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TABLE OF CONTENTS (HIDE)

1. Composition

Java Programming 2. Inheritance

2.1 An Example on Inheritance
2.2 Method Overriding & Variable Hiding
Tutorial 2.3 Annotation @Override (JDK 1.5)
2.4 Keyword "super"

OOP - Inheritance &

2.5 More on Constructors
2.6 Default no-arg Constructor
2.7 Single Inheritance
Polymorphism 2.8 Common Root Class - java.lang.Object
3. More Examples on Inheritance
3.1 Example: Point3D
3.2 Example: Person and its subclasses
3.3 Exercises
1. Composition 4. Composition vs. Inheritance
4.1 "A line is composed of 2 points" vs. "A line is a
There are two ways to reuse the existing classes, namely, composition and
4.2 Exercises
inheritance. With composition (aka aggregation), you define a new class, which
5. Polymorphism
is composed of existing classes. With inheritance, you derive a new class
5.1 Substitutability
based on an existing class, with modifications or extensions.
5.2 Upcasting & Downcasting
As an example of reusing a class via 5.3 The "instanceof" Operator
composition, suppose that we have an 5.4 Summary of Polymorphism
existing class called Point, defined as 5.5 Example on Polymorphism
shown in the class diagram. 6. Abstract Classes & Interfaces
6.1 The abstract Method
6.2 The abstract Class
6.3 The interface
6.4 Implementing Multiple interface
6.5 interface Formal Syntax
6.6 Why interfaces?
6.7 Exercises
6.8 Dynamic Binding (Late Binding)
7. Object-Oriented Design Issues
7.1 Encapsulation, Coupling & Cohesion
7.2 "Is-a" vs. "has-a" relationships
7.3 Program at the interface, not the implementat

Point.java
1 // The Point class definition
2 public class Point {
3 // Private member variables
4 private int x, y; // (x, y) co-ordinates
5

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6 // Constructors
7 public Point(int x, int y) {
8 this.x = x;
9 this.y = y;
10 }
11 public Point() { // default (no-arg) constructor
12 x = 0;
13 y = 0;
14 }
15
16 // Public getter and setter for private variables
17 public int getX() {
18 return x;
19 }
20 public void setX(int x) {
21 this.x = x;
22 }
23 public int getY() {
24 return y;
25 }
26 public void setY(int y) {
27 this.y = y;
28 }
29
30 // toString() to describe itself
31 public String toString() {
32 return "(" + x + "," + y + ")";
33 }
34 }

Suppose that we need a new

class called Line, we can re-use
the Point class via composition.
We say that "A line is composed
of two points", or "A line has two
points". Composition exhibits a
"has-a" relationship.

UML Notation: In UML notations, composition is represented as a diamond-head line pointing to its constituents.

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Line.java
1 // The Line class definition
2 public class Line {
3 // Private member variables
4 Point begin, end; // Declare begin and end as instances of Point
5
6 // Constructors
7 public Line(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2) {
8 begin = new Point(x1, y1); // Construct Point instances
9 end = new Point(x2, y2);
10 }
11 public Line(Point begin, Point end) {
12 this.begin = begin; // Caller constructed Point instances
13 this.end = end;
14 }
15
16 // Public getter and setter for private variables
17 public Point getBegin() {
18 return begin;
19 }
20 public Point getEnd() {
21 return end;
22 }
23 public void setBegin(Point begin) {
24 this.begin = begin;
25 }
26 public void setEnd(Point end) {
27 this.end = end;
28 }
29
30 public int getBeginX() {
31 return begin.getX();
32 }
33 public void setBeginX(int x) {
34 begin.setX(x);
35 }
36 public int getBeginY() {
37 return begin.getY();
38 }
39 public void setBeginY(int y) {
40 begin.setY(y);
41 }
42 public void setBeginXY(int x, int y) {
43 begin.setX(x);
44 begin.setY(y);
45 }
46 public int getEndX() {
47 return end.getX();
48 }
49 public void setEndX(int x) {
50 end.setX(x);
51 }
52 public int getEndY() {
53 return end.getY();
54 }
55 public void setEndY(int y) {
56 end.setY(y);
57 }
58 public void setEndXY(int x, int y) {

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59 end.setX(x);
60 end.setY(y);
61 }
62
63 public String toString() {
64 return "Line from " + begin + " to " + end;
65 }
66
67 public double getLength() {
68 int xDiff = begin.getX() - end.getX();
69 int yDiff = begin.getY() - end.getY();
70 return Math.sqrt(xDiff*xDiff + yDiff*yDiff);
71 }
72 }

A Test Driver Program: TestLine.java

1 // A test driver program for the Line class
2 public class TestLine {
3 public static void main(String[] args) {
4 Line l1 = new Line(0, 3, 4, 0);
5 System.out.println(l1); // toString()
6 System.out.println(l1.getLength());
7 l1.setBeginXY(1, 2);
8 l1.setEndXY(3, 4);
9 System.out.println(l1);
10
11 Point p1 = new Point(3, 0);
12 Point p2 = new Point(0, 4);
13 Line l2 = new Line(p1, p2);
14 System.out.println(l2);
15 System.out.println(l2.getLength());
16 l2.setBegin(new Point(5, 6));
17 l2.setEnd(new Point(7, 8));
18 System.out.println(l2);
19 }
20 }

2. Inheritance
In OOP, we often organize classes in hierarchy to avoid duplication and reduce redundancy. The classes in the lower
hierarchy inherit all the variables (static attributes) and methods (dynamic behaviors) from the higher hierarchies. A class
in the lower hierarchy is called a subclass (or derived, child, extended class). A class in the upper hierarchy is called a
superclass (or base, parent class). By pulling out all the common variables and methods into the superclasses, and leave
the specialized variables and methods in the subclasses, redundancy can be greatly reduced or eliminated as these
common variables and methods do not need to be repeated in all the subclasses. For example,

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A subclass inherits all the variables and methods from its superclasses, including its immediate parent as well as all the
ancestors. It is important to note that a subclass is not a "subset" of a superclass. In contrast, subclass is a "superset" of
a superclass. It is because a subclass inherits all the variables and methods of the superclass; in addition, it extends the
superclass by providing more variables and methods.

