Electrical Machines by Abhijit Chakrabarti Sudipta Debnath
Electrical Machines by Abhijit Chakrabarti Sudipta Debnath
Electrical Machines by Abhijit Chakrabarti Sudipta Debnath
Abhijit Chakrabarti
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology
Shibpur, Howrah, West Bengal
and
Former Vice-Chancellor of Jadavpur University
Former Vice-Chairman and Chairman (acting),
West Bengal State Council of Higher Education, West Bengal.
Sudipta Debnath
Associate Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering
Jadavpur University, Kolkata
Qvcmjtife!cz!NdHsbx!Ijmm!Fevdbujpo!)Joejb*!Qsjwbuf!Mjnjufe-!!
Q.35-!Hsffo!Qbsl!Fyufotjpo-!Ofx!Efmij!221!127-
Electrical Machines
Dpqzsjhiu!©!3126-!cz!NdHsbx!Ijmm!Fevdbujpo!)Joejb*!Qsjwbuf!Mjnjufe/!
Op!qbsu!pg!uijt!qvcmjdbujpo!nbz!cf!sfqspevdfe!ps!ejtusjcvufe!jo!boz!gpsn!ps!cz!boz!nfbot-!fmfduspojd-!nfdibojdbm-!
qipupdpqzjoh-!sfdpsejoh-!ps!puifsxjtf!ps!tupsfe!jo!b!ebubcbtf!ps!sfusjfwbm!tztufn!xjuipvu!uif!qsjps!xsjuufo!qfsnjttjpo!pg!
uif!qvcmjtifst/!Uif!qsphsbn!mjtujoht!)jg!boz*!nbz!cf!foufsfe-!tupsfe!boe!fyfdvufe!jo!b!dpnqvufs!tztufn-!cvu!uifz!nbz!opu!
cf!sfqspevdfe!gps!qvcmjdbujpo/
Uijt!fejujpo!dbo!cf!fyqpsufe!gspn!Joejb!pomz!cz!uif!qvcmjtifst-
NdHsbx!Ijmm!Fevdbujpo!)Joejb*!Qsjwbuf!Mjnjufe/
Qsjou!Fejujpo;
JTCO.24;!:89.2.36:.11756.7
JTCO.21;!2.36:.11756.Y
F.cppl!Fejujpo;
JTCO.24;!:89.:4.4:3.3116.2!!
JTCO.21;!:4.4:3.3116.7
Nbobhjoh!Ejsfdups;!Lbvtijl!Cfmmboj
IfbeÐIjhifs!Fevdbujpo!)Qvcmjtijoh!boe!Nbslfujoh*;!Wjcib!Nbibkbo
Tfojps!Qvcmjtijoh!Nbobhfs!)TFN!'!Ufdi/!Fe/*;!Tibmjoj!Kib
Bttjtubou!Tqpotpsjoh!Fejups;!Lpzfm!Hipti
NbobhfsÐQspevdujpo!Tztufnt;!Tbujoefs!T!Cbwfkb
Bttjtubou!NbobhfsÐFejupsjbm!Tfswjdft;!Tpijoj!Nvlifskff
Tfojps!Qspevdujpo!Fyfdvujwf;!Tvibjc!Bmj
Bttjtubou!Hfofsbm!Nbobhfs!)Nbslfujoh*ÐIjhifs!Fevdbujpo;!Wjkbz!Tbsbuij
Bttjtubou!Qspevdu!Nbobhfs!)TFN!'!Ufdi/!Fe/*;!Ujob!Kbkpsjzb
Tfojps!Hsbqijd!EftjhofsÐDpwfs;!Nffov!Sbhibw
Hfofsbm!NbobhfsÐQspevdujpo;!Sbkfoefs!Q!Hibotfmb
NbobhfsÐQspevdujpo;!Sfkj!Lvnbs
Jogpsnbujpo!dpoubjofe!jo!uijt!xpsl!ibt!cffo!pcubjofe!cz!NdHsbx!Ijmm!Fevdbujpo!)Joejb*-!gspn!tpvsdft!cfmjfwfe!up!cf!
sfmjbcmf/!Ipxfwfs-!ofjuifs!NdHsbx!Ijmm!Fevdbujpo!)Joejb*!ops!jut!bvuipst!hvbsbouff!uif!bddvsbdz!ps!dpnqmfufoftt!pg!boz!
jogpsnbujpo!qvcmjtife!ifsfjo-!boe!ofjuifs!NdHsbx!Ijmm!Fevdbujpo!)Joejb*!ops!jut!bvuipst!tibmm!cf!sftqpotjcmf!gps!boz!fsspst-!
pnjttjpot-!ps!ebnbhft!bsjtjoh!pvu!pg!vtf!pg!uijt!jogpsnbujpo/!Uijt!xpsl!jt!qvcmjtife!xjui!uif!voefstuboejoh!uibu!NdHsbx!
Ijmm!Fevdbujpo!)Joejb*!boe!jut!bvuipst!bsf!tvqqmzjoh!jogpsnbujpo!cvu!bsf!opu!buufnqujoh!up!sfoefs!fohjoffsjoh!ps!puifs!
qspgfttjpobm!tfswjdft/!Jg!tvdi!tfswjdft!bsf!sfrvjsfe-!uif!bttjtubodf!pg!bo!bqqspqsjbuf!qspgfttjpobm!tipvme!cf!tpvhiu/
Typeset at Tej Composers, WZ 391, Madipur, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at
Dpwfs!Eftjho;!
Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in
Efejdbufe
up
Pvs!Dijmesfo
Bhojnjusp!boe!Bovtilb
CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Index I.1–I.7
PREFACE
In any mechanized industry, electrical machines are the backbone of the system. A course in
electrical machines is usually a compulsory component in the syllabus of electrical engineering.
This book is intended to serve as a textbook for the subject of electrical machines for graduate and
postgraduate curricula in electrical engineering. It will also serve as a text for students of diploma
level in electrical engineering. This book on electrical machines will be useful to the candidates
appearing for GATE, UPSC Engineering Services, IAS Entrance Examinations, AMIE, IETE and
other competitive examinations. The text of this book is arranged along with numerical problems in
such a way that this book proves helpful to practicing engineers to understand the basics or to brush
up theoretical application aspects of electrical machines.
The study of electrical machines will continue to remain a core subject in electrical engineering,
both at degree and diploma levels. The syllabi of electrical engineering in universities and institutes
are mostly centred around rotating machines, transformers and some special machines. This book
presents simple, explicit, rigorous and comprehensive treatment of transformers and electrical
machines in a single volume. Considerable emphasis has been given to fundamental aspects,
physical concepts, principles, circuit models, derivations and applications of transformers and
electrical machines. The material presented in each chapter progresses from established principles
to advanced topics. A large number of review problems have been added at the end of each chapter.
In order to motivate the students, the subject material and worked-out problems have been presented
in a systematic order. Once a student acquires a clear understanding of a machine, there is a need
to develop the necessary equations associated with numerical problems. This part has been given
utmost care in the present book. This book covers all the essential ingredients of electrical-machine
learning expected in a graduate and undergraduate course in electrical engineering.
! ywjjj Qsfgbdf
Tbmjfou!Gfbuvsft
The main highlights of this book are the following:
� Focus on constructional details of machines
� Thorough coverage of special machines
� Application-based approach to prepare for a course on drives
� Theoretical treatise supplemented with numerous examples of descriptive, analytical, and
mathematical types
� One complete chapter dedicated to competitive examinations preparatory material
� Rich pedagogy
Illustrations: 300
Solved examples: 400
Practice questions: 250
Total problems: 881
Dibqufs!Pshboj{bujpo
The content is organized in eleven chapters.
Chapter 1 presents fundamental concepts of electromagnetism related to electrical machines. It ex-
plains the basic principles of generating and motoring actions. It also explains the working principle
of all common types of rotating electrical machines from the view of magnetic field alignment.
Basic principles of electromechanical energy-conversion devices are examined elaborately. This
chapter also includes practical issues common to all electrical machines such as losses, efficiency,
cooling, etc.
Chapter 2 is devoted to the study of dc generators and dc motors. In-depth discussion on construc-
tion, operation, characteristics, testing, starting and braking phenomenon of dc machines have been
carried out in this chapter. Explanation of the phenomena such as armature reaction and commuta-
tion along with winding details of dc machines are presented here. The dynamic behaviour of a dc
motor during loading, unloading and speed adjustment have also been included in this chapter.
Chapters 3 and 4 describe the construction, principle and different operational aspects of single-
phase and three-phase transformers respectively. The phasor diagrams, equivalent circuit, tests for
determination of equivalent circuit parameters, losses, voltage regulation and cooling phenomenon
have been elaborately discussed. The harmonic phenomena in a three-phase transformer and vec-
tor grouping have also been presented. Operating principles of both single-phase and three-phase
autotransformers have been included here.
Chapter 5 provides in-depth discussion on fundamental aspects of ac rotating machines which are
common to all types of rotating ac machines. General expressions for emf and torque are derived.
The mmf produced by different types of windings in ac rotating machines has been explained with
appropriate diagrams.
Qsfgbdf yjy
Pomjof!Mfbsojoh!Dfoufs
The Online Learning Center can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/chakrabarti/em and contains
the following material:
• Solutions Manual for Instructor’s
The authors are confident that this book will certainly serve students as the most useful textbook
for electrical machines. The authors have used their experience in presenting the basic concepts
involved in the subject in such a way so that students can acquire them thoroughly.
Bdlopxmfehfnfout
The authors acknowledge the support and comments received from their scholars and colleagues
while writing the book.
Sankar Narayan Mahato Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
S N Mahendra Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
! yy Qsfgbdf
Gffecbdl!Sfrvftu
The authors have endeavoured to write and publish an accurate book. There may still be some minor
errors in the book. It is also possible that some sections need further revision or clarification. The
authors welcome any suggestion in this regard for future revisions.
Abhijit Chakrabarti
Sudipta Debnath
Kolkata
QvcmjtifsÕt!Opuf
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be
sent to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
2
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!
Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
JOUSPEVDUJPO! 2/2
An electrical machine is a device that can convert either mechanical energy to electrical energy or
electrical energy to mechanical energy. When such a device is used to convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy, it is called a generator. When it converts electrical energy to mechanical energy,
it is called a motor. Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from one form to
another through the action of a magnetic field, and only machines using magnetic fields to perform
such conversions are considered in this book.
Since Thomas Alva Edison developed an electric generator, more than a hundred years ago, en-
gineers have continually strived and successfully reduced the size and improved the efficiencies of
electric machines by the use of improved materials and optimal design strategies.
The transformer is an electrical device that is closely related to electrical machines. It converts
ac electrical energy at one voltage level to ac electrical energy at another voltage level. Since
transformers operate on the same principles as generators and motors, depending on the action of
a magnetic field to accomplish the change in voltage level, they are usually studied together with
generators and motors.
These three types of electric devices are ubiquitous in modern daily life. Electric motors are
used in home-run refrigerators, freezers, vacuum cleaners, blenders, air conditioners, fans and
many similar appliances. In the workplace, motors provide the motive power for almost all tools.
Of course, generators are necessary to supply the power used by all these motors. Apart from the
application of the transformers in changing the voltage levels during power transmission and dis-
tribution, the transformers are also used extensively in electronic circuits to step down the voltage
levels suitable for the low-voltage circuit.
! 2/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
DMBTTJGJDBUJPO!PG!FMFDUSJDBM!NBDIJOFT!BOE! 2/3
UIFJS!FTTFOUJBM!GFBUVSFT
There are three basic rotating electric machine types, namely
1. the dc machine,
2. the polyphase synchronous machine (ac), and
3. the polyphase induction machine (ac).
Three materials are mainly used in machine manufacture: steel to conduct magnetic flux, copper
(or aluminium) to conduct electric current and insulation to insulate the voltage induced in conduc-
tors confining currents to them.
All electric machines comprise two parts: the cylindrical rotating member called the rotor
and the annular stationary member called the stator with the intervening air gap as illustrated in
Fig. 1.1. The rotor has an axial shaft which is carried on bearings located in end covers bolted to the
stator. The shaft extends out of the end cover usually at one end and is coupled to either the prime
mover or the load.
Air gap
Rotor
Shaft
Stator
Gjh/!2/2! Bo!fmfdusjd!nbdijof
2/3/2! Uif!ed!Nbdijof
In a dc machine, the field poles are on the stator while the rotor is the armature as shown in the
cross-sectional view of Fig. 1.2. The field poles are symmetrical and are even in number, alternately
north and south. As the armature rotates, alternating emf and current induced in the armature wind-
ing are rectified to dc form by rotating mechanical switch called the commutator, which is tapped
by means of stationary carbon brushes. The commutator is cylindrical in shape and comprises
several wedge-shaped copper segments bound together while they are insulated from each other.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/4
The armature is made of laminated steel with slots cut out on the periphery to accommodate the
insulated armature winding. The ends of each armature coil are connected to the commutator seg-
ments to form a closed winding. The armature, when carrying current, produces stationary poles
(same as the number of field poles) which interact with the field poles to produce the electromag-
netic torque.
Main pole
Field winding
Pole shoe
Yoke N
Armature
winding
+ Ia
Va (dc) S S
–
I If
Vf (dc)
N
Commutator Armature
Brushes
Gjh/!2/3! Dsptt.tfdujpobm!wjfx!pg!b!ed!nbdijof
There are two methods of exciting the field windings of dc machines. They are separate exci-
tation and self-excitation. The separately excited field winding consists of several turns of fine
wire and is connected to a separate or external dc source. In self-excitation, the field winding of
the machine is excited by its own armature. In these machines, the field poles must have residual
magnetism. A self-excited machine can have shunt field, series field or both shunt and series fields.
In shunt excitation, the field winding is in parallel with the armature and the field excitation is ob-
tained from the armature voltage. The field winding resistance is high and hence the field current is
low here. In series excitation, the field resistance is low and it is excited in series from the armature
current. In compound excitation, both the series and shunt field are present.
2/3/3! Tzodispopvt!Nbdijof!
A synchronous machine is known as doubly excited ac machine. The field winding of a synchronous
machine is always excited from a dc source. In a synchronous generator, armature winding exports
ac power and in a synchronous motor, the armature winding imports ac power. A synchronous
generator is the most commonly used machine for the generation of electrical power and it is known
! 2/5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
as alternator. It generates alternating voltage which is stepped up and transmitted. The generation of
alternating voltage depends on the relative motion between field flux and armature winding. Like
other electrical rotating machines, a synchronous machine has two main parts: stator and rotor. The
high-power armature winding is placed on the stator slots in the stator core. The low-power field
winding is constructed on the rotor. The construction of a synchronous machine depends upon the
type of the prime mover used to rotate the rotor.
The cross-sectional view of a synchronous machine is shown in Fig. 1.3. The field poles are
excited by direct current. The stator forms the armature carrying a three-phase winding wound for
the same number of poles as the rotor. All the three phases have identical windings with the same
angular displacement between any pair of phases. When the rotor rotates, it produces alternating
emf in each phase forming a balanced set with frequency given by
nP
f= (1.1)
120
where f = Frequency in Hz
n = Rotor speed in rpm
P = Number of field poles
Armature winding
Field winding
N
Ia
3-phase Ib
ac S S
Ic Stator
If
Vf (dc) N
Rotor
Gjh/!2/4! Dsptt.tfdujpobm!wjfx!pg!b!tzodispopvt!nbdijof
For a given number of poles, there is a fixed correspondence between the rotor speed and the
stator frequency; the rotor speed is, therefore, called the synchronous speed. When balanced three-
phase currents are allowed to flow in the armature winding, these produce a synchronously rotating
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/6
field, stationary with respect to the rotor field as a result of which the machine produces torque of
electromagnetic origin. The synchronous motor is, however, nonself-starting.
Depending upon the construction of the rotor, a synchronous machine can be of salient-pole type
and cylindrical-rotor type. In a salient-pole machine, the rotor has projecting poles and they are
much larger in diameter. These machines are suitable for medium speed. A cylindrical rotor consists
of a smooth cylinder having a number of slots for accommodating field coils. These machines are
smaller in diameter and they are larger in axial length. The number of poles on the rotor is generally
two and they can run at very high speed.
2/3/4! Joevdujpo!Nbdijof!
Induction machines can be of two types: induction generator and induction motor. Induction gen-
erator is rarely used as its performance is unsatisfactory and hence in this book, a thorough discus-
sion on induction motor has been done.
The induction motor is the most widely used ac motor in the industry. Similar to other rotating
electrical machines, a three-phase induction motor consists of two main parts: the stator and the ro-
tor. The stator winding is three phase and they are connected either in star and/or in delta. When the
stator winding is excited, it produces a synchronously rotating field. Depending on the construction
of the rotor, an induction motor can be of two types: squirrel cage or simply cage rotor and phase
wound or wound rotor or slip-ring rotors.
2/!Trvjssfm.dbhf!Npups!
Here, the rotor has copper (or aluminium) bars embedded in slots which are short-circuited at each
end as shown in Fig. 1.4(a). It is rugged and economic in construction but develops low starting
torque.
3/!Tmjq.sjoh!)ps!Xpvoe.spups*!Npups
The rotor has a proper three-phase winding with three leads brought out through slip rings and
brushes as shown in Fig. 1.4(b).
These leads are normally short-circuited when the motor is running. Resistances are introduced
in the rotor circuit via the slip rings at the time of starting to improve the starting torque.
! 2/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
End
rings
Brushes
Slip rings
Gjh/!2/5! Joevdujpo.npups!spupst
The rotating field created by the stator winding moves past the shorted rotor conductors induc-
ing currents in the latter. These induced currents produce their own field which rotates at the same
speed (synchronous) with respect to the stator-produced field.
Torque is developed by the interaction of these two relatively stationary fields. The rotor runs
at a speed close to synchronous speed but always slightly lower than it. At the synchronous speed,
no torque can be developed as zero relative speed between the stator field and the rotor implies no
induced rotor currents and, therefore, no torque.
Single-phase ac motors are employed for low-voltage, low-power applications. They are the
fractional kW motors. They operate on the same basic principles as the three-phase motor, but the
pulsating single-phase field produces additional losses, reducing motor torque and the pulsating
torque component increases the noise level of the motor.
An induction machine connected to the mains when driven at super synchronous speed behaves
as a generator feeding power into the electric system. It is used in small hydroelectric stations and
aerospace applications.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/8
2/3/5! Usbotgpsnfs
A transformer is a static electric device comprising two or more electric circuits coupled by a com-
mon magnetic circuit. One electric circuit is connected to alternating voltage source and the other
circuits receive electrical energy through the magnetic circuit. The circuit to which the supply is
connected is known as the primary winding of the transformer. The mutual flux generated by the
primary winding links the other winding known as the secondary winding and induces voltage in
it. The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the number of turns of winding in the primary and
secondary winding. Hence, a transformer is essentially an electric device that transfers electrical
energy from one circuit to another circuit through magnetic medium. Though the voltage and cur-
rent levels in the two circuits are different, the frequency remains constant. The schematic diagram
of a single-phase transformer is shown in Fig. 1.5.
f
V1 V2
Gjh/!2/6! Tdifnbujd!ejbhsbn!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs
The insulation of a machine (or transformer) is its most vulnerable part because it cannot be
stressed beyond a certain temperature. For a given frame size, the steady temperature rise is deter-
mined by the machine loading, the associated power loss (this appears in the form of heat) and the
cooling provided. Thus, the maximum machine loading, called its rating for a given frame size, is
limited by the permissible temperature rise which is dependent upon the class of insulation used. In
the case of high-speed dc machines, poor commutation (reversal of current in armature coils) may
become a limiting factor on account of the centrifugal forces developed. This limit is more stringent
in dc machines with complicated armature construction than in the rugged rotor induction motor.
Because of their high thermal capacity, machines are quite capable of withstanding a fair amount
of overloads for short durations.
JNQPSUBOU!UFSNJOPMPHJFT! 2/4
2/!Bohvmbs!Qptjujpo!q
The angular position q of an object is the angle at which it is oriented, measured from some arbi-
trary reference point. Angular position is usually measured in radians or degrees. It corresponds to
the linear concept of distance along a line.
3/!Bohvmbs!Wfmpdjuz!w
Angular velocity (or speed) is the rate of change in angular position with respect to time. It is as-
sumed positive if the rotation is in a counter-clockwise direction. Angular velocity is the rotational
analog of the concept of velocity on a line. One-dimensional linear velocity along a line is defined
as the rate of change of the displacement along the line (r) with respect to time.
dr
V= (1.2a)
dt
Similarly, angular velocity w is defined as the rate of change of the angular displacement q with
respect to time.
dq
w= (1.2b)
dt
If the units of angular position are radians then angular velocity is measured in radians per sec-
ond.
In dealing with ordinary electric machines, engineers often use units other than radians per sec-
ond to describe shaft speed. Frequently, the speed is given in revolutions per second or revolutions
per minute. Because speed is such an important quantity in the study of machines, it is customary
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/:
to use different symbols for speed when it is expressed in different units. By using these different
symbols, any possible confusion as to the units intended is minimized. The following symbols are
used in this book to describe angular velocity:
wm = Angular velocity expressed in radians per second
fm = Angular velocity expressed in revolutions per second
hm = Angular velocity expressed in revolutions per minute
The subscript m on these symbols indicates a mechanical quantity, as opposed to an electrical
quantity. If there is no possibility of confusion between mechanical and electrical quantities, the
subscript is often left out.
These measures of shaft speed are related to each other by the following equations:
hm = 60 fm (1.3a)
w
fm = m (1.3b)
2p
4/!Bohvmbs!Bddfmfsbujpo!a
Angular acceleration is the rate of change in angular velocity with respect to time. It is assumed
positive if the angular velocity is increasing in an algebraic sense. Angular acceleration is the rota-
tional analog of the concept of acceleration on a line. Just as one-dimensional linear acceleration is
defined by the equation
dv
a= (1.4)
dt
angular acceleration is defined by
dw
a= (1.5)
dt
If the units of angular velocity are radians per second then angular acceleration is measured in
radians per second square.
5/!Upsrvf!t!ps!U
In linear motion, a force applied to an object causes its velocity to change. In the absence of a net
force on the object, its velocity is constant. The greater the force applied to the object, the more
rapidly its velocity changes.
There exists a similar concept of rotation. When an object is rotating, its angular velocity is
constant unless a torque is present on it. The greater the torque on the object, the more rapidly the
angular velocity of the object changes.
! 2/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Torque can loosely be called the “twisting force” on an object. Intuitively, torque is fairly easy to
understand. Imagine a cylinder that is free to rotate about its axis. If a force is applied to the cylin-
der in such a way that its line of action passes through the axis [Fig. 1.6(a)], then the cylinder will
not rotate. However, if the same force is placed so that its line of action passes to the right of the
axis [Fig. 1.6(b)], then the cylinder will tend to rotate in a counter-clockwise direction. The torque
or twisting action on the cylinder depends on (a) the magnitude of the applied force, and (b) the
distance between the axis of rotation and the line of action of the force.
F
F
t
Torque is counter-clockwise
t=0
Torque is zero
(a) (b)
Gjh/!2/7! Upsrvf!jo!dzmjoefs;!)b*!B!gpsdf!bqqmjfe!up!b!dzmjoefs!tp!uibu!ju!qbttft!uispvhi!uif!byjt!pg!
spubujpo/!t!>!1/!)c*!B!gpsdf!bqqmjfe!up!b!dzmjoefs!tp!uibu!jut!mjof!pg!bdujpo!njttft!uif!byjt!pg!
spubujpo/!Ifsf-!t!jt!dpvoufs.dmpdlxjtf/
The torque on an object is defined as the product of the force applied to the object and the small-
est distance between the line of action of the force and the object’s axis of rotation. If r is a vector
pointing from the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force, and if F is the applied
force then the torque can be described as
t = (Force applied) (Perpendicular distance)
= (F) (r sin q)
= r F sin q (1.6)
where q is angle between the vector r and the F. The direction of the torque is clockwise if it would
tend to cause a counter-clockwise rotation (Fig. 1.7).
The units of torque are Newton-metres in SI units and pound-feet in the English system.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/22
r
180° – q
Gjh/!2/8! Efsjwbujpo!pg!uif!frvbujpo!gps!uif!upsrvf!po!bo!pckfdu
6/!OfxupoÕt!Mbx!pg!Spubujpo!
Newton’s law of objects moving along a straight line describes the relationship between the force
applied to an object and its resulting acceleration. This relationship is given by the equation
F = ma (1.7)
where
F = Net force applied to an object
m = Mass of object
a = Resulting acceleration
In SI units, force is measured in newton, mass in kilogram, and acceleration in metre per second
square. In the English system, force is measured in pound, mass in slug and acceleration in foot per
second square.
A similar equation describes the relationship between the torque applied to an object and its
resulting angular acceleration. This relationship, called Newton’s law of rotation, is given by the
equation
t = Ja (1.8)
where t is the net applied torque in newton-metre or pound-feet and a is the resulting angular ac-
celeration in radian per second square. The term J serves the same purpose as an object’s mass in
linear motion. It is called the moment of inertia of the object and is measured in kilogram-metre
square or slug-foot square.
! 2/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
7/!Xpsl!X
For linear motion, work is defined as the application of a force through a distance. In equation form,
W = Ú Fdr (1.9)
where it is assumed that the force is collinear with the direction of motion. For the special case of a
constant force applied collinearly with the direction of motion, this equation becomes just
W = Fr (1.10)
The units of work are joules in SI and foot-pound in the English system. For rotational motion,
work is the application of a torque through an angle. Here, the equation for work is
W =Útdq (1.11)
8/!Qpxfs!Q
Power is the rate of doing work, or the increase in work per unit time. The equation for power is
dW
P= (1.13)
dt
It is usually measured in joule per second (watts), but also can be measured in foot-pound per
second or in horsepower.
By this definition, and assuming that force is constant and collinear with the direction of motion,
power is given by
dW d Ê dq ˆ
P= = (tq ) = t Á ˜ = tw (1.14)
dt dt Ë dt ¯
or, P = tw (1.15)
Equation (1.15) is very important in the study of electric machinery, because it can describe the
mechanical power on the shaft of a motor or generator.
Equation (1.15) is the correct relationship among power, torque and speed if power is measured
in watt, torque in newton-metre and speed in radian per second. If other units are used to measure
any of the above quantities then a constant must be introduced into the equation for unit conversion
factors. It is still common in US engineering practice to measure torque in pound-feet, speed in
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/24
revolution per minutes and power in either watt or horsepower. If the appropriate conversion factors
are included in each term then Eq. (1.15) becomes
t (lb - ft ) ◊ h ◊ ( r /min)
P(watts) = (1.16)
7.04
t (lb - ft ) ◊ h ◊ ( r /min)
P(horsepower) = (1.17)
5252
where torque in measured in pound-foot and speed is measured in revolution per minute.
NBHOFUJD!DJSDVJU! 2/5
There are many basic principles or laws related to electric machines that must be known and well
understood before studying electric machines. This section briefly reviews some of the fundamen-
tals of electricity and magnetism.
Each magnetic circuit, shown in Fig. 1.8 is an arrangement of ferromagnetic materials called a
core that forms a path to contain and guide the magnetic flux in a specific direction.
The core shape shown in Fig. 1.8(a) is used in transformers. Fig. 1.8(b) shows the magnetic cir-
cuit of a simple two-pole motor; it includes a stator core, a rotor core, and air gap. Note that the flux
always takes the shortest path across an air gap.
Rotor iron
f
l
A f
S N
Air gaps
f
Stator
I iron I
+ – + –
E E
(a) (b)
Gjh/!2/9! Nbhofujd!djsdvju;!)b*!Gps!b!usbotgpsnfs!)c*!Gps!b!tjnqmf!uxp.qpmf!npups
! 2/25 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2/5/2! Dpodfqu!pg!Nbhofupnpujwf!Gpsdf!)NNG*
The ampere-turns (A-t) of the respective coils in Fig. 1.8 represent the driving force, called mag-
netomotive force or mmf, that causes a magnetic field to appear in the corresponding magnetic
circuits.
Expressed in equation form,
F = N◊I (1.18)
where F = Magnetomotive force (mmf) in ampere-turns (A-t)
N = Number of turns in coil
I = Current in coil (A)
2/5/3! Dpodfqu!pg!Nbhofujd!Gjfme!Joufotjuz!
Magnetic field intensity, also called mmf gradient, is defined as the magnetomotive force per unit
length of magnetic circuit. The average magnitude of the field intensity in a homogeneous section
of a magnetic circuit is numerically equal to the mmf across the section divided by the effective
length of the magnetic section. That is,
F N ◊I
H= = (1.19)
l l
2/5/4! Dpodfqu!pg!Gmvy!Efotjuz
The flux density is a measure of the concentration of lines of flux in a particular section of a mag-
netic circuit.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/26
2/5/5! Dpodfqu!pg!Sfmvdubodf
A very useful equation that expresses the relationship between magnetic flux, mmf and the reluc-
tance of the magnetic circuit is
F N ◊I
f= = (1.21)
R R
where f = Magnetic flux (Wb)
F = Magnetomotive force (A-t)
R = Reluctance of magnetic circuit (A-t/Wb)
Reluctance R is a measure of the opposition the magnetic circuit offers to the flux and is analo-
gous to resistance in an electric circuit. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit, or section of a mag-
netic circuit, is related to its length, cross-sectional area, and permeability. Solving Eq. (1.21) for R,
dividing numerator and denominator by l, and rearranging terms,
N ◊ I N ◊ I/l H l
R= = = =
f f /l BA/ l ( B / H ) A
Defining
B
m= (1.22)
H
l
R= (1.23)
mA
where B = Flux density (Wb/m2), or tesla (T)
H = Magnetic field intensity (A-t/m)
l = Mean length of magnetic circuit (m)
A = Cross-sectional area (m2)
m = Permeability of material (Wb/A-t.m)
Equation (1.23) applies to a homogeneous section of a magnetic circuit of uniform cross section.
The ratio m = B/H is called magnetic permeability and has different values for different degrees of
magnetization of a specific magnetic core material.
! 2/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2/5/6! Sfmbujwf!Qfsnfbcjmjuz!boe!Nbhofuj{bujpo!Dibsbdufsjtujdt
Relative permeability is the ratio of the permeability of a material to the permeability of free space;
it is, in effect, a figure of merit that is very useful for comparing the magnetizability of different
magnetic material whose relative permeability are known. Expressed in equation form,
m
mr = (1.24)
mo
el
t ste
Cas
1.00
Flux Density (B, T)
on
Cast ir
0.50
Gjh/!2/:! Sfqsftfoubujwf!C.I!dvswft!gps!tpnf!dpnnpomz!vtfe!gfsspnbhofujd!nbufsjbmt
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/28
Magnetic saturation is complete when all of the magnetic domains of the material are oriented in
the direction of the applied magnetomotive force. Saturation begins at the start of the knee region
and is essentially complete when the curve starts to flatten.
Depending on the specific application, the magnetic core of an apparatus may be operated in the
linear region, and/or the saturation region. For example, transformers and ac machines are operated
in the linear region and lower end of the knee; self-excited dc generators and dc motors are oper-
ated in the upper end of the knee region, extending into the saturation region; separately excited dc
generators are operated in the linear and lower end of the knee region.
Saturation
Flux Density (B, T)
ee
Kn
r
ea
Lin
Gjh/!2/21! Fybhhfsbufe!nbhofuj{bujpo!dvswf!jmmvtusbujoh!uif!gpvs!qsjodjqbm!tfdujpot
The relationship between the relative permeability and the reluctance of a magnetic core is ob-
tained by solving Eq. (1.24) for m, and then substituting into Eq. (1.23).
The result is
l l
R = = (1.25)
m A m r mo A
Equation (1.25) indicates that the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is affected by the relative
permeability of the material, which is dependent on the magnetization, and hence is not constant.
! 2/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
FMFDUSPNBHOFUJD!JOEVDUJPO! 2/6
Oersted’s discovery in 1820 revealed that a current flowing in a wire deflects a compass needle
placed near it and thereby proved that a magnetic field is associated with an electric current. The
discovery provided the interaction between electricity and magnetism. The strength of the magnetic
field can be increased by increasing the current in the conductor. In 1931, Michael Faraday discov-
ered that a current is generated whenever the magnetic flux linked with the circuit changes. This
current is called induced current and the emf in the circuit responsible for the production of the
current is called induced emf. The phenomenon of the production of induced emf in a circuit due to
change in the number of magnetic lines of force in it is called electromagnetic induction.
2/6/2! GbsbebzÕt!Mbxt!pg!Fmfduspnbhofujd!Joevdujpo!
Faraday’s first law states that “whenever the number of magnetic lines of force (or magnetic flux)
passing through a circuit changes an induced emf is set up in the circuit”.
Faraday’s second law states that “the magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic lines of force”.
Hence, according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction,
d(Nf) df
eind = =N (1.26)
dt dt
where N is the number of turns and eind is the induced emf.
2/6/3! Mfo{Õt!Mbx
Though Faraday’s laws give no idea about the direction of the induced emf, Lenz’s law gives the
direction of induced emf which is based on the law of conservation of energy, It states that “the di-
rection of the induced current (or emf) is such that it opposes the very cause producing this current
(or emf), i.e. it opposes the change in magnetic flux.”
Hence, from Lenz’s law, we get
df
eind = –N (1.27)
dt
There is one major difficulty involved in using Eq. (1.27) in practical problems. The equation
assumes that exactly the same flux is present in each turn of the coil. Unfortunately, the flux leaking
out of the core into the surrounding air prevents this from being true. If the windings are tightly
coupled, so that the vast majority of the flux passing through one turn of the coil does indeed pass
through all of them then Eq. (1.27) will give valid answers. But if leakage is quite high or if extreme
accuracy is required, a different expression that does not make that assumption will be needed.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/2:
The magnitude of the voltage in the ith turn of the coil is always given by
d (fi )
eind = (1.28)
dt
If there are N turns in the coil of wire, the total voltage on the coil is
N
eind = Â ei (1.29a)
i =1
N
d (fi )
= Â (1.29b)
i = 1 dt
dÊN ˆ
= Âf
dt ÁË i = 1 i ˜¯
(1.29c)
The term in parentheses in Eq. (1.29c) is called the flux linkage l of the coil, and Faraday’s law
can be rewritten in terms of flux linkage as
dl
eind = (1.30)
dt
N
where l= Â fi (1.31)
i =1
The units of flux linkage are weber-turns.
Faraday’s law is the fundamental property of magnetic fields involved in transformer operation.
The effect of Lenz’s law in transformers is to predict the polarity of the voltages induced in trans-
former windings.
2/6/4! Dpodfqu!pg!Tfmg.!boe!Nvuvbm!Joevdubodf!
The change in current through a coil causes a change in flux. This change in flux induces an emf in
the coil. This self-induced emf can be written as
di
e =L (1.32)
dt
where e = emf induced, volts
di
= Rate of change of current, A/s
dt
L = Coefficient of self-inductance, H.
L, the coefficient of self-inductance or simply inductance has the units of henry (symbol H).
! 2/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The inductance of a coil is 1 H if an emf of one volt is induced in it when the current through it
changes at the rate of 1 A/s.
By Lenz’s law, this emf is in a direction so as to oppose the external emf, which is driving current
through the coil.
From Eq. (1.26) and Eq. (1.32),
di df
e =L =N
dt dt
df
or L =N
di (1.33)
If rate of change of flux is constant, then
df f
=
di i
Nf
and L=
i
MMF Ni
Since f= =
reluctance 1/ma
È Ni ˘
Í l /m a ˙
Î ˚ N 2 ma
Therefore, L =N = (1.34)
i l
When the flux of one coil links another coil, a mutually induced emf appears across the second
coil. By Lenz’s law, this is also a counter emf. The mutually induced emf can be written as
di
e=M (1.35)
dt
where e is the emf induced in the second coil, di/dt is the rate of change of current in the first coil
and M is the coefficient of mutual inductance (units henry). The mutual inductance between two
coils is 1 H if a current changing at the rate of 1 A/s in one coil induces an emf of 1 volt in the
second coil.
Let us consider two coils having turns NA and NB and assume that they are coupled magnetically.
Let the current IA flowing in the first coil produce a flux of fA. Assuming that this whole flux is link-
N f
ing coil B, the flux linkage in coil B for unit current in the coil A is B A .
IA
The mutual inductance between the two coils is defined as the weber turns in one coil due to one
ampere current in the other.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/32
N Bf A
Hence, M= (1.36)
IA
Now let us deduce an expression for coefficient of mutual inductance in terms of the dimensions
of the two coils.
NA IA
Flux in coil A is fA =
l /m A
fA N A ◊ m ◊ A
\ Flux per ampere =
IA l
Assuming whole of flux fA is linking the coil B
N Bf A N B ◊ N A ◊ m ◊ A N A N B
M= = = (1.37)
IA l l/m A
where m is the permeability of the medium between coil A and coil B.
M
The coefficient of coupling between two coils A and B is K = where M is the coefficient
LA LB
of mutual inductance between two coils having self-inductance LA and LB.
When coefficient of coupling is nearly unity the coils are said to be closely coupled. When K is
much less than unity the coils are said to be loosely coupled.
Co-efficient of coupling may be defined as the ratio of mutual inductance present between the
two coils to the maximum possible mutual inductance that can be present in the two coils. Hence,
coefficient of coupling is unity when the flux produced by one coil completely links the other. It is
zero when the flux produced by one coil does not link the other coil at all.
JOEVDFE!FNG! 2/7
Emf is induced in a conductor in two ways. When the conductor remains stationary and the flux
linked with it is changed by increasing or decreasing the current producing this flux then an emf is
induced in the conductor which is known as statically induced emf. In the second case, the field is
stationary but the conductor moves in the magnetic field and the flux linking the conductor changes.
The emf induced in the conductor is called dynamically induced emf.
2/7/2! Tubujdbmmz!Joevdfe!fng!)Usbotgpsnfs!fng*
The statically induced emf may be of two types:
1. Mutually induced emf
2. Self-induced emf
! 2/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2/!Nvuvbmmz!Joevdfe!fng
Consider two coils A and B lying close to each other. If the flux in the coil A is varied by varying the
current with the help of the rheostat connected to it then flux linked with the coil B also changes as
shown Fig. 1.11. According to Faraday’s law, an emf will be induced in the coil B, the direction of
which is given by Lenz’s law. E is the emf of the dc source connected in coil A and V is a voltmeter
connected in the coil B. The voltmeter will indicate the emf induced in the coil B. In this case, both
the coils are stationary and this emf induced in the coil B is called mutually induced emf.
Coil A Coil B
V
R
Gjh/!2/22! Nvuvbmmz!joevdfe!fng
3/!Tfmg.joevdfe!fng
In this type, the emf is induced in a coil due to changes of its own flux linkage. If current through a
coil changes, the flux linked with it also changes. This change in flux produces self-induced emf in
the coil. The direction of the induced emf in the coil is given by Lenz’s law and the direction of the
induced emf is such that it will oppose any change of flux.
2/7/3! Ezobnjdbmmz!Joevdfe!fng!)Npujpobm!fng*
Figure 1.12 shows three conductors a, b, c moving in a magnetic field of flux density B in the direc-
tions indicated by arrows. Conductor a is moving in a direction perpendicular to its length and per-
pendicular to the flux lines. Therefore, it cuts the lines of force and a motional emf is induced in it.
