.125 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2
40.0 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

Considering the smaller amount of Ni(OH)2 produced, NaOH is the limiting reactant.
So, we calculate the maximum amount of product based from the amount NaOH
present
92.7 𝑔 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2
0.125 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2 × = 11.58 𝑔 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2

________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon
dioxide:
2𝑁𝐻3 (𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) ⟶ (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO2. (a) Which of the two
reactants is the limiting reagent? (b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed. (c) How
much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction?

Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a) Check and adjust coefficients to balance the
equation; (b) Relate the given amount of substance with the product to determine
limiting reactant; (c) Calculate the amount of product formed based from the amount
of the limiting reactant present; (d) Relate excess reagent with the amount of desired
product.

Solution:
Since the equation is balanced, we consider the given amount of reactants and relate
with the desired product
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂
637.2 𝑔 𝑁𝐻3 × × = 18.71 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂
17.03 𝑔 𝑁𝐻3 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂

1142 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 × × = 25.95 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂
44.01 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
Since, NH3 produce lower amount of [(NH2)2CO] it is considered as the limiting
reactant. Calculating the its mass gives
66.06 𝑔 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂
18.71 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂 × = 1124 𝑔 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂

To calculate the amount of excess reagent left after the reaction, we consider the
amount [(NH2)2CO] and relate to the excess reagent
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 44.01 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2
18.71 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂 × × = 824.43 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻2 )2 𝐶𝑂 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 − 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

= 1142 − 824.43 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 317.57 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2

The reactant cost is also considered as one criteria in selection for limiting reagent. In
practice, a more expensive chemical is choses as the limiting reactant in order to
consume most of it in the reaction.

C. Percent Yield from Chemical Reactions

The percent yield (% yield) indicates the amount of desired product converted
from the conversion of reactants in a chemical reaction. It is represented as
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100% 𝐸𝑞 (7.8)
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

As predicted by the balanced equation, the theoretical yield is the maximum

obtainable yield. It is represented by the assumption that the reaction goes into
completion and that all the amount of limiting reagent present at the start of a
reaction is converted. While actual or isolated yield is represented by actual
amount of product obtained from the given reaction. The actual yield is usually lower
than the theoretical yield. Factors affecting the gap between the theoretical and actual
yield includes: (a) Reversibility of the reaction affects completion of conversion; (b)
Some set of reactants undergoes simultaneous reactions, including undesired
reactions called side reactions, and forming undesired products alongside the desired
products; (c) Difficulty in recovery of desired products from the reaction medium; and
(d) System condition, temperature and pressure, during the reaction.

________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Consider the preparation of nitrobenzene, C6H5NO2, by the
reaction of a limited amount of benzene, C6H6, with excess nitric acid, HNO3. The
balanced equation for the reaction may be written as
𝐶6 𝐻6 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 ⟶ 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Amount 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
Mol x 78.1 g 63.0 g 123.1 g 18.0 g
MW

A 15.6-g sample of C6H6 is mixed with excess HNO3. We isolate 18.0 g of C6H5NO2.
What is the percent yield of C6H5NO2 in this reaction?

Strategy: Steps for calculations: (a) Calculate theoretical yield considering the given
amount of reactant; (b) Relate the calculated theoretical yield and the given actual
yield to calculate percent yield

Solution:
Calculate theoretical yield using 15.6 g of C6H6
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻6 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝑂2 123.1 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝑂2
15.6 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻6 × × × = 24.6 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝑂2
78.1 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻6 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻6 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝑂2

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Calculate actual yield using 18.0 g of C6H5NO2

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
18.0 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝑂2
= × 100%
24.6 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝑂2
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 73.2%

The amount of nitrobenzene obtained in this experiment is 73.2% of the amount that
would be expected if the reaction had gone to completion, if there were no side
reactions, and if we could have recovered all the product as a pure substance.