In Java, you define a subclass using the keyword "extends", e.g.,

class Goalkeeper extends SoccerPlayer {......}

class MyApplet extends java.applet.Applet {.....}
class Cylinder extends Circle {......}

UML Notation: The UML notation for inheritance is a solid line with a
hollow arrowhead leading from the subclass to its superclass. By convention,
superclass is drawn on top of its subclasses as shown.

2.1 An Example on Inheritance

In this example, we derive a subclass called Cylinder from
the superclass Circle, which we have created in the
previous chapter. It is important to note that we reuse the
class Circle. Reusability is one of the most important
properties of OOP. (Why reinvent the wheels?) The class
Cylinder inherits all the member variables (radius and
color) and methods (getRadius(), getArea(), among
others) from its superclass Circle. It further defines a
variable called height, two public methods - getHeight()
and getVolume() and its own constructors, as shown:

Cylinder.java
1 // Define Cylinder class, which is a subclass of Circle
2 public class Cylinder extends Circle {
3 private double height; // Private member variable
4
5 public Cylinder() { // constructor 1
6 super(); // invoke superclass' constructor Circle()
7 height = 1.0;

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8 }
9 public Cylinder(double radius, double height) { // Constructor 2
10 super(radius); // invoke superclass' constructor Circle(radius)
11 this.height = height;
12 }
13
14 public double getHeight() {
15 return height;
16 }
17 public void setHeight(double height) {
18 this.height = height;
19 }
20 public double getVolume() {
21 return getArea()*height; // Use Circle's getArea()
22 }
23 }

A Test Drive Program: TestCylinder.java

1 // A test driver program for Cylinder class
2 public class TestCylinder {
3 public static void main(String[] args) {
4 Cylinder cy1 = new Cylinder(); // Use constructor 1
5 System.out.println("Radius is " + cy1.getRadius()
6 + " Height is " + cy1.getHeight()
7 + " Color is " + cy1.getColor()
8 + " Base area is " + cy1.getArea()
9 + " Volume is " + cy1.getVolume());
10
11 Cylinder cy2 = new Cylinder(5.0, 2.0); // Use constructor 2
12 System.out.println("Radius is " + cy2.getRadius()
13 + " Height is " + cy2.getHeight()
14 + " Color is " + cy2.getColor()
15 + " Base area is " + cy2.getArea()
16 + " Volume is " + cy2.getVolume());
17 }
18 }

Keep the "Cylinder.java" and "TestCylinder.java" in the same directory as "Circle.class" (because we are
reusing the class Circle). Compile and run the program. The expected output is as follows:

Radius is 1.0 Height is 1.0 Color is red Base area is 3.141592653589793 Volume is 3.141592653589793
Radius is 5.0 Height is 2.0 Color is red Base area is 78.53981633974483 Volume is 157.07963267948966

2.2 Method Overriding & Variable Hiding

A subclass inherits all the member variables and methods from its superclasses (the immediate parent and all its
ancestors). It can use the inherited methods and variables as they are. It may also override an inherited method by
providing its own version, or hide an inherited variable by defining a variable of the same name.

For example, the inherited method getArea() in a Cylinder object computes the base area of the cylinder. Suppose
that we decide to override the getArea() to compute the surface area of the cylinder in the subclass Cylinder. Below
are the changes:

1 public class Cylinder extends Circle {

2 ......
3 // override the getArea() method inherited from superclass Circle
4 @Override
5 public double getArea() {

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6 return 2*Math.PI*getRadius()*height + 2*super.getArea();

7 }
8 // need to change the getVolume() as well
9 public double getVolume() {
10 return super.getArea()*height; // use superclass' getArea()
11 }
12 // override the inherited toString()
13 @Override
14 public String toString() {
15 return "Cylinder: radius = " + getRadius() + " height = " + height;
16 }
17 }

If getArea() is called from a Circle object, it computes the area of the circle. If getArea() is called from a
Cylinder object, it computes the surface area of the cylinder using the overridden implementation. Note that you have
to use public accessor method getRadius() to retrieve the radius of the Circle, because radius is declared
private and therefore not accessible to other classes, including the subclass Cylinder.

But if you override the getArea() in the Cylinder, the getVolume() (=getArea()*height) no longer works. It is
because the overridden getArea() will be used in Cylinder, which does not compute the base area. You can fix this
problem by using super.getArea() to use the superclass' version of getArea(). Note that super.getArea() can
only be issued from the subclass definition, but no from an instance created, e.g. c1.super.getArea(), as it break the
information hiding and encapsulation principle.

2.3 Annotation @Override (JDK 1.5)

The "@Override" is known as annotation (introduced in JDK 1.5), which asks compiler to check whether there is such a
method in the superclass to be overridden. This helps greatly if you misspell the name of the method to be overridden.
For example, suppose that you wish to override method toString() in a subclass. If @Override is not used and
toString() is misspelled as TOString(), it will be treated as a new method in the subclass, instead of overriding the
superclass. If @Override is used, the compiler will signal an error.