Let us consider that the conductor moves by a distance dx in a time dt. If the length of the conductor
is l, the area swept by the conductor is l dx. Then change in flux linking the coil
= df = B.l.dx
Since there is only one conductor,
df Bl dx
e= =
dt dt
Since dx/dt is v, i.e. velocity of conductor,
e = Blv volts (1.38)
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/34
a b c
Gjh/!2/23! Npujpo!pg!b!dpoevdups!jo!b!nbhofujd!gjfme
GMFNJOHÕT!SVMFT! 2/8
The direction of the mechanical force experienced by a current-carrying conductor lying in a mag-
netic field is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. According to this rule, the thumb, forefinger and
middle finger are extended in three directions at right angles to one another. If the forefinger repre-
sents the direction of the field, middle finger represents the direction of the current then the thumb
gives the direction of motion as shown in Fig. 1.13.
Motion
Motion
Field
B
Field
Cu
rre
nt
Current
Gjh/!2/24! GmfnjohÕt!mfgu.iboe!svmf
The dc motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a mag-
netic field it experiences a mechanical force and starts rotating. Thus, the operation of a dc motor
follows Fleming’s left-hand rule.
The direction of the emf induced in a conductor may be found by applying Fleming’s right-hand
rule. If the middle finger, forefinger and thumb of right hand are held perpendicular to each other
and if the forefinger and thumb represents the direction of magnetic flux and direction of motion of
the conductor respectively then the middle finger represents the direction of the emf induced in the
conductor as shown in Fig. 1.14.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/36
Motion
Motion
Field
Field
Emf
Emf
Gjh/!2/25! GmfnjohÕt!sjhiu.iboe!svmf
Fleming’s right-hand rule is used when the induced emf is due to flux cutting, i.e. the emf is in-
duced in a conductor when it moves in a magnetic field. This type of induced emf is called dynami-
cally induced emf. When the emf is statically induced emf, i.e. emf is induced in a conductor due to
change of flux linkage, Lenz’s law is applied to find the direction of the induced emf.
GPSDF!PO!B!DVSSFOU.DBSSZJOH!DPOEVDUPS! 2/9
Figure 1.15(a) shows a conductor lying in a magnetic field of flux density B. The conductor is car-
rying a current (entering the page). This current sets up a flux in clockwise direction. The external
field is in the downward direction. As seen in Fig. 1.15(a), the field of the conductor assists the
external field on the right-hand side of the conductor and opposes it on the left-hand side. This pro-
duces a force on the conductor towards left. If the direction of the current is reversed [Fig. 1.15(b)],
the flux due to this current assumes counter-clockwise direction and the force on the conductor is
towards right. In both cases, the force is in a direction perpendicular to both the conductor and the
field and is maximum if the conductor is at right angles to the field. The magnitude of this force is
where B is flux density in tesla, I is current in amperes and l is the length of conductor in metres.
! 2/37 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Magnetic
Magnetic field
field
Force + + Force
(a) (B)
Gjh/!2/26! Gpsdf!po!b!dpoevdups!jo!b!nbhofujd!gjfme;!)b*!Dvssfou!joup!uif!qbhf!)c*!Dvssfou!pvu!pg!uif!
qbhf
UPSRVF!JO!B!DVSSFOU.DBSSZJOH!DPJM! 2/:
Figure 1.16 shows a coil carrying current I and lying in a magnetic field of flux density B. From the
discussion in Sec 1.7, it is seen that an upward force is exerted on the right-hand conductor and a
downward force on the left-hand conductor. Equation (1.43) gives the force on each conductor and
the total force is
F = 2BIl newtons (1.45)
I
Force
N
r S
Force
Flux
Gjh/!2/27! Upsrvf!po!b!dpjm!jo!b!nbhofujd!gjfme
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/38
The configuration of Fig. 1.16 is the basic moving part in an electrical measuring instrument. An
electric motor also works on this principle.
! Qspcmfn!2/2
B!dpoevdups!pg!36!n!mfohui!npwft!bu!sjhiu!bohmf!xjui!b!vojgpsn!wfmpdjuz!pg!6!n0t!jo!b!vojgpsn!nbh.
ofujd!gjfme!pg!2!Xc0n3!gmvy!efotjuz/!Efufsnjof!uif!fng!joevdfe!jo!uif!dpoevdups/!Bmtp!gjoe!uif!fng!
joevdfe!jo!uif!dpoevdups!xifo!uif!dpoevdups!npwft!bu!bo!bohmf!pg!71°!up!uif!ejsfdujpo!pg!uif!gjfme/
Solution
Length of the conductor l = 25 cm = 0.25 m
Velocity of the conductor v = 5 m/s
Flux density B = 1 Wb/m2
\ emf induced in the conductor when it moves at right angles to the magnetic field = Blv sin 90°
= 1 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 5 = 1.25 V
When the conductor moves at an angle of 60° to the direction of the field, the emf induced is
3
= Blv sin 60° = 1 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 5 ¥ = 1.08 V.
2
! Qspcmfn!2/3
B!dpoevdups!jt!spubujoh!jo!b!nbhofujd!gjfme!pg!1/6!Xc!qspevdfe!cz!3!qpmft!xjui!b!tqffe!pg!2611!sqn/!
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!bwfsbhf!fng!joevdfe!jo!uif!dpoevdups/
Solution
df
Average emf induced = N
dt
Flux cut by the conductor in one revolution is 0.5 Wb
Time taken to complete 1 revolution
60 1
= s = s = 0.04 s
1500 25
! 2/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!2/4
B!dpjm!pg!611!W!sftjtubodf!jt!mzjoh!jo!b!nbhofujd!gjfme!pg!2/6!n!Xc/!Gjoe!uif!bwfsbhf!fng!joevdfe!jo!
uif!dpjm!boe!uif!dvssfou!jo!uif!dpjm!jg!uif!dpjm!jt!npwfe!gspn!uif!hjwfo!gjfme!up!b!gjfme!pg!1/6!n!Xc!jo!
1/36/!Uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!jo!uif!dpjm!jt!611/
Solution
df
Induced emf = N
dt
df = (1.5 – 0.5)m Wb = 1 mWb = 1 ¥ 10–3 Wb
dt = 0.2
N = 500
1 ¥ 10 -3
\ induced emf = 500 ¥ = 2.5 V
0.2
2.5
Current in the coil = A = 5 mA.
500
! Qspcmfn!2/5
B!dpjm!dbsszjoh!3!B!dvssfou!jt!mzjoh!jo!b!nbhofujd!gjfme!pg!2!Xc0n3!gmvy!efotjuz/!Uif!dpjm!ibt!311!
uvsot/!Efufsnjof!uif!gpsdf!fyqfsjfodfe!cz!21!dn!pg!uif!dpjm/
Solution
Current I = 2 A
Flux density B = 1 Wb/m2
Number of turns N = 200
Length of the coil l = 10 cm = 0.1 m
\ force experienced by 10 cm of the coil
F = 2 N BI l = 2 ¥ 200 ¥ 1 ¥ 2 ¥ 0.1
= 80 N.
! Qspcmfn!2/6
Efufsnjof!uif!fng!joevdfe!jo!b!dpjm!pg!6!nI!xifo!b!dvssfou!pg!21!B!jt!sfwfstfe!jo!21!njmmjtfdpoet/
Solution
Self-inductance in the coil L = 5 mH = 5 ¥ 10–3 H
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/3:
! Qspcmfn!2/7
B!dvssfou!pg!31!B!xifo!gmpxjoh!uispvhi!b!dpjm!pg!611!uvsot!hfofsbuft!b!gmvy!pg!1/6!nX/!Efufsnjof!
uif!joevdubodf!pg!uif!dpjm/
Solution
Current I = 20 A
Number of turns N = 500
Flux f = 0.5 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Nf
\ inductance of the coil L=
I
500 ¥ 0.5 ¥ 10 -3
= H
20
= 0.0125 H
= 12.5 mH.
! Qspcmfn!2/8
B!tuffm!sjoh!ibwjoh!b!nfbo!djsdvngfsfodf!pg!61!dn!boe!21!dn3!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!ibt!b!dpjm!pg!
411!uvsot!xpvoe!vojgpsnmz!bspvoe!ju/!Efufsnjof!uif!sfmvdubodf!pg!uif!sjoh!boe!uif!dvssfou!sfrvjsfe!
up!qspevdf!b!gmvy!pg!2!njmmj!Xc!jo!uif!sjoh/!Hjwfo!ms!>!411/
Solution
Length of the ring l = 50 cm = 0.5 m
Area A = 10 cm2 = 10 ¥ 10–4 m2
Turns N = 300
The reluctance of the ring
l 0.5
R= =
mo m r A 4p ¥ 10 ¥ 300 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 -4
-7
Mmf 1327
\ the required current I= =
N 300
= 4.42 A.
! Qspcmfn!2/9
Uxp!dpjmt!ibwjoh!211!boe!311!uvsot!bsf!xpvoe!po!b!dmptfe!jspo!djsdvju!pg!4!n!mfohui!xjui!611!dn3!
dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb/!Efufsnjof!uif!nvuvbm!joevdubodf!cfuxffo!uif!dpjmt/!Hjwfo!ms!pg!jspo!bt!4111/
Solution
N1 = 100
N2 = 200
l =3m
A = 500 cm2 = 0.05 m2
mr = 3000
mo = 4p ¥ 10–7 H/m
N1 N 2
Mutual inductance M=
Reluctance
N1 N 2
=
l /mo m r A
100 ¥ 200 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 3000 ¥ 0.05
=
3
= 1.256 H.
! Qspcmfn!2/:
B!dpjm!pg!261!uvsot!jt!spubufe!bu!2611!sqn!jotjef!b!nbhofujd!gjfme!pg!1/26!Xc0n3!gmvy!efotjuz/!Uif!
ejbnfufs!pg!uif!dpjm!jt!41!dn!boe!byjbm!mfohui!jt!36!dn/!Efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!joevdfe!jo!uif!dpjm/!Jg!
uif!dpjm!dbssjft!b!dvssfou!pg!31!B-!gjoe!uif!gpsdf!po!fbdi!dpoevdups!boe!uif!upsrvf!bdujoh!po!uif!dpjm/
Solution
The velocity of the coil
30 1500
v=p¥ ¥ = 23.55 m/s
100 60
Voltage induced in the coil = N Blv
= 150 ¥ 0.15 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 23.55
= 132.468
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/42
! Qspcmfn!2/21
B!sfdubohvmbs!jspo!dpsf!jt!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!2/28/!Ju!ibt!b!nfbo!mfohui!pg!nbhofujd!qbui!pg!211!dn-!
dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!)3!dn!¥!3!dn*-!sfmbujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!pg!2511!boe!bo!bjs!hbq!pg!6!nn!jt!dvu!jo!uif!
dpsf/!Uif!uisff!dpjmt!dbssjfe!cz!uif!dpsf!ibwf!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!O2!>!446-!O3!>!711!boe!O4!>!711-!
boe!uif!sftqfdujwf!dvssfout!bsf!J2!>!2/7!B-!J3!>!5/1!B!boe!J4!>!4/1!B/!Uif!ejsfdujpot!pg!uif!dvssfout!
bsf!bt!tipxo/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!gmvy!jo!uif!bjs!hbq/
5 mm
Mean length = 100 cm
l1 I2
N1 = 335 N2 = 600
turns turns
I3 N3 = 600
turns
Gjh/!2/28! B!sfdubohvmbs!jspo!dpsf!)Qspc/!2/21*
Solution
The mmf acting in the magnetic circuit (considering current in the clockwise direction)
= SNI = –335 ¥ 1.6 + 600 ¥ 4 – 600 ¥ 3 = 64 AT
f È li ˘
\ 64 AT = Í + lg ˙
mo A Î m r ˚
where li = Mean length,
mr = Relative permeability
lg = Air-gap cut length
! 2/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
f È 1 -3 ˘ 7
\ 64 = -7 -4 Í1400 + 5 ¥ 10 ˙ = 1.136 ¥ 10 f
4p ¥ 10 ¥ ( 2 ¥ 2) ¥ 10 Î ˚
64
\ flux, f= = 5.63 ¥ 10–6 Wb
1.136 ¥ 107
= 5.63 mWb.
! Qspcmfn!2/22
Bo!bfspqmbof!xjui!b!31!n!xjohtqsfbe!jt!gmzjoh!bu!361!n0t!qbsbmmfm!up!uif!fbsuiÕt!tvsgbdf!bu!b!qmbof!
xifsf!uif!ipsj{poubm!dpnqpofou!pg!uif!fbsuiÕt!nbhofujd!gjfme!jt!3!¥!21Ð6!uftmb!boe!bohmf!pg!ejq!jt!
71°/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!nbhojuvef!pg!uif!joevdfe!fng!cfuxffo!uif!ujqt!pg!uif!xjoht/
Solution
As the aeroplane is flying horizontally parallel to the earth’s surface, the flux linked with it will be
due to the vertical component Bv on the earth’s field.
\ Bv = BH tan q = 2 ¥ 10–5 ¥ tan 60°
= 2 3 ¥ 10–5 Wb/m2
\ induced emf is |e| = Bv l.v sin q
= 2 3 ¥ 10–5 ¥ 20 ¥ 250 ¥ sin 90°
3
or l= V = 0.173 V.
10
! Qspcmfn!2/23
B!sfdubohvmbs!mppq!pg!tjeft!36!dn!¥!21!dn!dbssjft!b!dvssfou!pg!26!B/!Ju!jt!qmbdfe!xjui!jut!mpohfs!tjef!
qbsbmmfm!up!b!mpoh!tusbjhiu!dpoevdups!3/1!dn!bqbsu!boe!dbsszjoh!b!dvssfou!bu!36!B/!Gjoe!uif!ofu!gpsdf!
po!uif!mppq/!Xibu!xjmm!cf!uif!ejggfsfodf!jo!gpsdf!jg!uif!dvssfou!jo!uif!mppq!cf!sfwfstfe@
Solution
Let ABCD be the (length l, width b and current i1), with its longer side AB placed parallel and at a
distance d from a long conductor XY, carrying current i2 as shown in Fig. 1.18.
Gjh/!2/29! Sfdubohvmbs!mppq!)Qspc/!2/3*
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/44
The attractive force on the side AB of the loop, due to current i2, is
mo i1 ◊ i2 ◊ l
F1 = ◊ towards XY
2p d
Similarly, the (repulsive) force in the side CD of the loop is
mo i1 ◊ i2 ◊ l
F2 = ◊ away from XY
2p ( d + b)
\ the forces on the sides AD and BC of the loop; being equal, opposite and collinear, cancel each
other.
\ net force on the loop is
mo È1 1 ˘
F1 – F2 = i1 ◊ i2 ◊ l Í - ˙
2p Î d ( d + b) ˚
mo i1 i2 ◊ l ◊ b
= ◊ towards XY
2p d ( d + b)
Substituting the values,
i1 = 15 A, i2 = 25 A
l = 0.25, b = 0.10 m
d = 0.02 m, d + b = 0.12 m
mo
and = 2 ¥ 10–7 NA–2, we get
2p
15 ¥ 25 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 0.10
F1 – F2 = (2 ¥ 10–7) ¥
0.02 ¥ 0.12
= 7.8 ¥ 10–4 N.
The net force is directed towards the long conductor. If the current in the loop, or in the long
conductor, be reversed, the net force will remain same in magnitude but will then be directed away
from the long conductor.
! Qspcmfn!2/24
B!dpjm!pg!711!uvsot!boe!pg!sftjtubodf!pg!31!W!jt!xpvoe!vojgpsnmz!pwfs!b!tuffm!sjoh!pg!41!dn!nfbo!
djsdvngfsfodf!boe!:!dn3!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb/!Ju!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!tvqqmz!pg!31!W!)ed*/!Jg!uif!sfmb.
ujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!pg!uif!sjoh!jt!2-!711!gjoe!)b*!uif!sfmvdubodf-!)c*!uif!nbhofujd!gjfme!joufotjuz-!)d*!uif!
nng-!boe!)e*!uif!gmvy/
Solution
Here, N = 600 turns, resistance of the coil is 20 W, l = 30 cm = 0.3 m, A = 9 cm2 = 9 ¥ 10–4 m2,
relative permeability mr = 1600 and mo = 4p ¥ 10–7
! 2/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
l 0.3
(a) Reluctance R= =
mo m r A 4p ¥ 10 ¥ 1600 ¥ 9 ¥ 10 -4
-7
! Qspcmfn!2/25
B!njme.tuffm!sjoh!ibwjoh!b!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!511!nn3!boe!b!nfbo!djsdvngfsfodf!pg!511!nn!
ibt!b!dpjm!pg!311!uvsot!xpvoe!vojgpsnmz!bspvoe!ju/!\Hjwfo!ms!>!411^/
Efufsnjof
! )b*! Sfmvdubodf!pg!uif!sjoh
! )c*! Dvssfou!sfrvjsfe!up!qspevdf!b!gmvy!pg!911!m!Xc!jo!uif!sjoh
Solution
800 ¥ 10 -6
(a) Flux density B in the ring is = 2 Wb/m2.
400 ¥ 10 -6
0.4
\ The reluctance R of the ring is = 2.65 ¥ 106 A/Wb
300 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 0.4 ¥ 10 -3
mmf
Again we know f =
Reluctance
mmf
800 ¥ 10–6 =
Reluctance
\ mmf = 800 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 2.65 ¥ 106
= 2.122 ¥ 103 AT
! Qspcmfn!2/26
B!nbhofujd!djsdvju!ibt!261!uvsot!pg!dpjmt!boe!uif!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!boe!mfohui!pg!uif!nbhofujd!
djsdvju!bsf!6!¥!21Ð5!n3!boe!36!¥!21Ð3!n!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!I!boe!uif!sfmbujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!ms!
pg!uif!dpsf!xifo!uif!dvssfou!jt!3!B!boe!uif!upubm!gmvy!jt!1/4!¥!21Ð4!Xc/
Solution
When I = 2 A,
mmf = NI = 150 ¥ 2 = 300 A/T
NI 300
\ H= = = 1200 A/m
l 25 ¥ 10 -2
Flux 0.3 ¥ 10 -3
B= = = 0.6 T
Area 5 ¥ 10 -4
B 0.6
m= = = 500 ¥ 10–6 H/m
H 1200
m 500 ¥ 10 -6
mr = = -7
= 3.9788 ¥ 102 = 397.88.
mo 4p ¥ 10
! Qspcmfn!2/27
Bo!bjs.dpsfe!dpjm!ibt!611!uvsot/!Uif!nfbo!mfohui!pg!nbhofujd!gmvy!qbui!jt!61!dn!boe!uif!bsfb!pg!
dsptt!tfdujpo!jt!6!¥!21Ð5!n3/!Jg!uif!fydjujoh!dvssfou!jt!6!B-!efufsnjof!)b*!I-!)c*!uif!gmvy!efotjuz-!boe!
)d*!uif!gmvy!)f*/
Solution
mmf = NI = 500 ¥ 5 = 2500 A
Given, l = 50 cm = 0.5 m
a = 5 ¥ 10–4 m2
NI 2500
(a) H = = = 5000 A/m
l 0.5
(b) B = Flux density = m.H = mr. m0. H
= m0. H [\mr = 1]
= 4p ¥ 10–7 ¥ 5000
= 6.283 ¥ 10–3 T
(c) Flux (f) = B ¥ a = 6.283 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 5 ¥ 10–4
= 3.1415 ¥ 10–6 Wb.
! 2/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!2/28
Bo!jspo!sjoh!pg!21!dn!nfbo!djsdvngfsfodf!jt!nbef!gspn!b!spvoe!jspo!pg!21Ð4!n3!dsptt!tfdujpo/!Jut!
sfmbujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!jt!611/!Jg!ju!jt!xpvoe!xjui!361!uvsot-!xibu!dvssfou!xjmm!cf!sfrvjsfe!up!qspevdf!
b!gmvy!pg!3!¥!21Ð4!Xc@
Solution
The lines of magnetic flux follow the circular path of the iron so that
l = 100 cm = 1 m
a(area) = 10–3 m2
1 1
\ Reluctance R = =
mo m r a (500 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 10 -3 )
= 1.59 ¥ 106 A/Wb
Given flux (f) = 2 ¥ 10–3 Wb
\ H = f . R = 2 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 1.59 ¥ 106
= 3.1847 ¥ 103 AT
As we know, H = NI
H 3.1847 ¥ 103
\ l= =
N 250
= 12.738 A.
! Qspcmfn!2/29
Bo!jspo!sjoh!pg!221!dn!nfbo!mfohui!xjui!bo!bjs!hbq!pg!2/6!nn!ibt!b!xjoejoh!pg!711!uvsot/!Uif!
sfmbujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!pg!jspo!jt!711/!Xifo!b!dvssfou!pg!5!B!gmpxt!jo!uif!xjoejoh-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!gmvy!
efotjuz!C/!Ep!opu!dpotjefs!gsjohjoh/
Solution
Given that li = 110 cm – 0.15 cm
= 109.85 cm
= 1.0985 m
lg = 1.5 mm = 1.5 ¥ 10–3 m.
N = 600 turns, mr = 600 (given)
l =4A
m0 ◊ NI ◊ m r mo NI ◊ l
\ flux density B= +
li lg
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/48
Êm lˆ
= m0 NI Á r + ˜
Ë li lg ¯
È 600 1 ˘
= 4p ¥ 10–7 ¥ 600 ¥ 4 ¥ Í + -3 ˙ Wb/m
2
Î1 .0985 1 .5 ¥ 10 ˚
–3 2 2
= 3.0159 ¥ 10 ¥ (5.46 ¥ 10 + 6.666 ¥ 10 )
= 3.657 Wb/m2.
! Qspcmfn!2/2:
Bo!jspo!sjoh!ibt!b!nfbo!djsdvngfsfodf!pg!91!dn-!boe!ibwjoh!b!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!6!dn3!boe!b!
dpjm!pg!261!uvsot/!Vtjoh!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!fyjtujoh!dvssfou!gps!b!gmvy!pg!7/5!¥!21Ð5!Xc/!
Bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uif!sfmbujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!)ms*/
C)Xc0n3*;!!!!!!1/:!!!!! 2/2! 2/3! 2/4
I)B0n*;!!!!!!!!!371!!!!! 561! 711! 931
Solution
It is given that f = 6.4 ¥ 10–4 Wb
f 6.4 ¥ 10 -4
\ flux density B= = = 1.28 Wb/m2
area 5 ¥ 10 -4
Assuming B-H curve to be linear in the range from 1.2 to 1.3 Wb/m2,
820 – 600
H = 600 + ¥ (1.28 – 1.2)
1.3 – 1.2
= 776 A/m.
80
\ mmf = 776 ¥ = 620.8 A
100
620.8
\ I= = 4.138 A
150.0
We know B = m . H = m0 . mr . H
B 1.28
\ mr = = = 1312.089.
m0 ¥ H 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 776
! Qspcmfn!2/31
Jo!uif!nbhofujd!djsdvju!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!2/2:-!uif!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!mjnct!R!boe!S!bsf!1/12!n3!boe!
1/13!n3!sftqfdujwfmz!boe!uif!mfohuit!pg!uif!bjs!hbq!2/2!nn!boe!3/2!nn!sftqfdujwfmz-!bsf!dvu!jo!uif!
! 2/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
mjnct!R!boe!S/!Jg!uif!nbhofujd!nfejvn!dbo!cf!bttvnfe!up!ibwf!jogjojuf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!boe!uif!gmvy!jo!
uif!mjnc!jt!2/6!Xc-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!gmvy!jo!uif!mjnc!Q/
P Q R
1.1
mm 2.1 mm
Gjh/!2/2:! Nbhofujd!djsdvju!pg!Qspc/!2/31
Solution
It is given that
Area of cross section of limb Q = 0.01 m2
Area of cross section of limb R = 0.02 m2
Length of air gap = 1.1 mm for the limb Q and 2.1 mm for the limb R
Flux in limb Q = 1.5 Wb
As because the permeability of the magnetic medium is infinity, reluctance of the given iron path
is zero. The electrical equivalent is shown in Fig. 1.20.
f
f1 f2
R1 R2
Gjh/!2/31! Fmfdusjdbm!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!Gjh/!2/2:
Now if we assume R1 is the reluctance of air gap of limb Q and R2 is the reluctance of the air gap
of limb R respectively. Let f1 is the flux across the air gap of the limb Q and f2 is the flux across
the air gap of the limb R.
\ R1 ¥ f1 = R2 ¥ f2
l1 l2
¥ f1 = ¥ f2
m0 ¥ a1 m0 ¥ a2
a2 l1
\ f2 = ¥ ¥ f2
a1 l2
0.02 1.1
= ¥ ¥ 1.5
0.01 2.1
= 1.5714 Wb
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/4:
! Qspcmfn!2/32
B! sjoh-! nbef! pg! tuffm-! ibt! b! sfdubohvmbs! dsptt.tfdujpobm! bsfb/! Uif! pvufs! ejbnfufs! pg! uif! sjoh! jt!
36!dn!xijmf!uif!joofs!ejbnfufs!jt!31!dn-!uif!uijdloftt!cfjoh!3!dn/!Uif!sjoh!ibt!b!xjoejoh!pg!611!
uvsot!boe!xifo!dbsszjoh!b!dvssfou!pg!4!B-!qspevdft!b!gmvy!efotjuz!pg!2/3!U!jo!uif!bjs!hbq!qspevdfe!
xifo!uif!sjoh!jt!dvu!up!ibwf!bo!bjs!hbq!pg!2!nn!mfohui!)Gjh/!2/32*/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!nbhofujd!gjfme!joufo.
tjuz!pg!uif!tuffm!sjoh!boe!jo!uif!bjs!hbq-!)c*!sfmbujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!pg!uif!nbhofujd!nbufsjbm-!)d*!upubm!
sfmvdubodf!pg!uif!nbhofujd!djsdvju-!)e*!joevdubodf!pg!uif!dpjm-!boe!)f*!fng!joevdfe!jo!uif!dpjm!xifo!
uif!dpjm!dbssjft!b!dvssfou!pg!j)bd*!>!6!tjo!425!u/
Thickness 2
(2 mm) cm
3A
11
.25
10 cm
cm
N = 500 1 mm X X 2.5 mm
X
X
2.5 cm
Gjh/!2/32! Tuffm!sjoh!pg!Qspc/!2/32
Solution
NI = 500 ¥ 3 = 1500 AT
Bsteel = Bgap = 1.2 T
1.2
(a) \ Hgap = = 9.55 ¥ 105 AT/m
4p ¥ 10 -7
Since NI = Hgap ¥ Ig + Hcore ¥ Icore,
Bcore
(b) Also, Hcore = ;
mo m r
1.2
\ mr = -7
= 1238.2.
4p ¥ 10 ¥ 771.20
1 ¥ 10 -3 2p ¥ 11.25 ¥ 10 -2
(c) R = R1 + R2 = +
4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1238.2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10 -4 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10 -4
4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1238.2
= 2.5 ¥ 106 AT/Wb.
! Qspcmfn!2/33
Bo!jspo!sjoh!pg!djsdvmbs!dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!6!¥!21Ð5!n3!ibt!b!nfbo!djsdvngfsfodf!pg!3!n/!Ju!ibt!b!tbx.
dvu!pg!3!¥!21Ð4!n!mfohui!boe!jt!xpvoe!xjui!911!uvsot!pg!xjsf/!Efufsnjof!uif!fydjujoh!dvssfou!xifo!
uif!gmvy!jo!uif!bjs!hbq!jt!1/6!¥!21Ð4!Xc/!\Hjwfo;!ms!pg!jspo!>!711!boe!mfblbhf!gbdups!jt!2/3^!Bttvnf!
bsfbt!pg!bjs!hbq!boe!jspo!bsf!tbnf/
Solution
The flux linking with the iron ring is
firon = fair gap ¥ Leakage factor
= 0.5 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 1.2
= 0.6 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Again we know,
Ampere turns required = NI
1 È 0.6 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 2 0.5 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 2 ¥ 10 -3 ˘
\ l= Í + ˙
800 ÍÎ 4 ¥ p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 600 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -4 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -4 ˙˚
= 5.95 A.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/52
! Qspcmfn!2/34
Bo!jspo!sjoh!pg!211!dn!nfbo!djsdvngfsfodf!jt!nbef!gspn!spvoe!jspo!pg!21!dn3! dsptt.tfdujpo/!JuÕt!
sfmbujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!jt!611/!Opx!b!tbx.dvu!pg!3!nn!xjef!ibt!cffo!nbef!po!ju/!Ju!jt!xpvoe!xjui!
311!uvsot/!Efufsnjof!uif!ofx!dvssfou!sfrvjsfe!up!qspevdf!b!gmvy!pg!1/23!¥!21Ð3!Xc!jo!uif!bjs!hbq-!
hjwfo!uibu!uif!mfblbhf!gbdups!y!jt!2/35-!boe!uibu!uif!sfmbujwf!qfsnfbcjmjuz!pg!uif!jspo!voefs!uif!ofx!
dpoejujpo!jt!461/
Solution
Given
fair gap = 1.2 ¥ 10–3 Wb
lair gap = 0.2 ¥ 10–2 = 2 ¥ 10–3 m
aair gap = 10–3 m2
mair =1
\ reluctance in the air gap is
2 ¥ 10 -3
= 1.325 ¥ 106 AT/Wb
( 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 -3 )
firon path = 1.25 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10–3 Wb
= 1.5 ¥ 10–3 Wb
liron path = 0.998 m
airon path = 10–3 m2
miron path (new) = 350.
998 ¥ 10 -3
\ reluctance in the air gap is =
(350 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 -3 )
= 1890912.3 AT/Wb = 1.89 ¥ 106 AT/Wb
As we cannot add up the value of air gap reluctance and iron path reluctance to get the total
reluctance, we therefore calculate in this way.
H = Hair gap + Hiron path
= (Reluctance of air gap ¥ Flux in this path)
+ (Reluctance of iron path ¥ Flux in this path)
= (1.325 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10–3) + (1.89 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 10–3)
= 4.425 ¥ 103 = 4425
4, 425
\ current (= I) = = 22.125 A.
200
! 2/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!2/35
B!nbhofujd!djsdvju!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!2/33!jt!dpotusvdufe!pg!xspvhiu!jspo/
Gjh/!2/33! Nbhofujd!djsdvju!pg!Qspc/!2/35
Uif!dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!uif!dfousbm!mjnc!jt!7!dn3-!boe!fbdi!pvufs!mjnc!jt!5!dn3/!Jg!uif!dpjm!jt!xpvoe!xjui!
611!uvsot-!efufsnjof!uif!fydjujoh!dvssfou!sfrvjsfe!up!tfu!vq!b!gmvy!pg!2/1!n!Xc!jo!uif!dfousbm!mjnc/
C.I!dvswft!pg!xspvhiu!jspo!bsf
C!)Xc0n3*! 2/36! ! 2/78
I!)BU0n*! 711! ! 3-211
Solution
Given that flux (f1) in the central limb = 1.0 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Area (a1) of the central limb = 6 ¥ 10–4 m2
l1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
f1 1.0 ¥ 10 -3
B1 = = = 1.667 Wb/m2
a1 6.0 ¥ 10 -4
Bg lg 1.25 ¥ 1 ¥ 10 -3
\ AT required = = = 994.45 AT
mo 4p ¥ 10 -3
\ total AT required
= 315 + 150 + 994.45
= 1,459.45 AT
\ the exciting current
NI 1459.45
I= = = 2.92 A.
N 500
! Qspcmfn!2/36
Bo!jspo!sjoh!nbef!vq!pg!uisff!qbsut-!l2!>!23!dn-!b2!>!7!dn3<!l3!>!21-!b3!>!6!dn3-!l4!>!9!dn!boe!b4!>!
5!dn3/!Ju!jt!tvsspvoefe!cz!b!dpjm!pg!311!uvsot/!Efufsnjof!uif!fydjujoh!dvssfou!sfrvjsfe!up!dsfbuf!b!
gmvy!pg!1/6!n!Xc!jo!uif!jspo!sjoh/! \Hjwfo!m2!>!3781-!m3!>!2166-!m4!>!791/^
Solution
Total reluctance R = R1 + R2 + R3
3
l l1 l2 l3
= Âm = + +
a =1 0 mr a m0 m r a1 m0 m r a2 m0 m r a3
1
= [0.074906 + 189573 + 0.294117]
4p ¥ 10 -7
= 4.445 ¥ 105 AT/Wb
mmf NI
\ Flux (f) = =
Reluctance 4.445 ¥ 105
flux ¥ 4.45 ¥ 105
\ I=
N
! 2/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
GVOEBNFOUBM!DPODFQUT!PG!HFOFSBUPS! 2/21
BOE!NPUPS!BDUJPO
It is seen from Blv and BlI equations that generator and motor actions are based on the physical
reactions on conductors situated in magnetic fields. When a relative motion between conductor
and field exists, an emf is generated in the conductor and when a conductor carries current and is
situated in a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the conductor. Both generator and motor actions
take place simultaneously in the winding of a rotating machine. Both generators and motors have
current-carrying conductors in a magnetic field. Thus, both torque and speed voltage are produced.
Within the winding it is not possible to distinguish between the generator and motor action without
finding the direction of power flow. Constructionally, a generator and motor of one category are ba-
sically identical and differ only in details necessary for its best operation for intended service. Any
generator or motor can be used for energy conversion in either direction.
A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The torque produced, in a gen-
erator, is a counter torque opposing rotation. The prime mover must overcome this counter torque.
An increase (or decrease) in electrical power output means an increase (or decrease) in counter
torque, which finally results in an increase (or decrease) in torque supplied by the prime mover to
the generator.
A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The voltage generated in the conduc-
tors is a counter or back emf, which opposes the applied voltage. It is through the mechanism of
back emf that a motor adjusts its electrical input to meet an increase (or decrease) in mechanical
load on the shaft.
2/21/2! Bo!Fmfnfoubsz!Hfofsbups!
Consider a coil being rotated in a magnetic field by applying a mechanical torque, Tm as shown in
Fig. 1.23. An emf will be induced in the coil due to the change of flux linked by the coil. The direc-
tion of induced emf in the coil sides is shown in Fig. 1.23.
The direction of induced emf is determined by applying either Lenz’s law or Fleming’s right-hand
rule. If the coil ends are connected to an external resistance RL, a current i will flow in the direction
shown in Fig. 1.23. The current-carrying coil will now experience a torque Te in the direction shown
(as it is known that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a
force). The torque developed by the current-carrying coil is the electromagnetic torque, Te.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/56
N i
e
i Te Tf
e
RL
Tm w i
i
S
Gjh/!2/34! Bo!fmfnfoubsz!hfofsbups
The electromagnetic torque developed will act in a direction opposite to the applied mechanical
torque, Tm, responsible for causing rotation of coil in the magnetic field.
If there is no external resistance RL connected across the coil, no current will flow through the
circuit and hence no torque will be developed. The value of Tm will then be utilized in overcoming
the frictional torque, Tf . When the circuit of the coil is closed through an external resistance, Te will
be set up by the coil in a direction opposite to Tm. The value of Tm must, therefore, be increased to
overcome Tf as well as Te.
Thus,
Tm = Te + Tf (1.48)
If Tf is considered negligible,
Tm = Te
The magnitude of current through the coil is
e
i=
RL + r
where r = Resistance of the coil
RL = Load resistance
Thus,
e = iRL + ir
The electrical power developed ei = wTe, where Te is the portion of Tm used for conversion into
electrical power.
The relation ei = wTe can be proved as follows:
We can write ei = 2 B lvi
= 2 Bil v
v
= 2 Fr
r
= Te w
Thus, ei = wTe (1.49)
Of the total mechanical power wTm supplied, wTe is converted into electrical power, the remain-
ing power wTf is wasted as frictional losses. Of the electrical power developed ei, an amount of
power i2r is wasted in the winding, the remaining power, vi, is available across the load. This is
shown diagrammically in Fig. 1.24.
Gjh/!2/35! Qpxfs!gmpx!ejbhsbn!pg!bo!fmfnfoubsz!hfofsbups
In a practical generator, instead of one coil, a number of coils connected together are housed
inside the slots of a cylinder called the armature so that an emf of the desired magnitude is induced
and can be made available for commercial use. The details regarding the various types of generators
will be discussed at a later stage.
2/21/3! Bo!Fmfnfoubsz!Npups
The same arrangement of Fig. 1.23 is shown in Fig. 1.25. Here, instead of connecting a load across
the coil, a source of supply, a battery has been connected across it and the coil is not being rotated
by a prime mover. The current flowing through the armature coil will produce a torque on the coil
which will cause the coil to turn.
For the position of the coil shown in Fig. 1.25, the magnetic field produced by the coil carrying
current is at 90° with the main field axis.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/58
Its north pole will be on the left-hand side and the south pole will be on the right-hand side.
Thus, the coil will turn in the anti-clockwise direction by 90°. The two magnetic fields will then
align with each other. Therefore, continuous rotation of the coil will not be obtained. Some special
arrangement (brush and commutator arrangement) is made to achieve continuous rotation of the
rotor which will be discussed in the sections to follow. For the time being, it is assumed that the coil
is rotating continuously. The direction of emf induced in the coil for its anti-clockwise direction is
shown in Fig. 1.25. It may be noted that in the case of the motor, the directions of induced emf and
current through the armature coil are opposite to each other, whereas in the case of the generator
they are in the same direction. See Figures 1.25 and 1.23 for comparison.
N i
e
i Te
w e
V Tf i
Tm
i
S
Gjh/!2/36! Bo!fmfnfoubsz!npups
Considering that the coil is rotating continuously at an angular velocity w, the following equa-
tions can be derived:
V – e = ir
where induced emf e is in opposite direction to that of applied voltage V. Multiplying both sides
by i,
or, Vi = ei + i2r
Power supplied = Electrical power being available for conversion to mechanical power + Copper
loss.
Electrical power, ei = wTe
A portion of wTe is lost to overcome friction. The rest is available for supplying mechanical out-
put, i.e. to carry the mechanical load on the motor.
Te = Tm + Tf
or wTe = wTm + wTf
Thus, the power-flow diagram for an electrical motor can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.26.
! 2/59 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Gjh/!2/37! Qpxfs!gmpx!ejbhsbn!pg!bo!fmfnfoubsz!npups
TUFBEZ.TUBUF!WPMUBHF!FRVBUJPOT! 2/22
1. In dc machines,
V – E + Ia Ra = 0 (1.50)
(+ sign in case of generator and – sign in case of motor)
where V is the terminal voltage, E is the dynamically induced emf and Ra is the armature
resistance drop.
2. In case of polyphase ac machines where the magnitude of the flux generally remains constant,
V + E + I ◊Z = 0 (1.51)
where V is the vector of the terminal voltage, E is vector of the dynamically induced voltage
and I ◊ Z is the internal impedance drop vector of the machine.
3. In case of ac machines where the magnitude of the flux is also periodically changing,
V + E + Es + I ◊ Z = 0 (1.52)
V , E and I ◊ Z have the some meaning as in Eq. (1.51) and Es is the vector of transformer emf
induced.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/5:
! Qspcmfn!2/37
B!ed!npups!ibwjoh!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W!jt!svoojoh!bu!2111!sqn/!Uif!npups!esbxt!b!
dvssfou!pg!51!B!gspn!511!W!tvqqmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!fmfduspnbhofujd!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!cz!uif!npups/
Solution
Emf induced in the rotor
E = 400 – (40 ¥ 0.3) = 388 V
The developed electromagnetic torque
EI 388 ¥ 40
= = N = 148.28 Nm.
w 2p ¥ 1000 m
60
! Qspcmfn!2/38
B!npups!ibt!611!dpoevdupst!jo!uif!bsnbuvsf-!fbdi!dpoevdups!dbsszjoh!41!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!dpsf!
ibt!b!ejbnfufs!pg!411!nn!boe!b!mfohui!pg!311!nn/!Jg!uif!gmvy!efotjuz!jt!1/2!Xc0n3-!efufsnjof!uif!
upsrvf!boe!uif!nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!jg!uif!tqffe!jt!:11!sqn/
Solution
Force on 500 conductors = N B Il
= 500 ¥ 0.1 ¥ 30 ¥ 0.2
= 300 N
2p N 2p ¥ 500
The angular velocity w= = rad/s
60 60
= 52.33 rad/s.