________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that
is used in rockets, aircraft, jet engines, and bicycle frames. It is prepared by the
reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with molten magnesium between 950°C and 1150°C:
𝑇𝑖𝐶𝑙4 (𝑔) + 2𝑀𝑔(ℓ) ⟶ 𝑇𝑖(𝑠) + 2𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 (ℓ)

In a certain industrial operation 3.54 x 107 g of TiCl4 are reacted with 1.13 x 107 g of
Mg. (a) Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams. (b) Calculate the percent yield if
7.91 x 106 g of Ti are actually obtained.

Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a)

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝐶𝑙4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑖
3.54 × 107 𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝐶𝑙4 × × = 1.87 × 105 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑖
189.7 𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝐶𝑙4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝐶𝑙4

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑖
1.13 × 107 𝑔 𝑀𝑔 × × = 2.32 × 105 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑖
24.31 𝑔 𝑀𝑔 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑔

TiCl4 is the limiting reactant because it produces smaller amount of Ti. Thus, the
amount of Ti formed
47.88 𝑔 𝑇𝑖
1.87 × 105 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑖 × = 8.95 × 106 𝑔 𝑇𝑖
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑖

And calculating Ti percent yield as

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
7.91 × 106
= × 100%
8.95 × 106
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 88.4%

D.Sequential Reactions
Often more than one reaction is required to convert starting materials into the
desired products. This is true for many reactions that we carry out in the laboratory

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

and for many industrial processes. These are called sequential reactions. The
amount of desired product from each reaction is taken as the starting material for the
next reaction.

________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity At high temperatures, carbon reacts with water to produce a
mixture of carbon monoxide, CO, and hydrogen, H2.
𝐶 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2
Carbon monoxide is separated from H2 and then used to separate nickel from cobalt by
forming a gaseous compound, nickel tetracarbonyl, Ni(CO)4.
𝑁𝑖 + 4𝐶𝑂 ⟶ 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4

What mass of Ni(CO)4 could be obtained from the CO produced by the reaction of 75.0
g of carbon? Assume 100% yield.
Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a) Check if the equations are balanced; (b) Relate
the given amount of carbon and relate to the product CO; (c) Relate the amount of CO
produced from the first reaction with the reactant CO and Ni(CO)4 product in the
second reaction; and (d) Calculate the amount of Ni(CO)4 produced based from the
correlation.

Solution:
Considering the first reaction and the given amount of carbon then relating to the
product CO
𝐶 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2
Amount 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
Mol x 12.0 g
MW

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂
75.0 𝑔 𝐶 × × = 6.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂
12.0 𝑔 𝐶 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

Considering the second reaction relate the amount of CO from the first reaction with
the reactant CO and Ni(CO)4 product from the second reaction
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4 171 𝑔 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4
6.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂 × × = 267 𝑔 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4
4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4

________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is a very important compound used to
make fertilizers. It is also present in cola drinks. H3PO4 can be prepared in a two-step
process.
Reaction 1: 𝑃4 + 5𝑂2 ⟶ 𝑃4 𝑂10
Reaction 2: 𝑃4 𝑂10 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 ⟶ 4𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4

We allow 272 g of phosphorus to react with excess oxygen, which forms

tetraphosphorus decoxide, P4O10, in 89.5% yield. In the second step reaction, a 96.8%
yield of H3PO4 is obtained. What mass of H3PO4 is obtained?

Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a) Check if the equations are balanced; (b) Relate

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CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
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College of Engineering and Architecture

the given amount of phosphorus to P4O10 product and percent yield from the first
reaction to calculate the amount of P4O10; (c) Relate the calculated amount of P4O10 to
H3PO4 product and percent yield from the second reaction to calculate the amount of
H3PO4

Solution:
Considering the first reaction and the given amount of phosphorus
𝑃4 + 5𝑂2 ⟶ 𝑃4 𝑂10
Amount 1 mol 5 mol 1 mol
Mol x MW 124 g 5(32.0 g) 284 g
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 𝑂10 284 𝑔 𝑃4 𝑂10 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 89.5 𝑔 𝑃4 𝑂10 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
272 𝑔 𝑃4 × × × ×( ) = 558𝑔 𝑃4 𝑂10
124 𝑔 𝑃4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 𝑂10 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 100 𝑔 𝑃4 𝑂10 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜

Considering the second reaction and the calculated amount of P4O10

𝑃4 𝑂10 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 ⟶ 4𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4
Amount 1 mol 6 mol 4 mol
Mol x MW 284 g 6(18.0 4(98.0
g) g)

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 𝑂10 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 98 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 96.8 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙

558 𝑔 𝑃4 𝑂10 × × × ×( ) = 746 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4
284 𝑔 𝑃4 𝑂10 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 𝑂10 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 100 𝑔 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜

E. Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions

Learning Activity Calculate the volume in liters and in milliliters of a 0.324 M

solution of sulfuric acid required to react completely with 2.792 g of Na2CO3 according
to the equation
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(ℓ)

Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a) Check if the equations are balanced; (b) Relate
the amount given of Na2CO3 with the amount and concentration of H2SO4 solution.

Solution:
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Amount 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1mol
Mol x MW 106.0
g

Considering the given amount of Na2CO3

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 1 𝐿 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
2.792 𝑔 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 × × × = 0.0813 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 81.3 𝑚𝐿 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
106 𝑔 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 0.324 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

________________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity Find the volume in liters and in milliliters of a 0.505 M NaOH
solution required to react with 40.0 mL of 0.505 M H2SO4 solution according to the
reaction
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

Chemical Engineering Department Module 1 - 6: Page 8

 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

Strategy: Steps on calculations: (a) Check if the equations are balanced; (b) Relate
the amount of H2SO4 solution given to the amount and concentration of NaOH
solution.

Solution:
Considering the equation
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Amount 1 mol 2 mol 1 mol 2mol

0.505 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

0.0400 𝐿 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛 × = 0.0202 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
1 𝐿 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛

2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
0.0202 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 × = 0.0404 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

1 𝐿 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
0.0404 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 × = 0.0800 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 80.0 𝑚𝐿 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
0.505 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

Self-Assessment Activity IX:

1. Consider the two-step process for the formation of tellurous acid described by the
following equations:
𝑇𝑒𝑂2 + 2𝑂𝐻 − ⟶ 𝑇𝑒𝑂32− + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑇𝑒𝑂32− + 2𝐻 + ⟶ 𝐻2 𝑇𝑒𝑂3
What mass of H2TeO3 is formed from 74.2 g of TeO2, assuming 100% yield?

2. The reaction of finely divided aluminum and iron(III) oxide, Fe 2O3, is called the
thermite reaction. It produces a tremendous amount of heat, making the welding
of railroad track possible. The reaction of 500.0 grams of aluminum and 500.0
grams of iron(III) oxide produces 166.5 grams of iron. (a) Balance the equation.
(b) Calculate the mass of iron that should be released by this reaction. (c) What is
the percent yield of iron?
𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 𝐴𝑙 ⟶ 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

3. An iron ore that contains Fe3O4 reacts according to the reaction below. We obtain
2.11 g of Fe from the reaction of 75.0 g of the ore. What is the percent Fe 3O4 in
the ore?
𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4 + 2𝐶 ⟶ 𝐹𝑒 + 2𝐶𝑂2

4. Solid silver nitrate undergoes thermal decomposition to form silver metal,

nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen. Write the chemical equation for this reaction. A
0.665-g sample of silver metal is isolated from the decomposition of a 1.099-g
sample of AgNO3. What is the percent yield of the reaction?

5. An impure sample of solid Na2CO3 is allowed to react with 0.1755 M HCl.

𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

Chemical Engineering Department Module 1 - 6: Page 9

 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering and Architecture

A 0.2337-g sample of sodium carbonate requires 15.55 mL of HCl solution.

Balance the equation and calculate the purity of the sodium carbonate?

References:
Atkins, P. and Jones, L. Chemical Principles, The Quest for Insight (5th Ed). W.H.
Freeman and Company, NY. ISBN 1-4292-1955-6
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th Ed). Mc-Graw-Hill Companies, Inc, NY. ISBN 978–
0–07–351109–2
Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E., Peck, M.L., and Stanley, G.G. (2014). Chemistry (10th Ed).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, CA. ISBN 978-1-133-61066-3

Chemical Engineering Department Module 1 - 6: Page 10