@Override annotation is optional, but certainly nice to have.

Annotations are not programming constructs. They have no effect on the program output. It is only used by the
compiler, discarded after compilation, and not used by the runtime.

2.4 Keyword "super"

Recall that inside a class definition, you can use the keyword this to refer to this instance. Similarly, the keyword super
refers to the superclass, which could be the immediate parent or its ancestor.

The keyword super allows the subclass to access superclass' methods and variables within the subclass' definition. For
example, super() and super(argumentList) can be used invoke the superclass’ constructor. If the subclass
overrides a method inherited from its superclass, says getArea(), you can use super.getArea() to invoke the
superclass' version within the subclass definition. Similarly, if your subclass hides one of the superclass' variable, you
can use super.variableName to refer to the hidden variable within the subclass definition.

2.5 More on Constructors

Recall that the subclass inherits all the variables and methods from its superclasses. Nonetheless, the subclass does not
inherit the constructors of its superclasses. Each class in Java defines its own constructors.

In the body of a constructor, you can use super(args) to invoke a constructor of its immediate superclass. Note that
super(args), if it is used, must be the first statement in the subclass' constructor. If it is not used in the constructor,

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Java compiler automatically insert a super() statement to invoke the no-arg constructor of its immediate superclass.
This follows the fact that the parent must be born before the child can be born. You need to properly construct the
superclasses before you can construct the subclass.

2.6 Default no-arg Constructor

If no constructor is defined in a class, Java compiler automatically create a no-argument (no-arg) constructor, that simply
issues a super() call, as follows:

// If no constructor is defined in a class, compiler inserts this no-arg constructor

public ClassName () {
super(); // call the superclass' no-arg constructor
}

Take note that:

The default no-arg constructor will not be automatically generated, if one (or more) constructor was defined. In
other words, you need to define no-arg constructor explicitly if other constructors were defined.
If the immediate superclass does not have the default constructor (it defines some constructors but does not define
a no-arg constructor), you will get a compilation error in doing a super() call. Note that Java compiler inserts a
super() as the first statement in a constructor if there is no super(args).

2.7 Single Inheritance

Java does not support multiple inheritance (C++ does). Multiple inheritance permits a subclass to have more than one
direct superclasses. This has a serious drawback if the superclasses have conflicting implementation for the same
method. In Java, each subclass can have one and only one direct superclass, i.e., single inheritance. On the other hand,
a superclass can have many subclasses.

2.8 Common Root Class - java.lang.Object

Java adopts a so-called common-root approach. All Java classes are derived from a common root class called
java.lang.Object. This Object class defines and implements the common behaviors that are required of all the Java
objects running under the JRE. These common behaviors enable the implementation of features such as multi-
threading and garbage collector.

3. More Examples on Inheritance

3.1 Example: Point3D

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Superclass Point.java
As in above example.

Subclass Point3D.java
1 // Define Point3D, subclass of Point
2 public class Point3D extends Point {
3 // Private member variable
4 private int z;
5
6 // Constructors
7 public Point3D() { // default no-arg constructor
8 super(); // Call superclass' no-arg constructor Point()
9 z = 0;
10 }
11 public Point3D(int x, int y, int z) {
12 super(x, y); // Call superclass' Point(x, y)
13 this.z = z;
14 }
15
16 // Public getter/setter for private variable
17 public int getZ() {
18 return z;
19 }
20 public void setZ(int z) {
21 this.z = z;
22 }
23
24 // toString() to describe itself
25 @Override
26 public String toString() {
27 return "(" + super.getX() + "," + super.getY() + "," + z + ")";
28 }
29 }

A Test Driver Program: TestPoint3D.java

1 // A test driver program for Point3D class
2 public class TestPoint3D {
3 public static void main(String[] args) {
4 Point3D p1 = new Point3D(1, 2, 3);
5 System.out.println(p1);
6 System.out.println(p1.getX()); // Inherited from superclass
7 System.out.println(p1.getY()); // Inherited from superclass
8 System.out.println(p1.getZ()); // this class

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9 p1.setX(4); // Inherited from superclass

10 p1.setY(5); // Inherited from superclass
11 p1.setZ(6); // this class
12 System.out.println(p1);
13 }
14 }

3.2 Example: Person and its subclasses

Suppose that we
are required to
model students
and teachers in
our application.
We can define a
superclass called
Person to store
common
properties such as
name and
address, and
subclasses
Student and
Teacher for their
specific properties.
For students, we
need to maintain
the courses taken
and their
respective grades;
add a course with
grade, print all
courses taken and
the average grade.
A student takes no more than 30 courses for the entire program. For teachers, we need to maintain the courses taught
currently, and able to add or remove a course taught. A teacher teaches not more than 5 courses concurrently.

We design the classes as follows.