! Qspcmfn!2/39
B!311!W!tivou!npups!ublft!b!dvssfou!pg!26!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!boe!uif!tivou!gjfme!sftjtubodf!
bsf!2!W!boe!611!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!dpsf!mptt!boe!gsjdujpobm!mptt!bnpvou!up!311!X/!Efufsnjof!uif!
pvuqvu!qpxfs!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups!bu!uijt!dpoejujpo/
! 2/61 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Supply voltage V = 200 V
Line current IL = 15 A
V 200
Shunt field current If = = A
rf 500
= 0.4 A
Output 2506.84
\ Efficiency = = ¥ 100 % = 83.56 %.
Input 200 ¥ 15
! Qspcmfn!2/3:
B!tfsjft!ed!hfofsbups!efmjwfst!b!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!61!B!bu!511!W!boe!ibt!bsnbuvsf!boe!tfsjft!gjfme!sf.
tjtubodf!pg!1/16!W!boe!1/15!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!joevdfe!fng!jo!uif!bsnbuvsf!jg!uif!csvti!
dpoubdu!espq!jt!2!W!qfs!csvti/
Solution
In a series generator, the load current flows through the armature and the series field
\ armature voltage drop = 0.05 ¥ 50 = 2.5 V
series field voltage drop = 0.04 ¥ 50 = 2 V
There are two brush contacts. Hence, total brush contact drop is 1 ¥ 2 = 2 V
Load voltage = 400 V
Hence, induced emf in the armature
= 400 + 2.5 + 2 + 2 = 406.5 V.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/62
! Qspcmfn!2/41
W
Solution
The back emf developed without external resistance
Eb1 = V – Ia ra = 400 – 40 ¥ 0.2 = 392 V
When external resistance of R W is connected in series with the armature then back emf
Eb2 = V – Ia (ra + R) = 400 – 40(0.2 + R)
= 392 – 40 R.
If N1 and N2 be the speed when the machine operates without and with the external resistance
respectively then
Eb1 N1
= where N1 = 1000 rpm and N2 = 700 rpm
Eb2 N 2
392 1000
\ =
392 - 40 R 700
\ R = 2.94 W.
! Qspcmfn!2/42
! "
W #
$
% ! $ %$
Solution
Speed of motor N1 = 1000 rpm
V = 220 V
Input power = P = 700 W
700
Line current of motor I1 = = 3.18 A
200
Shunt field current = 1 A
\ armature current Ia = 3.18 – 1 = 2.18 A
1
! 2/63 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!2/43
&
W ' (
' )
Solution
Ia = 50 A
1
V = 200 V
N1 = 1000 rpm
ra = 0.1 W
Torque T • Ia
As T2 = 0.7 T1
\ Ia = 0.7 Ia = 0.7 ¥ 50 = 35 A
2 1
Eb = V – Ia ra = 200 – 50 ¥ 0.1
1 1 1
= 195 V
Eb = V – Ia ra = 200 – 35 ¥ 0.1 = 196.5 V
2 2 2
Eb1 N1
\ = where N2 is the new speed.
Eb2 N2
Eb 196.5
\ N2 = 2 N1 = ¥ 1000 = 1008 rpm.
Eb1 195
! Qspcmfn!2/44
" * % ) $+ % , $
, " - . & $
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/64
" - % ) $ ) $
Solution
Total number of terms N = 8 ¥ 300 = 2400
Initial flux = 0.04 ¥ 8 = 0.32 Wb
Residual flux = 0.002 ¥ 8 = 0.016 Wb
\ Change in flux d f = (0.32 – 0.016) Wb
= 0.304 Wb
Time taken to open the field circuit dt = 0.05 s
\ average voltage induced across the field terminals
df 0.304
=N = 2400 ¥ V = 14,592 V.
dt 0.05
! Qspcmfn!2/45
+W W
) # ' $ ' & / &
Solution
Torque developed in a dc motor
Ea I a
T= where Eb is the back emf, Ia is the armature current and w is the angular velocity
w
2p ¥ 1500
Here, w= rad/s
60
Eb = V – Ia(ra + rse) = 240 – Ia (0.3 + 0.2)
= 240 – 0.5 Ia
! Qspcmfn!2/46
$ &W !
0 ) $ . + (%
)
! 2/65 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Armature resistance ra = 0.15 W
When speed N1 = 1200 rpm
Eb = V – Ia ra = 220 – 60 ¥ 0.15
1
= 211 V
Let the initial load be P1
\ final load P2 = 1.3 P1
If Eb and N2 be the final back emf and speed then
2
220 - Eb2
Ia =
2 0.15
As P2 = 1.3 P1
\ Eb Ia = 1.3 Eb Ia = 1.3 ¥ 211 ¥ 60 = 16458 W
2 2 1 1
Ê 220 - Eb2 ˆ
\ Eb2 Á ˜ = 16458
Ë 0.15 ¯
or, Eb22 – 220 Eb + 2468.7 = 0
= 208.14 V
Eb2
\ Speed N2 = ¥ N1
Eb1
208.14
= ¥ 1200 rpm
211
= 1184 rpm.
NBHOFUJD!IZTUFSFTJT! 2/23
Magnetic hysteresis may be defined as the lagging of magnetisation or flux density (B) behind the
magnetisation force (H).
When an unmagnetized bar of iron is magnetized by placing it in a magnetic field and varying
the magnetic field, the flux density B is measured for different values of magnetizing field H, the
graph of B vs. H is obtained which is called the B-H curve or magnetization curve.
When the magnetizing field is increased from O up to a certain maximum value the correspond-
ing values of flux density are noted. If we plot B vs. H curve, OP is obtained as shown in Fig. 1.27.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/66
The maximum value of H i.e., Hm is called the saturation value of H and the corresponding flux
density is Bm.
B Bm
P
– Hm
D O F
C Hm H
– Bm
E
B–H curve
Gjh/!2/38 1 2
When H is gradually decreased to O it is seen that B reduces but it is not zero when H = 0. When
H is zero, B = OA. Thus, on removing the magnetizing force, H the iron bar is not completely de-
magnetized. This value of B(= OA) is known as the residual magnetic flux density.
When a magnetic field H is reversed then B is reduced to zero at the point C where H = OC. This
value of H required to make the flux density zero is known as coercive force.
If now H is further increased in the negative direction the iron bar reaches a state of magnetic
saturation at the point D. Now if H is increased in the positive direction till its saturation value Hm
is reached it is observed that it follows the curve EGFP.
The closed-loop PACEGFP which is obtained when the iron bar is taken through one complete
cycle of magnetization is called hysteresis loop.
2/23/2! Iztufsftjt!Mptt!
This loss occurs due to the B-H magnetization curve which swings to positive and negative maxi-
mum Bm before returning to zero. Ideally, the energy absorbed during the positive swing should be
returned to the source during reversal of the magnetizing cycle. But in reality there is only a partial
return to source, the rest being dissipated as heat.
Figure 1.28 represents the hysteresis loop obtained from a steel ring of mean circumference (l)
metres and cross-sectional area (a) square metres. Let (N) be the number of turns on the magnetiz-
ing coil.
! 2/67 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Gjh/!2/39!
Let (dB) = Increase of flux density when the magnetic field intensity is increased by a very small
N
amount dH (say) in dt seconds, and i = Current in amperes corresponding to om, i.e., om = i .
l
N
Instantaneous emf induced in the winding is a ¥ dB ¥ V.
dt
and component of applied voltage to neutralize this emf equals
È dB ˘
Ían ¥ dt ˙ V
Î ˚
Therefore, instantaneous power supplied to the magnetic field is
Ê dB ˆ
ÁË i ¥ an ¥ dt ˜¯ W
(i ¥ an ¥ dB)J
Ni
Since, om =
l
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/68
om
i =l¥
N
Hence, energy supplied to magnetic field in time dt is
om
l¥ ¥ an ¥ dB J = (om ¥ dB ¥ lA)J
N
= Area of shaded strip, J/m3
Thus, energy supplied to the magnetic field when H is increased from zero to oa is equal to area
f g b Bm f J/m3. Similarly, energy returned from the magnetic field when H is reduced from oa to
zero is area b Bm cb J/m3. Then net energy absorbed by the magnetic field is
Area f g b Bm f J/m3
Hence, hysteresis loss for a complete cycle is area of e f bc e joule per m3.
If we define hysteresis loss as Ph,
\ Ph = v . f . (Kh ¥ Bmn )W (1.53)
FEEZ!DVSSFOU!2/24
Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the mag-
netic flux. They flow parallel to the coil’s winding and the flow is limited to the area of the inducing
magnetic field. Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to the excitation coil and their
strength decreases with distance from the coil.
A magnetic ckt is shown in Fig. 1.29 where a rectangular core of magnetic material is wrapped
by an exciting coil.
! 2/69 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Gjh/!2/3:
When the coil is excited from a sinusoidal source, an emf will be induced in an arbitrarily cho-
sen closed path abcd. Hence, a circulating current will flow. The emf induced in the closed path
is dependent on the flux enclosed by the path, i.e. fm = Bm ¥ area of the loop abcd. Neglecting the
reactance, the magnitude of the eddy current is limited by the path resistance. It causes power loss
and heating in the core. To evaluate the total eddy current loss, we have to add all the power losses
of different eddy current paths covering the whole cross section.
The power loss due to eddy current causes heating of the core and reduces the efficiency of the
machine or apparatus. Hence, eddy current loss should be minimized. If the cross-sectional path of
the eddy current is reduced then eddy voltage induced will be reduced as eddy voltage induced is
proportional to the area and hence eddy current loss will be less. This is achieved by using several
thin electrically insulated plates stacked together to form the core instead of a solid block of iron.
These electrically insulated plates are called laminations.
2/24/2! Fyqsfttjpo!gps!Feez.Dvssfou!Mptt!
Let us consider a thin magnetic plate of length L, height h and
thickness t such that t is very small compared to both L and
h. Also let us assume that sinusoidally varying field Bm sin wt
exists perpendicular to the rectangular area formed by t and h
as shown in Fig. 1.30.
Let us now consider a small elemental rectangular closed
path of thickness dx and at a distance x from the origin. The
closed path may be considered a single coil through which the
flux is crossing. Hence, there will be a voltage induced in it.
The area of the closed path = 2hx
Flux crossing the loop = Bm sin wt ¥ 2hx
Rms voltage induced in the loop, E = 2p f Bm 2hx
Resistance of the path through which eddy current flows is
r( 2h + 4 x ) Gjh/!2/41
R=
Ldx
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/6:
E2 E 2 Ldx
dP = =
R r( 2h + 4 x )
E 2 L dx
= (\ x << h)
2r h
2p 2 f 2 Bm2 4 h2 x 2 Ldx 4p 2 f 2 Bm2 x 2 Lh
= = dx
2rh r
p 2 f 2 Bm2 Lht 3
=
6r
It follows that the eddy-current loss is approximately proportional to the square of the thickness
of the laminations.
Hence, the eddy-current loss can be reduced to any desired value, but if the thickness of the
laminations is made less than about 0.4 mm, the reduction in the loss does not justify the extra cost
of construction.
Since the emfs induced in the core are proportional to the frequency and the flux, therefore, the
eddy-current loss is proportional to (Frequency ¥ Flux)2.
Eddy-current loss can also be reduced considerably by the use of silicon-iron alloy and employ-
ing conducting material of high resistivity.
The hysteresis and eddy-current losses are together known as core losses which do not vary with
current. Therefore, the core losses are also known as constant losses and is independent of the load
current.
FGGJDJFODZ!PG!BO!FMFDUSJDBM!NBDIJOF! 2/25
Every electro-mechanical energy conversion is accompanied by losses. A study of these losses is
necessary because of two reasons. Firstly, the losses influence the operating cost of the machine.
Secondly, the losses determine the heating of the machine and hence determine the machine rating
or power output, which can be obtained without deterioration of the insulation due to overheating.
The various losses in rotating machines are the following:
1. Copper loss or I 2 R loss in the rotor and stator windings. To calculate the losses, the resistances
of windings should be taken at the operating temperature, which is assumed to be 75°C.
2. Iron losses i.e. hysteresis and eddy-current losses as discussed. These losses are constant.
3. Mechanical or friction and windage losses. These losses are also constant unless speed varies
appreciably.
4. Stray load losses, which mean additional hysteresis and eddy-current losses arising from any
distortion in flux distribution caused by the load current. These losses are difficult to measure
and are usually taken as 1% of the machine output.
Power output
Efficiency = (1.55)
Power input
For a motor, especially the large ones, it is difficult to measure mechanical power output.
Therefore,
Power input - Losses
Efficiency of motor = (1.56)
Power input
For a generator, it is difficult to measure power input. Therefore,
Power output
Efficiency of generator = (1.57)
Power output + Losses
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/72
FMFDUSPNFDIBOJDBM!FOFSHZ.! 2/26
DPOWFSTJPO!QSJODJQMFT
This section is devoted to the principles of electromechanical energy conversion and the analysis
of the devices which accomplish this function. An electromechanical energy-conversion device is
one which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into electrical
energy. As electrical energy can be transmitted, utilized and controlled easily and efficiently, it is
a very common practice to convert other forms of energy into electrical energy. We are mainly
concerned with the electromechanical energy-conversion process which takes place through the
medium of the electric or magnetic field. The energy storing capacity of the magnetic field is much
greater (about 25,000 times) than that of the electric field. Hence, electromechanical energy conver-
sion devices with magnetic field as the coupling medium between electrical and mechanical system
is more common in practice though there are some devices which use electric field as the coupling
medium.
2/26/2! Dpowfstjpo!pg!Fofshz
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created not destroyed. It is only
change from one form to the other. In an electromechanical energy-conversion device, the energy
balance equation can be stated as
È Increase in ˘
ÈEnergy input ˘ ÈMechanical ˘ Í ˙ È Energy ˘
Ífrom electric ˙ = Í energy ˙ + Íenergy stored in the ˙ + Íconverted ˙ (1.58)
Í ˙ Í ˙ Ístorage electrical or ˙ Í ˙
ÍÎ source ˙˚ ÍÎ output ˙˚ Í ˙ ÍÎ into heat ˙˚
Î mechanical medium ˚
Equation (1.58) holds for motor action where the input is the electrical energy and the output is
the mechanical energy. The conversion of energy into heat occurs by such mechanisms as ohmic
heating due to current flow in the windings of the electric terminals and mechanical friction due to
movement of the components forming mechanical terminals. The energy balance equation for the
generator action is
È Increase in ˘
È Mechanical ˘ È Electrical ˘ Í ˙ È Energy ˘
Íenergy input ˙ = Íenergy output ˙ + Í energy stored in ˙ + Ídissipated ˙ (1.59)
Î ˚ Î ˚ Í Î ˚
Î magnetic medium˙˚
It is possible to theoretically isolate the loss mechanisms from energy storage mechanism. In
this case, the device may be represented as a lossless magnetic energy storage system with me-
chanical and electrical terminals. The loss mechanisms can be represented by external elements
connected to these terminals—resistances to the electric terminals and mechanical dampers to the
! 2/73 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
mechanical terminals. The ability to identify a lossless energy storage system is the essence of the
energy method. For a lossless magnetic energy storage system,
dWelec = d Wmech + dWfld (1.60)
where
dWelec = Differential electric energy input
dWmech = Differential mechanical energy output
dWfld = Differential change in magnetic stored energy
Now, if e is the voltage induced in the electric terminals by changing magnetic stored energy and
i is the current flowing in the electric terminals then
dWelec = ei dt
Hence, eidt = dWmech + dWfld (1.61)
df
Equation (1.61) along with Faraday’s law of induced emf, i.e. eind = –N forms the fundamen-
tal basis for the analysis of energy conversion devices. dt
FOFSHZ!JO!B!TJOHMZ!FYDJUFE! 2/27
NBHOFUJD!GJFME!TZTUFN
Consider an electromagnetic relay, the schematic diagram of which is shown in Fig. 1.31. The
relay coil is supplied from a source with voltage v and an external resistance R is connected with
the source. The current through the coil is i. The mechanical terminal variable is force ffld which is
produced by magnetic field and displacement x. The moving armature is considered as massless and
is included as an external mass connected to the mechanical terminal. Hence, the magnetic core and
the armature constitute a lossless magnetic energy storage system. Neglecting the magnetic non-
linearity and core losses the flux and mmf are considered to be directly proportional for the entire
magnetic circuit. Hence, the flux linkage
l = L(x)i (1.62)
where L is the inductance which depends on the armature position x.
Since dWmech is the mechanical energy output of the relay and magnetic force ffld is acting from
the relay upon the external mechanical system
dWmech = ffld dx (1.63)
Substituting dWelec = idl and using Eq. (1.63) we can write from Eq. (1.60)
dWfld = idl – ffld dx (1.64)
Since the magnetic energy storage system is lossless, it is a conservative system. Wfld is uniquely
specified by x and l as shown by Eq. (1.64). Hence, l and x are referred to as state variables since
their values uniquely determine the state of the system. Again when dl = 0 then ffld = 0 as there can
not be any magnetic force in the absence of magnetic field.
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/74
Gjh/!2/42
ÊB ˆ ÊB B ˆ
\ Wfld = Ú Á Ú H .dB˜ dV = Ú Á Ú ◊ dB˜ dV (1.66)
vËo ¯ vËo
m ¯
GPSDFT!BOE!UPSRVFT!JO!B!NBHOFUJD!GJFME! 2/28
e e
If a charge q moves in a region where both electric field E and a magnetic field B are present, the
resultant force acting on it is
F = q( E + v ¥ B)
e e e
! 2/75 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The direction of force is always perpendicular to the direction of both the particle motion and
that of the magnetic field as indicated by Fleming’s right-hand rule.
To calculate the resultant force, energy method is used which is based on the principle of con-
servation of energy. To understand this method, a magnetic field based electromechanical energy-
conversion device, as shown in Fig. 1.32, is considered. The device is indicated as a lossless system
with two terminals. The electric terminal has two terminal variables—voltage e and current i and
the mechanical terminal also has two terminal variables, a force ffld and a position x.
i ffld
+ +
Lossless magnetic
e x
energy storage device
– –
Electrical terminal Mechanical terminal
Gjh/!2/43
Since the storage device is lossless, the rate of change of stored energy in the magnetic field
dWfld dx
= ei – ffld
dt dt
dx
where ffld is the mechanical power output of the energy storage device and x is the displacement
dt
of the mechanical terminal from the initial position. Now l being the flux linkage of the electrical
winding
dl
e=
dt
\ dWfld = idl – ffld dx (1.68)
For any state function of two independent variables x1 and x2 the differential of F with respect
to x1 and x2 is
dF dF
dF(x1, x2) = dx1 + dx2
d x1 x2
d x2 x1
d Wfld d Wfld
\ dWfld (l, x) = dl + dx (1.69)
dl x dx l
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/76
dWfld ( l , x )
i= (1.70)
dl x
dWfld ( l , x )
and ffld = – (1.71)
dx l
From Eq. (1.70) and Eq. (1.71) solution of i and ffld can be obtained.
For linear magnetic system where l = L(x)i the energy is expressed by Eq. (1.65) and the force
can be found from Eq. (1.71).
d Ê l2 ˆ l2 dL( x )
\ ffld = – =
d x ÁË 2 L( x ) ˜¯ l
2
2 L( x ) dx
( L( x )i ) dL( x ) i 2 dL( x )
2
or ffld = = (1.72)
2 L( x ) 2 dx 2 dx
When the system has a rotating mechanical terminal, the mechanical terminal variables become
angular displacement q instead of x and torque Tfld instead of ffld,
\ from Eq. (1.68), dWfld (l, q) = idl – Tfld dq (1.73)
dWfld ( l , q )
Tfld = – (1.74)
dq l
For linear magnetic systems when l = L(q)i, Eq. (1.65) can be written as
1 l2
Wfld (l, q) =
2 L(q )
d Ê 1 l2 ˆ 1 l 2 dL(q )
\ Tfld = – = (1.75)
dq ÁË 2 L(q ) ˜¯ l
2 L(q ) 2 dq
In terms of current i,
i 2 dL(q )
Tfld = (1.76)
2 dq
! 2/77 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The magnetic force and torque can also be derived from co-energy. Co-energy is a nonphysical
quantity measured in energy units, used in theoritical analysis of energy in physical system. The
concept of co-energy can be applied to conservative systems which can be described by a linear
relationship between the input and the stored energy.
l2
For a magnetically linear system the energy and co-energy are numerically equal, i.e. =
2 2 2L
1 2 B mH
Li . Similarly the energy and co-energy densities are equal i.e. = for linear systems. The
2 2m 2
graphical representation of energy and co-energy for both linear and nonlinear system is shown in
Fig. 1.33. The area between the l-i curve and the vertical axis which is equal to the integral of idl
is the energy. The area to the horizontal axis given by the integral of ldi is the co-energy.
l l
A
B A B
Energy Energy
Coenergy
Coenergy
O i O C i
(a) For linear system (b) For nonlinear system
Gjh/!2/44
For a linear system, these two areas are equal. For linear lossless systems, the magnitude of
co-energy is equal to the magnitude of stored energy. The co-energy has no physical meaning, but it
is used in calculating mechanical forces in electromagnetic systems. To distinguish it from real en-
ergy in calculations it is usually marked with an apostrophe. The total area of the rectangle OBACO
is equal to the sum of energy and co-energy.
\ Area OBACO = Area OABO + OACO
Hence, at a given operating point with current i and flux linkage l,
Energy + Co-energy = il
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/78
¢ (i , x )
dWfld
and ffld = (1.82)
dx i
From Eq. (1.81) and Eq. (1.82), it is seen that W¢fld must be a function of i and x. For any system,
Eq. (1.71) and Eq. (1.82) will give, the same result.
Now consider that the relay armature of Fig. 1.31 is at position x so that the device is operating
at point a in Fig. 1.34(a).
c
l l
b Dl
lo lo b
a a
–DWfld +DW¢fld
Di
io i io i
(a) Change of energy with l constant (b) Change of co-energy with i constant
Gjh/!2/45 D,
With l constant and Dx Æ 0 the partial derivative of Eq. (1.71) can be interpreted as the limit
of –DWfld/Dx. With the change of Dx, the change –DWfld is shown by the shaded area in Fig. 1.34(a).
! 2/79 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
-DWfld
\ ffld = as Dx Æ 0.
Dx
Again partial derivative of Eq. (1.82) can be interpreted as the limit of DW¢fld /Dx with i constant
and Dx Æ 0. In this case the shaded area as shown in Fig. 1.34(b) is DWfld ¢ /Dx with i constant and
Dx Æ 0.
DWfld
¢
\ ffld = as Dx Æ 0.
Dx
The shaded area in Fig. 1.34(a) and Fig. 1.34(b) differ only by the small triangle abc of sides
Di and Dl. In the limit the shaded areas resulting from Dx at constant l or at constant i are equal.
Hence the force produced by the magnetic field is independent of whether it is calculated with en-
ergy or co-energy.
By analogy to the derivation of Eq. (1.65), the co-energy can be found from the integral of ldi.
i
\ ¢ (i, x) = Ú l(i, x ) di
Wfld (1.83)
o
FOFSHZ!JO!B!EPVCMZ!FYDJUFE! 2/29
NBHOFUJD!GJFME!TZTUFN
A doubly excited magnetic system has two independent sources of excitation. Synchronous ma-
chines and separately excited dc machines are examples of this type. A schematic diagram of
doubly excited system is shown in Fig. 1.35. It represents a system with rotary motion and the me-
chanical terminal variables are torque Tfld and angular displacement q. The system can be described
in terms of either l1, l2 and q or i1, i2 and q. When fluxes are used the differential energy function
dWfld (l1, l2, q) corresponding to Eq. (1.73) is
dWfld (l1, l2, q) = i1 dl1 + i2 dl2 – Tfld dq (1.90)
qm
i1 i2
v1
v2
Stator
Rotor
Gjh/!2/46
dWfld ( l1 , l2 , q )
i2 = (1.92)
dl2 l ,q
1
! 2/81 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
dWfld ( l1 , l2 , q )
Tfld = – (1.93)
dq l ,l
1 2
From Eq. (1.90), Wfld can be found by integrating first over q, holding l1 and l2 constant. Sec-
ondly integration should be done over l2 holding l1 constant and thirdly over l1 holding l1 con-
stant. In the first case, the integration is zero.
l2 l1
\ Wfld (l1, l2, q) = Ú i2 d l2 + Ú i1 d l1 (1.94)
o o
In Eq. (1.97), L11, L22 and L12 are all functions of q. For linear system, q can be replaced by x.
In order to determine force and torque in terms of current, co-energy for a doubly excited system
can be defined as
¢ (i1, i2, q) = l1 i1 + l2 i2 – Wfld
Wfld (1.98)
\ dW¢fld (i1 i2, q) = d(l1 i1) + d(l2 i2) – dWfld (1.99)
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/82
¢ (i1 , i2 , q )
dWfld
\ l1 = (1.101)
d i1 i 2 ,q
¢ (i1 , i2 , q )
dWfld
l2 = (1.102)
d i2 i ,q
1
¢ (i1 , i2 , q )
dWfld
Tfld = (1.103)
dq i ,i
1 2
i12
dL11 dL22 i22 dL
= + + i1 i2 12 (1.106)
2 dq 2 dq dq
From Eq. (1.105a), the magnetic force
¢ (i1 , i2 , x )
dWfld i 2 dL11 i22 dL22 dL
ffld = = 1 + + i1 i2 12 (1.106a)
dx i ,i 2 dx 2 dx dx
1 2
! Qspcmfn!2/47
$ $ $ 3 4
& - 4 +" - & #
+ +
-!$ & 25 $ *¥ !$-
Solution
Area of the hysteresis loop is 50 cm2.
\ Hysteresis loss = 50 ¥ 500 ¥ 0.3
= 7500 J/m3/cycle
Density of the material is 7.8 ¥ 103 kg/m3
7500
\ Hysteresis loss = J/cycle/kg
7.8 ¥ 103
Frequency is 50 Hz.
7500 ¥ 50
\ Total hysteresis loss = J/s/kg
7.8 ¥ 103
= 48 J/s/kg
= 48 watts/kg.
! Qspcmfn!2/48
# $ !$ !
+
&" - ' & 25 $ 5 &+ 6-
+ +
*¥ !$-
Solution
Hysteresis loss Ph = Kh B1.6
m fV
70
where V= m3
7.8 ¥ 10 3
70
\ Ph = 530 ¥ (1.5)1.6 ¥ 50 ¥ watts
7.8 ¥ 103
= 454.98 W
\ loss in 1 hour or 3600 s is
Wh = 3600 ¥ 454.98 J
= 1637939 J.
! Qspcmfn!2/49
, $ ) $ ' 25 , ,
&" - + " 7
' 25 , " -
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/84
Solution
Eddy-current loss Pe • f 2 Bm2
where f is the frequency and Bm is the flux density
Pe = 30 W, f1 = 100 H2, Bm = 0.5 Wb/m2
1 1
! Qspcmfn!2/4:
$ 7$ +08 9 $ 8m Æ •9%
$ $ $ $
$ # , $ $
7$ +08 9
lc lg
Magnetic
material
Gjh/!2/47)b* ! "#
B, T
Br
1.0
0.5
Load line for
Prob. 1.39
Solution
H in the core is negligible as the permeability in the core is infinite. Considering the mmf in the
magnetic circuit of Fig. 1.36(a) to be O,
O = Hg lg + Hm lm where Hg and Hm are the magnetic field intensities in the air gap and magnetic
material lg and lm are the air-gap length and length of the magnetic material.
Ê lm ˆ
\ Hg = – H
ÁË l ˜¯ m
g
! Qspcmfn!2/51 Core
$ 7$ +
3
: $ 4 *
;+
$ $ 4 &¥
;+ N
4 ¥ turns
/ 4
8 9 # $ Air-gap
8 9 # ,% , ! $
$ Gjh/!2/48
$ $ $ ! %&
Solution
Core length lc = 0.8 m
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/86
NI
(b) Total flux =
Total reluctance
where N = Total number of turns = 100 and I = 10 A
NI 100 ¥ 10
\ total flux f= = Wb
Rc + Rg 0 + 0.995 ¥ 106
= 1.005 ¥ 10–3 Wb
! Qspcmfn!2/52
< = + m
Solution
lc 0.8
(a) Rc = = -7 -3
= 0.106 ¥ 106 A/Wb
m A 3000 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 ¥ 2 ¥ 10
lg
Rg = = 0.995 ¥ 106 A/Wb
m0 A
100 ¥ 10
(b) f= Wb = 9.434 mWb
(0.106 ¥ 0.995)106
Flux linkage = Nf = 100 ¥ 9.434 ¥ 10–3 = 0.9434 Wb
! 2/87 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
N f 0.9434
Coil inductance = = 0.09434 H
I 10
= 94.34 mH.
! Qspcmfn!2/53
$ = $) ,
Ê 3499 ˆ
m 4 m& 1+
Á 7.8 ˜
Ë 1+ 0.047( Bm ) ¯
1 , = $ 5 ) 81 ) 2 9 ) $ £1 £ #
' ) ,
Solution
The magnetization characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.38.
2.5
2
B (Wb/m2)
1.5
0.5
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
A (A/m)
Gjh/!2/49 ' ! %*
lc lg
Total reluctance = +
m A m0 A
NI
\ Flux f =
lc lg
+
m A m0 A
f NI
\ Flux density = = = 2.2
A lc lg
+
m m0
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/88
Êl lg ˆ
or, NI = 2.2 ¥ Á c + ˜
Ë m m0 ¯
Now when Bm = 2.2T,
ÏÔ 3499 ¸Ô
m = 4p ¥ 10–7 Ì1 + ˝
ÔÓ 1 + 0.047( 2.2)7.8 Ô˛
= 9.17 ¥ 10–4
Ê 0.8 2.5 ¥ 10 -3 ˆ
\ NI = 2.2 ¥ Á + ˜
Ë 9.17 ¥ 10 -4 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¯
= 6298.28
6298.28
\ I= A = 62.98 A.
100
! Qspcmfn!2/54
7$ + $ 3
4+0
$ 4 &
/ 4 &
. m ! $ , $ $ $
$ $ ) 0 2
Solution
A = 3.6 ¥ 10–4 m2
l = 15 cm = 0.15 m
N = 75
m = 2100 m0
L = 6 mH = 6 ¥ 10–3 H
If R be the total reluctance and lg be the air-gap length then
l lg
R= +
m A m0 A
NI Nf
Flux f = and L =
R I
N2
\ L=
R
! 2/89 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
N2
or, L=
l / m A + lg / m0 A
N 2 mmo A
\ L=
l ◊ mo + lg m
N 2 mm0 A
or, lg m = – l mo
L
N 2 m0 A m
or, lg = -l 0
L m
ÏÔ (75) 2 ¥ 3.6 ¥ 10 -4 0.15 ¸Ô
= 4p ¥ 10–7 Ì - ˝
ÔÓ 6 ¥ 10 -3 2100 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 Ô˛
= 3.523 ¥ 10–4 m
= 0.3523 mm.
! Qspcmfn!2/55
,
2Lo
>4
x
1+
xo
> 4+ 2% , 4 * , ) $
W
8 9 $ $ ,
? 0
8 9 # $ $ $
* % $ 0
Solution
Lo = 30 ¥ 10–3 H
xo = 0.87 ¥ 10–3 m
(a) For x = 0.9 ¥ 10–3 m,
20 ¥ 30 ¥ 10 -3
L= H = 29.49 mH
0.9
1+
0.87
I =6A
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/8:
1 2 1
= LI = ¥ 29.49 ¥ 10–3 ¥ (6)2 = 0.531 J
2 2
! Qspcmfn!2/56
< = $ ) $
@ 8 9A @ 8 9A
$
Solution
(a) When the coil voltage is held constant at 0.4 V, the coil current
V 0.4
I= = A = 3.64 A
R 110
103
From Problem 1.44, we get L = 29.49 mH in part (a) as all the other conditions are same.
\ magnetic energy stored in the inductor is
1 2 1
= LI = ¥ 29.49 ¥ (3.64)2 ¥ 10–3 = 0.195 J
2 2
(b) From Problem 1.44, we get L = 19.55 mH in part (b).
1
Magnetic energy stored = ¥ 19.55 ¥ 10–3 (3.64)2 = 0.1295 J
2
Hence, change in magnetic energy is (0.195 – 0.1295)
= 0.0655 J.
! 2/91 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!2/57
$ $)
>8q 9 4 > C > q q $
$ , . $
5 # ' $
Solution
From Eq (1.76),
torque acting on the rotor when current Io is constant
1 2 d
= I L (q )
2 o dq
1 d
= I o2
2
( L + L2 cos 2q m )
dq o
1 2 d
= I
2 o dq
(- 2 L2 sin 2q m )
= –Io2 L2 sin 2qm.
! Qspcmfn!2/58
7$ +? % $ & *
$ $ $ $
* %
Core
N turn
coil
Air gap
Gjh/!2/4: , ! %-
Solution
N2
Inductance =
Reluctance of air gap + Reluctance of core
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/92
( 480) 2
\ Inductance =
0.15 0.0008
-4
+
m0 m r ¥ 1 ¥ 10 m0 ¥ 10 -4
( 480) 2 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 10 -4
=
0.15
+ 0.0008
1000
= 30.46 mH.
! Qspcmfn!2/59
7$ +? $ $ $ &
& $ # $ $
2 ! 0 $ )
+ ! , ,
" -
Solution
A = 5 cm2 = 5 ¥ 10–4 m2
l = 25 cm = 0.25 m
L = 1.4 ¥ 10–3 H
I =6A
mr = 3200
B = 1.7 Wb/m2
Nf
Now L = where f is the flux in the circuit and N is the number of turns.
I
LI LI 1.4 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 6
\ N= = = = 99
f BA 1.7 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -4
\ number of turns is 99.
If lg be the air gap length then total reluctance
l lg 1 Ê l ˆ
R= + = Á + lg ˜
m0 m r A m0 A m0 A Ë m r ¯
NI
Again, = f = BA
R
NI
\ R=
BA
! 2/93 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
1 Ê l ˆ NI
or, Á + lg ˜ =
m0 A Ë m r ¯ BA
m0 NI l 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 99 ¥ 6 0.25
or, lg = - = -
B mr 1.7 3200
= 3.6 ¥ 10–4 m
= 0.36 mm.
\ air-gap length is 0.36 mm.
! Qspcmfn!2/5:
$ 7$ $ $ ! $
$ ) + . % 0&
$ $ %
8 9 : $
8 9 .
8 9 ' $ , 1$ 4 +& " -
N
turns Air gap
Gjh/!2/51 ! %#
Solution
(a) The mean length of the core = (2p ¥ 4 – 2p ¥ 3.4) cm – 0.2 cm = 3.57 cm = 0.0357 m
Cross-sectional area = (4 – 3.4) ¥ 2 = 1.2 sqcm = 1.2 ¥ 10–4 sqm
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/94
N2
(b) Inductance =
Total reluctance
(65) 2
= H
0.0357 0.2 ¥ 10 -2
+
m ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 -4 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 -4
where m Æ •
(65) 2
\ Inductance = H = 0.318 mH
0.2 ¥ 10 -2
4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 -4
If the current required is I to produce flux density of 1.35 Wb/m2 then
65 I 65 I
1.35 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10–4 = -2
=
0.2 ¥ 10 0.2
4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 -4 4p ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 -9
! Qspcmfn!2/61
$ $
NI r
7$ , 24 $
h
i
$ $ #
' $
.
Solution
From Eq. (1.67),
Magnetic stored energy N turns h
B2 ( m H )2
Wfld = ¥ Volume = ¥ Volume
2m 2m
mH 2
= ¥ Volume
2
mN 2 I 2
= ¥ Volume Gjh/!2/52
2h 2
! 2/95 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
mN 2I 2 m N 2 I 2p r 2
\ Wfld = ¥ p r2h =
2h 2 2h
From Eq. (1.71),
d d Ê m N 2 I 2p r 2 ˆ
\ force F= Wfld = Á ˜¯
dr dr Ë 2h
m N 2 I 2p r
=
h
F m N 2 I 2p r
Pressure = Force/Area = =
2p rh 2p r h ¥ h
mN 2 I 2
= .
2h 2
! Qspcmfn!2/62
= & 25% ) $ #
) $ $ ! , &" - D $ %
! $
Solution
w LI
The rms voltage V = where w is the angular frequency, L is the inductance of inductor in henry
2
and I is the rms current.
Nf
Now L = where f is the flux and N is the number of turns.
I
Nf w NBA
\ V = wI = wN f 2=
2I 2
w = 2p ¥ 50 rad/s
N = 480
B = 1.5 Wb/m2
A = 1 ¥ 10–4 m2
2p ¥ 50 ¥ 480 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 1 ¥ 10 -4
\ V= = 15.99 V
2
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/96
! Qspcmfn!2/63
$ 7$ ) $ ,
$ ) m $
) $ $ , )
4
Ê yˆ
ÁË !- Y ˜¯
o
8 9 # ) , , $ 1$ $
. $ ) $ £ £ *E # $ ,
mƥ
8 9 < 8 9 m
Gjh/!2/53 ! /*
Solution
Total mmf = NI = Hc lc + zHg + zHg = Hc lc + 2zHg
where Hc and Hg are the magnetic intensities in the core and in the air gap respectively.
! 2/97 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(a) Considering m = •
NI = 2zHg
NI
\ Hg =
2z
m0 NI
\ Bg = m0 Hg =
2z
As the same flux is flowing in the circuit,
Bg A2 = Bc A1
A Ê yˆ
\ Bc = Bg 2 = Bg Á1 - ˜
A1 Ë Yo ¯
(b) Bg = m0 Hg, Bc = mHc
l +x
Reluctance of core and plunger = c
2z
m A1
Reluctance of air gap =
m0 A2
NI
\ flux f=
2z l +x
+ c
m0 A2 m A1
NI
Again, f = Bg A2 =
1 Ï m0 A2 ¸
Ì2 z + (lc + x ) ˝
m0 A2 Ó m A1 ˛
m0 NI
or, Bg = .
m Ê yˆ
2 z + 0 Á1 - ˜ (lc + x )
m Ë Yo ¯
! Qspcmfn!2/64
. = *% 0 % $ $
$ $ $
Solution
Magnetic energy stored in the air gap
B2
W1 = ¥ Alg
2m0
Here, B = 1.7 Wb/m2
A = 5 ¥ 10–4 m2
lg = 3.6 ¥ 10–4 m
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/98
(1.7) 2
\ W1 = -7
¥ 5 ¥ 10–4 ¥ 3.6 ¥ 10–4
2 ¥ 4p ¥ 10
= 0.207 J
Magnetic energy stored in the core
B2 (1.7) 2 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 0.25
W2 = ¥ Al =
2m 2 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 3200
= 0.045 J
\ total energy = 0.207 + 0.045 = 0.252 J.
! Qspcmfn!2/65
) )
1 1 1
> 4 C %> 4 C %> 4> 4
2x 2x 2x
) $ , ,
, ; # !
, $ &
Solution
From Eq. (1.105a), the co-energy
1 1
W¢fld (i1, i2, x) = L11 i12 + L22 i22 + L12 i1 i2
2 2
1Ê 1ˆ 1Ê 1ˆ 1
= Á 2 + ˜ ¥ ( 20) 2 + Á 1 + ˜ ¥ ( -10) 2 + ¥ 20 ¥ ( -10)
2 Ë 2x ¯ 2 Ë 2x ¯ 2x
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ 100
= Á 2 + ˜ ¥ 200 + Á1 + ˜ ¥ 50 -
Ë 2x ¯ Ë 2x ¯ x
25
= 450 +
x
From Eq. (1.106a), the magnetic force
¢
dWfld d Ê 25 ˆ 25
ffld = (i1 , i2 , x ) = Á 450 + ˜ = - 2
dx i1 , i2 dxË x¯ x
1 1 1
25 È1˘
\ Work done = Ú f fld dx = Ú -
x 2
dx = 25 Í ˙
Î x ˚ 0.5
0.5 0.5
= –25 J.
! 2/99 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!2/66
$ $ $
)
>8q9 4 +C qC & q
q $ $ , H , #
' $ + ' $ $
) )
Solution
From Eq. (1.87), torque
i2 d (3) 2 d
Tfld = L(q ) = (0.03 + 0.01 cos 2q + 0.005 sin 4q)
2 dq 2 dq
9
= (–0.02 sin 2q + 0.02 cos 4q)
2
= (0.09 cos 4q – 0.09 sin 2q) Nm
Torque has largest negative value when the first term has maximum negative value and the sec-
ond term has maximum positive value.
\ cos 4q = –1 which is the maximum negative value
\ 4q = 180° or q = 45°
At q = 45°, sin 2q = 1 which is maximum positive
\ At q = 45° the torque is negative maximum.
! Qspcmfn!2/67
$ 7$ + & & '
# ,4
$ &
i
Armature
Gjh/!2/54 5 ! /6
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/9:
Solution
From Eq. (1.34), the coil inductance
N 2 m A N 2 mo A (1500) 2 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 -4
L= = =
l 2x 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 10 -2
= 0.353 H
Field energy stored
1 2 1
Wfld = i L = ¥ (5)2 ¥ 0.353 = 4.4125 J
2 2
From Eq. (1.85), the force on the armature
i 2 dL( x ) i 2 d Ê N 2 mo A ˆ i 2 N 2 mo A
ffld = = = -
2 dx 2 dx ÁË 2 x ˜¯ 2 2x2
when x = 2 cm
52 (1500) 2 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 -4
ffld = – ¥ N
2 2 ¥ ( 2 ¥ 10 -2 ) 2
= 220.78 N.
! Qspcmfn!2/68
. $ % , $ , ! $ l 4
+l+ C l 8 C , ; , 9 , #
l
Solution
From Eq. (1.65), the field energy
l l
Wfld (l, x) = Ú i( l , x ) d l = Ú ÈÎ3l 3 + 4 l (1 + x - x 2 ) ˘˚ d l
o o
4 2
l l
=3 +4 (1 + x – x2)
4 2
From Eq. (1.71), the magnetic force
dWfld ( l , x ) d È3 ˘
ffld = – = – Í l 4 + 2l 2 (1 + x - x 2 ) ˙
dx d x Î4 ˚
2
= –[0 + 2l (0 + 1 – 2x)]
= 2l2(2x – 1).
! 2/:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!2/69
, $
3 1
> 4> 4 > 4> 4
2+ x 1+ x
# ) $ ,4
8 9 , ) $ +
8 9 , ) $ 8 9
Solution
From Eq. (1.105a), co-energy
1 1
W¢fld (i1, i2, x) = L11 i12 + L22 i22 + L12 i1 i2
2 2
1 3 1 3 1
= i12 ¥ + i22 ¥ + i1 i2 ¥
2 2+ x 2 2+ x 1+ x
3 ii
= (i12 + i22 ) + 1 2 (i)
2( 2 + x ) 1+ x
(a) At x = 1 m, when both the coils are connected in parallel
3
L11 = L22 = =1
2 +1
1 1
L12 = L21 = =
1+1 2
From Eq. (1.95) and Eq. (1.96),
d l1 di di di 1 di2
e1 = = L11 1 + L12 2 = 1 +
dt dt dt dt 2 dt
= 400 cos 377t (ii)
d l2 di di 1 di1 di2
e2 = = L21 1 + L22 2 = + = 400 cos 377t (iii)
dt dt dt 2 dt dt
Solving Eqs. (ii) and (iii),
di1 2 di
= ¥ 400 cos 377t = 2
dt 3 dt
2 2 sin 377t
\ i1 = i2 = Ú ¥ 400 cos 377t = ¥ 400
3 3 377
= 0.707 sin 377t
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/:2
As both the coils are identical (L11 = L22), the two currents are equal, i.e. i1 = i2,
400 400
\ i1 = i2 =
3 Ú cos 377t dt =
3 ¥ 377
sin 377t
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot
1. Explain Fleming’s left-hand and right-hand rules.
2. In every electromagnetic conversion device, both generator and motor action take place
simultaneously. Justify.
3. Derive the expression for dynamically induced emf.
4. What is the difference between an induction machine and synchronous machine?
5. Define a transformer. Give some transformer applications.
6. Draw and explain B-H curve.
7. What is magnetic hysteresis?
8. What are the different types of losses present in an electric machine?
9. What is eddy-current loss? What are the effects of eddy currents? How can they be minimized?
10. Discuss in detail the principle of conservation of energy.
Qspcmfnt!
1. A conductor carrying a current of 5 A is situated at right angles to a magnetic field of flux
density of 1 Wb/m2. Determine the force on the conductor if the length of the conductor is 10
cm. [0.5 N]
2. An iron core is circulator in shape. The length of the magnetic path is 10 cm and the cross-
sectional area is 10 cm2. It has two coils A and B where the coil A has 100 turns and the coil
B has 500 turns. The current in the coil A is changed from 0 to 10 A in 0.1s. If the relative
permeability of the core material is 300 find the emf induced in the coil B. [6.28 V]
3. A flux of 5 ¥ 10–4 Wb is created by a current of 10 A flowing through a 150-turn coil.
Determine the inductance of the coil and the induced emf corresponding to a complete
reversal of current in 0.2 s. [7.5 mH, 0.75 V]
4. A 300-turns coil having an axial length of 8 cm and 2 cm radius is pivoted in a magnetic field
of 1.1 Wb/m2 flux density. Find the torque on the coil if I = 2 A. [2.112 Nm]
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/:4
5. Determine the inductance of a coil of 500 turns wound on an air-cored torroidal ring having
a mean diameter of 300 mm. The ring has a circular cross section of 50 mm diameter.
[0.654 mH]
6. The flux in a magnetic core is varying sinusoidally at a frequency of 600 Hz. The maximum
flux density Bm is 0.6 Wb/m2 and the eddy-current loss is 16 W. Determine the eddy-current
loss in the core when the frequency is 800 Hz and the flux density is 0.5 Wb/m2.
[14.8148 W]
7. Calculate the efficiency of a 100 kVA transformer at 0.7 p.f. The core losses are 800 W and
full-load copper losses are 1000 W. [97.49%]
8. A synchronous machine having 8 poles runs at 1500 rpm. Determine the frequency of the
emf generated by the machine. [100 Hz]
9. A 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor develops 35 HP including 3 HP mechanical losses. If the
stator loss is 3 kW and the rotor loss is 1.07 kW, find the efficiency. [78.95 %]
10. A 400 V dc motor is running at a speed of 795 rpm and the armature current is 8 A. If the
armature resistance is 0.3 W, determine the emf and electromagnetic torque developed by the
armature of the motor. [397.6 V, 38.23 Nm]
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. Which of the following is a vector quantity?
(a) Relative permeability (b) Flux density
(c) Magnetic field intensity (d) Magnetic potential
2. The force between two long parallel conductors is inversely proportional to
(a) radius of conductors
(b) current in one conductor
(c) product of current in two conductors
(d) distance between the conductors
3. A conductor of length L has current I passing through it when it is placed parallel to a
magnetic field. The force experienced by the conductor is
(a) zero (b) B2LI
(c) BLI2 (d) BLI
4. Paramagnetic materials have relative permeability
(a) equal to unity (b) slightly less than unity
(c) slightly more than unity
(d) equal to that of ferromagnetic materials.
5. The core of a coil has length of 100 mm. The inductance of the coil is 6 mH. If the core length
is doubled, all other quantities remaining same the inductance is
(a) 12 mH (b) 3 mH
(c) 24 mH (d) 48 mH
! 2/:5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
6A
O t
2s 4s
[GATE 2003]
(a) 144 J (b) 98 J
(c) 132 J (d) 168 J
[Hints: Energy absorbed by the inductor
di
dW = vL i dt = L i dt = L i di
dt
For t = 0 to 2s
i = 3t; hence, di = 3dt
2
\ W = Ú L 3t di
0
2
2 2
Èt 2 ˘
= 2 Ú 3t ◊ 3 dt = 18 Ú t dt = 18 Í ˙ = 36 J
0 0 ÍÎ 2 ˙˚ 0
For t = 2 to 4s, i = 6 A
di
\ = 0; hence, vL = 0 and energy absorbed by the inductor is 0.
dt
2
2 2
Èt3 ˘
Now for t = 0 to 2s the energy absorbed by the resistance = Ú i R dt = Ú (3t ) ¥ 1 dt = 9 Í ˙
2 2
0 0 ÍÎ 3 ˙˚ 0
= 24 J
4
For t = 2 to 4s, the energy absorbed by the resistor = Ú (6) 2 ¥ 1 dt = 36(4 – 2) = 72 J
2
\ total energy absorbed = 36 + 24 + 72 = 132 J]
! 2/:7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
18. Given two coupled inductors L1 and L2, their mutual inductance M satisfies
4 + L2
(a) M = L12 + L22 (b) M >
2
(c) M > L1 L2 (d) M K L1 L2 [Gate 2001]
2
19. A voltage waveform v(t) = 12t is applied across a 1 H inductor for t L 0 with initial current
through it being zero. The current through the inductor for t L 0 is given by
(a) 12 t (b) 24 t
3
(c) 12 t (d) 4 t3 [GATE 2000]
di di
[Hints: vL = L = 1◊
dt dt
\ di = vL dt
t3
or, i = Ú vL dt = Ú 12t 2 dt = 12 = 4t3]
3
20. For a linear electromagnetic circuit, which of the following statements is true?
(a) Field energy is equal to the co-energy.
(b) Field energy is greater than co-energy.
(c) Field energy is lesser than co-energy.
(d) Co-energy is zero. [GATE 2005]
21. The electromagnetic torque Te of a drive and its connected load torque TL are as shown below.
Out of the operating points A, B, C and D, the stable ones are
TL Te
Te
B
A
T T TL
Speed Speed
Te Te
C
D
T
T TL
TL
Speed
Speed
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft 2/:8
(a) A, C, D (b) B, C
(c) A, D (d) B, C, D [GATE 2009]
22. Two magnetic poles revolve around a stationary armature carrying two coils (c1 – c¢1, c2 –
c¢2) as shown in the figure. Consider the instant when the poles are in a position as shown.
Identify the correct statement regarding the polarity of the induced emf at this instant in coil
sides c1 and c2
c¢1 c¢2
S N
c2 c1
mo N 2 A 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ ( 400) 2 ¥ 16 ¥ 10 -4
[Hints: L= =
l 1 ¥ 10 -3
= 0.32 H
\ XL = 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 0.32 = 100.53 W
230
\ I= = 2.28 A]
100.53
(ii) The average force on the core to reduce the air gap will be
(a) 832.29 N (b) 1666.22 N
(c) 3332.47 N (d) 6664.84 N
1 2 1
[Hints: Stored energy = L I = ¥ 0.32 ¥ (2.28)2
2 2
= 0.832 J
0.832
\ F= = 832 N]
1 ¥ 10 -3
Botxfst
1. c 2. d 3. a 4. c 5. b
6. c 7. c 8. d 9. c 10. c
11. c 12. a 13. b 14. d 15. c
16. a 17. c 18. d 19. d 20. a
21. a 22. b 23. c 24. a 25. a
26. (i) d (ii) a
3
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!
Nbdijoft
JOUSPEVDUJPO! 3/2
There are two types of direct current (dc) machines, the dc generator and the dc motor. The dc
generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy while the dc motor converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. The dc generator is based on the principle that when a conductor
is rotated in a constant unidirectional field, a voltage is induced in the conductor. The dc motor is
based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, a me-
chanical force is exerted on the conductor. The dc generator operation, thus, follows Fleming’s
right-hand rule while dc motor operation follows Fleming’s left-hand rule.
QSJODJQMF!PG!PQFSBUJPO!PG!B!ED!NBDIJOF! 3/3
3/3/2! Uif!ed!Hfofsbups
Let us assume a coil is rotated in a magnetic field with constant linear velocity of (v) m/s in relation
to the field. According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, an emf (E) will be induced
in the rotating coil which is given by
E = (B.l.v) volts (2.1)
where l is the length of the conductor at each side of the coil. If the coil is connected to a pair of
current-collector terminals (known as brush), current will flow in the coil, provided the external
circuit is complete and connected with the pair of brushes. The direction of the induced emf will be
reversed for the next half of rotation (as per Fleming’s right-hand rule) and the current in the exter-
nal circuit will be alternating (i.e. will reverse the direction for each half of rotation). Assuming the
speed of the coil constant and uniform about the coil axis, the emf as well as the magnitude of the
! 3/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
current in the passive external circuit will vary sinusoidally with time. If the machine has P poles
and the coil rotates at N rpm, the frequency (f ) of the induced emf in the coil is given by
PN
f= Hz (2.2)
120
It is, thus, evident that the emf induced in the dc generator (considering the coil and field poles
with brush in its simplest form) is of alternating nature having a frequency of f Hz (the magnitude
of f depends on the number of poles and the rpm). Figure 2.1 exhibits the schematic diagram to
explain the production of alternating emf in the coil.
However, it is desired that the output voltage (and, hence, the current) of a dc generator should
be unidirectional only (and not alternating). Thus, to convert the generated alternating current to
unidirectional current in the external circuit, we need to add an auxiliary device which is known as
a commutator.
q r r q
N S N S
p s s p
B1 R1
R1
T B1
B2
R2 B2 R2
– +
\C!>!Csvti!)C2!boe!C3*<!S!>!Sjoh!)S2!boe!S3*<!Dpjm!tjeft!>!qr!boe!st<!O!boe!T!>!qpmft!pg!b!nbhofu^
Gjh/!3/2! Tdifnbujd!ejbhsbn!tipxjoh!uif!qspevdujpo!pg!fng!jo!uif!dpjm!spubujoh!jo!b!vojejsfdujpobm!
nbhofujd!gjfme
In Fig. 2.1, the operation of a dc generator in its simplest form is explained. For the first half part
of revolution, the brush B1 is positive, current goes out in the external circuit and enters through
the brush B2 as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). Brush B2 has thus, negative polarity. In Fig. 2.1(b), coil sides
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/4
interchange their places during the next half part of rotation and the brush B1 becomes negative
while the brush B2 is positive. Current goes out through the brush B2 and enters through B1. Thus,
for each half cycle of rotation, polarity of brushes alters, and current in the external closed circuit
reverses direction.
Figure 2.2 explains how this difficulty is overcome to get a unidirectional current in the internal
circuit using a commutator. In its simplest form, the rings R1 and R2 of the coils are removed and
two half rings (HR1 and HR2) are included to be placed in contact of the brushes.
q r r q
N S N S
p s p s
B1 B2 B1 B2
– + –
HR1 HR2 HR1 HR2
3/3/3! Uif!ed!Npups!
With reference to Fig. 2.3, it is evident that as the external dc voltage is applied across the brushes
(with B1 positive polarity and B2 negative polarity), the direction of current in the coil pqrs will
alternate and force will be generated in the sides as per Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Brushes B1 and B2 gain positive and negative polarity for each half cycle of revolution while
coil sides interchange position due to the torque created with forces generated in each coil side
following flow of current in the coil sides. The forces developed in both the coil sides, thus, form
a unidirectional torque acting on the coil which sets it into rotation. With completion of each half
of the rotation, half rings alternate their position, thereby reversing the direction of currents in the
coils. The physical position of coil sides gets reversed and in the meantime, the direction of rotation
of the coil remains unchanged and the machine keeps on rotating in one direction.
! 3/5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
q r r q
N S N S
p s s p
B1 B2 B1 B2
+ – + –
HR1 HR2 HR2 HR1
+ Vdc – + Vdc –
(a) (b)
Gjh/!3/4! Tdifnbujd!ejbhsbn!tipxjoh!pqfsbujpo!pg!b!ed!npups
DPOTUSVDUJPO!PG!B!ED!NBDIJOF! 3/4
The principal parts of a dc machine are
(a) Magnetic field system
(b) Armature
(c) Commutator and brush gear
Other parts include bearings, cooling fan, shaft, terminal box, frame, lifting hook, mounting ar-
rangement, earthing terminal, etc.
3/4/2! Nbhofujd!Gjfme!Tztufn
The magnetic field system is usually the stationary part of the dc machine. It produces the main field
flux. The outer frame (or yoke) is a hollow cylinder of cast steel or rolled steel. Even numbers of
poles (say 2, 4, 6… ) are bolted to the yoke. The poles project inwards and they are called salient
poles. The purpose of the yoke is to support the pole cores and to act as a protective cover to the
machine. It also forms a part of the magnetic circuit. Each pole core has a pole shoe having a curved
surface to support the field coils and to increase the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit
reducing its reluctance. The pole cores are made of sheet-steel laminations and these laminations
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/6
are insulated from each other but riveted together. The poles are laminated in order to reduce the
eddy-current loss in the pole core. Small-size dc machines use permanent magnets as field poles
while bigger size dc machines use electromagnets in field poles. Usually, the field poles have copper
windings insulated properly from the core. The core is made of sheet steel and in older conventional
dc machines, it is solid core. The present-day dc machines, particularly the dc motors, are mostly
controlled by power electronic devices which inject undulated dc waveforms in the current flowing
through the windings of the field magnets. Thus, dc waveforms contain ac components and thus, it
is recommended that the field core should be laminated in order to have lower eddy-current loss in
field pole. The field pole is either welded or bolted with the yoke of the machine. The sheet-steel
laminations of the core are insulated to each other but riveted together.
Each pole core has one or more field coils (windings) placed over it and are connected in series
with one another such that when the current flows through the coils, alternate north and south poles
are produced in the direction of rotation.
In addition to main poles, dc machines are also provided with commutating poles (also known
as interpoles) with windings on them in order to improve the performance of the dc machine (actu-
ally they reduce the problem of commutation in the machine under loading condition). These poles
are arranged midway between the main poles and made up of wrought iron or mild steel (for small
machines, the cores of these poles are solid while for bigger machines, the core of such a pole is
laminated). The winding is of concentric type and of insulated copper wire. In large machines, there
are as many interpoles as the number of main poles.
3/4/3! Bsnbuvsf!
The rotating part of the machine is usually called the armature. The armature consists of a shaft
upon which a laminated cylinder (called armature core) is mounted. The armature core has grooves
(or slots) on its outer surface. The laminations are insulated from each other but tightly clamped
together. In small machines, the lamination may be keyed directly to the shaft. In large machines,
the laminations are mounted on a special frame. The purpose of using laminations is to reduce
eddy-current loss in the armature core.
Insulated conductors (usually copper) are placed in the slots of the armature core and are fas-
tened round the core to prevent them from flying under centrifugal forces when the armature ro-
tates. The conductors are suitably connected and this arrangement of conductors is called armature
winding. Two types of windings are used; wave and lap. In wave winding, the number of parallel
paths of armature winding is two and in lap winding, the number of parallel paths is equal to the
number of poles.
3/4/4! Dpnnvubups!boe!Csvti!Hfbs!
An alternating voltage is produced in the coil rotating in a magnetic field. In order to obtain direct
current in the external circuit, a commutator is used. The commutator that rotates with the armature
is made from a number of wedge-shaped hard-drawn copper bars or segments insulated from each
! 3/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
other as well as from the shaft. The segments form a ring around the shaft of the armature. Each
commutator segment is connected to the ends of the armature coils.
In the construction of commutators, the condition of operation requires that there be adequate
insulation rigidity against centrifugal force and the commutator segments are rigidly fixed to keep
the contour circular. Increasing the number of commutator segments diminishes the tendency to
spark and lessens the fluctuations of the current. The commutator-segment insulation should not
absorb moisture or oil and usually mica is needed for this purpose.
Current is collected from the armature winding by means of two or more carbon brushes mount-
ed on the commutator. Each brush is supported by a metal holder called brush holder. The pressure
exerted by the brushes on the commutator can be adjusted through this brush holder and is main-
tained at a constant value by means of springs. Current produced in the armature winding is passed
to the commutator and then to the external circuit through brushes.
Usually, the brushes of dc machines (except the dynamo of automobiles) are made of graphite or
a mixture of carbon and graphite in order to have high conductivity and low coefficient of friction
in brushes. The brush of an automobile dc generator is usually made of copper. The brush pressure
needs to be adjusted for smooth running of the commutator. It is desired that the voltage drop as
well as the loss in the brush be very less.
Sfbtpo!pg!Qspwjejoh!Dbscpo!Csvti!
If a metallic brush is used, it gives rise to excessive sparking and also heating of the armature. The
metallic dart given off appears between the segments of the commutator, thus, partially short cir-
cuiting the armature. To obviate this, carbon brushes are used. For high-voltage, low- and medium-
current machines, carbon brushes are preferred while for low-voltage high-current short-time-duty
machines, copper brushes are used. The only demerit of carbon brushes is that they are brittle and
not mechanically flexible. The minimum width of a brush should be one half time the thickness of
commutator segments, and the brush should be thick enough to cover two and one half commuta-
tor segment. The usual voltage drop at any one carbon brush is 0.8 to 1 volt while the power loss is
obtained by multiplying the voltage drop of each brush by the total current handled by the brush.
The effect of increasing the degree of contact of the brushes is that it lengthens the period of com-
mutation.
3/4/5! Puifs!Qbsut!pg!b!ed!Nbdijof
In addition to these parts, the dc machine usually consists of following additional parts which needs
to be mentioned at this stage.
)b*!Zplf! It is the outer frame of the machine. It also serves as a path for the magnetic flux. The
field poles are fixed to the yoke. For smaller rating machines, yoke is made of cast iron and in large
machines, it is made of steel. In some solid-state device-driven dc machines, yokes are also built
using laminated steel to reduce eddy loss.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/8
)d*!Cfbsjoh! It is used to support the rotating parts and to allow uniform motion of the shaft with
extremely low friction.
BSNBUVSF!XJOEJOH! 3/5
The armature winding is one of the most essential parts of the dc machine where electrical power is
developed in the generator and where the electromagnetic torque is developed in the motor.
Armature winding comprises a set of coils (single or multi-turn) embedded in slots and uni-
formly spaced round the armature periphery. The emfs are induced in armature coils due to relative
motion between the flux wave and the armature coils.
All the coils have two active sides having length equal to that of the armature, and these two sides
are embedded in different slots at some distance from one another. This distance is known as coil
span. The span of the coil is also referred to as coil pitch (the two sides of any coil generally occupy
positions of the armature core separated by a distance equal to the distance between two adjacent
poles, i.e. a pole pitch). When the left side of the coil momentarily occupies a position under the
centre of the N-pole, the right side of the same coil normally should occupy a position under the
centre of the S-pole when the coil is full pitched.
The windings in all rotating machines are distributed in slots around the periphery of the arma-
ture and are usually termed distributed winding. However, the distributed winding may be of closed
type or open type. In a closed winding, if one starts from any point of the winding, it will end at the
same starting point after traversing the whole winding. All dc and ac commutator machines have
closed distributed winding. In ac machines (synchronous and induction machines), open type wind-
ings are used where the windings are terminated at a suitable number of slip rings. In this text, in
the present context, we will discuss closed-type distributed windings.
3/5/2! Bsnbuvsf!Dpjm
Prefabricated hexagon-shaped insulated copper coils are used in the armature winding and individ-
ual coils are inserted into the slots as a unit. Each coil consists of two coil sides and each coil may
have multiple turns. Thus, the total number of conductors in an armature winding (in an armature)
is the product of the number of coils and number of turns per coil and then multiplied by two.
3/5/3! Dpjm!Tqbo!
It is the distance between two sides of a coil. The coil span may be exactly one pole pitch1 (for a
full-pitched coil) or spans less than a pole pitch (for short-pitched coil or chorded coil).
1
Pole pitch is the centre-to-centre distance between two consecutive poles at the air gap.
! 3/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
In a full-pitched coil, the induced emf is maximum as the total induced emf is the summation of
the two induced emfs in each coil side at any instant. On the other hand, if the ratio of the number
of slots to the number of poles is not a whole number, the coil span is short pitched and the total
induced emf in the entire coil is less than that with full-pitched coil. However, reduction of coil span
by one slot pitch improves commutation.
Neglecting the small length of the air gap, the pole pitch is almost equal to the diameter (D) of
the armature.
pD
Also, pole pitch (= tp) = where P = Number of pole pairs
2P
Pole arc a
b= = = 0.065 ~ 0.70
Pole pitch t p
Over 70% of pole arc, the air gap remains constant. The pole shoe permits the magnetic flux to
spread over a wide area, where the flux enters the air gap and armature coil.
3/5/4! Tjohmf.!boe!Epvcmf.Mbzfs!Xjoejoh
If the winding has only one coil side in each slot, it is known as single-layer winding. For double-
layer winding, the number of coil sides in each slot is two. There may be multi-layer windings and
each slot may have 4, 6, … coil sides.
In simple double-layer winding, the coil sides in each slot are arranged in two layers, one above
another. This means that the total number of coil sides on armature is equal to twice the number of
slots.
If S = Total number of armature slots
C = Number of coils and 2C = Number of coil sides
Then, 2C = 2S
i.e. C = S (for a simple double-layer wining)
It may also be remembered that the number of commutator segments is equal to the number of
slots.
Usually, one side of every coil lies in the top layer of one slot, and the other side of the same coil
lies in the bottom layer of some other slot, at a distance of approximately one pole pitch. Usually,
the coil sides are numbered in such a way so that all top-layer coil sides are odd numbered and all
bottom-layer coil sides are even numbered. The numbering scheme is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Coil
sides
1 3 5 7
2 4 6 8
S1 S2 S3 S4 Slots
Gjh/!3/5! Ovncfsjoh!tdifnf!pg!dpjm!tjeft!jo!bsnbuvsf!tmput
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/:
Instead of the simple double-layer winding (i.e. only two coil sides/slot), we may have a double-
layer winding, with four coil sides/slot. Then, 2C = 4S, i.e. C = 2S
The numbering scheme for such type of winding is shown in Fig. 2.5.
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
S1 S2 S3 S4
Gjh/!3/6! Ovncfsjoh!tdifnf!pg!dpjm!tjeft!xjui!gpvs!dpjm!tjeft0tmpu
3/5/5! Tjnqmfy!boe!Nvmujqmfy!Xjoejoht
A single complete closed winging in the rotor is termed simplex winding. If there are two closed
independent rotor windings, it is called duplex winding. Generally, each of the windings will be
connected with every alternate commutator segment. A triplex winding will have three independent
closed windings in the motor and each winding is connected with every third commutator winding
of the rotor. The rotor being the armature in commercial dc machines, the armature is said to have
multiplex winding if it consists of more than one closed independent winding.
3/5/6! Cbdl!Qjudi
Generally, coil span is referred to as back pitch. Back pitch is the distance between two sides of a
coil connected at the back of the armature (i.e. the end away from commutator) to form one com-
plete coil. The number that will designate this back pitch of a coil is equal (or very nearly equal) to
the distance between the centres of two adjacent poles (i.e. pole pitch).
Hence, yb = tp
As discussed earlier, in a double-layer winding, all the coil sides placed on the tops of the slots
are odd numbered (1, 3, 5, 7, etc.) and those on the bottom layer are all even numbered (2, 4, 6, 8,
etc.). Hence, if one coil side of a coil lies in the bottom of one slot, the other side of the same coil
must lie in the top layer of some other slot. Hence, the back pitch, when calculated in terms of coil
sides, will always be an odd number (i.e. yb is always odd) as the difference between an odd number
coil side and an even number coil side (which is back pitch) is always odd. For example, if a coil is
placed in slots S1 and S5 and if coil-side numbers corresponding to these coils are 1 and 10 then yb
= 10 – 1 = 9 (odd).
3/5/7! Gspou!Qjudi
The front pitch of a coil is the distance between its two coil sides measured on the commutator end
of the armature (i.e. on the front side) and is denoted by (yf ). It is actually the distance between
two coil sides connected to the same commutator bar. Front pitch is also designated in terms of coil
sides. The yf may be greater or less than back pitch, but not equal to it, i.e. yb π yf . Also, yf is always
an odd number.
! 3/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3/5/8! Dpnnvubups!Qjudi
The ends of a coil (start and finish) are connected to two different commutator segments. The num-
ber of commutator segments spanned by the two ends of a coil is called commutator pitch and is
denoted by yc. It may be noted here that the “start” of one coil and “finish” of the preceding coil is
connected to the commutator segment. The number of commutator segments is half the number of
coil sides (and is equal to the number of coils). Thus, the number of commutator segments is equal
to the number of armature coils.
3/5/9! Mbq!boe!Xbwf!Xjoejoht
A simplex winding, as well as a multiplex winding, can either be lap type or wave type. Lap and
wave windings differ from each other mainly in the arrangement of the end connection at the front
of the armature and the number of parallel paths between positive and negative brushes. Armature
windings that form only one closed circuit are termed simple lap or wave winding whereas those
forming several closed circuits are multiplex lap or wave winding.
2/!Mbq!Xjoejoh!
In lap winding, the ends of each coil are connected to commutator bars which are either adjacent to
each other, or very close to one another. In simple lap winding, all the coils are arranged into slots
in a similar manner, so that the winding looks like a series of similar loops (i.e. the coils lap over
one another and that is why the term lap winding is used).
)b*! Uzqft! pg! Mbq! Xjoejoht! In simplex lap winding, the ends of the coils are connected to
adjacent commutator bars. There are two possibilities for this type of connection, both of which are
correct and used in practice. Depending upon the manner in which the coil ends are connected to
commutator bars, lap winding can be divided into two categories:
• Progressive lap winding
• Retrogressive lap winding
)j*!Qsphsfttjwf!Mbq!Xjoejoh! If the ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments
in such a way so that the ends do not cross each other, and if tracing the winding from bar to bar
results in a progression in clockwise direction (when viewing from commutator end) then such a
type of lap winding is called progressive winding; yb > yf and yc = +1.
)jj*!Sfusphsfttjwf!Mbq!Xjoejoh! When the ends of the coils are connected to adjacent commutator
bars in such a way that the ends do cross each other and tracing the winding from bar to bar results
in progression in counter-clockwise direction (when viewing the armature from commutator end)
then such a type of lap winding is called retrogressive winding; yb < yf and yc = –1.
Both progressive and retrogressive windings may be used, but the latter is rarely found in lap-
wound armature and progressive winding is commonly used.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/22
)c*!Cbdl!Qjudi!gps!Mbq!Xjoejoh! Back pitch (yb) is the distance between top and bottom coil
sides of the same coil measured around the back of the armature in terms of number of coil sides
spanned by the coil.
If C = Total number of coil sides,
P = Number of poles,
C
Then yb = + K
P
Here (K) is the smallest number, which must be added or subtracted from the number of coil
sides/pole, so that (yb) becomes an odd number. Generally, for simplex lap winding, K = 1.
C
Therefore, yb =
+1
P
The positive sign for (K) appears for progressive winding and the negative sign appears for (K)
in retrogressive winding.
+ Brush –
I
+ve brush + Brush
for gen.
I
II
– Brush –
–ve brush –
for gen. Brush
I I
Gjh/!3/7! Fmfdusjdbm!frvjwbmfou!pg!uif!xjoejoh!boe!qbsbmmfm!qbuit
! 3/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Lap winding is usually preferred for low-voltage, high-current machines. Due to design prob-
lem, the current through each parallel path is restricted to 200 A. Thus, for a high-current machine,
we need a large number of parallel paths so that current through the path is within limit. In simplex
lap winding, the number of parallel paths can be increased simply by increasing the number of
poles and brushes. This is a good advantage of lap winding and such a facility is not available in
case of wave winding.
)e*! Djsdvmbujoh! Dvssfou! jo! Mbq! Xjoejoh! In an ideal case, the emf induced in the several
parallel circuits of simplex lap winding should be exactly equal, and the current shared by different
parallel circuits should also be exactly the same. But complete attainment of these ideal conditions
is practically impossible for the following reasons:
(i) The armature may not be exactly centred with respect to the pole faces (because of
imperfections in assembling the machine parts, or because of wear of the bearings). In either
case, the air gap will not be uniform and some of the poles will, therefore, carry more flux
than the others, thereby introducing inequalities in the emfs of the several parallel armature
circuits.
(ii) A simplex lap winding has as many parallel paths as poles and each parallel path is made up
of coil sides, which lie under two adjacent poles. These poles may have different strengths
because of error in placing field windings, or may be due to difference in reluctance of iron
used for poles. Thus, the flux under different poles may not be exactly identical, and this
results in inequalities in the emfs of several parallel circuits.
(iii) The armature circuits may not all have identical resistance, or the winding as a whole may not
be exactly symmetrical.
Any or all of the above irregularities may give rise to the flow of a circulating (equalizing) cur-
rent in the winding. This current would tend to make the terminal voltage of all the parallel circuits
same. This current flows through local armature circuits and brushes in a closed loop. The circu-
lating current may be of reasonable magnitude as the armature resistance in a dc machine is very
small.
This circulating current causes a continuous I 2 R loss in the winding and tends to heat the arma-
ture. It may also cause undue amount of sparking at the brushes (since the current circulates from
one path to another though brushes) and may lead to overloading of the brushes and conductors in
the armature. Circulating current also introduces commutation difficulty in a dc machine.
)f*! Frvbmj{fs! Dpoofdujpot! In order to get rid of the effects of heavy circulating currents,
equalizer connection is invariably used in a multipolar lap-wound dc machine. These equalizer
connections (or equalizers) are low-resistance thick copper conductors which connect those points
on the winding, which, under the ideal conditions, should have no potential difference between
them (i.e. the equipotential points). If there are any potential difference between such points, as
is normally the case, the circulating current then flows through these equalizers (instead if going
through brushes) and, thus, relieves the brushes from excessive loading to which they would be
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/24
subjected otherwise.2 The circulating currents have the effect of reducing the flux unbalance that
was responsible for the initial potential difference.
The equipotential points (pairs of points) have identical magnetic position with respect to the
poles of like polarity (N-N, S-S). Therefore, the coils, occupying identical position with respect to
the poles of like polarity, will have their emf rise, fall and reverse in the same time phase. Thus,
they can be connected together in pairs by equalizers. The equalizer connection may be in the form
of rings, in which case they are called equalizer rings. Generally, an equalizer connection is made
at the back of the armature.
The desired arrangement is to connect every coil of the armature to an equalizer. But it is not
possible in practical, as the number of such connections would be very large. It is sufficient to con-
nect every third or fourth coil, and usually 10 to 20 equalizer rings are used.
The functions of the equalizer rings are
(i) To save the brushes from handling the circulating currents
(ii) To reduce the magnetic flux unbalance that causes the potential difference in various parallel
paths
3/!Xbwf!Xjoejoh!
In simplex winding, the coil sides of a coil are placed in slots (approximately one pole pitch apart).
On tracing the winding from any point on the commutator, the appearance of a series of waves be-
comes apparent. Due to this appearance, the term wave winding is used.
)b*!Cbdl!Qjudi!! The back pitch in a simplex wave winding must be an odd integer.
If C = Number of coils
P = Number of poles
2C
Then, yb = +K
P
where (K) is either a fraction, a whole number, or a mixed number.
In this winding, starting at one commutator segment and tracing the winding from coil to coil,
after one trip around the armature (which is completed after P/2 coils), we arrive at a commutator
segment next to the segment from which we started. The segment of arrival may be either ahead or
behind the starting segment. The former is known as progressive winding and the latter is called
retrogressive winding.
)c*!Gspou!Qjudi! Similar to the lap winding, wave winding also has front pitch (yf ) and is denoted
by the number of active coil sides (spanned by two coil sides) which are connected to the same
commutator segment. It is always an odd number. Unlike the lap winding, (yf ) may be equal to
(yb ) in case of wave winding.
For example, let a wave winding have yf = 23 and yb = 19
Then, winding pitch (y) = (23 + 19) = 42
So, average pitch = 42/2 = 21
Thus, both front pitch and back pitch may be 21, i.e. yb = yf = 21 is possible.
)d*!Xjoejoh!Qjudi! Winding pitch for wave winding is the sum of front pitch and back pitch.
Y = yb + yf
Since both yb and yf are odd, their sum Y must be even. Hence, winding pitch is always even.
2C + 2
For progressive wave winding, Y= (2.5)
P /2
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/26
2C - 2
For retrogressive wave winding, Y= (2.6)
P /2
2C ± 2
i.e. Y = for simplex wave winding (2.7)
P /2
2C ± ( 2 ¥ m)
In general, Y= (2.8)
P /2
where m denotes “plex” of the multiplex windings.
)e*! Dpnnvubups! Qjudi! )zf*! Commutator pitch yc is the distance between two commutator
segments, to which the ends of the two coil sides of any coil are connected. In wave winding the
ends of a coil are connected to two segments which are approximately two pole pitches apart.
C +1
yc = for progressive wave winding (2.9)
P /2
C -1
yc = for retrogressive wave winding (2.10)
P /2
C ±1
\ yc = (2.11)
P /2
Y
Thus, yc = (2.12)
2
Since, Y = even integer (divisible by 1). Hence, (yc) must be an even integer.
The commutator pitch cannot be equal to the number of commutator segments (NC) divided by
number of pole pairs (P/2), because, had it been so, the winding would close on itself after one pas-
sage around the armature.
Simplex wave winding cannot be wound, if NC (number of coils) is divisible by (P/2). So it is
È Ê Pˆ˘
absolutely necessary that Í N C Á ˜ ˙ must come out as a fraction, and
Î Ë 2¯˚
Ê Pˆ
YC π N C Á ˜ (2.13)
Ë 2¯
The use of a dummy coil makes it possible to use wave winding in any armature having any fixed
number of slots.
Dummy coils are not required in simplex lap winding. Dummy coils are necessary when
ÊN ˆ
(i) the ratio of commutator bar and slot is not a whole number Á C π Whole number ˜
Ë g ¯
(ii) if the number of coil side/slot/layer is not a multiple of pole pair (P/2)
[Often it is very expensive to change the laminations of armature in accordance to the required
number of slots, the number of active coils is then changed. Here, dummy coils are used as fillers.
Such winding with dummy coils are called frog-leg winding.]
Wave windings possess certain advantages
over lap windings. A wave winding requires
only two brushes whereas lap winding re- Lap element.
quires brushes equal to the number of poles.
Hence, lap-connected machines are more
costly. Moreover, lap-connected machines
require equalizer rings for obtaining better
commutation whereas wave-connected ma- Wave
chines do not require any equalizer ring. element.