Superclass Person.java
// Define superclass Person
public class Person {
// Instance variables
private String name;
private String address;

// Constructor
public Person(String name, String address) {
this.name = name;
this.address = address;
}

// Getters
public String getName() {

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return name;
}
public String getAddress() {
return address;
}

public String toString() {

return name + "(" + address + ")";
}
}

// Define Student class, subclass of Person

public class Student extends Person {
// Instance variables
private int numCourses; // number of courses taken so far, max 30
private String[] courses; // course codes
private int[] grades; // grade for the corresponding course codes
private static final int MAX_COURSES = 30; // maximum number of courses

// Constructor
public Student(String name, String address) {
super(name, address);
numCourses = 0;
courses = new String[MAX_COURSES];
grades = new int[MAX_COURSES];
}

@Override
public String toString() {
return "Student: " + super.toString();
}

// Add a course and its grade - No validation in this method

public void addCourseGrade(String course, int grade) {
courses[numCourses] = course;
grades[numCourses] = grade;
++numCourses;
}

// Print all courses taken and their grade

public void printGrades() {
System.out.print(this);
for (int i = 0; i < numCourses; ++i) {
System.out.print(" " + courses[i] + ":" + grades[i]);
}
System.out.println();
}

// Compute the average grade

public double getAverageGrade() {
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < numCourses; i++ ) {
sum += grades[i];
}
return (double)sum/numCourses;
}
}

// Define class Teacher, subclass of Person

public class Teacher extends Person {

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// Instance variables
private int numCourses; // number of courses taught currently
private String[] courses; // course codes
private static final int MAX_COURSES = 10; // maximum courses

// Constructor
public Teacher(String name, String address) {
super(name, address);
numCourses = 0;
courses = new String[MAX_COURSES];
}

@Override
public String toString() {
return "Teacher: " + super.toString();
}

// Return false if duplicate course to be added

public boolean addCourse(String course) {
// Check if the course already in the course list
for (int i = 0; i < numCourses; i++) {
if (courses[i].equals(course)) return false;
}
courses[numCourses] = course;
numCourses++;
return true;
}

// Return false if the course does not in the course list

public boolean removeCourse(String course) {
// Look for the course index
int courseIndex = numCourses;
for (int i = 0; i < numCourses; i++) {
if (courses[i].equals(course)) {
courseIndex = i;
break;
}
}
if (courseIndex == numCourses) { // cannot find the course to be removed
return false;
} else { // remove the course and re-arrange for courses array
for (int i = courseIndex; i < numCourses-1; i++) {
courses[i] = courses[i+1];
}
numCourses--;
return true;
}
}
}

// A test driver program for Person and its subclasses

public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Test Student class
Student s1 = new Student("Tan Ah Teck", "1 Happy Ave");
s1.addCourseGrade("IM101", 97);
s1.addCourseGrade("IM102", 68);
s1.printGrades();
System.out.println("Average is " + s1.getAverageGrade());

// Test Teacher class

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Teacher t1 = new Teacher("Paul Tan", "8 sunset way");

System.out.println(t1);
String[] courses = {"IM101", "IM102", "IM101"};
for (String course: courses) {
if (t1.addCourse(course)) {
System.out.println(course + " added.");
} else {
System.out.println(course + " cannot be added.");
}
}
for (String course: courses) {
if (t1.removeCourse(course)) {
System.out.println(course + " removed.");
} else {
System.out.println(course + " cannot be removed.");
}
}
}
}

Student: Tan Ah Teck(1 Happy Ave) IM101:97 IM102:68

Average is 82.5
Teacher: Paul Tan(8 sunset way)
IM101 added.
IM102 added.
IM101 cannot be added.
IM101 removed.
IM102 removed.
IM101 cannot be removed.

3.3 Exercises
LINK TO EXERCISES

4. Composition vs. Inheritance

4.1 "A line is composed of 2 points" vs. "A line is a point extended by
another point"
Recall that there are two ways of reusing existing classes: composition and inheritance. We have seen that a Line class
can be implemented using composition of Point class - "A line is composed of two points".

A Line can also be implemented, using inheritance, from the

Point class - "A line is a point extended by another point". Let's
call this subclass LineSub (to differentiate from the Line class
using composition).

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Superclass Point.java
As above.

Subclass LineSub.java
1 // Define class LineSub, subclass of Point
2 public class LineSub extends Point { // Inherited the begin point
3 // Private member variables
4 Point end; // Declare end as instance of Point
5
6 // Constructors
7 public LineSub(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2) {
8 super(x1, y1);
9 end = new Point(x2, y2); // Construct Point instances
10 }
11 public LineSub(Point begin, Point end) {
12 super(begin.getX(), begin.getY());
13 this.end = end;
14 }
15
16 // Public getter and setter for private variables
17 public Point getBegin() {
18 return this; // upcast to Point (polymorphism)
19 }
20 public Point getEnd() {
21 return end;
22 }
23 public void setBegin(Point begin) {
24 super.setX(begin.getX());
25 super.setY(begin.getY());
26 }
27 public void setEnd(Point end) {
28 this.end = end;
29 }
30
31 public int getBeginX() {
32 return super.getX(); // inherited, super is optional
33 }

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34 public void setBeginX(int x) {

35 super.setX(x); // inherited, super is optional
36 }
37 public int getBeginY() {
38 return super.getY();
39 }
40 public void setBeginY(int y) {
41 super.setY(y);
42 }
43 public void setBeginXY(int x, int y) {
44 super.setX(x);
45 super.setY(y);
46 }
47 public int getEndX() {
48 return end.getX();
49 }
50 public void setEndX(int x) {
51 end.setX(x);
52 }
53 public int getEndY() {
54 return end.getY();
55 }
56 public void setEndY(int y) {
57 end.setY(y);
58 }
59 public void setEndXY(int x, int y) {
60 end.setX(x);
61 end.setY(y);
62 }
63
64 public String toString() {
65 return "Line from " + super.toString() + " to " + end;
66 }
67
68 public double getLength() {
69 int xDiff = super.getX() - end.getX();
70 int yDiff = super.getY() - end.getY();
71 return Math.sqrt(xDiff*xDiff + yDiff*yDiff);
72 }
73 }