In lap-winding equalizers, always connect
Gjh/!3/8! B!uzqjdbm!gsph.mfh!dpjm
those points which are exactly two-pole pitch
apart from each other. Here, the wave winding is so designed that each coil of the wave winding
connects those commutator bars, which are approximately two pole pitches apart. Thus, this con-
nection is equivalent to an equalizer connection, and allows the unbalanced current to flow through
the parallel wave winding. Hence, the necessity of an equalizer is removed. Moreover, this type of
equalizing arrangement adds to the output of the machine.
)i*!Jnqpsubou!Gfbuvsft!pg!Gsph.mfh!Xjoejoh
(i) Any frog-leg winding always has (2 ¥ P) number of parallel paths.
(ii) The number of turns of lap and wave windings should be so chosen that both the windings
induce the same voltage between the brushes.
(iii) On armatures having frog-leg winding, four coil ends are connected to each commutator bar.
Hence, total number of coil sides = 4 ¥ NC
(iv) All the wave sections are retrogressive.
(v) Number of coil sides/slot must be four times the ratio of the number of commutator bar to
slots.
(vi) Number of commutator bars must be an integral multiple of P/2,
P
i.e. NC = ¥ (an integer)
2
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/28
NBHOFUJD!DJSDVJU!BOE!GMVY!QBUI!JO! 3/6
B!ED!NBDIJOF
The magnetic circuit of a four-pole dc generator is shown in Fig. 2.8. The dotted lines indicate the
main flux path. Figure 2.8 reveals that the main flux starts from a north pole, then crosses the air gap
and travels down the armature core. Then the flux divides into two equal balances, each half enters
the nearby south pole, then passes through the yoke and reaches the starting point of the north pole
so as to complete the flux path. Each flux line crosses the air gap twice. Some flux may not enter the
armature; this flux is known as leakage flux which is not shown in the figure.
Yoke
. Armature
. conductor
Armature N
teeth
.
.
S S Flux path
.
.
Field coil
Armature Pole
N shoe
.
.
Gjh/!3/9! Nbhofujd!gmvy!qbui!pg!b!gpvs.qpmf!ed!hfofsbups
FRVJWBMFOU!DJSDVJU!PG!B!ED!NBDIJOF! 3/7
The armature of a dc generator can be represented by an equivalent electrical circuit. Here, E is
the generated voltage, Ra is the armature resistance, and Vb is the brush-contact voltage drop. The
equivalent circuit of armature of a dc generator is shown in Fig. 2.9(a), while that of a dc motor is
shown in Fig. 2.9(b) (in case of dc motor, E is the back emf).
la +
E V
la –
+ la
la Vb +
+ + +
+ Vb
E V Ra V
– + Ra V
E +
– E
– –
Gjh/!3/:! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvjut!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf;!)b*!ed!hfofsbups!)c*!ed!npups
! 3/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
DMBTTJGJDBUJPO!PG!ED!NBDIJOFT!XJUI! 3/8
SFTQFDU!UP!UZQFT!PG!FYDJUBUJPO
3/8/2! Tfqbsbuf!Fydjubujpo
The separately excited field winding consists of several hundred turns of fine wire and is connected
to a separate or external dc source in Fig. 2.10(a). The voltage of the external dc source has no rela-
tion with armature voltage, i.e. field winding energized from a separate source can be designated
for any suitable voltage.
3/8/3! Tfmg.Fydjubujpo
When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the machine is called a self-excited dc ma-
chine. In these machines, the field poles must have residual magnetism. A self-excited dc machine
can be classified as follows:
2/!Tivou!Fydjubujpo!\Gjh/!3/21)c*^
Here, field excitation is obtained from the armature voltage. The shunt-field excitation Ampere
Turns (AT) is obtained by having a large number of field turns with a small field current. For a gen-
erator, shunt excitation is a type of self-excitation when field-winding resistance is high but field
exciting current is low. The field winding is in parallel with the armature.
3/!Tfsjft!Fydjubujpo!\Gjh/!3/21)d*^
The field is wound with a few turns of wires (of low resistance) and is excited in series from arma-
ture current. This excitation varies with the load (current).
4/!Dpnqpvoe!Fydjubujpo!\Gjh/!3/21)e*!boe!)f*^
Both shunt and series fields are employed in this method. If the shunt field is connected in parallel
with the armature alone, the machine is called a short-shunt compound machine [Fig. 2.10(d)] and
if the shunt field is connected in parallel with both the armature and series field, the machine is
called a long-shunt compound machine [Fig. 2.10(e)].
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/2:
A
Fex A Fsh
Fse
A
Fse
Fsh A
Fse
Fsh
A
Gjh/!3/21! Ejggfsfou!uzqft!pg!fydjubujpo!pg!gjfme!xjoejoh!pg!ed!nbdijoft
If the magnetic flux produced by the shunt-field winding aids the flux produced by the series
field windings, the machine is cumulatively compounded. On the other hand, if the series field flux
opposes the shunt field flux, the machine is said to be differentially compounded.
Depending upon the number of turns of series field, three types of compound generators can be
obtained.
)b*!Pwfsdpnqpvoefe!Hfofsbups! The generated voltage increases as the load increases.
FNG!FRVBUJPO!PG!B!ED!NBDIJOF! 3/9
As the armature of a dc machine rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In case of a generator,
the emf of rotation (Er) is called the generated emf (Eg), and Er = Eg. The direction (polarity) of this
dynamically induced emf can be determined by Fleming’s right-hand rule.
! 3/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
In case of motor, the emf of rotation (Er) is known as back emf (Eb) (or counter emf), and
Er = Eb. The expression, however, is the same for both conditions of operation, whether generating
or motoring; only the polarity is reversed if the rotation of the machine is in the same direction in
both the modes.
Let,
f = Useful flux per pole in webers (Wb)
P = Total number of poles
Z = Total number of armature in revolutions per second (r.p.s)
A = Number of parallel paths in the armature between brushes of opposite polarity
Z
\ = Number of armature conductors in series for each parallel path
A
Since the flux per pole is (f), each conductor cuts a flux (Pf) in one revolution. Generated volt-
Flux cut per revolution in Wb
age per conductor =
Time taken for one revolution in seconds
Since n revolutions are made in one second, one revolution will be made in 1/n second.
Pf
The average voltage generated per conductor = = nPf
1
n
The generated voltage E is determined by the number of armature conductors in series in any one
parallel path between the brushes. Therefore, the total voltage generated is obtained as
E = (Average voltage per conductor) ¥ (Number of conductor in series per path)
i.e. E = nPf ¥ Z/A
nPf Z NPf Z
or, E= = [N = r.p.m] (2.14)
A 60 A
Equation (2.14) is called the emf equation of a dc machine.
! Qspcmfn!3/2
Bo!9.qpmf!xbwf!dpoofdufe!bsnbuvsf!ibt!711!dpoevdupst!boe!jt!esjwfo!bu!736!sfw0njo/!Jg!uif!gmvy!qfs!
qpmf!jt!31!nXc-!efufsnjof!uif!hfofsbufe!fng/
Solution
Z = 600
A = 2 (for wave winding)
P =8
625
N= rev/s
60
f = 20 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/32
Pf ZN
Generated emf, E=
60 A
8 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 600 ¥ 625
=
60 ¥ 2
= 500 volts.
! Qspcmfn!3/3
B!5.qpmf!hfofsbups!ibt!b!mbq.xpvoe!bsnbuvsf!xjui!61!tmput!xjui!27!dpoevdupst!qfs!tmpu/!Uif!vtfgvm!
gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jt!41!nXc/!Efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!bu!xijdi!uif!nbdijof!nvtu!cf!esjwfo!up!hfofsbuf!bo!
fng!pg!351!W/
Solution
E = 240 V
A = P (for lap winding)
Z = 50 ¥ 16 = 800
f = 30 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Pf Zn
Generated emf, E= = fnZ
A
E 240
Rearranging gives speed, n= =
f Z (30 ¥ 10 -3 ) ¥ 800
= 10 rev/s or 600 rev/min.
! Qspcmfn!3/4
Bo!9.qpmf!mbq.xpvoe!bsnbuvsf!ibt!2311!dpoevdupst!boe!b!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!pg!1/14!Xc/!Efufsnjof!uif!
fng!hfofsbufe!xifo!svoojoh!bu!611!sfw0njo/
Solution
Pf ZN
Generated emf, E=
60 A
Pf ZN
= [for lap winding, (A = P)]
60 P
È Pf ZN ˘
E = fnZ ÍE E = 60 P = f nZ ; n being r.p.s.˙
Î ˚
Ê 500 ˆ
= 0.03 ¥ Á ¥ 1200
Ë 60 ˜¯
= 300 volts.
! 3/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/5
Efufsnjof!uif!hfofsbufe!fng!jo!Qspcmfn!3/4!jg!uif!bsnbuvsf!jt!xbwf.xpvoe/!
Solution
Pf Zn
Generated emf, E=
A
Pf Zn
= (for wave-wound)
2
\ E = PfnZ = 4 ¥ (fnZ)
= 4 ¥ 300
= 1200 volts.
! Qspcmfn!3/6
B!ed!tivou.xpvoe!hfofsbups!svoojoh!bu!b!dpotubou!tqffe!hfofsbuft!b!wpmubhf!pg!261!W!bu!b!dfsubjo!
wbmvf!pg!gjfme!dvssfou/!Efufsnjof!uif!dibohf!jo!uif!hfofsbufe!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!gjfme!dvssfou!jt!sf.
evdfe!cz!31&-!bttvnjoh!uif!gmvy!jt!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!gjfme!dvssfou/!
Solution
The generated emf E of a generator is proportional to fn, where f is the flux and n is the speed of
rotation.
It follows that E = kfn, where k is a constant.
At speed n1 and flux f1, E1 = Kf1 n1
At speed n2 and flux f2, E2 = Kf2 n2
Thus, by division
E1 kf n fn I sh n1
= 11 = 11 = 1 (\ f μ Ish)
E2 kf2 n2 f2 n2 I sh 2 n2
When the flux is reduced by 20%, the new value of Ish is 0.8 of the initial value, i.e. Ish2 = 0.8 Ish1.
Since the generator is running at constant speed, n1 = n2.
E1 I sh n1 1
= 1 =
E2 I sh 2 n2 0.8
or, E2 = 0.8 ¥ 150 = 120 V (\ E1 = 150 V)
Thus, a reduction of 20% in the value of the flux reduces the generated voltage to 120 V at con-
stant speed.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/34
! Qspcmfn!3/7
B!ed!hfofsbups!svoojoh!bu!41!sfw0t!hfofsbuft!bo!fng!pg!311!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!qfsdfoubhf!jodsfbtf!
jo!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!sfrvjsfe!up!hfofsbuf!361!W!bu!31!sfw0t/!
Solution
Generated emf,
E μ fn
Let E1 = 200 V, n1 = 30 rev/s and flux per pole at this speed be f1.
Let E2 = 250 V, n2 = 20 rev/s and flux per pole at this speed be f2.
E1 fn
Since E μ fn then = 11
E2 f2 n2
200 f1 (30)
=
250 f2 ( 20)
f1 (30)( 250)
\ f2 = = 1.875 f1
( 20)( 200)
Hence, the increase in flux per pole is 87.5%.
! Qspcmfn!3/8
B!tfqbsbufmz!fydjufe!hfofsbups!efwfmpqt!b!op.mpbe!fng!pg!261!W!bu!bo!bsnbuvsf!tqffe!pg!31!sfw0t!
boe!b!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!pg!1/21!Xc/!Efufsnjof!uif!hfofsbufe!fng!xifo!)b*!uif!tqffe!jodsfbtft!up!36!
sfw0t!boe!uif!qpmf!gmvy!sfnbjot!vodibohfe-!)c*!uif!tqffe!sfnbjot!bu!31!sfw0t!boe!qpmf!gmvy!jt!ef.
dsfbtfe!up!1/19!Xc-!boe!)d*!uif!tqffe!jodsfbtft!up!3:!sfw0t!boe!uif!qpmf!gmvy!jt!efdsfbtfe!up!1/18!
Xc/
Solution
(a) Generated emf E μ fn
E1 fn
From which, = 11
E2 f2 n2
150 (0.10) ( 20)
Hence, =
E2 (0.10) ( 25)
(150) (0.10) ( 25)
From which, E2 = = 187.5 volts
(0.10) ( 20)
150 (0.10) ( 20)
(b) =
E3 (0.08) ( 20)
! 3/35 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/9
Uif!bsnbuvsf!ejbnfufs!pg!b!2611!sqn-!5.qpmf!ed!nbdijof!jt!51!dn!xijmf!uif!mfohui!pg!uif!dpsf!jt!
31!dn/!Ju!ibt!511!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst/!Sbujp!pg!qpmf!bsd!up!qpmf!qjudi!jt!1/9/!)b*!Jg!uif!bjs.hbq!gmvy!
efotjuz!ejtusjcvujpo!jt!tjovtpjebm!xjui!qfbl!wbmvf!pg!1/9!Xc0n3/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fng!joevdfe!qfs!qbs.
bmmfm!qbui!jg!uif!bsnbuvsf!jt!)j*!mbq!dpoofdufe-!boe!)jj*!xbwf!dpoofdufe/!)c*!Jg!uif!gmvy!ejtusjcvujpo!jt!
dpotubou!bu!1/86!Xc0n3!pwfs!uif!qpmf!bsd-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!fng!joevdfe!qfs!qbsbmmfm!qbui!jg!uif!bsnb.
uvsf!jt!)j*!mbq!dpoofdufe-!boe!)jj*!xbwf!dpoofdufe/
Solution
(a) From given data, we get the pole pitch t and area under a pole pitch as,
p D p ¥ 0.4
t= =
P 4
p ¥ 0.4 ¥ 0.2
Ap = tL = = 0.0628 m2
4
Therefore, average flux density over the pole pitch is
2 Bm 2 ¥ 0.8
Bav = = = 0.5095 Wb/m2
p p
and the total flux per pole is
f = Bav Ap = 0.5095 ¥ 0.0628 = 0.032 Wb
\ voltage induced per parallel path in case of lap winding is,
ZNf 400 ¥ 1500 ¥ 0.032
E= =
60 60
= 320 V
In case of wave winding,
ZN f P 0.32 ¥ 400 ¥ 1500 ¥ 4
E= = = 640 V
120 120
(b) In this case, total flux per pole is
f = Bav Ap = 0.75 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 0.0628 = 0.03768 Wb
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/36
! Qspcmfn!3/:
B!ed!nbdijof!ibt!b!ejbnfufs!pg!31!dn!boe!b!mfohui!pg!36!dn/!Uifsf!bsf!36!tmput!xjui!5!dpoevdupst!
qfs! tmpu! bssbohfe! jo! epvcmf.mbzfs! bssbohfnfou/! Uif! bwfsbhf! efqui! pg! dpoevdupst! gspn! uif! dpsf!
uffui!upq!jt!21!nn/!Jg!uif!bwfsbhf!bjs.hbq!gmvy!jt!1/46!Xc0n3!boe!uif!dvssfou!jo!fbdi!dpoevdups!jt!
26!B-!efufsnjof!uif!upsrvf!bdujoh!po!uif!bsnbuvsf/
Solution
Force on each conductor = BIl = 0.35 ¥ 15 ¥ 0.25
= 1.3125 N
Total number of conductors Z = 25 ¥ 4 = 100
\ force on the armature = 1.3125 ¥ 100 = 131.25 N
Ê 20 ˆ
Radius at which this force acts = Á - 1˜ cm
Ë 2 ¯
= 9 cm
\ torque on the armature = 131.25 ¥ 0.09
= 11.81 Nm.
! Qspcmfn!3/21
B!5.qpmf-!xbwf.xpvoe!ed!nbdijof!ibt!611!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst!boe!svot!bu!811!sqn/!Uif!sbujp!pg!
qpmf!bsd!up!qpmf!qjudi!jt!1/76!boe!uif!bsfb!voefs!fbdi!qpmf!tipf!jt!811!dn3/!Uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!
jo!uif!gjfme!xjoejoh!jt!:11!boe!uif!sfmvdubodf!pg!uif!gmvy!qbui!jt!23111!BU0Xc/!Jg!uif!bwfsbhf!gmvy!
efotjuz!jo!uif!bjs!hbq!jt!1/9!Xc0n3-!efufsnjof!uif!hfofsbufe!fng!boe!uif!gjfme!dvssfou/
Solution
700
Area under one pole pitch = = 1076.9 cm2
0.65
Flux per pole f = 1076.9 ¥ 10–4 ¥ 0.8 = 0.086 Wb
Pf ZN 4 ¥ 0.086 ¥ 500 ¥ 700
\ generated emf E= = = 1003.33 V
60 A 60 ¥ 2
Mmf NI 900 I
Now f= = =
Reluctance 12000 12000
! 3/37 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
12000 ¥ 0.086
\ I= = 1.147 A.
900
! Qspcmfn!3/22
Uif! fng! efwfmpqfe! cz! b! 5.qpmf! mbq.dpoofdufe! ed! hfofsbups! ibwjoh! 2611! bsnbuvsf! dpoevdupst! jt!
411!W/!Uif!ejbnfufs!pg!uif!qpmf!tipf!djsdmf!jt!1/6!n!boe!uif!sbujp!pg!qpmf!bsd!up!qpmf!qjudi!jt!1/9/!Jg!
uif!mfohui!pg!uif!qpmf!tipf!jt!1/4!n!boe!uif!nbdijof!jt!svoojoh!bu!b!tqffe!pg!761!sqn-!efufsnjof!
uif!gmvy!efotjuz!jo!uif!bjs!hbq/
Solution
p D p ¥ 0.5
Pole pitch = = = 0.3927 m
P 4
Pole arc = 0.8 ¥ 0.3927 = 0.314 m
Area of pole face = Pole arc ¥ Axial length
= 0.314 ¥ 0.3 = 0.0942 m2
If f be the flux then
Pf ZN 4f ¥ 1500 ¥ 650
E = 300 = =
60 A 60 ¥ 4
\ f = 0.018 Wb
0.018
\ flux density = = 0.19 Wb/m2.
0.0942
! Qspcmfn!3/23
B!mbq.xpvoe!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!ibt!61!tmput!xjui!26!dpoevdupst!qfs!tmpu/!Xifo!uif!tqffe!jt!:11!
sqn-!uif!fng!hfofsbufe!jt!411!W/!Bu!xibu!tqffe!tipvme!uif!nbdijof!cf!spubufe!jg!uif!hfofsbufe!fng!
jt!611!W@!Bmtp!gjoe!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf/
Solution
Total number of conductors Z = 50 ¥ 15 = 750
Pf ZN1 Pf ¥ 750 N1
E1 = 300 = =
60 A 60 ¥ P
300 ¥ 60
\ flux per pole f = = 0.0267 Wb
700 ¥ 900
when E2 = 500
E2 500
Speed N2 = ¥ N1 = ¥ 900 = 1500 rpm.
E1 300
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/38
SFMBUJPOTIJQ!CFUXFFO!WPMUBHFT!BOE! 3/:
DVSSFOUT!JO!B!ED!NBDIJOF
3/:/2! Hfofsbups!
Figure 2.11(a) represents the electrical equivalent circuit of a dc generator with different types of
excitations and the corresponding relationships between voltages and currents. We assume E to be
the induced voltage at armature; Ra, the armature winding resistance; V, the terminal voltage; la,
the armature current; and IL, the load current. F is the field while subscript ‘ex’ denotes separately
excited field and subscript ‘sh’ ‘se’ denote the shunt and series fields respectively. Rf is the field
control resistance, If is the field current and rf is the internal resistance of the field. Brush contact
drops have been neglected.
2/!Tfqbsbufmz!Fydjufe!ed!Hfofsbups!\Gjh/!3/22)b*^
Ve
If (field current) = ; R¢f = Rf + rf
R ¢f
IL(load current) = Ia (armature current)
V = E – Ia Ra = E – IL Ra
V = E, when load current is zero.
!3/!Tivou!Fydjufe!ed!Hfofsbups!\Gjh/!3/22)c*^
4/!Tfsjft!Fydjufe!Hfofsbups!\Gjh/!3/22)d*^
IL = Ia = If
V = E – Ia Ra – If Rse (assuming rf = Rse)
= E – Ia (Ra + Rse) (Rse is the series field resistance)
5/!Tipsu.tivou!Dpnqpvoe!Hfofsbups!\Gjh/!3/22)e*^
6/!Mpoh.tivou!Dpnqpvoe!Hfofsbups!\Gjh/!3/22)f*^
Fex. ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! )b*! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! )c*
IL +
Rse Ise
If + + Ish
IL To
V
rf load
Rsh Ia
To
V load
+
+ Rsh F
E
– –
! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! )d*! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! )e*!
Ish IL
Ia +
Rse
To
Rsh V
load
E
! ! ! ! !
)f*
Gjh/!3/22! Sfqsftfoubujpo! pg! ejggfsfou! uzqft! pg! ed! hfofsbupst! up! efnpotusbujd! wpmubhfÐdvssfou!!
sfmbujpotijqt
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/3:
3/:/3! Npups!
Figure 2.12 represents the electrical equivalent circuits of a dc motor with different types of excita-
tions and the corresponding relationships between voltages and currents. We assume V to be the
applied voltage, E to be the back emf, Ia the armature current, I the load current, Ra is the armature
winding resistance, Rf is the field control resistance and ri is the internal resistance of the field (Rsh
for series field). F is the field and suffixes ‘ex’ stands for separately excited field while ‘sh’ and ‘se’
for shunt and series fields. Brush contact drops have been neglected.
2/!Tfqbsbufmz!Fydjufe!ed!Npups!\Gjh/!3/23)b*^
Ia = I
V = E + Ia Ra
3/!Tivou.fydjufe!ed!Npups!\Gjh/!3/23)c*^
I = Ia + If
If = (V/Rsh)
V = E + Ia Ra
4/!Tfsjft!Fydjufe!ed!Npups!\Gjh/!3/23)d*^
5/!Tipsu.tivou!Dvnvmbujwf!ed!Npups!\Gjh/!3/23)e*^
6/!Mpoh.tivou!Dvnvmbujwf!ed!Npups!\Gjh/!3/23)f*^
I = Ise + Ish
Ia = Ise
Ish = (V/Rsh)
V = E + Ia Ra + Ise Rse
! 3/41 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
If
I +
Ia
Rsh E Ra V
–
! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! )b*! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !)c*
Ia +
I +
Ise Rse Rse Ise
V Ish Ia V
E Ra Rsh E
–
–
! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !)d*! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! )e*
If
+
Ish Ise Rse I
Rsh Ia V
E Ra
)f*
Gjh/!3/23! Sfqsftfoubujpo! pg! ejggfsfou! uzqft! pg! ed! npupst! up! efnpotusbuf! wpmubhfÐdvssfou!
sfmbujpotijqt!
! Qspcmfn!3/24
B!tivou.xpvoe!ed!hfofsbups!ibt!bo!joevdfe!wpmubhf!pg!311!W/!Uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!jt!291!W/!Gjoe!
uif!mpbe!dvssfou!jg!uif!gjfme!boe!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodft!bsf!211!W!boe!1/2!W!sftqfdujwfmz/
Solution
The shunt-wound machine is shown in Fig. 2.11(b).
Induced emf Ea = 200 V
Terminals voltage Vt = 180 V
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/42
Vt 180
Field current (Ish) = = = 1.8 A
Rsh 100
Ea - Vt 200 - 180
or Ia = = = 200 A
Ra 0.1
where Ia is the armature current.
\ load current IL = Ia – Ish = 200 – 1.8 A = 198.2 A.
! Qspcmfn!3/25
B!5.qpmf!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!ibwjoh!b!gjfme!boe!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!211!W!boe!1/3!W!sftqfdujwfmz!
tvqqmjft!qbsbmmfm!dpoofdufe!211!mbnqt!pg!311!W-!51!X/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfout!boe!hfofs.
bufe!fng/!Bmmpx!2!W!qfs!csvti!bt!csvti.dpoubdu!espq/!
Solution
Given P = 4; Rsh = 100 W and Ra = 0.2
40
Current draw by each lamp = A
200
40
Total load current IL = 100 ¥ = 20 A
200
Since V = 200 V
200
\ Ish = =2W
100
Armature current (Ia ) = IL + Ish = 20 + 2 = 22 A
Generated emf (E) = V + Ia Ra + Brush drop
= 200 + 22 ¥ 0.2 + 2 ¥ 1
= 200 + 4.4 + 2 = 206.4 V.
! Qspcmfn!3/26
B!ed!tfsjft!hfofsbups!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!71!W!mpbe!boe!b!dvssfou!pg!9!B!gmpxt/!Jg!uif!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju!
sftjtubodf!jt!2!W,!efufsnjof!)b*!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf-!boe!)c*!uif!hfofsbufe!fng/
Solution
(a) Terminal voltage, V = Ia RL = (8) (60)
= 480 volts
! 3/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/27
B!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!ibt!bo!joevdfe!wpmubhf!pg!331!W!po!pqfo!djsdvju/!Xifo!uif!nbdijof!jt!po!mpbe-!
uif!wpmubhf!jt!311!W/!Gjoe!uif!mpbe!dvssfou!jg!uif!gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!211!W!boe!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!
jt!1/3!W/
Solution
Open-circuit voltage E = 220 V
Terminal voltage V = 200 V
If Ia is the armature current, E = V + Ia Ra,
where Ra is the armature resistance.
E - V 220 - 200 20
\ Ia = = A= A = 100 A
Ra 0.2 0.2
V
Field current Ish = ,
rsh
where rsh is the field resistance.
200
\ Ish = = 2 A.
100
The load IL = Ia – Ish = 100 – 2 = 98 A.
! Qspcmfn!3/28
B!tfsjft!hfofsbups!efmjwfst!b!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!61!B!bu!511!W!boe!ibt!bsnbuvsf!boe!tfsjft!gjfme!sftjt.
ubodf!pg!1/16!W!boe!1/15!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!uif!joevdfe!fng!jo!uif!bsnbuvsf!jg!uif!csvti.dpoubdu!
espq!jt!2!W!qfs!csvti/
Solution
In a series generator, load current = armature current
Ia = 50 A, V = 400 V,
Ra = 0.05 W and Rse = 0.04 W,
Hence, emf = V + Ia Ra + Ia Rse + Brush drop
= 400 + 50 ¥ 0.05 + 50 ¥ 0.04 + 2 ¥ 1
= 406.5 V.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/44
! Qspcmfn!3/29
B!mpoh.tivou!dpnqpvoe.xpvoe!ed!hfofsbups!efmjwfst!b!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!211!B!bu!511!W/!Uif!bsnb.
uvsf-!tfsjft!boe!tivou!gjfme!sftjtubodft!bsf!1/15!W-!1/13!W!boe!311!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!uif!bsnb.
uvsf!dvssfou!boe!uif!hfofsbufe!fng/
Solution
Referring to Fig. 2.11 (e),
IL = 100 A, V = 400 V, Ra = 0.04 W,
Rse = 0.02 W and Rsh = 200 W
400
\ Ish = =2A
200
and Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 2 = 102 A
Generated emf E = V + Ia (Ra + Rse)
= 400 + 102 (0.04 + 0.02)
= 400 + 102 ¥ 0.06 = 406.12 V.
! Qspcmfn!3/2:
Tpmwf!Qspcmfn!3/29!bttvnjoh!uif!nbdijof!bt!tipsu.tivou!dpnqpvoe/
Solution
Referring to Fig. 2.11(d),
IL = 100 A
Voltage across shunt field winding
= 400 + IL Rse
= 400 + 100 ¥ 0.02 = 402 V
402
Hence, Ish = = 2.01 A
200
and Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 2.01 = 102.01 A
E = 402 + Ia Ra
= 402 + 102.01 ¥ 0.04 = 406.08 V.
! Qspcmfn!3/31
B! 71! lX-! 2111! W-! 7.qpmf! tfqbsbufmz! fydjufe! tivou! hfofsbups! ibwjoh! bo! bsnbuvsf! sftjtubodf! pg!
1/3!W!jt!esjwfo!bu!611!sqn!bu!gvmm!mpbe/!Ju!ibt!b!xbwf.dpoofdufe!bsnbuvsf!xjoejoh!xjui!591!dpoevd.
upst/!)b*!Gjoe!uif!vtfgvm!gmvy!qfs!qpmf/!)c*!Jg!uif!bsfb!voefs!b!qpmf!qjudi!jo!uif!bjs!hbq!jt!1/3!n3-!gjoe!
uif!nbyjnvn!wbmvf!pg!bjs.hbq!gmvy!efotjuz-!bttvnjoh!b!tjovtpjebm!ejtusjcvujpo/!)d*!Gjoe!uif!op.mpbe!
ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bttvnjoh!uif!tqffe!boe!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!up!sfnbjo!uif!tbnf!bt!po!mpbe/
Solution
(a) Full-load current is
60 ¥ 103
Ia = = 60 A
1000
! 3/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Since the generator is separately excited, armature current = full load current = Ia = 60 A
E = V + Ia Ra = 1000 + (60 ¥ 0.2) = 1012 V
ZN f P
Also, E= ◊
60 2
480 ¥ 500 ¥ f 6
1012 = ¥
60 2
or, f = 0.08433 Wb
(b) Average flux density in the air gap is given by
f
Bav =
Area under pole pitch
0.08433
= = 0.42165 Wb/m2
0.2
Maximum flux density for sinusoidal distribution is
p Bav
Bm =
2
p ¥ 0.42165
= = 0.662 Wb/m2
2
(c) On no load, neglecting the no-load armature resistance drop
Va = Eb = 1012 V.
! Qspcmfn!3/32
B!tivou!hfofsbups!tvqqmjft!b!31!lX!mpbe!bu!311!W!uispvhi!dbcmft!pg!sftjtubodf!S!>!211!nW/!Jg!uif!
gjfme!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!Sg!>!61!W!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!Sb!>!51!nW-!efufsnjof!)b*!uif!ufs.
njobm!wpmubhf-!boe!)c*!uif!fng!hfofsbufe!jo!uif!bsnbuvsf/
Solution
(a) The circuit is as shown in Fig. 2.11(b).
P 20000 watts
Load current, IL = = = 100 A
V 200 volts
Volt drop in the cables to the load = IL R = (100) (100 ¥ 10–3) = 10 V
Hence, terminal voltage, V = 200 + 10 = 210 V
(b) Armature current Ia = If + IL
V 210
Field current, If = = = 4.2
Rf 50
Hence, Ia = If + IL = 4.2 + 100 = 104.2 A
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/46
Generated emf E = V + Ia Ra
= 210 + (104.2) (40 ¥ 10–3)
= 210 + 4.168
= 214.17 V.
! Qspcmfn!3/33
B!tipsu.tivou!dpnqpvoe!hfofsbups!tvqqmjft!91!B!bu!311!W/!Jg!uif!tivou!gjfme!sftjtubodf-!Sti!>!51!W-!
uif!tfsjft!sftjtubodf!Stf!>!1/13!W!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!Sb!>!1/15!W-!efufsnjof!uif!fng!hfo.
fsbufe/
Solution
The circuit is shown in Fig 2.11(d).
Voltage drop in series winding = IL Rse
= (80) (0.02) = 1.6 V
Potential difference across the shunt field winding = Potential difference across armature
= V1 = 200 + 1.6 = 201.6 V
V1 201.6
Shunt-field current Ish = = = 5.04 A
Rsh 40
Armature current Ia = IL + Ish = 80 + 5.04 = 85.04 A
Generated emf, E = V1 + Ia Ra
= 201.6 + (85.04) (0.04)
= 201.6 + 3.4016
= 205 V.
! Qspcmfn!3/34
Uif!bsnbuvsf!pg!b!ed!nbdijof!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!pg!1/36!W!boe!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!411!W!tvqqmz/!Dbm.
dvmbuf!uif!fng!hfofsbufe!xifo!ju!jt!svoojoh!)b*!bt!b!hfofsbups!hjwjoh!211!B-!boe!)c*!bt!b!npups!
ubljoh!91!B/
Solution
(a) As a generator, generated emf
E = V + Ia Ra
= 300 + (100) (0.25)
= 300 + 25
= 325 V
! 3/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/35
B!351!W!tivou!npups!ublft!b!upubm!dvssfou!pg!41!B/!Jg!uif!gjfme!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!Sg!>!261!W!boe!uif!
bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!Sb!>!1/5!W,!efufsnjof!)b*!uif!dvssfou!jo!uif!bsnbuvsf-!boe!)c*!uif!cbdl!fng/
Solution
V 240
(a) Field current If = = = 1.6 A
R f 150
Supply current, I = Ia + If
Hence, armature current Ia = I – If = 30 – 1.6 = 28.4 A
! Qspcmfn!3/36
B!311!W!ed!tivou.xpvoe!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/5!W!boe!bu!b!dfsubjo!mpbe!ibt!bo!bs.
nbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!41!B!boe!svot!bu!2461!sfw0njo/!Jg!uif!mpbe!po!uif!tibgu!pg!uif!npups!jt!jodsfbtfe!
tp!uibu!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jodsfbtft!up!56!B-!efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups-!bttvnjoh!uif!
gmvy!sfnbjot!dpotubou/
Solution
The relationship E μ fn applies to both generator and motor. For a motor,
E = V – Ia Ra
Hence, E1 = 200 – 30 ¥ 0.4 = 188 V
and E2 = 200 – 45 ¥ 0.4 = 182 V
E1 f1n1
The relationship =
E2 f2 n2
Ê 1350 ˆ
f1 ¥ Á
188 Ë 60 ˜¯
Hence, =
182 f1 ¥ n2
22.5 ¥ 182
i.e. n2 = = 21.78 rev/s.
188
Thus, the speed of the motor when the armature current is 45 A is 21.78 rev/s, i.e. 1307 rev/min.
BSNBUVSF!SFBDUJPO! 3/21
The effect of magnetic flux produced by the armature current upon the distribution of field (pole)
flux is known as armature reaction.
Figure 2.13(a) represents a two-pole dc generator operating at no load. The current in the arma-
ture conductor is zero and under these conditions, the field mmf is only active and produce the main
flux f. This flux is distributed symmetrically with respect Reaction
to the polar axis (i.e. the imaginary centre line joining the Brush
N and S poles). The Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA) is an
f
axis perpendicular to the polar axis and at no-load opera- Polar
tion of the machine, this MNA coincides with the Geo- N Fm S
axis
metrical Neutral Axis (GNA). In dc machines, the brushes
are usually placed along MNA.
Figure 2.13(b) represents the figure showing the flux GNA MNA
distribution due to flow of armature current (assuming Gjh/!3/24)b*! Nbhofujd!gmvy!ejtusjcvujpo!
negligible current in field pole winding). The direction of pg! nbjo! qpmft! jo! b! uxp.
flow of current remains same for all the conductors under qpmf!ed!hfofsbups
the influence of any one pole. The direction of flux pro-
duced by armature conductors is obtained by corkscrew rule. The conductors under N-pole carry
current in the direction entering the paper and is denoted by the
cross V while the conductor under S-pole coming out of the paper
and is denoted by the dot . It may be observed that the conduc- FA
tors on both sides of the armature combine their mmfs in such a N fA S
way so that the net flux fA within the armature is in downward
direction (The downward mmf being denoted as FA.)
Figure 2.14 shows the condition when the field current
GNA
and armature current are taken together (the generator is as-
sumed to be loaded at its terminals). Two fluxes are now pro- Gjh/!3/24)c*! Gmvy! ejtusjcvujpo!
duced within the machine—the first one being the flux pro- evf! up! bsnbuvsf!
dpoevdups!pomz
duced (fm) by the current in main field poles and the second
! 3/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
one (fA) by the armature conductors carrying load current. These two fluxes (fm and fA) produce
the resultant flux fR (the pattern being shown in the figure). The mmf diagram is exhibited in
Fig. 2.15.
New magnetic
nature axis
Trailing b
pole tip Loading
pole tip
N S
+
Rotation Trailing
Loading
pole tip
pole tip
GNA
Gjh/!3/25! Gmvy.ejtusjcvujpo!ejbhsbn
It may be observed from the flux-distribution diagram (Fig. 2.14) that field flux gets shifted as
well as distorted. The distortion produces congestion of the flux in the upper pole tip (i.e. training
tip) and in the lower cut of the S-pole (i.e. leading tip). Reduction of flux appears at the lower pole
tip of N-pole and upper pole tip of S-pole. The direction of resultant flux has shifted the MNA in the
direction of the rotation of the generator (MNA is always perpendicular to the axis of the resultant
flux).
New
GNA b MNA
90°
Fm (fm)
F (f R )
FA
(fA)
Gjh/!3/26! Nng!ejbhsbn
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/4:
3/21/2! Fggfdu!pg!Bsnbuvsf!Sfbdujpo
1. The flux wave gets distorted and MNA is shifted in the direction of rotation of the generator.
2. The flux density increases over one half of the pole and decreases over the other half.
3. The total flux produced is slightly reduced and there the terminal voltage is also slightly
reduced.
4. A flux is created in the neutral axis (the commutating zone) and hence, aggravates the
commutation problem and may cause sparking across commutator segments.
In order to facilitate commutator action, it is essential to place the brushes along MNA. Figure
2.16 shows the brushes’ mmf diagram when the brushes are placed along MNA.
Armature mmf FA now can be split into two components Fd and Fc. The component Fd opposes
the main flux and is known as demagnetizing armature reaction, while Fc distorts the main flux and
is known as cross magnetizing component. The resultant mmf (F) obtained from phasor sum of FA
and Fm gets reduced from its no load value.
GNA
New MNA
(New brush position)
Fd
Fm
FC
FA F
Brush
\GB!jt!bsnbuvsf!nng!bmpoh!ofx!NOB!boe!jt!tqmju!joup!uxp!dpnqpofout!Ge!boe!Gd^
Gjh/!3/27! Nng!ejbhsbn!xjui!csvtift!jo!uif!ofx!qptjujpo
Figures 2.17(a) and (b) represents the flux distribution in the machine after brush shift. The
brushes are shown as advanced by an angle b (which corresponds to advance of neutral plan).
It may be observed that all the conductors included within the angle 2b, at the top and bottom of
the armature, carry current in such a direction so as to send a flux through armature in a direction
opposite to field flux [shown in Fig. 2.17(a)] leading to demagnetizing armature reaction.
The armature conductors, which are not included within the angle 2b, carry current in such a
direction so as to produce a flux, directed downward and perpendicular to the polar axis. As shown
in Fig. 2.17(b), these conductors create cross-magnetizing armature reaction.
! 3/51 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2b Brush axis
b b
GNA
MNA
F
Gen.
b
FD FM
GNA Brush
b b
GNA
MNA
F
Gen.
b
2b F
FC
(b) Cross magnetizing Armature Conductors
Gjh/!3/28! Gmvy!ejtusjcvujpo!gps!efnbhofuj{joh!boe!dsptt.nbhofuj{joh!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo
3/21/3! Efufsnjobujpo!pg!Efnbhofuj{joh!boe!Dsptt.Nbhofuj{joh
! Bsnbuvsf!Sfbdujpo!nng
Let, Z = Total number of armature conductors
Ia = Total armature current
A = Number of parallel paths through armature
P = Number of poles
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/52
The Z number of conductors are uniformly distributed over the whole armature periphery (i.e.
360° mechanical angle).
Total number of demagnetizing conductors = Number of conductors included in the angle
(2b + 2b) i.e., 4b.
Total number of demagnetizing conductors is given by
Z
4be [be is angle expressed in electrical degree]
360∞
This is actually the number of demagnetizing conductor per pair of poles.
4 Z be
\ total demagnetizing conductor = (2.15)
360∞ P
1
But number of turns = ¥ Number of conductors (2.16)
2
4 Z be 1 Z be 2
Demagnetizing turns (ND)/pole = ¥ = ¥ (2.17)
360∞ 2 P 360∞ P
Ia
Since total armature current gets divided in identical paths, hence, current per path =
A
Ia
Demagnetizing AT/pole (Fd) = ATD = ND ¥
A
Z be 2 I a
Since be. 2/P = bm, we have Fd = ¥ ¥
360∞ P A
[bm is the space or mechanical angle corresponding to be]
Z bm I a
\ Demagnetizing AT/pole = AT/pole
360∞ A
Cross-magnetizing AT/pole = ATc = (total armature AT/pole –ATd)
Ê Ê Z ˆ 1 Ê Ia ˆ ˆ
ÁË ÁË ˜¯ ¥ ¥ ÁË ˜¯ ˜¯ – ATd
2 P A
Ê ZI ˆ Z b m I a
=Á a˜-
Ë 2 PA ¯ 360∞ A
ZI È 1 b ˘
Cross-magnetizing AT/pole = a Í - m ˙ AT/pole (2.18)
A Î 2 P 360∞ ˚
3/21/4! Nfuipet!up!Sfevdf!Bsnbuvsf!Sfbdujpo!
1. By lengthening the air gap in the machine, the reluctance offered to the path of armature flux
can be increased and hence, the armature flux reduces. It results in lesser distortion of main
! 3/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
field flux under loaded condition of the generator. However, the method of increasing the
length of air gap is not advisable as there is a need to increase field ampere turns and it would
cause higher losses in the machine.
2. By increasing the air gap at the pole tips, the reluctance of the path of flux at the pole tips can
be increased. However, this will lead to higher fringing and hence, not very much practical to
increase air-gap length at pole tips to reduce congestion of flux.
3. The most effective method is to install the compensating pole in the machine. It neutralizes
the across-magnetizing effect of armature reaction. These windings are embedded in pole
shoes and connected in series with the armature in such a way that the direction of current in
these conductors is opposite to the direction of current in the armature, thus, neutralizing the
effect of armature flux.
4. By ensuring that the main field mmf is sufficiently strong in comparison with full load
armature mmf. The distortion of the main field flux due to armature flux can be reduced.
5. By placing interpoles in between the main poles the effect of armature reaction can be
overcome. The interpole winding is connected in series with the armature so that the interpole
mmf neutralizes the effect of armature mmf.
3/21/5! Csvti!Tijgujoh!bt!bo!Fnfshfodz!Nfbtvsf
The brush neutral setting should not be changed to minimize sparking unless reasonable evidence
indicates incorrect setting. The common causes of sparking at the brushes are an open coil in the
armature, defective interpoles, incorrect brush-spring pressure or wrong brush grade. An incorrect
neutral setting may occur as a result of improper assembly after overhand or commutator wear.
A commutator whose diameter has been reduced by excessive wear and resurfing may cause the
brushes to contact the commutator at a slightly off-neutral position.
If the interpoles are defective and repair or replacement requires much time, shifting the brushes in
the direction of rotation for generator and against the direction of rotation for motor will reduce sparking.
Since the angular shift of flux caused by armature reaction is a function of the magnitude of the armature
current, the brushes would have to be shifted to a different position for each value of load.
Brush shifting should be done only as a last resort and the brushes should be positioned to reduce
sparking when operated at the average load. This is a critical task and if done incorrectly, damage
to the equipment and injury to the operator may occur.
3/21/6! Nng!boe!Gmvy!Efotjuz!Xbwfgpsnt!jo!b!ed!Nbdijof!
The current distribution under each pole of a dc machine is uniform. The direction of current in any
conductor gets reversed when it crosses the brush width. The direction of the current under each pole
remains unaltered. Fig. 2.18(a) shows the developed view of Fig. 2.13(a) when the current in the arma-
ture conductors is zero. The brushes are located midway between the two main poles. The distribution of
flux due to field current only is shown by dotted lines. Fig. 2.18(b) shows the developed view when the
armature conductors carry current. The currents under south pole flow in one direction and are indicated
by dots and the that under north pole flow in the other direction and are indicated by cross. The distribu-
tion of flux due to armature current only is shown by dotted lines in Fig. 2.18(b).
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/54
The field flux distribution is not shown here. The armature flux produced by the armature cur-
rent above is perpendicular to the main field flux. The mmf due to armature current is triangular
in shape and shown in Fig. 2.18(c) under the poles the air gap is uniform, hence the air-gap flux
Ê armature mmf ˆ
¥Á under the poles due to armature mmf only is proportional to the armature
Ë air-gap reluctance ˜¯
mmf. The armature flux density waveform is shown by dotted lines in Fig. 2.18(c). In the interpolar
region i.e. in between the two poles the reluctance is high due to long air gap and hence the armature
flux is much smaller in that region. The armature flux density waveform is saddle shaped with zero
value at the centre of the pole, increases to maximum at the pole tips and again decreases to a mini-
mum value at the middle of two main poles. Fig. 2.18(d) shows the flux density distribution due
to field current alone by dotted line and the resultant flux density distribution due to both field and
armature current by solid line. The resultant flux density distribution shows that there is strengthen-
ing of flux at one pole tip and weakening of flux in the other pole tip.
Flux due to field
current alone
S GNA N
B A Brush
N (b)
Armature
mmf mmf
&B
(c)
Armature flux density
waveform
B
Resultant flux density
waveform
(d)
Flux density
q waveform due to b q
main field alone GNA MNA
Gjh/! 3/29! Nng! boe! gmvy! efotjuz! xbwfgpsnt;! )b*! Gmvy! evf! up! gjfme! dvssfou! bmpof! )c*! Gmvy! evf! up!
bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!bmpof!)d*!Bsnbuvsf!nng!boe!bsnbuvsf!gmvy!efotjuz!xbwfgpsn!)e*!Gmvy!
efotjuz!xbwfgpsn!evf!up!nbjo!gjfme!bmpof!boe!sftvmubou!gmvy!efotjuz!xbwfgpsn
! 3/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
For a generator, there is increase of flux at the trailing pole tip and decrease of flux at the leading
pole tip. In motor the flux increases at the leading pole tip and decreases at the trailng pole tip. Fig.
2.18(d) also reveals that the zero value of the flux density has shifted through an angle b i.e. MNA
has shifted from GNA by an angle b.
DPNNVUBUJPO! 3/22
Commutation is a process of producing a unidirectional or direct current from the alternating cur-
rent generated in the armature coils.
The current generated in the armature conductors of a dc generator are alternating. These cur-
rents flow in one direction when the armature conductors are under north pole and the opposite
direction when they are under south pole.
As conductors move out of the influence of the north pole and enter south pole, the currents in
them are reversed. When a brush spans two commutator segments, the winding element connected
to those segments is short-circuited. During the period of short circuit of an armature coil by a
brush, the current in the coil must be reversed and also brought up to its full value in the reversed
direction. The time of short circuit is called the period of commutation. The inductive nature of the
coil opposes the reversal of current from (+I) to (–I). If t is the time of short circuit and L is the
inductance of the coil then the average induced voltage in the coil is
di L 2 LI
eL = –L = - [- I - ( + I )] = (2.19)
dt t t
This induced voltage is called the reactance voltage. The sudden reversal of current as the brush
leaves the segment may form an arc causing sparking at the commutator and the brush.
In order to illustrate the process of commutation, let us assume that a current of I amperes flow
through each of the coils A, B, C… Let us further assume coils A and B are under N-pole influence
while the coil C is under S-pole influence (current directions in coils A and B are identical but that
of C is reverse). The coils move left to right (equivalent to movement of brush from right to left)
and currents are collected accordingly in the brush through the commutators (marked a, b, c, …).
Figure 2.19(a) represents the initial conditions and we assume that the coil B goes for commutation
and moves to further right to enter into the influence of S-pole. This is represented in Fig. 2.19(b)
and it is evident that under influence of S-pole, the identical current in the coil B will start diminish-
ing (i.e. it has now become I/2 from I) so that reversal can take place.
Figure 2.19(c) shows that the coil B is now short circuited by the brush and hence, its current
drops to zero while the coil further enters into the influence of S-pole and is in such a position so
that both the poles have identical influence on B. In Fig. 2.19(d), we see that the coil has entered
into the zone of S-pole and the current starts building up in the reverse direction. Figure 2.19(e)
represents that the coil B has entered into the total influence of S-pole and the current is fully re-
versed. The process of commutation is over now for the coil B. Next commutation will start for the
coil A as it will move further right. In practice, the commutation process is not ideal and because
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/56
of inductance in the coils, the current in the coil B will not reach its full value and as the coil C is
carrying a current I, the difference of these two currents will enter commutator segment b and will
“jump” from the commutator segment to the brush in the form of sparks [Fig. 2.19(f)].
I I/2 I
A B C
3
I/2 I
2
a b c
2I
! ! ! (b)
I I/2 I
I I
A B C
3
A B C I I/2
2
I I
a c a b c
b
2I 2I
(c) ! ! ! ! (d)
I I I I 3/4 I I
A B C A B C
7 1
2I I I
4 4
a b c a b c
ARC
2I 2I
(e) ! ! ! ! (f)
Gjh/!3/2:! Dpnnvubujpo
! 3/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Thus, an important cause of sparking at the commutator is the failure of the current in the
commutating coil to reach its full value in the reversed direction by the end of the period of com-
mutation. This is known as delayed commutation. The profile of current against time for ideal and
delayed commutation is shown in Fig. 2.19.
Current
+I Ideal commutation
Delayed
(or under commutation)
Time
i (i appears as arc)
–I
Time of commutation
Gjh/!3/31! Dpnnvubujoh!dvssfou!wt/!ujnf!hsbqi
3/22/2! Uzqft!pg!Dpnnvubujpo!
Broadly, the commutation process may be classified in three different categories:
2/!Sftjtujwf!Dpnnvubujpo!)Mjofbs!Dpnnvubujpo*
When there is no induced emf in the commutating coil, the change of current (and its reversal) is
smooth [Fig. 2.21(a)]. Also, the current collected by the advancing brush from the incoming seg-
ment increases linearly while that from the outgoing commutator segment decreases linearly. The
current density in the entire width of the brush is constant.
Current
+I
Current through
segment a
Time
–I
Current through
segment b
Gjh/!3/32)b*! Sftjtujwf!dpnnvubujpo
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/58
3/!Efmbzfe!Dpnnvubujpo
In case there is induced emf in the commutating coil opposing the current reversal then the com-
mutation gets delayed and the currents collected from the segment are not linear. As a result, the
current density on the leading tip is much less than that on the trailing tips of the advancing brush.
Current
+I
Current through
segment a
Time
–I
Current through
segment b
Gjh/!3/32)c*! Efmbzfe!dpnnvubujpo
4/!Bddfmfsbufe!Dpnnvubujpo
If the induced emf in the commutating coil is opposed by some artificial means and there is assis-
tance in reversal of current, there may be accelerated commutation [Fig. 2.21(c)]. This may cause
higher current density in the leading side of the brush than trailing side.
Current
+I
Current through
segment a
Time
–I
Current through
segment b
Gjh/!3/32)d*! Bddfmfsbufe!dpnnvubujpo
! 3/59 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3/22/3! Sfbtpot!pg!Dpnnvubujpo!Qspcmfnt!
The commutation problem is mostly due to the different emfs induced in the commutating coil op-
posing the reversal of the current.
2/!Tfmg.joevdfe!fng
This is due to the self-inductance of the coil undergoing commutation. The coil is embedded in the
slot of the iron core and its self-inductance (L) is substantial. It induces a very high emf to oppose
the current reversal. The value of this self-induced emf is eL = –Ldi/dt.
3/!Nvuvbmmz!Joevdfe!fng
When the width of the brush is more than that of the commutator segment, it covers more than one
segment at a time. The current is simultaneously reversing in more than one coil, which may be in
the same slot or in the neighbouring slot. This causes mutual inductance between them and further
opposing the commutation process. The value of this emf is em = –Mdi/dt.
4/!Ezobnjd!fng
As the armature is rotating with the commutating coil, the sides of this coil in or near the neutral
zone (commutating zone), will cut the flux and a dynamically induced emf will be produced in the
commutating coil in addition to the statically induced emfs. The direction of this emf depends upon
the direction of the field in the commutating zone and the direction of rotation.
5/!Fng!evf!up!Gmvy!Qvmtbujpo
There may be some statically induced emf in the commutating coil due to flux pulsation (or load
fluctuation) in that zone because of teethed armature.
3/22/4! Nfuipet!pg!Jnqspwjoh!Dpnnvubujpo!
Commutation problem leads to flash-over across commutator segments and is undesirable.
The remedies are as under:
2/!Sfevdujpo!pg!Joevdubodf!boe!Jodsfbtf!pg
! !Sftjtubodf!pg!uif!Dpnnvubujoh!Dpjmt
Reduction of inductance is possible by using single or minimum turn coils and the resistance can
be increased by increasing contact resistance in the riser or using high-resistivity brushes (carbon
brushes). Thus, the relative effect of inductance on the commutation is decreased. The method of
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/5:
achieving good commutation with the use of carbon brushes having high resistance drops is called
resistance commutation. The effect of reactance voltage in delaying commutation is also minimized
if the voltage drop across the brush contact resistance is very large compared to the reactance volt-
age.
3/!Tijgujoh!Csvtift!gspn!HOB
The brushes can be shifted from the GNA to MNA. The main advantage of this shifting is that the
commutating coil comes in the main pole field which gives a dynamic emf to help commutation.
4/!Vtjoh!Dpnqpmft
This is the most commonly used and the best method of improving commutation. When a machine
is provided with compoles (also known as interpoles or commutating poles) at the geometrical
neutral axis, the brushes are also kept on the same axis. No shifting of brushes is required in case
of machines with compoles. Compoles are made of electric steel stampings.
Field
Terminals
Scp Ncp
Main pole
flux path
S
Gjh/!3/33! Qpmbsjuz!pg!dpnqpmft!xifo!uif!nbdijof!gvodujpot!bt!b!hfofsbups!)H*!boe!bt!b!npups!)N*
! ! ! ! ! !!\Tvggjy!ÒdqÓ!tuboet!gps!dpnnvubujoh!qpmf^
The number of compoles is usually equal to the number of main poles (in low-power machines,
their number is halved). The winding of the compoles is in series with armature winding in such a
manner so that the same armature current flows through the compoles. The winding in the compole
is done in such a direction so that the dynamic emf produced due to the cutting of this compole flux
by the commutating coil sides is in the direction helping the commutation. The number of turns on
the compole depends upon the degree of action required. The polarity of these compoles should
be similar to the polarity which we get to improve the commutation by shifting of brushes. In case
of generating mode, the polarity of the compole should be same as that of the main pole being ap-
! 3/61 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
proached and in motor mode, it should be same as that of the main pole being left behind, i.e. while
generating, the polarity of the compole in the machine should be same as that of the leading main
pole and while motoring, its polarity should be that of the trailing main pole. Fig. 2.22 shows the
polarity of compoles of generator when it is rotating in the anticlockwise direction. The same figure
also indicates the polarity of compoles of motor when it is rotating in the clockwise direction. The
method of achieving good commutation with the help of interpoles is called voltage commutation.
5/!Dpnqfotbujpo!Xjoejoh
In very heavy capacity machines (of about 200 kW and above), there may be frequent sparking at
commutator even if compoles are present as compoles work only in the commutating zone and are
of narrow cross section; so very large armature flux variations, causing heavy distortion of gap flux,
cannot be compensated by them. In such machines, a compensating winding is placed in the main
pole shoes and connected in series with the armature winding such that the mmf of the two wind-
ings oppose and cancel each other.
Since the compensating winding mmf neutralizes the armature mmf under the pole faces
Pole arc
only, the compensating winding mmf per pole is ATc = ¥ Armature mmf per pole =
Pole pitch
Pole arc ZI
¥ a
Pole pitch 2aP
Since the compensating winding carries the full armature current Ia, the number of compensat-
Pole arc Z
ing winding conductors is ¥
Pole pitch aP
DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT!PG!ED!HFOFSBUPST! 3/23
The characteristics of a dc generator are given as follows:
)b*! Op.mpbe! Dibsbdufsjtujd! )F0Jg!*! )bmtp! dbmmfe! Pqfo.Djsdvju! Dibsbdufsjtujd! )PDD*! ps!
Nbhofuj{bujpo! Dibsbdufsjtujd*! It gives the relation between the no-load generated emf in
armature (E) and the field (or exciting) current (If ). This characteristic is identical for separately
excited and self-excited generators.
)c*!Fyufsobm!Dibsbdufsjtujd!)W0Jb*! It gives the relation between the terminal voltage V and the
load current I. It is also called performance characteristic or voltage regulating characteristic.
)d*!Joufsobm!Dibsbdufsjtujd!)F0Jb*! It practically gives the relation between the emf (E) actually
induced in the armature conductors (after considering the demagnetizing effect of armature current
Ia. It is actually the total characteristic of the dc generator.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/62
3/23/2! Dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!Tfqbsbufmz!Fydjufe!Hfofsbupst
Figure 2.23 shows a separately excited generator where field coil is being excited separately with
variable excitation.
Main switch
Battery
Load
Field regulating
resistance
Gjh/!3/34! Tfqbsbufmz!fydjufe!hfofsbups
The armature terminals are connected to the load through a two-pole main switch. A voltmeter is
connected across the armature and an ammeter is connected in series with the field coil.
2/!Op.Mpbe!Tbuvsbujpo!Dibsbdufsjtujd
3/!Joufsobm!boe!Fyufsobm!Dibsbdufsjtujd!)ps!Mpbe!Dibsbdufsjtujdt*!
Figure 2.25 shows the external characteristic (or load characteristics) for a separately excited dc
generator. External characteristic is most important because it gives the way in which the terminal
voltage varies with the variation of load current from zero to full-load value. The speed of rotation
! 3/63 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
and the excitation current are kept constant. Voltage drop between the no-load characteristic and
external characteristic at a particular load current is due to armature drop and demagnetization of
armature reaction.
Internal characteristic
External characteristic
Gjh/!3/36! Joufsobm!boe!fyufsobm!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!tfqbsbufmz!fydjufe!ed!hfofsbups
To obtain the internal characteristic, the armature drop is added to the terminal voltage as shown
by the external characteristic. The vertical distance between the internal characteristic and no-load
voltage represents the effect of armature reaction. The voltage drop across the load resistance is IR
where R is the load resistance and I is the current.
3/23/3! Qspdftt!pg!Wpmubhf!Cvjme.vq!jo!b!Tfmg.Fydjufe!Hfofsbups
Figure 2.26 shows the process of voltage build-up in a self-excited shunt generator. The line OX has
a slope equal to the shunt field resistance (Rsh). When the armature of the machine rotates, a small
voltage OB is generated due to residual magnetism in the field poles. This voltage causes the field
current OC to flow. This current OC increases the field flux and X¢
generates a voltage OA which in turn results in the field current
Generated voltage (E) volts
X
OD which will generate a still higher voltage. This process goes P
on and the generated voltage continues to increase till the point
P is reached where the generated voltage is equal to Ish Rsh, Ish
being the shunt field current. If the resistance of shunt field be
such that Rsh is equal to the slope of the line OX¢ (which is tan-
gent to the curve BP), the generated voltage would remain at A
B
the value OB only, so no appreciable voltage will build up. The
O C D
value of Rsh corresponding to slope of the line OX¢ is known as Field current (lf) Amps
critical field resistance. The voltage build-up is possible only if
Rsh is less than critical value. If the speed of the generator is Gjh/!3/37! Wpmubhf!cvjme.vq!jo!b!
tfmg.fydjufe!hfofsbups
decreased, the slope of the curve is lower. Hence, for each value
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/64
of Rsh, there is a value of critical speed and if the speed of the armature is less than critical speed,
no voltage will build up at the armature winding.
The connections of the field circuit should also be such that field current strengthens the residual
flux. If the connections are such that field current decreases the residual flux, the voltage will not
build up.
Hence, the conditions for voltage build up in self-excited generators are the following:
(a) Residual magnetism must be present.
(b) Field winding should be properly connected so that field current strengthens the residual
magnetism.
(c) The resistance of the field should be less than the critical resistance.
(d) The speed of the machine should be greater than the critical speed.
For a series generator, the resistance of the load should be less than critical resistance and the
load should be connected so that a load current exists. Then only will the voltage build up in series
generators.
3/23/4! Dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!b!ed!Tivou!Hfofsbups
2/!Op.mpbe!pg!Pqfo.Djsdvju!Dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!ed!Tivou!Hfofsbups
Figure 2.27(a) shows a dc shunt generator on an open circuit being run at speed (N) r.p.m by means
of a prime mover. The field excitation is varied by regulating the resistance placed in the field cir-
cuit. The Open-Circuit Characteristic (OCC) so obtained is shown in Fig. 2.27(b). The OCC at any
other speed would be a scaled version of the original OCC at a rated speed [as VOC ∫ Eg (μ wn)].
P
Gjh/!3/38! Pqfo.djsdvju!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!ed!hfofsbups
3/!Dsjujdbm!Tqffe
If the circuit resistance (R) is fixed but the speed of the machine is generally decreased then OCC,
or the magnetization curve, gradually shifts downward and as a result, open-circuit voltage also
reduces gradually.
! 3/65 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
At the limiting condition, when the speed is such that the field resistance line OP is tangential to
the OCC [drawn at that speed (NC)] then also the machine just builds up the terminal voltage, al-
though this open-circuit voltage is very small. If the speed is further reduced then at that new speed,
the machine will not build up at all, as the resistance line never intersects the OCC at that speed.
Thus, NC is the minimum speed of the machine below which the machine fails to build up voltage
for any particular field resistance R.
This is known as critical speed of the shunt machine. Hence, critical speed of a shunt generator
is the minimum speed of the generator at which the generator just builds up voltage for a particular
value of field-circuit resistance.
There is a relation between Rc and Nc. Let, Rc1 and Rc2 be the critical field resistances at the
speeds n1 and n2 respectively.
Then if E1 and E2 be open-circuit voltages of the generator at this condition then
E1 N1
= (2.20)
E2 N 2
Again, N1 is the critical speed corresponding to the field-circuit resistance Rc1 and N2 is the criti-
cal speed corresponding to the field-circuit resistance Rc2.
Therefore, N1 = Nc1
N2 = Nc2
Rc1 N c1
Thus, = (2.23)
Rc2 N c2
4/!Fyufsobm!Dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!Tivou!Hfofsbups
In a shunt generator, the field circuit is directly connected across the armature. Due to increase of
current, the terminal voltage decreases. The following three factors are responsible for the decrease
in terminal voltage:
)b*! Bsnbuvsf! Djsdvju! Sftjtubodf! This resistance includes the resistance of (i) the copper
conductors of the armature windings, (ii) contact resistance between brushes and commutator, and
(ii) the brush resistance.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/66
Shunt field
winding
V Arm (Rsh or Rf)
Load
Gjh/!3/39! Djsdvju!dpoofdujpo!pg!b!tivou!hfofsbups
Figure 2.29 shows that if load current is increased by decreasing the load resistance beyond the
critical point, it results in a rapid decrease in terminal voltage. This happens because any further
decrease in load current causes the current to become greater than the rated current. This causes
severe armature reaction and increases the armature voltage drop. The curve turns back and cuts the
load current axis and the terminal voltage approaches zero value.
Eg at no load
Terminal armature voltage (V)
Armature reaction
} voltage drop
}
Ia Ra voltage drop
Drop owing to
decreasing If
Rated load Point
current
Gjh/!3/3:! Fyufsobm!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!tivou!hfofsbups
! 3/67 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Volts
Volts
Exciting current (If) Load current (If)
Gjh/!3/41! Fggfdu!pg!wbszjoh!fydjubujpo
Figure 2.30 shows the external characteristic due to varying excitation of field coil.
3/23/5! Dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!b!ed!Tfsjft!Hfofsbups
The OCC is drawn in a similar manner like that of the shunt generator. Figure 2.31 shows the con-
nection diagram for series generator to obtain the OCC curve [curve (a)] shown in Fig. 2.32.
Series field
Supply Arm E
Gjh/!3/42! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn
C (a) E
O.C.
Drop due to
armature reaction
Armature and
series field Series
drop field
A Series
V B Internal diverter
character-
istics (c)
Load
te rn a l V
Ex (b)
ristics +
characte
Arm
VlI –
C
0 Line current (= la), A
! ! ! ! !
! Gjh/!3/43! Tfsjft!hfofsbups! Gjh/!3/44! Djsdvju!gps!mpbejoh!b!ed!tfsjft!hfofsbups
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/68
Figure 2.33 shows the circuit for loading a series generator. Curve b of Fig. 2.32 is the external
characteristic of a dc series generator.
To get the internal characteristic (curve c), the voltage Ia (Ra + Rse) is added to the external
characteristic curve where Ra and Rse are the armature resistance and the series field resistance
respectively.
3/23/6! Dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!Dpnqpvoe!Hfofsbupst
Figure 2.34 shows the connection diagram to obtain different characteristics for a compound gen-
erator.
Main
switch Long shunt
Series
winding Series
winding
Short
shunt
Load
Load
Shunt
winding
Shunt
winding
Arm
Arm
Gjh/!3/45! Dpoofdujpo!ejbhsbn!gps!dpnqpvoe!hfofsbups
Over Compound
Level
Cumulative
compound
generators
Terminal voltage, V
Shunt generator
Differential
compound
generator Rated load
Load current, I
Gjh/!3/46! Fyufsobm!mpbe!dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!dvnvmbujwf!boe!ejggfsfoujbm!dpnqpvoe
! 3/69 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
WPMUBHF!SFHVMBUJPO! 3/24
The magnitude change in a terminal voltage due to application of load is known as voltage regula-
tion. If there is little change in voltage from no-load to full-load, the generator is said to have good
voltage regulation. If there is appreciable change in voltage from no-load to full-load, the generator
is said to have poor voltage regulation.
The change in load voltage from no-load to full-load may be expressed as a percentage of the
rated terminal voltage and is known as per cent voltage regulation.
Vnl - V fl E -V
Percent voltage regulation = ¥ 100 @ ¥ 100
V fl V
where, Vnl is no-load voltage and Vfl is full-load voltage.
QBSBMMFM!PQFSBUJPO!PG!ED!HFOFSBUPS! 3/25
The general conditions for operating two dc generators in parallel are the following:
1. Same polarities of both the machines must be connected together.
2. The emf generated should be approximately the same.
3. The load sharing depends upon their emf generated and internal resistances.
4. Equalizer bars must be connected in series or compound generators for stability of operation.
3/25/2! ed!Tivou!Hfofsbupst!jo!Qbsbmmfm
For operating the two or more dc shunt generators in parallel, the speed and the excitation of each
generator is adjusted to bring its emf generated slightly more than the busbar voltage and then the
generator is connected to the bus. Normally, the speed is fixed and excitation is adjusted. Once two
shunt generators are operating in parallel, the load shared by them depends upon their induced emfs
and their armature resistances.
Let V be the terminal voltage of the load of equivalent resistance RL; let E1 and Ra1 be the emf
and armature resistance of the machine 1 and E2 and Ra2 those of the machine 2 respectively.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/6:
A A
Gjh/!3/47! Qbsbmmfm!pqfsbujpo!pg!ed!tivou!hfofsbupst
The load shared by the individual generators can be easily determined by solving the equivalent
circuit of Fig. 2.37 with the help of Kirchhoff ’s laws.
E1 – Ra1 I1 = E2 – Ra2 I2 = V = (I1 + I2) RL (2.24)
IL = I1 + I2
Ra1 Ra2
I1 I2
V RL
Gjh/!3/48! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!uxp!tivou!hfofsbupst!jo!qbsbmmfm
2/!B!ed!Tivou!Hfofsbups!Dpoofdufe!up!bo!Jogjojuf!Cvt
If we consider a single machine coming to an infinite bus then the equation E1 – Ra1 I1 = V is ap-
plied. Since V is constant, the load taken by this incoming generator depends upon the value of E1
Ê E1 - V ˆ
ÁË i.e. I1 = R ˜¯ .
a1
If E1 is made less than V by adjusting the excitation (and/or the speed), the current gets reversed
and the machine starts running as a motor.
3/!Uxp!Joefqfoefou!Tivou!Hfofsbupst!jo!Qbsbmmfm
When two generators are independently connected in parallel to supply a common load, the termi-
nal voltage should remain constant and we can change both E1 and E2 in the reverse order (i.e. if E1
is increased, E2 should be decreased or vice versa).
! 3/71 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
4/!Efufsnjobujpo!pg!Mpbe!Tibsjoh!gspn!Fyufsobm!Dibsbdufsjtujdt!
In the above sections, the voltage drop within the shunt generator was considered only due to arma-
ture resistance. But in fact, the fall in the terminal voltage is also due to other factors like armature
reaction, etc., and the curve is not perfectly rectilinear as assumed by the Eq. (2.24). The exact
load sharing can be determined by plotting the two external characteristics as shown in Fig. 2.38.
Parallel operation of dc shunt generators is very stable. If due to any reason E1 or E2 changes, the
generators again become stable with slight automatic adjustment in their common terminal voltage
and the load is shared as shown by the dotted curves in Fig. 2.38.
E2
E¢1
E¢2
E1
V V
I¢2
I¢1
I1 I2
IL = I1 + I2
Gjh/!3/49! Mpbe!tibsjoh!pg!uxp!ed!tivou!hfofsbupst
3/25/3! Uxp!ed!Tfsjft!Hfofsbupst!jo!Qbsbmmfm
If ever the series generators are to be used in parallel then an equalizing bar connection must be
used.
In parallel operation of dc series generators, in case of no equalizing bar, due to any reason if
E1 increases, there will immediately be a circulating current flowing through the two armatures as
shown by the dotted line in Fig. 2.39(a). Thus, current I1 increases and I2 decreases. As the series
generators have voltage increasing with armature current increasing, E1 will cause increased circu-
lating current. Thus, there is a cumulative effect on the circulating current. Thus, ultimately it will
settle with a deadly short circuit (i.e. E2 and I2 will get reversed and the circulating current will be
E + E2
= 1 ). If there are no fuses, protectors, etc., in the circuit, the two machines will be spoiled.
Ra1 + Ra2
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/72
+ +
i I1 + I2
I1 I2 Equalizing bar
+ + + i +
– – – –
i i
– –
(a) (b)
Gjh/!3/4:! Qbsbmmfm!pqfsbujpo!pg!ed!tfsjft!hfofsbupst
But if a thick copper bar, known as equalizing bar, is connected across the positive terminals
of the two machines as shown in Fig. 2.39(b), the circulating currents are confined to the armature
only. Field windings are not effected, so there is a stabilising effect. This arrangement is practi-
cally used in electric tractions where the two dc series motors at the time of braking are connected,
like this arrangement, in parallel with supply disconnected; an equalizing bar is connected and a
resistor is connected as load. The kinetic energy of the train is converted into electrical energy and
expended in the load resistor as heat. The two machines then work as generators and cause braking
(this is known as rheostatic braking in dc series motors).
3/25/4! Dpnqpvoe!Hfofsbupst!jo!Qbsbmmfm
On the same grounds as in series generators, the compound generators must be connected with an
equalizing bar before the series field windings as shown in Fig. 2.40(a). If the series generators or
the compound generators in parallel have compoles and compensating windings then the equalizing
bar must be connected between them as shown in Fig. 2.40(b), since these must carry the actual
armature current.
Compole Compole
wdg. wdg.
Compen. Compen.
Equilizing bar wdg wdg
Gjh/!3/51! Qbsbmmfm!pqfsbujpo!pg!dpnqpvoe!hfofsbupst
! 3/73 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
ED!HFOFSBUPST!JO!TFSJFT! 3/26
For higher voltage requirements, sometimes it may become necessary to connect dc generators in
series. There is absolutely no problem in running any number of dc series generators in series, as
shown in Fig. 2.41.
E1 E2
E1 + E 2 Load
Gjh/!3/52! ed!tfsjft!hfofsbupst!jo!tfsjft!pqfsbujpo
But the normal series connection of dc shunt generators, as shown in Fig. 2.42(a), does not pro-
vide stable operation. If due to any reason E1 increases, it will cause increase in its excitation also.
Further increase in E1 will have a cumulative effect and it will throw all the load on one machine. If
the field connections are modified as shown in Fig. 2.42(b) then the fields are independent and the
machines will have a stable sharing of the load.
Fsh1 E1 A1 Fsh1 E1
E1 + E2 E1 + E2
Fsh2 E2 A2 Fsh2 E2
(a) (b)
Gjh/!3/53! Tfsjft!pqfsbujpo!pg!ed!tivou!hfofsbupst
! Qspcmfn!3/37
B!7.qpmf!tivou!hfofsbups!ibwjoh!849!mbq.dpoofdufe!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst!efmjwfst!bo!pvuqvu!dvssfou!
pg!361!B!bu!b!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!pg!511!W/!Uif!gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!61!W/!Uif!csvtift!bsf!hjwfo!b!mfbe!
pg!21¡/!Efufsnjof!uif!)b*!efnbhofuj{joh!boe!dsptt.nbhofuj{joh!gjfme!bnqfsf!uvsot-!boe!)c*!ovncfs!
pg!uvsot!pg!uif!dpnqfotbujoh!xjoejoht!up!ofvusbmj{f!:1&!pg!dsptt.nbhofuj{joh!fggfdu/
Solution
Armature current is given by
400
Ia = IL + If = 250 + = 258 A
50
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/74
ZI a È 1 b ˘ 738 ¥ 258 È 1 10 ˘
= Í - m ˙= Í - ˙
a Î 2 P 360∞ ˚ 6 Î 2 ¥ 6 360 ˚
= 1763 AT/pole
(b) Number of turns of the compensating windings to neutralize 90% of cross-magnetizing effect
1763
= 0.9 ¥ = 6.15 � 6.
258
! Qspcmfn!3/38
B!mbq.xpvoe!411!lX-!311!W-!23.qpmf!ed!nbdijof!ibt!2111!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst/!Uif!qpmf!bsd!up!
qpmf!qjudi!sbujp!jt!1/96/!Efufsnjof!uif!ovncfs!pg!qpmf.gbdf!dpoevdupst!pg!uif!dpnqfotbujoh!xjoejoh!
jo!fbdi!qpmf-!tp!uibu!gmvy!efotjuz!jo!uif!bjs!hbq!voefs!qpmf!gbdft!jt!vojgpsn/
Solution
300, 000
Armature current Ia = = 1500 A
200
IaZ
Armature ampere conductors per pole =
AP
1500 ¥ 1000
= = 10416.67
12 ¥ 12
Ampere conductors per pole to be compensated by pole-face winding
Pole arc
= ¥ Armature ampere conductors per pole
Pole pitch
1500 ¥ 1000
= 0.85 ¥
12 ¥ 12
As the compensating winding carries the total armature current, the compensating winding con-
1500 ¥ 1000
ductors per pole = 0.85 ¥ = 6.
12 ¥ 12 ¥ 1500
! 3/75 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/39
Uif!op.mpbe!tbuvsbujpo!dvswf!gps!b!hfofsbups!pqfsbujoh!bu!2911!sqn!jt!hjwfo!cz!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub;
Fh! 9! ! !51! ! !85! ! !224! ! 263! ! 324! ! 345! ! 359! ! 377! ! 389
J g! 1! ! 1/6! ! 2/1! ! !2/6! ! !3/1! ! !4/1! ! !4/6! ! !5/1! ! !6/7! ! !7/1
! )b*! Qmpu!uif!op.mpbe!tbuvsbujpo!dvswf!gps!2611!sqn/!
! )c*! Dbmdvmbuf!uif!hfofsbufe!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!hfofsbups!jt!pqfsbujoh!po!op.mpbe!xjui!b!gjfme!dvs.
sfou!pg!5/7!B!boe!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2111!sqn/
! )d*! Xibu!jt!uif!gjfme!dvssfou!sfrvjsfe!up!hfofsbuf!231!W!po!op.mpbe-!xifo!uif!hfofsbups!jt!pqfsbu.
joh!bu!:11!sqn@
! )e*! Uijt!nbdijof!jt!pqfsbufe!bt!b!tivou!hfofsbups!bu!2911!sqn!xjui!b!gjfme!dvssfou!pg!5/7!B/!Xibu!
jt!uif!op.mpbe!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!hfofsbups!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!2611!sqn@
Solution
(a) From Eq. (2.14), E • N when If is constant
E1 N1 N 1500
\ = or, E2 = 2 E1 = E1
E2 N 2 N1 1800
The magnetization curve obtained from the above equation at 1500 rpm is given below:
If 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 3.5 4 5.6 6
E 6.67 33.3 61.67 94.16 126.67 177.5 195 206.67 221.67 231.67
Ef –(line)
300 OCC
1,800 rpm
250 OCC
1,500 rpm
200
Eg (V) 150
100
50
Gjh/!3/54! Op.mpbe!tbuvsbujpo!dvswf!)Qspc/!3/39*
! Qspcmfn!3/3:
Uif!bddpnqbozjoh!ebub!bsf!hjwfo!gps!uif!tbuvsbujpo!dvswf!pg!b!81!lX-!331!W-!2311!sqn;
Jg! ! !1! !1/5! 1/9! 2/3! 2/7! !3/1! ! !3/6! !!4/3! ! 5/1! ! !5/6! ! !6! ! 6/6
Fh! !21! 49! !!77! !:7! 239! !268! !!!299! !333! !!!359! !!!36:! !378! !386
Uif!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!bekvtufe!up!61!W!boe!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!jt!gpvoe!up!cf!361!W!bu!b!
dfsubjo!mpbe!bu!2311!sqn/
Gjoe!uif!mpbe!tvqqmjfe!cz!uif!hfofsbups!boe!uif!joevdfe!fng/!Bttvnf!uibu!uif!gmvy!jt!sfevdfe!cz!5&!
evf!up!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo/!Bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/2!W/
Gps!uif!tbnf!gjfme!sftjtubodf!boe!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!361!B-!pcubjo!uif!wbmvf!pg!Fh-!Wj!boe!Jg/
Solution
250
(a) If = =5A
50
The OCC is drawn with the data given and is shown in Fig. 2.44.
Corresponding Eg = 267 V
Accounting for the effect armature reaction,
Eg = 0.96 ¥ 2.67 = 256.3 V
E g - V 256.3 - 250
Ia = = = 63 A
Ra 0.1
IL = Ia – If = 63 – 5 = 58 A
250 ¥ 58
Load = = 14.5 kW.
1000
(b) Ia = 250 A \ Ia Ra = 25 V
OCC characteristic with 4% reduction caused by armature reaction is drawn in Fig. 2.44
drawing a line parallel to the Rf line and 25 V above it, we read the values of terminal voltage
as (P¢, Q¢)
! 3/77 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
300 R1 = 50 W – line
P≤ OCO 1200 rpm
250 OCO with 4% reduction in flux
P
P¢
200 laRa = 25 V
Eg (V)
150
100
Q
50 Q¢
V = 224 V, 50 V
Eg = 249 V, 75 V
If = 4.48 A, 1 A (read corresponding to points P¢, Q¢ or If = Vt/50).
! Qspcmfn!3/41
Gjoe!uif!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!mpbe!xijdi!ublft!b!qpxfs!pg!6!lX!gspn!b!tivou!hfofsbups!xiptf!fyufsobm!
dibsbdufsjtujd!jt!hjwfo!cz!uif!frvbujpo!W!>!)361!Ð!1/623*/
Solution
VIL = 5000 W
IL (250 – 0.5IL) = 5000
or, 0.5 I 2L – 250 IL + 5000 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation,
IL = 20.87 A
V VI L 5000
Thus, load resistance = = 2 = = 11.48 W.