A Test Driver Program: TestLineSub.java

1 public class TestLineSub {
2 public static void main(String[] args) {
3 LineSub l1 = new LineSub(0, 3, 4, 0);
4 System.out.println(l1); // toString()
5 System.out.println(l1.getLength());
6 l1.setBeginXY(1, 2);
7 l1.setEndXY(3, 4);
8 System.out.println(l1);
9
10 Point p1 = new Point(3, 0);
11 Point p2 = new Point(0, 4);
12 LineSub l2 = new LineSub(p1, p2);
13 System.out.println(l2);
14 System.out.println(l2.getLength());
15 l2.setBegin(new Point(5, 6));
16 l2.setEnd(new Point(7, 8));
17 System.out.println(l2);
18 }

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19 }

Study both versions of the Line class (Line and LineSub). I suppose that it is easier to say that "A line is composed of
two points" than that "A line is a point extended by another point".

Rule of Thumb: Use composition if possible, before considering inheritance.

4.2 Exercises
LINK TO EXERCISES ON COMPOSITION VS INHERITANCE

5. Polymorphism
The word "polymorphism" means "many forms". It comes from Greek word "poly" (means many) and "morphos" (means
form). For examples, in chemistry, carbon exhibits polymorphism because it can be found in more than one form:
graphite and diamond. Each of the form has it own distinct properties.

5.1 Substitutability
A subclass possesses all the attributes and operations of its
superclass (because a subclass inherited all attributes and
operations from its superclass). This means that a subclass
object can do whatever its superclass can do. As a result, we
can substitute a subclass instance when a superclass instance
is expected, and everything shall work fine. This is called
substitutability.

In our earlier example of Circle and Cylinder: Cylinder is

a subclass of Circle. We can say that Cylinder "is-a"
Circle (actually, it "is-more-than-a" Circle). Subclass-
superclass exhibits a so called "is-a" relationship.

Via substitutability, we can create an instance of Cylinder,

and assign it to a Circle (its superclass) reference, as follows:

// Substitute a subclass instance to its superclass reference

Circle c1 = new Cylinder(5.0);

You can invoke all the methods defined in the Circle class
for the reference c1, (which is actually holding a Cylinder object), e.g. c1.getRadius() and c1.getColor(). This is
because a subclass instance possesses all the properties of its superclass.

However, you cannot invoke methods defined in the Cylinder class for the reference c1, e.g. c1.getHeight() and
c1.getVolume(). This is because c1 is a reference to the Circle class, which does not know about methods defined
in the subclass Cylinder.

c1 is a reference to the Circle class, but holds an object of its subclass Cylinder. The reference c1, however, retains
its internal identity. In our example, the subclass Cylinder overrides methods getArea() and toString().
c1.getArea() or c1.toString() invokes the overridden version defined in the subclass Cylinder, instead of the
version defined in Circle. This is because c1 is in fact holding a Cylinder object internally.

Summary
1. A subclass instance can be assigned (substituted) to a superclass' reference.

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2. Once substituted, we can invoke methods defined in the superclass; we cannot invoke methods defined in the
subclass.
3. However, if the subclass overrides inherited methods from the superclass, the subclass (overridden) versions will
be invoked.

5.2 Upcasting & Downcasting

Upcasting a Subclass Instance to a Superclass Reference

Substituting a subclass instance for its superclass is called "upcasting". This is because, in a UML class diagram, subclass
is often drawn below its superclass. Upcasting is always safe because a subclass instance possesses all the properties of
its superclass and can do whatever its superclass can do. The compiler checks for valid upcasting and issues error
"incompatible types" otherwise. For example,

Circle c1 = new Cylinder(); // Compiler checks to ensure that R-value is a subclass of L-value.
Circle c2 = new String(); // Compilation error: incompatible types

Downcasting a Substituted Reference to Its Original Class

You can revert a substituted instance back to a subclass reference. This is called "downcasting". For example,

Cycle c1 = new Cylinder(5.0); // upcast is safe

Cylinder aCylinder = (Cylinder) c1; // downcast needs the casting operator

Downcasting requires explicit type casting operator in the form of prefix operator (new-type). Downcasting is not
always safe, and throws a runtime ClassCastException if the instance to be downcasted does not belong to the
correct subclass. A subclass object can be substituted for its superclass, but the reverse is not true.

Compiler may not be able to detect error in explicit cast, which will be detected only at runtime. For example,

Circle c1 = new Circle(5);

Point p1 = new Point();

c1 = p1; // compilation error: incompatible types (Point is not a subclass of Circle)

c1 = (Circle)p1; // runtime error: java.lang.ClassCastException: Point cannot be casted to Circle

5.3 The "instanceof" Operator

Java provides a binary operator called instanceof which returns true if an object is an instance of a particular class.
The syntax is as follows:

anObject instanceof aClass

Circle c1 = new Circle();

System.out.println(c1 instanceof Circle); // true

if (c1 instanceof Cirlce) { ...... }

An instance of subclass is also an instance of its superclass. For example,

Circle c1 = new Circle(5);

Cylinder cy1 = new Cylinder(5, 2);
System.out.println(c1 instanceof Circle); // true
System.out.println(c1 instanceof Cylinder); // false
System.out.println(cy1 instanceof Cylinder); // true
System.out.println(cy1 instanceof Circle); // true

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Circle c2 = new Cylinder(5, 2);

System.out.println(c2 instanceof Circle); // true
System.out.println(c2 instanceof Cylinder); // true

5.4 Summary of Polymorphism

1. A subclass instance processes all the attributes operations of its superclass. When a superclass instance is
expected, it can be substituted by a subclass instance. In other words, a reference to a class may hold an instance
of that class or an instance of one of its subclasses - it is called substitutability.
2. If a subclass instance is assign to a superclass reference, you can invoke the methods defined in the superclass
only. You cannot invoke methods defined in the subclass.
3. However, the substituted instance retains its own identity in terms of overridden methods and hiding variables. If
the subclass overrides methods in the superclass, the subclass's version will be executed, instead of the
superclass's version.