IL IL 20.87
! Qspcmfn!3/42
Jo!b!231!W!dpnqpvoe!hfofsbups-!uif!bsnbuvsf-!tivou!boe!tfsjft!xjoejoht!bsf!1/16!W-!33!W!boe!
1/14!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!mpbe!dpotjtut!pg!291!mbnqt-!fbdi!sbufe!bu!71!X-!231!W/!Gjoe!uif!upubm!fng!
boe!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou-!xifo!uif!nbdijof!jt!dpoofdufe!gps!)b*!mpoh!tivou-!boe!)c*!tipsu!tivou/!Ipx!
xjmm!uif!bnqfsf!uvsot!pg!uif!tfsjft!xjoejoht!cf!dibohfe-!jg!jo!)b*-!ejwfsufs!pg!1/2!pin!sftjtubodf!jt!
dpoofdufe!bdsptt!uif!tfsjft!gjfme/!Jhopsf!uif!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo!boe!csvti!espq/
Solution
180 ¥ 60
IL = = 90 A
120
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/78
120
(a) Long shunt: If = = 5.45 A
22
Ia = IL + If = 95.45 A
Ea = V + Ia (Ra + Rse)
= 120 + 95.45(0.05 + 0.03)V
= 127.64 V
(b) Va = 120 + 90 ¥ 0.03 = 122.7 V
Va 122.7
If = = = 5.58 A
If 22
Ia = IL + If = 95.58 A
Ea = Va + Ia Ra = 122.7 + 95.58 ¥ 0.05 = 127.48 V
Now with diverter,
0.1
I dse = 95.45 ¥ = 73.42 V
0.13
Ise (original) = Ia = 95.45 A
73.42
Series field AT reduces to = ¥ 100 % = 76.9 %.
95.45
! Qspcmfn!3/43
B!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!pqfo.djsdvju!dibsbdufsjtujd!xifo!tfqbsbufmz!fydjufe;
Gjfme!dvssfou;! B! ! 1/3! ! 1/5! ! !1/7! ! !1/9! ! !2/1! ! !2/5! ! !!3/1
FNG;! ! ! ! ! W! ! !91! ! 246! ! 289! ! 2:9! ! 321! ! 339! ! 357
Uif!tivou!xjoejoh!ibt!2111!uvsot!qfs!qpmf!boe!b!upubm!sftjtubodf!pg!351!W/!Gjoe!uif!uvsot!qfs!qpmf!
pg!b!tfsjft!xjoejoh!uibu!xjmm!cf!offefe!up!nblf!uif!wpmubhf!uif! 250
240 W line +
tbnf!bu!61!B!pvuqvu!bt!po!op.mpbe/!Uif!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!bsnb. +
uvsf! xjoejoh-! jodmvejoh! uif! tfsjft! dpnqpvoe! xjoejoh! dbo! cf! + 18.3 V
bttvnfe!up!cf!1/47!½!boe!dpotubou/!Jhopsf!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo/! 200
+
Solution 150 Ise = 0.3 A
Eg (V)
Ia = 50 + 0.85 = 50.85 A
50
Armature circuit voltage drop = 50.85 ¥ 0.36 = 18.3 V
From Fig. 2.45, Ise = 0.3 A 0 1 2
0.3 ¥ 1000 = 50.85 ¥ Nse lf (A)
or, Nse = 5.9 or 6 turns. Gjh/!3/56! PDD!ejbhsbn!)Qspc/!3/43*
! 3/79 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/44
B!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!dibsbdufsjtujd!xifo!uif!tqffe!jt!2111!sqn/
Jg ! 1! 1/2! 1/3! 1/4! 1/6! 1/7! !1/9! !1/:! !2
F! 7! 61! 212! 263! 328! 33:! 356! 35:! 362
Uif!gjfme.xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!jt!374/3!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!pqfo.djsdvju!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!nb.
dijof!jt!svo!xjui!)b*!op!beejujpobm!gjfme!sftjtubodf-!boe!)c*!261!W!beejujpobm!gjfme!sftjtubodf/!
Solution
The open-circuit characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.46.
(a) The field resistance line is drawn and it intersects the open-circuit characteristic curve at
about 250 V.
\ open-circuit terminal voltage is 250 V.
(b) The field resistance line with 150 W additional field resistance is shown in the figure. It
intersects the curve at 221 V.
fie
ld
line istanc
al line
res al fie
ista l
nce
nce m
or ce
) n istan
res
tic
ista
a
( s
Cri
re
(b)
260
occ at 100 rpm
240
200
E in volts
160
120
80
40
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
If in amperes
Gjh/!3/57! PDD!ejbhsbn!)Qspc/!3/57*
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/7:
! Qspcmfn!3/45
A 120 kW, 150 V dc series motor has a field resistance of 0.015 W and armature resistance of
I
0.03 W. The speed of the machine is 1200 rpm and flux per pole is proportional to . The
80 + I
brushes are so set that the armature demagnetizing AT/pole amounts to 8% of the field AT/pole. If
the brush voltage drop is 2 V, determine the terminal voltage when the generator is driven at 1250
rpm and it delivers 150 A.
Solution
120 ¥ 103
Load current I1 = = 800 A
150
According to the problem,
I
fμ
80 + I
If f2 and f1 be the final and initial flux then
f2 = (1 – 0.08) f1 = 0.92 f1
As in a series motor,
f μI
0.92 I 2 0.92 ¥ 150
\ f2 = K =K
80 + 0.92 I 2 80 + 0.92 ¥ 150
= 0.633 K
I1 800
Now f1 = K =K = 0.91 K
80 + I1 80 + 800
E1 = V + I1 R = 150 + 800(0.015 + 0.03 + 2)
= 188 V
Now E μ fN
E1 fN 0.91 K ¥ 1200
\ = 1 1 = = 1.38
E2 f2 N 2 0.633 K ¥ 1250
E1 188
\ E2 = = = 142.4 V
1.38 1.32
\ the terminal voltage V2 = 142.4 – 2 = 140.4 V.
! 3/81 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
QSJODJQMF!PG!XPSLJOH!PG!B!ED!NPUPS! 3/27
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced in it. The di-
rection of the force is obtained from Fleming’s left-hand rule. Let us consider one such conductor
is placed in a slot of armature and it is acted upon by the magnetic field developed from the north
pole of the motor. By applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, the direction of movement of the conductor
around its axis can be obtained. Since the conductor is in a slot on the circumference of the rotor,
the force acts in a tangential direction to the rotor creating a torque on the rotor. Similar torques
will be produced for all the rotor conductors if we assume these conductors are placed in successive
slots. The rotor being free to move, it then starts rotating.
When the dc motor armature rotates, the conductors cut the magnetic flux. The emf of rotation
Er is then induced in them. In a motor, this emf of rotation is known as back emf (or counter emf).
The back emf opposes the applied voltage. Since the back emf is induced due to generator action,
its magnitude is, therefore, obtained from the same expression as that for the generated emf in a dc
generator.
NPf Z
Eb = , N being rpm and Eb the back emf (Eb = Er)
60 A
Hence, other symbols have their usual meanings.
FMFDUSPNBHOFUJD!UPSRVF!FRVBUJPO!PG! 3/28
B!ED!NPUPS
The expression for torque (T) is same for the generator and the motor. It can be deduced as follows:
The voltage equation of a dc motor is given by
V = Eb + Ia Ra (2.27)
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (2.27) by Ia , we obtain
VIa = Eb Ia + Ia2 Ra (2.28)
However, VIa = Electrical power input to the armature
And Ia2 Ra = Copper loss in the armature
However, Input = Output + Losses (2.29)
Comparison of Eqs (2.28) and (2.29) shows that
Eb Ia = Electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power [developed by armature (electromag-
netic power)]
Let T be the average electromagnetic torque developed by the armature in Nm.
E mechanical power developed by the armature is given by,
nPf Z
Pm = wT = 2pnT and Eb = , n being r.p.s.
A
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/82
nPf Z
We can write Ia = 2pnT
A
1 . P Ê Pˆ
or T= fZIa . = Á 0.159 ◊ fZI a ˜ Nm
2p A Ë A¯
PZ E I
and T= fIa = b a . 60 (2.30)
2p A 2p N
Equation (2.30) is called the torque equation of a dc motor (N is expressed in r.p.m.).
! Qspcmfn!3/46
Efufsnjof!uif!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!cz!b!461!W!ed!npups!ibwjoh!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/6!W!boe!
svoojoh!bu!26!sfw0t/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!71!B/
Solution
V = 350 V
Ra = 0.5 W
N = 15 rev/s
Ia = 60 A
Back emf = E = V – Ia Ra
= 350 – (60) (0.5) = 320 V
EI a (320)(60)
Torque T= = = 203.7 Nm.
2p n 2p (15)
! Qspcmfn!3/47
B!7.qpmf!mbq.xpvoe!npups!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!361!W!ed!tvqqmz/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!ibt!611!dpoevdupst!boe!
b!sftjtubodf!pg!2!W/!Uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jt!31!nXc/!Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!tqffe-!boe!)c*!uif!upsrvf!efwfm.
pqfe!xifo!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!51!B/
! 3/83 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
V = 250 V
Z = 500
Ra =1W
f = 20 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Ia = 40 A
C = 2 p for a lap winding
(a) Back emf E = V – Ia Ra = 250 – (40) (1)
= 210 V
NPf Z N Pf Z
Emf, E= = (\ A = P in a lap-wound machine)
60 A 60 P
i.e., 210 = (20 ¥ 10–3)n (500) where n is the speed in revolution per second
210
Hence, speed n= = 21 rev/s
( 20 ¥ 10 -3 ) (500)
or = 1260 rev/min
EI ( 210)( 40)
(b) Torque, T= a = = 63.66 Nm.
2p n 2p ( 21)
! Qspcmfn!3/48
Bo!9.qpmf!ed!npups!ibt!b!xbwf.xpvoe!bsnbuvsf!xjui!:11!dpoevdupst/!Uif!vtfgvm!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jt!
36!nXc/!Efufsnjof!uif!upsrvf!fyfsufe!xifo!b!dvssfou!pg!41!B!gmpxt!jo!fbdi!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdups/
Solution
P = 8, A = 2 for a wave winding,
f = 25 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Z = 900, Ia = 30 A
NPf Z nPf Z
Back emf Eb = =
60 A A
Eb I a
\ Torque T =
2p n
nPf ZI a
=
A2p n
Pf ZI a
=
2p A
(8) ( 25 ¥ 10 -3 ) (900) (30)
or, T=
2 ¥ p ( 2)
= 429.7 Nm.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/84
! Qspcmfn!3/49
Uif!tibgu!upsrvf!pg!b!ejftfm!npups!esjwjoh!b!211!W!ed!tivou.xpvoe!hfofsbups!jt!36!On/!Uif!bsnb.
uvsf!dvssfou!pg!uif!hfofsbups!jt!27!B!bu!uijt!wbmvf!pg!upsrvf/!Jg!uif!tivou!gjfme!sfhvmbups!jt!bekvtufe!
tp!uibu!uif!gmvy!jt!sfevdfe!cz!26&-!uif!upsrvf!jodsfbtft!up!46!On/!Efufsnjof!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!
bu!uijt!ofx!wbmvf!pg!upsrvf/
Solution
The shaft torque T of a generator is proportional to fIa, where f is the flux and Ia is the armature
current. Thus, T = KfIa, where K is a constant.
The torque at flux f1 and armature current Ia1 is, T1 = Kf1Ia1
! Qspcmfn!3/4:
B!331!W!ed!tivou.xpvoe!npups!svot!bu!911!sfw0njo!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!41!B/!Uif!bsnb.
uvsf!djsdvju!sftjtubodf!jt!1/5!W/!Efufsnjof!)b*!uif!nbyjnvn!wbmvf!pg!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jg!uif!gmvy!jt!
tveefomz!sfevdfe!cz!21&-!boe!)c*!uif!tufbez!tubuf!wbmvf!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!bu!uif!ofx!wbmvf!
pg!gmvy-!bttvnjoh!uif!tibgu!upsrvf!pg!uif!npups!sfnbjot!dpotubou/
Solution
(a) For a dc shunt wound motor, E = V – Ia Ra.
Hence, initial generated emf,
E1 = 220 – 30 ¥ 0.4 = 208 V
The generated emf is also such that E μ fn so at the instant the flux is reduced, the speed has
not had time to change and
E = 208 ¥ 90/100 = 187.2 V
Hence, the voltage drop due to the armature resistance is 220 – 187.2 = 32.8 V
32.8
The instantaneous value the current is = 82 A. This increase in current is about three
0.4
! 3/85 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
times the initial value and causes an increase in torque (T μ fIa). The motor accelerates
because of the larger torque value until steady-state conditions are reached.
(b) T μ fIa and since the flux f is reduced by 10%, hence, f2 = 0.9f1
! Qspcmfn!3/51
B!tfsjft!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/3!W!boe!b!tfsjft!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W/!Ju!jt!dpo.
ofdufe!up!b!351!W!tvqqmz!boe!bu!b!qbsujdvmbs!mpbe-!svot!bu!35!sfw0t!xifo!esbxjoh!26!B!gspn!uif!
tvqqmz/
! )b*! Efufsnjof!uif!hfofsbufe!fng!bu!uijt!mpbe/
! )c*! Dbmdvmbuf!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!xifo!uif!mpbe!jt!dibohfe!tvdi!uibu!uif!dvssfou!jt!jodsfbtfe!
up!41!B/!Bttvnf!uibu!uijt!dbvtft!epvcmjoh!pg!uif!psjhjobm!gmvy/
Solution
(a) The generated emf, E, at initial load, is given by
E1 = V – Ia (Ra + Rf)
= 240 – (15) (0.2 + 0.3) = 240 – 7.5
= 232.5 V
(b) When the current is increased to 30 A, the generated emf is given by,
E2 = V – Ia (Ra + Rf)
= 240 – (30) (0.2 + 0.3)
= 240 – 15
= 225 V
Now, emf E μ fn
E1 fn
Thus, = 11
E2 f2 n2
232.5 f ( 24)
i.e. = 1
225 ( 2f1 )( n2 )
Since f2 = 2f1
( 24)( 225)
Hence, speed of motor, n2 = = 11.6 rev/s
( 232.5)( 2)
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/86
As the current has been increased from 15 A to 30 A, the speed has decreased from 24 rev/s
to 11.6 rev/s.
! Qspcmfn!3/52
B!361!W!tivou!hfofsbups!ibwjoh!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!2/1!W!jt!pqfsbujoh!po!b!361!W!ed!tvqqmz!
nbjot-!efmjwfsjoh!b!dvssfou!pg!31!B/!Uif!qsjnf!npwfs!pg!uif!hfofsbups!bddjefoubmmz!hfut!ejtdpoofdu.
fe!boe!uif!hfofsbups!dpoujovft!up!svo!bt!b!npups!esbxjoh!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!6!B/!Efufsnjof!
uif!sbujp!pg!tqffe!bt!b!hfofsbups!up!uif!tqffe!bt!b!npups!ofhmfdujoh!uif!dibohf!pg!gmvy!qfs!qpmf/
Solution
When the generator is in parallel with dc mains, the excitation may be considered as separate ex-
citation as the shunt-field winding is across the mains. Hence, the current is delivered to the mains.
By the generator is the armature current. When the machine is working as generator, the induced
emf is given by,
Eg = V + Ia Rg = 250 + (20 ¥ 1.0) = 270 V (neglecting shunt-field current)
When the machine is working as a motor, the induced emf is,
Em = V – Ia Ra = 250 – (5 ¥ 1.0) = 245 V
Since at constant flux, the induced emf is proportional to the speed of the armature, we have,
Ng Eg 270
= = = 1.102
Nm Em 245
where, Ng = Speed of the machine when working as a generator, and Nm = Speed of the machine
when working as a motor.
! Qspcmfn!3/53
B!511!W!ed!tivou!npups!xjui!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!2/1!W!boe!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!411!W!
svot!bu!2611!sqn!po!op.mpbe-!esbxjoh!b!dvssfou!pg!6!B!gspn!uif!nbjot/!)b*!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!xifo!uif!
npups!pqfsbuft!bu!gvmm!mpbe!esbxjoh!b!dvssfou!pg!61!B!gspn!uif!nbjot/!Bmmpx!b!sfevdujpo!pg!6&!gps!
uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!bu!gvmm.mpbe!evf!up!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo/
Solution
Constant shunt-field current is
V 400
Ish = = = 1.33 A
Rsh 300
No-load armature current is,
Iao = 5 – 1.33 = 3.67 A
Full-load armature current is,
Iaf = 50 – 1.33 = 45.67 A
! 3/87 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/54
B!511!W-!7.qpmf!tivou!npups!ibt!b!uxp.djsdvju!bsnbuvsf!xjoejoh!xjui!361!dpoevdupst/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!jt!1/4!W-!gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!311!W!boe!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jt!1/15!Xc/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!boe!uif!
fmfduspnbhofujd!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!jg!uif!npups!esbxt!21!B!gspn!uif!tvqqmz/
Solution
Given P = 6, Z = 250, Ra = 0.3 W, A = 2
And Rsh = 200 W
Also, f = 0.04 Wb, IL = 10 A and V = 10 V
400
\ Ish = =2A
200
Ia = IL – Ish = 10 – 2 = 8 A
Back emf Eb = Vt – Ia Ra = 400 – 8 ¥ 0.3 = 397.6 V
Pf ZN
i.e. Eb = 397.6 = , where (N) is the speed in rpm
60 A
60 ¥ 2 ¥ 397.6
\ N= = 795 rpm
6 ¥ 0.04 ¥ 250
Electromagnetic torque Pe = Eb Ia = 397.6 ¥ 8 = 3180.8 W
E I
Electromagnetic torque Te = b a , where w is the angular velocity
w
N 2p ¥ 795
But w = 2p rad/s = rad/s = 83.21 rad/s
60 60
397.6 ¥ 8
\ Te = Nm = 38.23 Nm.
83.21
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/88
! Qspcmfn!3/55
Bo!9.qpmf-!511!W!tivou!npups!ibt!:71!xbwf.dpoofdufe!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst/!Uif!gvmm.mpbe!bsnb.
uvsf!dvssfou!jt!51!B!boe!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jt!1/13!Xc/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/2!W!boe!uif!
dpoubdu!espq!jt!2!W!qfs!csvti/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe!pg!uif!npups/
Solution
Given P = 8, V = 400 V, Z = 960, Ia = 40 A, f = 0.02 Wb,
Ra = 0.1 W and A = 2. Also, total brush drop = 2 ¥ 1 = 2 V
Back emf Eb = V – Ia Ra – brush drop = 400 – 40 ¥ 0.1 – 2 = 394 V
Pf ZN
Again, Eb = , where (N) is the full-load speed
60 A
60 AEb 60 ¥ 2 ¥ 394
\ N= = rpm = 308 rpm.
Pf Z 8 ¥ 0.02 ¥ 960
! Qspcmfn!3/56
B!53!lX-!511!W!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!b!sbufe!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!211!B!bu!2611!sqn/!Uif!sftjtubodf!
pg!bsnbuvsf!jt!1/13!W/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!joufsobm!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe-!boe!)c*!uif!joufsobm!upsrvf!jg!uif!gjfme!
dvssfou!jt!sfevdfe!up!1/:!ujnft!pg!jut!psjhjobm!wbmvf/
Solution
Given, V = 400 V, Ia = 100 A, N = 1500 rpm and Ra = 0.2 W
Back emf Eb = V – Ia Ra = 400 – 100 ¥ 0.2 = 400 – 20 = 380 V
(a) Internal torque developed
Eb I a 2p N
Te = , where w = rad/s = angular speed
w 60
E I 380 ¥ 100
\ Te = b a ¥ 60 = ¥ 60 Nm = 242 Nm
2p N 2p ¥ 1500
(b) If the field current If is reduced to 0.9 times of its original value then f is also reduced by 0.9
times of its previous values (as f μ If)
Eb μ f, if N is constant; hence, Eb is also reduced by 0.9 times from its previous value.
Thus, the internal terque (Te) = 0.9 ¥ 242 = 217.8 Nm.
! Qspcmfn!3/57
B!511!W-!21!lX!tfsjft!npups!esjwft!b!gbo!xifo!svoojoh!bu!911!sqn/!Uif!npups!esbxt!61!B!gspn!uif!
tvqqmz/!Uif!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!tfsjft!gjfme!bsf!1/3!W!boe!1/2!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!
uif!fmfduspnbhofujd!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!cz!uif!npups/
Solution
Terminal voltage V = 400 V
! 3/89 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Armature current Ia = 50 A
Armature resistance Ra = 0.2 W
Series field resistance Rse = 0.1 W
Back emf Eb = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) = 400 – 50(0.2 + 0.1) = 385 V
Now, Speed N = 800 rpm
\ the electromagnetic torque developed is
Eb I a 385 ¥ 50
Te = = ¥ 60 = 230 Nm.
2p N 2p ¥ 800
60
! Qspcmfn!3/58
B!5.qpmf!tfsjft!npups!ibt!:55!xbwf.dpoofdufe!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst/!Bu!b!dfsubjo!mpbe-!uif!gmvy!qfs!
qpmf!jt!45/7!nXc!boe!uif!upubm!nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!jt!5!lX/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!mjof!dvssfou!ublfo!
cz!uif!npups!boe!uif!tqffe!bu!xijdi!ju!xjmm!svo!xjui!uif!bqqmjfe!wpmubhf!pg!611!W/!Uif!upubm!npups!
sftjtubodf!jt!4!W/!
Solution
Here, P = 4, Z = 944, A = 2 and f = 0.0346 Wb
Power developed is 4 kW, i.e. 4000 W
If Eb be the back emf and Ia be the armature current,
Eb Ia = 4000
Now, V = 500 V and r = 3 W, where (r) is the motor circuit resistance.
\ Eb = V – Ia r = 500 – Ia ¥ 3
4000
or Eb = 500 – 3 ¥
Eb
or Eb2 = 500 Eb – 12000
or Eb2 – 500 Eb + 12000 = 0
Eb = 25.28 V or, Eb = 474.72 V
4000
If Eb = 25.28 V, Ia = A = 158.22 A
25.28
4000
If Eb = 474.72 V, Ia = A = 8.43 A
474.72
If Ia is very large, the armature of the machine will be damaged. So, Ia is not equal to 158.22 A
and the feasible value is Ia = 843 A and Eb = 474.72 V.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/8:
! Qspcmfn!3/59
B! ed! tfsjft! npups! ibt! bo! bsnbuvsf! sftjtubodf! pg! 1/14! W! boe! b! tfsjft.gjfme! sftjtubodf! pg! 1/15! W/!
Uif!npups!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!511!W!tvqqmz/!Uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!31!B!xifo!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!nbdijof!
jt!2111!sqn/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!nbdijof!xifo!uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!61!B!boe!uif!fydjubujpo!jt!jo.
dsfbtfe!cz!31&/
Solution
Given, Ra = 0.03 W, Rse = 0.04 W, V = 400 V, IL1 = Ia1 = 20 A
and N1 = 1000 rpm.
When line current is 50 A (i.e. IL2 = Ia2 = 50 A), we assume speed is N2.
If f be the flux when speed is 1000 rpm, the flux becomes (1.2 f) as this time excitation is in-
creased by 20%.
We know Eb μ fN
Eb1 f N1
\ =
Eb2 1.2 f N 2
However, Eb1 = V – Ib1 (Ra + Rse) = 400 – 20(0.03 + 0.04) = 398.6 V
and Eb2 = 400 – 50(0.03 + 0.04) = 396.5 V
N1Eb2 1000 ¥ 396.5
\ N2 = = = 829 rpm.
1.2 Eb1 1.2 ¥ 398.6
! Qspcmfn!3/5:
B!22!lX-!351!W!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/6!W!boe!b!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!311!W/!
Bu!op.mpbe!boe!sbufe!wpmubhf-!uif!tqffe!jt!2361!sqn!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!4!B/!Bu!gvmm.mpbe!
boe!sbufe!wpmubhf-!uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!59!B!boe!cfdbvtf!pg!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo-!uif!gmvy!jt!5&!mftt!
uibo!jut!op.mpbe!wbmvf/
! )b*! Xibu!jt!uif!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe@
! )c*! Xibu!jt!uif!efwfmpqfe!upsrvf!bu!gvmm.mpbe@
Solution
240
At no-load, If = = 1.2 A
200
Iao =3A
! 3/91 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/61
B!311!W!votbuvsbufe!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!)jodmvejoh!csvtift!boe!joufsqpmft*!pg!
1/14!W!boe!b!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!221!W/!)b*!Gjoe!uif!wbmvf!pg!sftjtubodf!up!cf!beefe!up!uif!gjfme!djsdvju!
up!jodsfbtf!uif!tqffe!gspn!2361!sqn!up!2711!sqn-!xifo!uif!tvqqmz!dvssfou!jt!311!B/!)c*!Xjui!uif!
gjfme!sftjtubodf!bt!jo!)b*-!gjoe!uif!tqffe!xifo!uif!tvqqmz!dvssfou!jt!231!B/!Jg!uif!nbdijof!jt!svo!bt!
b!hfofsbups!up!hjwf!311!B!bu!311!W-!)d*!gjoe!uif!dvssfou!bu!2511!sqn-!boe!)e*!uif!tqffe!xifo!uif!
gjfme!dvssfou!jt!3/6!B/
Solution
200
(a) If l = = 1.82 A
110
Ia = 200 A
Eb1 = 200 – (200 – 1.82) ¥ 0.03 = 194.05 V (E Eb = V – Ia Ra)
Eb2 = 200 – (200 – If 2) ¥ 0.03 = 194 + 0.03 If 2
Eb1 μ N1 If l (E f μ If)
Eb2 μ N2 If2
194.05 μ 1250 ¥ 1.82 (i)
(194 + 0.03 If 2) μ 1600 ¥ If 2 (ii)
Dividing the equation (ii) by (i),
194 + 0.03 I f 2 1600 ¥ I f 2
=
194.05 1250 ¥ 1.82
or, If 2 = 1.42 A
V 200
Rf 2 = = = 140.85 W
I f 2 1.42
Rf = 140.85 – 110 = 30.85 W
Note: No difference will be made by assuming Ia = IL
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/92
! Qspcmfn!3/62
B!5.qpmf!tfsjft!npups!ibt!:57!xbwf.dpoofdufe!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst/!Bu!b!dfsubjo!mpbe-!uif!gmvy!qfs!
qpmf!jt!45/7!nXc!boe!uif!upubm!nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!jt!5/5!lX/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!mjof!dvssfou!
ublfo!cz!uif!npups!boe!uif!tqffe!bu!xijdi!ju!xjmm!svo!xjui!bo!bqqmjfe!wpmubhf!pg!661!W/!Upubm!npups!
sftjtubodf!jt!4/3!W.
Solution
fNZ Ê P ˆ
Ea = (i)
60 ÁË A ˜¯
Ea Ia = 4.4 ¥ 103 (ii)
V - Ea
Ia = (iii)
Ra
! 3/93 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/63
Uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub!qfsubjot!up!b!351!W!ed!tfsjft!npups-![!>!291-!Q0B!>!2-!gmvy0qpmf!>!4/9!nXc0gjfme!
bnq/!Upubm!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju!sftjtubodf!>!2!W-!uif!npups!jt!dpvqmfe!up!b!dfousjgvhbm!qvnq!xiptf!mpbe!
upsrvf!jt!UM!>!21Ð5!O3!On-!xifsf!O!>!tqffe!jo!sqn/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!dvssfou!esbxo!cz!uif!npups!boe!
uif!tqffe!bu!xijdi!ju!xjmm!svo/
Solution
3.8 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ N ¥ 180 ¥ 1
Eb = = 11.4 ¥ 10–3 N (i)
60
E I 11.4 ¥ 10 -3
T= b a = N Ia = 0.11 Ia (ii)
w 2p N / 60
240 - Eb
= Ia (iii)
1
Under steady-state conditions,
T = TL
\ 10–4 ¥ N2 = 0.11 Ia
10 -4 2 N2
or, Ia = N = (iv)
0.11 1100
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/94
! Qspcmfn!3/64
Uif! pqfsbujoh! wpmubhf! pg! b! ed! tivou! npups! jt! 431! W/! Jut! op.mpbe! tqffe! jt! 2361! sqn/! Xifo! gvmmz!
mpbefe-!ju!efmjwfst!b!upsrvf!pg!511!On!boe!jut!tqffe!espqt!up!2261!sqn/!Gjoe!jut!tqffe!boe!qpxfs!
pvuqvu!xifo!efmjwfsjoh!uif!tbnf!upsrvf!jg!pqfsbufe!xjui!bo!bsnbuvsf!wpmubhf!pg!711!W/!Fydjubujpo!jt!
bttvnfe!vodibohfe-!j/f/!uif!npups!gjfme!jt!tujmm!fydjufe!bu!411!W/!Tubuf!boz!bttvnqujpo!zpv!sfrvjsf!
up!nblf/
Solution
At no-load, the Ia Ra drop can be neglected.
f ¥ 1250 ¥ Z Ê P ˆ
Eb =
60 ÁË A ˜¯ = K ¥ 1250 = 320 (i)
Eb I a KI a ¥ 60
400 = = (ii)
2p N 2p
Dividing the equation (ii) by (i),
400 1 60
= ¥ Ia
320 2p 1250
Ia = 163.62 A
Since speed drops to 1150 rpm, on load
1150
Eb = 320 ¥ = 294.4
1250
320 - 294.4
Ra = = 0.16 W
163.62
Under new operating condition (600 V):
! Qspcmfn!3/65
B!61!lX-!351!W!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/23!boe!b!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!311!W/!
Ju!svot!po!op.mpbe!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2561!sqn-!esbxjoh!b!dvssfou!pg!23!B!gspn!uif!nbjot/!Xifo!efmjw.
fsjoh!b!mpbe-!uif!npups!esbxt!b!dvssfou!pg!311!B!gspn!nbjot/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!bu!xijdi!ju!xjmm!svo!
bu!uijt!mpbe!boe!uif!upsrvf!efwfmpqnfou/!Bttvnf!uibu!uif!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo!dbvtft!b!sfevdujpo!jo!
gmvy0qpmf!pg!5&!pg!jut!op.mpbe!wbmvft/
Solution
Field resistance is not changed, so that the field current remains constant. But there is a change
240
of flux/pole due to armature reaction: If = = 1.2 A
200
240 – (12 – 1.2) ¥ 0.12 = 1450f
or, 238.7 = 1450 f (i)
(240 – (200 – 1.2) ¥ 0.12) = N2f
or, 216.14 = N2f (ii)
! Qspcmfn!3/66
B!361!W!ed!tfsjft!npups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!PDD!bu!2311!sqn/
Jg!)B*! !6! !21! !26! !31! !36! !41
WPD)W*! 211! 286! 331! 357! 371! 386
Sb!>!1/4!W!boe!tfsjft!gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!1/4!W/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!nbdijof!xifo!)b*!Jb!>!36!B
)c*!uif!efwfmpqfe!upsrvf!jt!51!On/
Solution
(a) If = Ia = 25 A
Ea (1200 rpm) = 260 V at no-load
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/96
60
50
40
T(Nm)
30
20
10
20.7 A
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
la (A)
Gjh/!3/58! UpsrvfÐdvssfou!dibsbdufsjtujd!)Qspc/!3/66*
! Qspcmfn!3/67
B!26!lX-!5.qpmf-!351!W-!2271!sqn!tivou!npups!ibt!5!qbsbmmfm!bsnbuvsf!qbuit-!:31!bsnbuvsf!dpo.
evdupst<!Sb!>!1/3!W/!Bu!sbufe!tqffe!boe!sbufe!pvuqvu-!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!85!B!boe!gjfme!dvssfou!
! 3/97 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
jt!2/6!B/!Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf-!)c*!uif!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe-!)d*!spubujpobm!mpttft-!fggjdjfodz!boe!
uif!tibgu!mpbe-!boe!)e*!jg!uif!tibgu!boe!mpbe!sfnbjot!gjyfe-!cvu!uif!gjfme!gmvy!jt!sfevdfe!up!86&!pg!jut!
wbmvf!cz!gjfme!dpouspm-!efufsnjof!uif!ofx!pqfsbujoh!tqffe/!
Solution
fNZP
(a) Eb =
60 A
f ¥ 1160 ¥ 920 Ê 4 ˆ
240 – 74 ¥ 0.2 = ÁË 4 ˜¯
60
f = 0.0126 Wb
1 Ê Pˆ 1
(b) T = ¥ fZIa Á ˜ = ¥ 0.0126 ¥ 920 ¥ 74 ¥ 1 = 136.5 Nm
2p Ë A ¯ 2p
(c) Input = 240 ¥ (74 + 1.5) = 18.12 kW
1160
Mechanical power developed = 136.5 ¥ 2p ¥ = 16.6 kW
60
Net mechanical output = 15 kW
Rotational loss = 16.6 – 15 = 1.6 kW
h = 15 ¥ 100/18.12 = 82.78 %
(f) f = 0.75 ¥ 0.0126 = 0.00945
The torque load remains the same.
\ Torque T = fIa = 0.0126 ¥ 74 = 0.00945 Ia2
where Ia2 is the armature current in the new condition.
0.0126
\ Ia2 = 74 ¥ = 98.67 A
0.00945
Eb2 = 240 – 98.67 ¥ 0.2 = 220.27 V
0.00945 ¥ N ¥ 920 Ê 4 ˆ
220.27 = ÁË 4 ˜¯
60
n = 1520 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!3/68
B!223!lX-!711W!ed!tfsjft.xpvoe!sbjmxbz!usbdl!npups!ibt!b!dpncjofe!gjfme!boe!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!
)jodmvejoh! csvtift*! pg! 1/26! pin/! Uif! gvmm.mpbe! dvssfou! bu! sbufe! wpmubhf! boe! tqffe! jt! 327! B/! Uif!
nbhofuj{bujpo!dvswf!bu!611!sqn!jt!bt!gpmmpxt;
Fng!)W*! ! 491! 511! 541! 561! 391
Jg!)B*! ! 299! 327! 361! 3:1! 446
! )b*! Ofhmfdujoh!uif!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!tqffe!jo!sqn!bu!uif!sbufe!dvssfou!boe!wpmu.
bhf/
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/98
! )c*! Dbmdvmbuf!uif!gvmm!mpbe!joufsobm!upsrvf/
! )d*! Jg! uif! tubsujoh! dvssfou! jt! up! cf! sftusjdufe! up! 3:1! B-! dbmdvmbuf! uif! fyufsobm! sftjtubodf! up! cf!
beefe!boe!uif!tubsujoh!upsrvf/!
Solution
If = Ia = 216 A
Ea = 600 – 216 ¥ 0.15 = 567.6 V
567.6
(a) Eb (500 rpm) = 400 V at If = 216 A, N = 500 ¥ = 709.5 rpm
400
Eb I a 567.5 ¥ 216
(b) T = = = 1650 Nm
W 709.5 ¥ 2p / 60
600
(c) Ra + Rex = = 2.07 W
290
Rex = 2.07 W – 0.15 W = 1.92 W
Eb I a Eb I a
T= =
W 2p ¥ 500 / 60
If = Ia = 290 A, Eb = 450 at 500 rpm
450 ¥ 290
\ T= = 2494 Nm.
500
2p ¥
60
! Qspcmfn!3/69
B!216!lX-!711!W-!711!sqn!ed!tfsjft.xpvoe!npups!ibt!b!dpncjofe!gjfme!boe!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!
)jodmvejoh! csvtift*! pg! 1/26! pin/! Uif! gvmm.mpbe! dvssfou! bu! sbufe! wpmubhf! boe! tqffe! jt! 319! B/! Uif!
nbhofuj{bujpo!dvswf!bu!511!sqn!jt!bt!gpmmpxt;
Fng!)W*! ! 491! 4:1! 511! 536! 561! 591
Jg!)B*! ! 2:1! 319! 327! 361! 3:1! 446
! )b*! Efufsnjof!uif!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo!jo!frvjw.
bmfou!efnbhofuj{joh!gjfme!dvssfou!bu!319!B/
! )c*! Dbmdvmbuf! uif! joufsobm! upsrvf! bu! uif! gvmm. 500
mpbe!dvssfou/
! )d*! Bttvnjoh! efnbhofuj{joh! bsnbuvsf! sfbd.
E (V) 450
ujpo!nng!qspqpsujpobm!up!Jb3-!efufsnjof!uif! f
joufsobm!tubsujoh!upsrvf!bu!uif!tubsujoh!dvs.
400
sfou!pg!461!B/
Solution 350
100 200 300 400 500
From the magnetizing curve of Fig. 2.48, the
If (A)
corresponding
Gjh/!3/59! Nbhofuj{joh!dvswf!)Qspc/!3/69*
If = Ia = 194 A
Ea = 600 – 208 ¥ 0.15 = 568.8 V at 600 rpm = 379.2 V at 400 rpm
! 3/99 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Ea I a 568.8 ¥ 208
(b) T = = = 1883.92 Nm
W 600 ¥ 2p / 60
(c) Ia (start) = 350 A
Demagnetizing effect of armature reaction = 14 ¥ (350/208)2 = 39.64 A
(\ 208 – 194 = 14 A)
Effective If = 350 – 39.64 = 310.36 A
If If = 310.36, Ea = 460 V at 400 rpm
E 460
Ka f = a = = 11
W 2p ¥ 400 / 60
T = Ka fIa (start) = 11 ¥ 350 = 3850 Nm.
! Qspcmfn!3/6:
B!4!lX!tfsjft!npups!svot!opsnbmmz!bu!911!sqn!po!b!361!W!tvqqmz!ubljoh!26!B<!uif!gjfme!dpjmt!bsf!bmm!
dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft/!Ftujnbuf!uif!tqffe!boe!uif!dvssfou!ublfo!cz!uif!npups-!jg!uif!dpjmt!bsf!sfdpo.
ofdufe!jo!uxp!qbsbmmfm!hspvqt!pg!uxp!jo!tfsjft/!Uif!mpbe!upsrvf!jodsfbtft!bt!uif!trvbsf!pg!uif!tqffe/!
Bttvnf!uibu!uif!gmvy!jt!ejsfdumz!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!dvssfou!boe!jhopsf!mpttft/
Solution
Ia (Ra + Rexc) voltage is assumed to be negligible, hence,
V = Ea = K1fN = Ke Ia N (E in series motor, f μ Ia)
T = Kt Ia2 = KL N 2
UPSRVFÐDVSSFOU!DIBSBDUFSJTUJD! 3/29
PG!B!ED!NPUPS
3/29/2! UpsrvfÐDvssfou!Dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!Tivou!Npups!
From the torque expression, we have
T μ f Ia
O Ia (amp)
Gjh/!3/5:)b*!Upsrvf!dvssfou!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!ed!tivou!npups
3/29/3! UpsrvfÐDvssfou!Dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!Tfsjft!Npups
In series motor, before saturation f μ Ia and hence, at rated loads, using T μ fIa we get,
T μ Ia2 (2.34)
Equation (2.34) shows that the torque/armature current T/Ia curve of a series motor is parabolic.
When the iron core becomes magnetically saturated, f becomes almost constant and hence, at
heavy loads
T μ Ia (2.35)
! 3/:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Equations (2.34) and (2.35) show that the T/Ia characteristic is a parabolic one at light or rated
loads and approaches a straight line at heavy load. Thus, the torque/current characteristic of a dc
series motor is initially parabolic and finally becomes linear when the load current becomes large.
This characteristic, up to the rated loading of the mo- Torque
tor, is shown in Fig. 2.49(b).