5.5 Example on Polymorphism

Polymorphism is very powerful in OOP to separate the interface and implementation so as to allow the programmer to
program at the interface in the design of a complex system.

Consider the following example. Suppose that our program uses

many kinds of shapes, such as triangle, rectangle and so on. We
should design a superclass called Shape, which defines the public
interface (or behaviors) of all the shapes. For example, we would like
all the shapes to have a method called getArea(), which returns the
area of that particular shape. The Shape class can be written as
follow.

Shape.java
// Define superclass Shape
public class Shape {
// Private member variable
private String color;

// Constructor
public Shape (String color) {
this.color = color;
}

@Override
public String toString() {
return "Shape of color=\"" + color + "\"";
}

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// All shapes must has a method called getArea()

public double getArea() {
System.err.println("Shape unknown! Cannot compute area!");
return 0; // Need a return to compile the program
}
}

Take note that we have a problem on writing the getArea() method in the Shape class, because the area cannot be
computed unless the actual shape is known. We shall print an error message for the time being. In the later section, I
shall show you how to resolve this problem.

We can then derive subclasses, such as Triangle and Rectangle, from the superclass Shape.

Rectangle.java
// Define Rectangle, subclass of Shape
public class Rectangle extends Shape {
// Private member variables
private int length;
private int width;

// Constructor
public Rectangle(String color, int length, int width) {
super(color);
this.length = length;
this.width = width;
}

@Override
public String toString() {
return "Rectangle of length=" + length + " and width=" + width + ", subclass of " + super.toString();
}

@Override
public double getArea() {
return length*width;
}
}

Triangle.java
// Define Triangle, subclass of Shape
public class Triangle extends Shape {
// Private member variables
private int base;
private int height;

// Constructor
public Triangle(String color, int base, int height) {
super(color);
this.base = base;
this.height = height;
}

@Override
public String toString() {
return "Triangle of base=" + base + " and height=" + height + ", subclass of " + super.toString();
}

@Override

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public double getArea() {

return 0.5*base*height;
}
}

The subclasses override the getArea() method inherited from the superclass, and provide the proper implementations
for getArea().

TestShape.java
In our application, we could create references of Shape, and assigned them instances of subclasses, as follows:

// A test driver program for Shape and its subclasses

public class TestShape {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Shape s1 = new Rectangle("red", 4, 5);
System.out.println(s1);
System.out.println("Area is " + s1.getArea());

Shape s2 = new Triangle("blue", 4, 5);

System.out.println(s2);
System.out.println("Area is " + s2.getArea());
}
}

The beauty of this code is that all the references are from the superclass (i.e., programming at the interface level). You
could instantiate different subclass instance, and the code still works. You could extend your program easily by adding
in more subclasses, such as Circle, Square, etc, with ease.

Nonetheless, the above definition of Shape class poses a problem, if someone instantiate a Shape object and invoke
the getArea() from the Shape object, the program breaks.

public class TestShape {

public static void main(String[] args) {
// Constructing a Shape instance poses problem!
Shape s3 = new Shape("green");
System.out.println(s3);
System.out.println("Area is " + s3.getArea());
}
}

This is because the Shape class is meant to provide a common interface to all its subclasses, which are supposed to
provide the actual implementation. We do not want anyone to instantiate a Shape instance. This problem can be
resolved by using the so-called abstract class.

6. Abstract Classes & Interfaces

6.1 The abstract Method

An abstract method is a method with only signature (i.e., the method name, the list of arguments and the return type)
without implementation (i.e., the method’s body). You use the keyword abstract to declare an abstract method.

For example, in the Shape class, we can declare three abstract methods getArea(), draw(), as follows:

abstract public class Shape {

......
public abstract double getArea();

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public abstract void draw();

}

Implementation of these methods is not possible in the Shape class, as the actual shape is not yet known. (How to
compute the area if the shape is not known?) Implementation of these abstract methods will be provided later once
the actual shape is known. These abstract methods cannot be invoked because they have no implementation.

6.2 The abstract Class

A class containing one or more
abstract methods is called an
abstract class. An abstract class
must be declared with a class-modifier
abstract. Let rewrite our Shape class
as an abstract class, containing an
abstract method getArea() as
follows:

Shape.java
abstract public class Shape {
// Private member variable
private String color;

// Constructor
public Shape (String color) {
this.color = color;
}

@Override
public String toString() {
return "Shape of color=\"" + color + "\"";
}

// All Shape subclasses must implement a method called getArea()

abstract public double getArea();
}

An abstract class is incomplete in its definition, since the implementation of its abstract methods is missing.
Therefore, an abstract class cannot be instantiated. In other words, you cannot create instances from an abstract
class (otherwise, you will have an incomplete instance with missing method's body).

To use an abstract class, you have to derive a subclass from the abstract class. In the derived subclass, you have to
override the abstract methods and provide implementation to all the abstract methods. The subclass derived is now
complete, and can be instantiated. (If a subclass does not provide implementation to all the abstract methods of the
superclass, the subclass remains abstract.)

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This property of the abstract class solves our earlier problem. In other words, you can create instances of the
subclasses such as Triangle and Rectangle, and upcast them to Shape (so as to program and operate at the
interface level), but you cannot create instance of Shape, which avoid the pitfall that we have faced. For example,

public class TestShape {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Shape s1 = new Rectangle("red", 4, 5);
System.out.println(s1);
System.out.println("Area is " + s1.getArea());

Shape s2 = new Triangle("blue", 4, 5);

System.out.println(s2);
System.out.println("Area is " + s2.getArea());

// Cannot create instance of an abstract class

Shape s3 = new Shape("green"); // Compilation Error!!
}
}

In summary, an abstract class provides a template for further development. The purpose of an abstract class is to
provide a common interface (or protocol, or contract, or understanding, or naming convention) to all its subclasses. For
example, in the abstract class Shape, you can define abstract methods such as getArea() and draw(). No
implementation is possible because the actual shape is not known. However, by specifying the signature of the
abstract methods, all the subclasses are forced to use these methods' signature. The subclasses could provide the
proper implementations.

Coupled with polymorphism, you can upcast subclass instances to Shape, and program at the Shape level, i,e., program
at the interface. The separation of interface and implementation enables better software design, and ease in expansion.
For example, Shape defines a method called getArea(), which all the subclasses must provide the correct
implementation. You can ask for a getArea() from any subclasses of Shape, the correct area will be computed.
Furthermore, you application can be extended easily to accommodate new shapes (such as Circle or Square) by
deriving more subclasses.

Rule of Thumb: Program at the interface, not at the implementation. (That is, make references at the superclass;
substitute with subclass instances; and invoke methods defined in the superclass only.)

Notes:
An abstract method cannot be declared final, as final method cannot be overridden. An abstract method, on
the other hand, must be overridden in a descendent before it can be used.
An abstract method cannot be private (which generates a compilation error). This is because private method
are not visible to the subclass and thus cannot be overridden.

6.3 The interface

A Java interface is a 100% abstract superclass which define a set of methods its subclasses must support. An
interface contains only public abstract methods (methods with signature and no implementation) and possibly
constants (public static final variables). You have to use the keyword "interface" to define an interface
(instead of keyword "class" for normal classes). The keyword public and abstract are not needed for its abstract
methods as they are mandatory.

An interface is a contract for what the classes can do. It, however, does not specify how the classes should do it.

Interface Naming Convention: Use an adjective (typically ends with "able") consisting of one or more words.
Each word shall be initial capitalized (camel-case). For example, Serializable, Extenalizable, Movable, Clonable,
Runnable, etc.

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Example: Movable Interface and its Implementation

Suppose that our application involves many objects that
can move. We could define an interface called movable,
containing the signatures of the various movement
methods.

Interface Moveable.java
public interface Movable {
// abstract methods to be implemented by the subclasses
public void moveUp();
public void moveDown();
public void moveLeft();
public void moveRight();
}

Similar to an abstract class, an interface cannot be instantiated; because it is incomplete (the abstract methods'
body is missing). To use an interface, again, you must derive subclasses and provide implementation to all the abstract
methods declared in the interface. The subclasses are now complete and can be instantiated.

MovablePoint.java
To derive subclasses from an interface, a new keyboard "implements" is to be used instead of "extends" for
deriving subclasses from an ordinary class or an abstract class. It is important to note that the subclass implementing
an interface need to override ALL the abstract methods defined in the interface; otherwise, the subclass cannot be
compiled. For example,

public class MovablePoint implements Movable {

// Private membet variables
private int x, y; // (x, y) coordinates of the point

// Constructor
public MovablePoint(int x, int y) {
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}

@Override
public String toString() {

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return "Point at (" + x + "," + y + ")";

}

// Implement abstract methods defined in the interface Movable

@Override
public void moveUp() {
y--;
}

@Override
public void moveDown() {
y++;
}

@Override
public void moveLeft() {
x--;
}

@Override
public void moveRight() {
x++;
}
}

Other classes in the application can similarly implement the Movable interface and provide their own implementation
to the abstract methods defined in the interface Movable.

TestMovable.java
We can also upcast subclass instances to the Movable interface, via polymorphism, similar to an abstract class.

public class TestMovable {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Movable m1 = new MovablePoint(5, 5); // upcast
System.out.println(m1);
m1.moveDown();
System.out.println(m1);
m1.moveRight();
System.out.println(m1);
}
}

6.4 Implementing Multiple interfaces

As mentioned, Java supports only single inheritance. That is, a subclass can be derived from one and only one
superclass. Java does not support multiple inheritance to avoid inheriting conflicting properties from multiple
superclasses. Multiple inheritance, however, does have its place in programming.

A subclass, however, can implement more than one interfaces. This is permitted in Java as an interface merely defines
the abstract methods without the actual implementations and less likely leads to inheriting conflicting properties from
multiple interfaces. In other words, Java indirectly supports multiple inheritances via implementing multiple interfaces.
For example,

public class Circle extends Shape implements Movable, Displayable { // One superclass but implement multiple in
.......
}

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6.5 interface Formal Syntax

The formal syntax for declaring interface is:

[public|protected|package] interface interfaceName

[extends superInterfaceName] {
// constants
static final ...;

// abstract methods' signature

...
}

All methods in an interface shall be public and abstract (default). You cannot use other access modifier such as
private, protected and default, or modifiers such as static, final.

All fields shall be public, static and final (default).

An interface may "extends" from a super-interface.

UML Notation: The UML notation uses a solid-line arrow linking the subclass to a concrete or abstract superclass,
and dashed-line arrow to an interface as illustrated. Abstract class and abstract method are shown in italics.

6.6 Why interfaces?

An interface is a contract (or a protocol, or a common understanding) of what the classes can do. When a class
implements a certain interface, it promises to provide implementation to all the abstract methods declared in the
interface. Interface defines a set of common behaviors. The classes implement the interface agree to these behaviors
and provide their own implementation to the behaviors. This allows you to program at the interface, instead of the
actual implementation. One of the main usage of interface is provide a communication contract between two objects. If
you know a class implements an interface, then you know that class contains concrete implementations of the methods
declared in that interface, and you are guaranteed to be able to invoke these methods safely. In other words, two
objects can communicate based on the contract defined in the interface, instead of their specific implementation.

Secondly, Java does not support multiple inheritance (whereas C++ does). Multiple inheritance permits you to derive a
subclass from more than one direct superclass. This poses a problem if two direct superclasses have conflicting
implementations. (Which one to follow in the subclass?). However, multiple inheritance does have its place. Java does
this by permitting you to "implements" more than one interfaces (but you can only "extends" from a single superclass).
Since interfaces contain only abstract methods without actual implementation, no conflict can arise among the multiple
interfaces. (Interface can hold constants but is not recommended. If a subclass implements two interfaces with

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conflicting constants, the compiler will flag out a compilation error.)

6.7 Exercises
LINK TO EXERCISES ON POLYMORPHISM, ABSTRACT CLASSES AND INTERFACES

6.8 Dynamic Binding (Late Binding)

We often treat an object not as its own type, but as its base type (superclass or interface). This allows you to write codes
that do not depends on a specific implementation type. In the Shape example, we can always use getArea() and do
not have to worry whether they are triangles or circles.

This, however, poses a new problem. The compiler cannot know at compile time precisely which piece of codes is going
to be executed at run-time (e.g., getArea() has different implementation for Rectangle and Triangle).

In the procedural language like C, the compiler generates a call to a specific function name, and the linkage editor
resolves this call to the absolute address of the code to be executed at run-time. This mechanism is called static binding
(or early binding).

To support polymorphism, object-oriented language uses a different mechanism called dynamic binding (or late-binding
or run-time binding). When a method is invoked, the code to be executed is only determined at run-time. During the
compilation, the compiler checks whether the method exists and performs type check on the arguments and return
type, but does not know which piece of codes to execute at run-time. When a message is sent to an object to invoke a
method, the object figures out which piece of codes to execute at run-time.

Although dynamic binding resolves the problem in supporting polymorphism, it poses another new problem. The
compiler is unable to check whether the type casting operator is safe. It can only be checked during runtime (which
throws a ClassCastException if the type check fails).

JDK 1.5 introduces a new feature called generics to tackle this issue. We shall discuss this problem and generics in
details in the later chapter.

7. Object-Oriented Design Issues

7.1 Encapsulation, Coupling & Cohesion

In OO Design, it is desirable to design classes that are tightly encapsulated, loosely coupled and highly cohesive, so that
the classes are easy to maintain and suitable for re-use.

Encapsulation refers to keeping the data and method inside a class such users do not access the data directly but via the
public methods. Tight encapsulation is desired, which can be achieved by declaring all the variable private, and
providing public getter and setter to the variables. The benefit is you have complete control on how the data is to be
read (e.g., in how format) and how to the data is to be changed (e.g., validation).

[TODO] Example: Time class with private variables hour (0-23), minute (0-59) and second (0-59); getters and setters
(throws IllegalArgumentException). The internal time could also be stored as the number of seconds since
midnight for ease of operation (information hiding).

Information Hiding: Another key benefit of tight encapsulation is information hiding, which means that the users are
not aware (and do not need to be aware) of how the data is stored internally.

The benefit of tight encapsulation out-weights the overhead needed in additional method calls.

Coupling refers to the degree to which one class relies on knowledge of the internals of another class. Tight coupling is
undesirable because if one class changes its internal representations, all the other tightly-coupled classes need to be
rewritten.

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[TODO] Example: A class uses Time and relies on the variables hour, minute and second.

Clearly, Loose Coupling is often associated with tight encapsulation. For example, well-defined public method for
accessing the data, instead of directly access the data.

Cohesion refers to the degree to which a class or method resists being broken down into smaller pieces. High degree of
cohesion is desirable. Each class shall be designed to model a single entity with its focused set of responsibilities and
perform a collection of closely related tasks; and each method shall accomplish a single task. Low cohesion classes are
hard to maintain and re-use.

[TODO] Example of low cohesion: Book and Author in one class, or Car and Driver in one class.

Again, high cohesion is associated with loose coupling. This is because a highly cohesive class has fewer (or minimal)
interactions with other classes.

7.2 "Is-a" vs. "has-a" relationships

"Is-a" relationship: A subclass object processes all the data and methods from its superclass (and it could have more).
We can say that a subclass object is-a superclass object (is more than a superclass object). Refer to "polymorphism".

"has-a" relationship: In composition, a class contains references to other classes, which is known as "has-a" relationship.

You can use "is-a" and 'has-a" to test whether to design the classes using inheritance or composition.

7.3 Program at the interface, not the implementation

Refer to polymorphism

LINK TO JAVA REFERENCES & RESOURCES

Latest version tested: JDK 1.7.0_17

Last modified: April, 2013

Feedback, comments, corrections, and errata can be sent to Chua Hock-Chuan (ehchua@ntu.edu.sg) | HOME

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