Nm
The characteristic relating the net torque or useful
T
torque (Tr) to the armature current is not only parallel Tr
to the T/Ia characteristic, but is also slightly below it.
The difference between the two curves is due to fric-
tion and windage losses.
Since the T–Ia characteristic of a dc series motor
is parabolic, hence, the starting torque is high for the
motor for a definite starting current. This property
O Ia (amp)
is used in traction motors, cranes and hoists where
a dc motor is to start with full load. A high starting
Gjh/!3/5:)c*! UpsrvfÐdvssfou!dibsbdufsjtujd!
torque (being proportional to square of starting cur- pg! b! ed! tfsjft! npups! )vq! up!
rent) helps overcome the initial inertia of the load and sbufe!mpbet*
the dc series motor speeds up smoothly with a heavy
load on it.
3/29/4! UpsrvfÐDvssfou!Dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!Dpnqpvoe!Npups
A compound motor has both shunt and series windings, so its characteristics are intermediate be-
tween the shunt and series motors. The cumula- Cumulative
tive compound motor is generally used in prac- compound
tice. The torque armature current characteristics motor
T Shunt motor
are shown in Fig. 2.49(c).
T = K(fsh + fse) Ia where fsh and fse are the
Torque
flux due to shunt and series field windings Differential
compound motor
At Ia = 0, T = 0
As Ia increases, fse increases but fsh remains
constant.
Hence, the torque increases due to simultane- Ia
ous increases of Ia and fse and as a result, the
Gjh/!3/5:)d*! UpsrvfÐdvssfou! dibsbdufsjtujd! pg! b!
cumulative compound motor develops a torque dpnqpvoe!npups
higher than that developed by a dc shunt motor.
For differential compound motor T = K(fsh ~ fse). Hence, the differential compound motor develops
torque less than that developed by a shunt motor.
The operation of a differential compound motor is unstable. With the increase of load the
armature current increases which increases the series field mmf. Hence the resultant mmf and
flux decreases and speed increases. Again the decrease in flux causes decrease in the back emf.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/:2
Hence, armature current increases which causes further increase in speed. The motor starts running
at a very high speed due to this cumulative action and draws very high current. The high current
causes overheating and the high speed causes high centrifugal stresses. Hence a differential com-
pound motor is never used in practice.
TQFFE!FRVBUJPO!PG!B!ED!NPUPS! 3/2:
The emf equation of a dc machine is given by
NPf Z
E=
60 A
60 A E
i.e., N= ◊
PZ f
E PZ
or, N = , where K =
Kf 60 A
This equation shows that the speed of a dc machine is directly proportional to the emf of rotation
(E) and is inversely proportional to flux per pole (f). Since the expression for emf of rotation ap-
plies equally to motors and generators, it gives the speed for both motors and generators.
If the suffixes 1 and 2 denote the initial and final values of the variable, we can write
E1
N1 =
K f1
E2
N2 =
K f2
N2 E f
Combining, = 2 ¥ 1 (2.36)
N1 E1 f2
For dc shunt motor, f1 = f2 for rated load conditions. Thus, for such a motor, we can write
N 2 Eb 2
= (2.37)
N1 Eb1
TQFFE!SFHVMBUJPO!PG!B!ED!NPUPS! 3/31
The speed regulation is defined as the change in speed from no-load Nnl to full-load Nf l expressed
as a fraction or a percentage of the full-load speed. It can also be written as
N nl - N fl
Per unit speed regulation =
N nl
! 3/:3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
N nl - N fl
Percent speed regulation = . 100
N nl
A motor which has a nearly constant speed at all loads (a dc shunt motor) is said to have a good
regulation.
TQFFE!WT/!BSNBUVSF!DVSSFOU!DIBSBDUFSJTUJD! 3/32
PG!B!ED!NPUPS
3/32/2! Tivou!Npups!
In a shunt motor, Ish = V/Rsh. If V is constant, Ish will also remain constant. Hence, the flux is con-
stant at no-load. The flux decreases slightly due to armature reaction. If the effect of armature reac-
tion is neglected, the flux f will remain constant. The motor speed is given by
V - I a Ra Ê Eb ˆ
Nμ ÁË = K f ˜¯
f
For f remaining constant, the speed can be written as
N μ (V – Ia Ra)
This is an equation of a straight line with negative Speed Speed reduction
slope. That is, the speed N of the shunt motor de- N due to reduction in
main flux due
creases linearly with the increase in armature current to armature reaction.
as shown in Fig. 2.50(a). Ia Ra at full-load is very
small compared to V, the drop in speed from no-load
to full is very small in well-designed machines. The Ia
decrease in speed is partially neutralized by a reduc-
Gjh/!3/61)b*! TqffeÐdvssfou!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!
tion in f due to armature reaction. b!ed!tivou!npups
3/32/3! Tfsjft!Npups!
In dc series motor, the flux is proportional to the armature current neglecting saturation and arma-
ture reaction. Hence, speed
V - I a Ra
Nμ
Ia
V
or Nμ – Ra
Ia
Hence, speed armature characteristic of a dc series motor is a rectangular hyperbola.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/:4
Now due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and saturation for high values of Ia, the f
remains constant. Hence, for higher values of Ia, the
speed N μ V – Ia Ra and hence, speed remains almost
constant. The speed armature current characteristic of
a dc series motor is shown in Fig. 2.50(b). Speed
At no-load condition, the input power to the motor N
is very small as the power input to the motor has to
overcome no-load losses only.
Hence, the armature current is very small and as the
speed is inversely proportional to the armature current, Ia
the speed becomes dangerously high when armature
current is small. Therefore, a series motor must always Gjh/!3/61)c*! TqffeÐdvssfou!dibsbdufsjtujd!
pg!b!ed!tfsjft!npups
be started and operated with load connected to the
shaft of the motor.
3/32/4! Dpnqpvoe!Npups
For cumulative compound motor,
V - I a ( Ra + Rse )
Nμ , where Rse is the resistance of the series field winding
f
V - I a ( Ra + Rse )
or, N μ , where fse and fsh are the flux due to series and shunt field windings re-
fse + fsh
spectively.
When Ia increases, fse increases. Hence, the denominator increases and at the same time, the nu-
merator decreases. Hence, with the increase in Ia, the speed drops at the faster rate in cumulative
V - I a ( Ra + Rse )
compound motor than a shunt motor. In differential compound motor N μ . Hence,
fse ~ fsh
the denominator is less than that of shunt motor and the speed increases with the increase of Ia. The
speed current characteristic of a dc compound motor is shown in Fig. 2.50(c).
Differentially
compounded
motor
Shunt motor
Cumulative
Speed compound
N motor
Ia
Gjh/!3/61)d*! TqffeÐdvssfou!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!dpnqpvoe!npups
! 3/:5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
TQFFE!WT/!UPSRVF!DIBSBDUFSJTUJD! 3/33
PG!B!ED!NPUPS
3/33/2! Tivou!Npups!
For a shunt motor,
T μ Ia
and N μ (V – Ia Ra)
\ N μ (V – KTRa), where K is a constant N.
Hence, with increase of T, the speed N decreases.
The characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.51(a).
Speed
N
Ia
Gjh/!3/62)b*! TqffeÐupsrvf!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!ed!tivou!npups
3/33/3! Tfsjft!Npups!
In a series motor,
T μ Ia2
V
\ Nμ – Ra
T
Hence, the speed–torque curve is a rectangular hyperbola. For higher values of T, the air-gap
flux remains approximately constant due to armature reaction and saturation and the speed–torque
characteristic approaches a straight line as shown in Fig. 2.51(b).
Speed
N
Torque T
Gjh/!3/62)c*! TqffeÐupsrvf!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!tfsjft!npups
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/:6
3/33/4! Dpnqpvoe!Npups!
lly
n tia d
For a cumulative compound motor, r e n
ffe ou
N Di omp
T μ (fsh + fse)Ia and c
Shunt motor
V - I a ( Ra + Rse )
Nμ
fse + fsh Cumulative
compound
T ( Ra + Rse )
V-
K (fsh + fse )
\ Nμ
fsh + fse
where K is a constant
T
V T ( Ra + Rse ) Gjh/!3/62)d*! TqffeÐupsrvf!dibsbdufsjtujd!
or, Nμ -
fsh + fsh K (fsh + fse ) 2 pg!b!ed!dpnqpvoe!npups
when T increases, the armature current increases and series field fse increases. As a result, the first
term decreases and the second term increases. Hence, the speed drop in a cumulative compound
motor is more than that of a dc shunt motor. The speed–torque characteristic in this motor is more
drooping than dc shunt motor as shown in Fig. 2.51(c).
For differential compound motor the speed increases with the increase in torque
EZOBNJD!CFIBWJPVS!PG!B!ED!NPUPS!PO! 3/34
MPBEJOH!BOE!VOMPBEJOH
The dynamic behaviour of the speed, back emf, armature current and developed torque Td when a
constant torque load TL is applied to the shaft of a dc shunt motor is explained with the help of Fig.
2.52. When the motor is running under no-load condition, the developed torque just balances the
friction, windage and small stray losses.
When load is added to the shaft at time t1 then TL > Td and armature speed decreases. As a result,
the back emf decreases causing an increase in the armature current. Hence, Td increases. The speed
continues to decrease, increasing its armature current and developing greater torque until Td = TL.
When this occurs at time t2, deceleration ceases and the motor operates at a lower steady-state speed
and a higher armature current.
Similarly, when the shaft load TL is reduced, Td > TL and the motor speed increases. When
speed increases, back emf increases which causes reduction in armature current decreasing Td. The
machine continues to accelerate decreasing armature current and Td further until Td = TL. At this
condition, there is no further acceleration and the machine operates at a higher steady-state speed
and lower armature current.
! 3/:7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Speed
Back emf
Ia
Td
Time (s)
Gjh/!3/63! Ezobnjd!cfibwjpvs!pg!ed!tivou!npups!xifo!dpotubou!upsrvf!mpbe!jt!bqqmjfe!up!uif!tibgu
TQFFE!DPOUSPM!PG!B!ED!NPUPS! 3/35
The back emf of a dc motor is given by
NPZf PZ
Eb = = KNf where K = = constant
60 A 60 A
Again Eb = V – Ia Ra where Ra is the armature circuit resistance
\ V – Ia Ra = KNf
V - I a Ra
or, N=
Kf
V - I a Ra
or, Nμ
f
Hence, speed of a dc motor can be varied either by varying the field flux or by varying the voltage
applied to the armature of the machine.
3/35/2! Bsnbuvsf!Dpouspm!Nfuipe!
Armature control method is actually armature-circuit resistance-control method where an external
resistance is inserted in series with the armature so that armature circuit resistance Ra increases and
(V – Ia Ra) can be decreased from its rated value. As N μ (V – Ia Ra), by this method only speeds
below the rated speed can be obtained.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/:8
2/!Tivou!Npups!
R=0
R
R1
R2
V
R3
Shunt
Eb
field R3 > R 2 > R 1
! ! ! ! ! Torque (T )
)c*! Tivoufe! Bsnbuvsf! Dpouspm! Here, the motor is connected to the dc supply through a
potential divider as shown in Fig. 2.54. For constant supply voltage V, the voltage applied to the
armature depends on resistances R1 and R2. This method gives better speed regulation in the low
range of speed than armature resistance control.
+
R1
Shunt V
field
R2
Eb
Gjh/!3/65! Tivoufe!bsnbuvsf!nfuipe!pg!tqffe!dpouspm
3/!Tfsjft!Npups
R2 > R 1
Series R
field Speed
R=0
R = R1
Eb V R = R2
! ! ! ! Torque
Series field
+
R1
Eb V
R2
Gjh/!3/67! Tivoufe!bsnbuvsf!nfuipe!pg!tqffe!dpouspm!pg!b!ed!tfsjft!npups
)d*!TfsjftÐQbsbmmfm!Dpouspm! This method is very commonly used for speed control of traction
motors. Here, two identical motors mechanically coupled to a common load (Fig. 2.57), are
connected in series and in parallel to obtain two different speeds. When the motors are connected in
series, voltage across each motor is 0.5 V and when in parallel, voltage across each is V.
(a) ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (b)
Gjh/!3/68! TfsjftÐqbsbmmfm!dpouspm!pg!b!ed!tfsjft!npups
! 3/211 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3/35/3! Gjfme!Gmvy!Dpouspm!Nfuipe!
V - I a Ra
As N μ , when voltage applied to the armature is kept constant then
f
1
Nμ
f
Hence, by changing f, speed of the motor can be changed.
Again, f μ If , where If is the field current. By inserting external resistance in the field circuit, If
can be decreased from its rated value. Hence, f can be decreased from its rated value by this method
of speed control. As a result, speeds above the rated speed can only be obtained by this method. This
method of speed control is also called field weakening method.
2/!Tivou!Npups
In this method, a variable resistance is connected in series with the shunt field winding. An increase
in this resistance R decreases the field current which in turn decreases the flux f. Hence, the speed
is increased. If Eb1 be the back emf with no external resistance connected in the field circuit and Eb2
be the back emf when R is connected in the field circuit then
Eb1 μ f1 N1
and Eb2 μ f2 N2
where N1 and N2 are the rated speed and speed of the motor with R connected in the circuit.
Eb1 f1N1 I sh1 N1
\ = =
Eb2 f2 N 2 I sh 2 N 2
where Ish1 and Ish2 are the shunt field currents at speeds N1 and N2 respectively.
I sh1 Eb2
\ N2 = N1
I sh 2 Eb1
When applied voltage to the armature is kept constant,
Eb1 = Eb2
I sh1 V / Rf Rf + R
\ N2 = N1 = N1 = N1 , where Rf is the resistance of shunt-field winding.
I sh 2 V /( R f + R) Rf
Hence, by changing R, desirable speed can be obtained. The schematic connection diagram is
shown in Fig. 2.58(a) and the speed–torque characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.58(b).
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/212
Rf 2
Speed Rf1
R
Rf 2 > Rf1 > Rf Rf
V
Base speed
Rf
Torque
(a) ! ! ! ! (b)
3/!Tfsjft!Npups
The speed of a series motor can be varied by (a) diverter field control, (b) tapped field control, and
(c) series parallel field control.
Rd
Rd2 > Rd1
Rse
Rd2
Rd1
V Rd = 0
!! ! ! ! Torque
)c*!Ubqqfe!Gjfme!Dpouspm!! In this method, the field winding is tapped as shown in Fig. 2.60.
Here, the speed is varied by varying the series field turns which changes the field mmf and thus,
the speed.
! 3/213 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Gjh/!3/71! Ubqqfe!gjfme!dpouspm!nfuipe!pg!tqffe!dpouspm
)d*!TfsjftÐQbsbmmfm!Tqffe!Dpouspm! In this method, the series field winding is divided into two
identical halves. Let N be the total number of turns of the series field winding. When the two halves
are in series, total field mmf
ÊN Nˆ
F f = Ia Á + ˜ = I a N
Ë2 2¯
Hence, the motor runs at its rated speed. When the two halves are in parallel then
Ia N 1
Ff = 2 ¥¥ = Ia N
2 2 2
As the field mmf is half the rated field mmf, the motor runs at twice the rated speed when the two
halves are connected in parallel. The connection diagram of the series–parallel speed control of dc
series motor is shown in Fig. 2.61.
N/2
N/2 N/2
+ +
N/2
V Eb V Eb
(a) ! (b)
Gjh/!3/72! TfsjftÐqbsbmmfm!gjfme!dpouspm!pg!b!ed!tfsjft!npups
3/35/4! Xbse!Mfpobse!Nfuipe!pg!Tqffe!Dpouspm!pg!b!ed!Npups
In this method of speed control, both field and armature control are integrated and the schematic
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.62. The armature of the dc motor is fed from a separately excited dc
generator. A three-phase induction motor is used for running the generator. By controlling the field
current of the generator, the generated emf and the output voltage Va of the generator is varied. The
potential divider connection uses two rheostats in parallel in the field circuit of the generator to
facilitate the reversal of generator field current. The field winding of the dc motor is connected to a
rheostat and supplied from a separate dc source.
For starting the dc motor, at first the induction motor is started with generator field current zero.
The field supply of the motor is switched on with the motor field rheostat set to zero. The input volt-
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/214
age Va to the motor is gradually increased to the rated value by slowly increasing the field current of
the generator. To control the speed of the dc motor below the rated speed, excitation of the dc gen-
erator is varied which in turn varies the applied voltage Va of the armature of dc motor. To control
the speed of the dc motor above the rated speed, field current of the dc motor is varied by varying
the field rheostat connected to the field circuit of the dc motor maintaining constant Va. Reversal
of the direction of the motor can be obtained by reversing the excitation of the dc generator which
results in change in the polarity of output voltage Va of the generator.
3-phase
induction motor
3-phase
supply
dc
V
Motor
Generator
+ –
+ –
Gjh/!3/73! Xbse!Mfpobse!nfuipe!pg!tqffe!dpouspm
The modified Ward Leonard system is called Ward Leonard Ilgner system in which a flywheel
is used in addition to the motor generator set. It is used to reduce the fluctuations in power demand
from the supply. When the load on the dc motor is suddenly increased, the induction motor slows
down. Thus, the inertia of the flywheel is used to supply a part of the overload. When load on the
dc motor is suddenly decreased then induction motor speeds up which allows energy to store in the
flywheel.
The advantages of Ward Leonard method of speed control are the following:
1. This method is simple. Moreover wide and smooth speed control is obtained.
2. The speed regulation is good as the decrease in speed from no-load to rated load is mainly
due to the resistance drops in both the generator and motor armature.
3. The direction of rotation of the dc motor can be changed by reversing the generator field
current.
4. The efficiency is higher at low speeds than that obtained by other methods of speed control.
The main disadvantage of this method is higher initial cost as three machines are required.
The overall efficiency is also low.
! 3/215 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3/35/5! Tpmje.Tubuf!Tqffe!Dpouspm!pg!ed!Npupst
Nowadays, SCR-based controller circuits are used for the speed control of dc motors. A simple
dc armature voltage controller circuit is shown in Fig. 2.63(a). The average voltage applied to the
armature of the motor or the average speed of the motor depends on the fraction of the time the
supply voltage is applied to the armature. This, in turn, depends on the relative phase at which the
SCRs in the rectifier circuit are triggered. This circuit is capable of supplying an armature voltage
with one polarity only. The motor can only be rotated in the reverse direction by switching the
polarity of its field connection. As the SCR does not allow the armature current to flow out of the
positive terminal in the backward direction, the motor cannot regenerate and any energy supplied
to the motor cannot be recovered. This type of control is a two-quadrant control which is shown in
Fig. 2.63(b). The voltage applied to the armature of the motor is controlled by adjusting the firing
angle of the SCR.
A more advanced circuit capable of supplying an armature voltage with either polarity is shown
in Fig. 2.64. This armature voltage control circuit can permit a current flow out of the positive ter-
minals of the generator, so that the motor with this type of controller can regenerate. If the polarity
of the motor field circuit can be switched as well then the solid-state circuit is a full four-quadrant
controller like Ward Leonard system.
+
IA
SCR1 SCR2 SCR3
(Free- VA EA +
wheeling –
Three- diode)
phase SCR4 SCR5 SCR6 D1
input
–
(a)
N
Operation Motor
not
possible
T
Operation
not
possible
Motor
(b)
Gjh/!3/74! )b*!Uxp.rvbesbou!tpmje.tubuf!ed!npups!dpouspmmfs!)c*!Pqfsbujoh!rvbesbout!pg!uif!npups!
dpouspmmfs
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/216
+
IA
VA EA +
–
Three-
phase
input –
)b*
Motor
Generator
(regeneration)
T
Generator
(regeneration)
Motor
(b)
Gjh/!3/75! )b*!Gpvs.rvbesbou!tpmje.tubuf!ed!npups!dpouspmmfs!)c*!Pqfsbujoh!rvbesbout!pg!uif!dpouspmmfs
A two-quadrant or a four-quadrant controller built with SCRs is cheaper than the two extra com-
plete machines needed for the Ward Leonard system. Hence, solid-state speed-control systems have
largely replaced the Ward Leonard system.
A typical solid-state-controlled dc motor drive includes the following:
1. A protective section to protect the motor from excessive armature currents, low terminal
voltage and loss of field current
2. A start/stop circuit to connect and disconnect the motor from the line
3. A high-power electronics section to convert three-phase ac power to dc power for the motor’s
armature and field circuits
4. A low-power electronics section to provide firing pulses to the SCRs which supply the
armature voltage to the motor
2/!Qspufdujpo!Djsdvju!Tfdujpo!
The protection circuit section combines several different devices which together ensure the safe
operation of the motor. Some typical safety devices included in this type of drive are the following:
! 3/217 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(a) Current-limiting fuses, to disconnect the motor quickly and safely from the power line in the
event of a short circuit within the motor. Current-limiting fuses can interrupt currents up to
several hundred thousand amperes.
(b) An instantaneous static trip, which shuts down the motor if the armature current exceeds
300 percent of its rated value. If the armature current exceeds the maximum allowed value,
the trip circuit activates the fault relay, which deenergizes the run relay, opening the main
contactors and disconnecting the motor from the line.
(c) An inverse-time overload trip, which guards against sustained overcurrent conditions not
great enough to trigger the instantaneous static trip but large enough to damage the motor
if allowed to continue indefinitely. The term inverse time implies that higher the overcurrent
flowing in the motor, the faster the overload acts.
(d) An undervoltage trip, which shuts down the motor if the line voltage supplying the motor
drops by more than 20 percent.
(e) A field loss trip, which shuts down the motor if the field circuit is lost.
(f) An overtemperature trip, which shuts down the motor if it is in danger of overheating.
3/!Tubsu0Tupq!Djsdvju!Tfdujpo!
The start/stop circuit section contains the controls needed to start and stop the motor by opening or
closing the main contacts connecting the motor to the line. The motor is started by pushing the run
button, and it is stopped either by pushing the stop button.
4/!Ijhi.Qpxfs!Fmfduspojdt!Tfdujpo!
The high-power electronics section contains a three-phase full-wave diode rectifier to provide a
constant voltage to the field circuit of the motor and a three-phase full-wave SCR rectifier to pro-
vide a variable voltage to the armature circuit of the motor.
5/!Mpx.Qpxfs!Fmfduspojdt!Tfdujpo!
The low-power electronics section provides firing pulses to the SCRs which supply the armature
voltage to the motor. By adjusting the firing time of the SCRs, the low-power electronics section
adjusts the motor’s average armature voltage. The low-power electronics section contains the fol-
lowing subsystems:
)b*!Tqffe.Sfhvmbujpo!Djsdvju! This circuit measures the speed of the motor with a tachometer,
compares that speed with the desired speed (a reference voltage level), and increases or decreases
the armature voltage as necessary to keep the speed constant at the desired value. For example,
suppose that the load on the shaft of the motor is increased. If the load is increased then the motor
will slow down. The decrease in speed will reduce the voltage generated by the tachometer, which
is fed into the speed-regulation circuit. Because the voltage level corresponding to the speed of the
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/218
motor has fallen below the reference voltage, the speed-regulator circuit will advance the firing
time of the SCRs, producing a higher armature voltage. The higher armature voltage will tend to
increase the speed of the motor back to the desired level. With proper design, a circuit of this type
can provide speed regulations of 0.1 percent between no-load and full-load conditions.
)c*! Dvssfou.mjnjujoh! Djsdvju! This circuit measures the steady-state current flowing to the
motor, compares that current with the desired maximum current (set by a reference voltage level),
and decreases the armature voltage as necessary to keep the current from exceeding the desired
maximum value. The desired maximum current can be adjusted over a wide range, say from 0 to
200 percent or more of the motor’s rated current. This current limit should typically be set at greater
than rated current, so that the motor can accelerate under full-load conditions.
EZOBNJD!CFIBWJPVS!EVSJOH! 3/36
TQFFE!BEKVTUNFOU
2/!Bsnbuvsf!Dpouspm
To reduce the speed of a dc motor below its rated speed, the variable resistor is inserted in series
with the armature. When a resistor is inserted in series with the armature at time t1, the armature
current is reduced which reduces the developed torque and the speed of the motor decreases. When
the speed decreases, the back emf decreases which results in the increase of armature current. The
armature current increases till the developed torque is equal to the load torque plus the windage
and friction at time t2. The motor will no longer decelerate but will continue to run at the new lower
steady-state speed. As the reduction in the windage and friction due to lower speed is relatively
small, the final steady-state armature current is same as before the resistor was inserted. The dy-
namic behaviour of the armature current, developed torque, speed and counter emf is shown in Fig.
2.65 when a resistor is inserted in series with the armature of a shunt motor driving a constant load
torque.
! 3/219 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Armature
current
Developed
torque
Speed
Break
emf
t1 t2 Time
Gjh/!3/76! Ezobnjd!cfibwjpvs!pg!b!ed!npups!evsjoh!tqffe!bekvtunfou
3/!Tivou!Gjfme!Dpouspm!
To increase the speed of a dc shunt motor above its rated Field
speed, a variable resistor is inserted in series with the flux
shunt-field circuit. The dynamic behaviour of the field
flux, back emf, armature current, developed torque and
Break
speed that occurs when a resistor is inserted in series emf
with the shunt field of the motor driving a constant load
torque is shown in Fig. 2.66. When a resistor is inserted
in the shunt field circuit at time t1, the shunt-field current
decreases which reduces the field flux. The reduction in
Armature
flux causes a decrease in the back emf which in turn in- current
creases the armature current. If the percentage increase
in the armature current is greater than the percentage Developed
decrease in flux density and the flux density is not zero, torque
the developed torque will increase and the machine will
accelerate. As the motor accelerates, the back emf in-
Speed
creases proportionally with the increased speed and the
armature current starts decreasing. The armature current t1 t2 Time
decreases till the developed torque is equal to the load
torque plus the friction and windage loss at time t2. The Gjh/!3/77! Ezobnjd!cfibwjpvs!pg!b!npups!
evsjoh!tivou!gjfme!dpouspm
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/21:
motor no longer accelerates but continues to run at higher steady-state speed and draw a higher
armature current.
4/!Qsfdbvujpot!xifo!Jodsfbtjoh!Tqffe!uispvhi!Gjfme!Xfblfojoh!
Rapid reduction in the shunt-field current causes higher armature current which may damage the
commutator and brushes. Large high-inertia machines are more susceptible to damage than small
machines. Small machines can accelerate rapidly, permitting a quick build-up of back emf and
hence, rapid reduction in armature current.
! Qspcmfn!3/71
B!tivou.xpvoe!npups!xjui!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/3!W!jt!dpoofdufe!bdsptt!b!511!W!tvqqmz/!
Uif! bsnbuvsf! dvssfou! jt! 51! B! boe! uif! tqffe! pg! uif! npups! jt! 2111! sqn/! Dbmdvmbuf! uif! beejujpobm!
sftjtubodf!xijdi!tipvme!cf!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!bsnbuvsf!up!sfevdf!jut!tqffe!up!811!sqn/!
Bttvnf!uibu!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!sfnbjot!uif!tbnf/!
Solution
Here, Ra = 0.2 W, V = 400 V, Ia = 40 A and N1 = 1000 rpm.
Let the additional resistance connected in series with armature R and N2 = 700 rpm.
Eb1 = V – Ia Ra = 400 – 40 ¥ 0.2 = 392 V
Eb2 = V – Ia (Ra + R) = 400 – 40(0.2 + R)
Now, for shunt motor Eb μ N (as f is constant).
Eb1 N1 1000
Hence, = =
Eb2 N 2 700
7 7 ¥ 392
or Eb2 = Eb1 = = 274.4 V
10 10
\ 274.4 = 400 – 40(0.2 + R)
or 8 + 40 R = 400 – 274.4 = 125.6 V
or R = 2.94 W.
! Qspcmfn!3/72
B!tfsjft.xpvoe!ed!npups!svot!bu!611!sqn!boe!jt!dpoofdufe!bdsptt!331!W!tvqqmz/!Uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!
21!B!boe!bsnbuvsf.djsdvju!sftjtubodf!jt!1/7!W/!Gjoe!uif!sftjtubodf!up!cf!jotfsufe!jo!tfsjft!up!sfevdf!
uif!tqffe!pg!uif!nbdijof!up!511!sqn!bttvnjoh!upsrvf!up!wbsz!bt!uif!trvbsf!pg!uif!tqffe/
Solution
Given N1 = 500 rpm, V = 220 V ; Ia1 = 10 A, (Ra + Rse) = 0.6 W,
N2 = 400 rpm. and Te μ N2.
! 3/221 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
16 4
Ia2 = Ia1 = Ia1 = 0.8 Ia1 = 0.8 ¥ 10 = 8 A
25 5
Eb1 f1N1 I a1 N1
and = = (E in series motor f μ Ia)
Eb2 f2 N 2 I a2 N 2
214 10 ¥ 500
or =
220 - 8(0.6 + R) 8 ¥ 400
or (220 – 4.8 – 8R)50 = 32 ¥ 214 = 6848
or 215.2 – 8R = 136.96
or R = 9.78 W.
! Qspcmfn!3/73
B!511!W!ed!tfsjft!npups!ublft!31!B!bu!sbufe!dpoejujpo!boe!uif!tqffe!jt!2111!sqn/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!jt!1/6!W/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!wbmvf!pg!uif!sftjtubodf!uibu!nvtu!cf!beefe!up!pcubjo!uif!sbufe!
upsrvf!)b*!bu!tubsujoh-!boe!)c*!bu!911!sqn/
Solution
Given, V = 400 V, Ia = 20 A, N1 = 1000 rpm and Ra = 0.5 W
(a) Since back emf Eb μ fN, hence, at starting, when N = 0 Eb = 0.
To obtain rated torque at starting, let R be connected in series with the armature.
V – Ia (Ra + R) =0
or 400 = 20(0.5 + R)
or R + 0.5 = 20
or R = 19.5 W
(b) Let R¢ be the resistance connected in series with the armature when the speed is 800 rpm, i.e.
N2 = 800 rpm
Eb1 = V – Ia1 Ra = 400 – 20 ¥ 0.5 = 390 V
Eb2 = V – Ia2 (Ra + R¢) = 400 – 20(0.5 + R¢) = 390 – 20 R¢
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/222
! Qspcmfn!3/74
B!331!W!tfsjft!npups!ublft!21!B!boe!svot!bu!711!sqn/!Uif!upubm!sftjtubodf!jt!1/9!W/!Bu!xibu!tqffe!
xjmm!ju!svo-!xifo!b!6!W!sftjtubodf!jt!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft-!uif!npups!ubljoh!uif!tbnf!dvssfou!bu!uif!
tbnf!tvqqmz!wpmubhf@
Solution
Here, V = 220 V, Ia = 10 A, N1 = 600 rpm, Ra = 0.8 W
R = 5 W; E1 = V – Ia Ra = 220 – 10 ¥ 0.8 = 212 V
E2 = V – Ia (Ra + R) = 220 – 10(0.8 + 5) = 220 – 58 = 162 V
Let the speed be N2 when 5 W resistor is added.
E1 fN N
\ = 1 1 = 1 (As Ia remains same)
E2 f 2 N 2 N 2
E 162
or N2 = 1 N1 = ¥ 600 = 458 rpm.
E2 212
! Qspcmfn!3/75
B!611!W!ed!tivou!npups!svot!bu!361!sqn!bu!sbufe!gvmm.mpbe!dpoejujpo!boe!ublft!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvs.
sfou!pg!311!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/23!W/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!xifo!uif!gjfme!djsdvju!
sftjtubodf!jt!jodsfbtfe!tvdi!uibu!uif!gmvy!jt!sfevdfe!up!91&!pg!uif!opsnbm!wbmvf!boe!uif!npups!jt!
mpbefe!gps!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!211!B/
Solution
Given, V = 500 V, N1 = 250 rpm, Ia = 200 A and Ra = 0.12 W
Eb1 = V – Ia Ra = 500 – 200 ¥ 0.12 = 476 V
Let initial flux be f.
When armature current Ia¢ is 100 A, the flux f¢ = 0.8 f, and the speed is N, we have
Eb2 = V – Ia¢ Ra = 500 – 100 ¥ 0.12 = 488 V
Eb1 f N1 Eb f 488 f
\ = or, N2 = 2 = N1 = ¥ ¥ 250
Eb2 f ¢N 2 E b1 f ¢ 476 0 . 8f
\ N2 = 320 rpm.
! 3/223 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/76
B!tfsjft!npups!xjui!bo!votbuvsbufe!nbhofujd!djsdvju!boe!1/6!W!upubm!sftjtubodf-!xifo!svoojoh!bu!
b!dfsubjo!tqffe-!ublft!71!B!bu!611!W/!Jg!uif!mpbe!upsrvf!wbsjft!bt!uif!dvcf!pg!tqffe-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!
sftjtubodf!sfrvjsfe!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!cz!36&/
Solution
Here, Ra = 0.5 W, V = 500 V and Ia1 = 60
Let initial speed be N1 and when resistance R is connected, let the speed be N2.
N2 = (1 – 0.25)N1 = 0.75 N1
Te μ N 3
Te1 3
N3 Ê 1 ˆ
= 13 = Á ˜
Te2 N 2 Ë 0.75 ¯
Also,
\ Ia2 = 38.97 A
Eb1 = 500 – 60 ¥ 0.5 = 470
Eb2 = 500 – 38.97(0.5 + R) = 480.5 – 38.97 R
Eb1 470 fN I a N1 60 ¥ N1
Now, = = 1 1 = 1 = = 2.053
Eb2 480.5 - 38.97 R f2 N 2 I a2 N 2 38.97 ¥ 0.75 N1
480.5 – 38.97 R = 228.9
or R = 6.455 W.
! Qspcmfn!3/77
B!511!W!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!boe!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!boe!311!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!
Ju!ublft!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!61!B!boe!svot!bu!2111!sqn/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!xifo!b!
211!W!sftjtups!jt!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!gjfme!xjoejoh-!uif!mpbe!upsrvf!sfnbjojoh!tbnf/!Bttvnf!
uibu!gjfme!gmvy!jt!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!gjfme!dvssfou/
Solution
Here, V = 400 V; Ra = 0.3; Rsh = 200 W; IL1 = 50 A
and N1 = 1000 rpm
Let the speed of the motor be N2 and line current be IL2 when the 100 W resistor is connected in
series with the field winding.
400 400
Now, Ia1 = 50 – = 48 A and Ish1 = =2A
200 200
400 4
and Ish2 = = A = 1.33 A
200 + 100 3
\ Te1 = Te2
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/224
Te1 f1 I a1 I sh1 I a1 2 ¥ 48
So, =1= = =
Te2 f2 I a2 I sh2 I a2 4 Ê 4ˆ
¥ Á I L2 - ˜
3 Ë 3¯
4Ê 4ˆ
or ÁË I L2 - ˜¯ = 96
3 3
4
or IL2 – = 72
3
or IL2 = 73.33 – 1.33 = 72 A
Now, Eb1 = 400 – 48 ¥ 0.3 = 385.6 V
and Eb2 = 400 – 72 ¥ 0.3 = 378.4 V
Eb1 Nf N1I sh1
\ = 1 1 =
Eb2 N 2f2 N 2 I sh 2
385.6 1000 ¥ 2
Or =
378.4 N 2 ¥ 1.33
\ N2 = 1476 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!3/78
B!ed!tivou!nbdijof!dpoofdufe! up!b!511! W!nbjot!ibt!bo! bsnbuvsf!boe! gjfme.djsdvju! sftjtubodf! pg!
1/3!W!boe!361!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!uif!sbujp!pg!uif!tqffe!xifo!uif!nbdijof!bdut!bt!b!hfofsbups!up!
uif!tqffe!xifo!uif!nbdijof!bdut!bt!b!npups-!jg!uif!mjof!dvssfou!jo!fbdi!dbtf!jt!211!B/
Solution
Given V = 400 V, Ra = 0.2 W, Rsh = 250 W, IL = 100 A
400
Also, Ish = = 1.6 A
250
When the machine acts as a generator,
Ia1 = 100 + 1.6 = 101.6 A [E Ia (gen) = IL + If]
E1 = V + Ia1 Ra = 400 + 101.6 ¥ 0.2 = 420.32 V
Let the speed of the generator be N1 when the machine acts as a motor.
Ia2 = 100 – 1.6 = 98.4 A [E Ia (motor) = IL – If]
So, E2 = V – Ia2 Ra = 400 – 98.4 ¥ 0.2 = 380.32 V
E1 f1N1 N1
\ = = (as flux is constant)
E2 f 2 N 2 N 2
N1 420.32
= = 1.105.
N 2 380.32
! 3/225 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/79
B!ed!tivou!npups!svot!bu!2111!sqn!boe!ublft!bo!joqvu!pg!811!X!bu!331!W!voefs!op.mpbe!dpoejujpot/!
Uif!tivou.gjfme!dvssfou!jt!2!B!boe!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/3!W/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!xifo!uif!nbdijof!jt!
vtfe!bt!b!hfofsbups!jg!uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!tbnf!jo!cpui!uif!dbtft/
Solution
Speed of motor N1 = 1000 rpm
Terminal voltage V = 220 V
Input power P = 700 W
700
Hence, input line current IL = A = 3.18 A
220
Armature resistance Ra = 0.2 W
Shunt field current Ish = 1 A
\ armature current Ia = 3.18 – 1 = 2.18 A
Back emf Eb = V – Ia Ra = 220 – 2.18 ¥ 0.2 = 219.56 V
When the machine acts as a generator,
Armature current Ia = 3.18 + 1 = 4.18 A
\ generated emf Eg = V + Ia Ra = 220 + 4.18 ¥ 0.2 = 220.836 V
If N2 be the speed of the generator
Eb N
= 1
Eg N2
Eg 220.836
or N2 = N1 = ¥ 1000 = 1006 rpm.
Eb 219.56
! Qspcmfn!3/7:
B!331!W!tfsjft!npups!ibt!b!upubm!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W/!Bu!tqffe!2611!sqn-!ju!esbxt!b!mjof!
dvssfou!pg!21!B/!Xifo!b!4!W!sftjtups!jt!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju-!ju!esbxt!b!mjof!
dvssfou!pg!7!B/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!nbdijof!xifo!uif!4!W!sftjtups!jt!dpoofdufe!boe!uif!sbujp!pg!uxp!
nfdibojdbm!pvuqvut/!Bttvnf!uif!gmvy!bu!7!B!jt!86&!pg!uibu!xjui!21!B/
Solution
Given V = 220 V, Ra = 0.3 W, N1 = 1500 rpm, IL1 = Ia1 = 10 A, R = 3 W
Back emf without 3 W resistor (Eb1) = 220 – 10 ¥ 0.3 = 217 W
Back emf with 3 W resistor (Eb2) = 220 – 6 ¥ (3 + 0.3) = 200.2 V
If f be the (since Ia2 = 6 A) flux in the first case then flux with resistance connected is 0.75 f
(given).
Eb1 N1f
So = (where N2 is the new speed)
Eb2 N 2 ¥ 0.75 f
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/226
! Qspcmfn!3/81
B!351!W!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/3!W!boe!ublft!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!31!B!po!
gvmm!mpbe/!Uif!fmfduspnbhofujd!upsrvf!cfjoh!dpotubou-!cz!ipx!nvdi!nvtu!uif!gmvy!cf!sfevdfe!up!jo.
dsfbtf!uif!tqffe!cz!51&@
Solution
Let N1 be the speed and f1 be the flux when armature current Ia1 = 20 A; also, Ra = 0.2 W; V =
240 V
N2 = 1.4 N1 and flux is f2
Eb1 = V – Ia1 Ra = 240 – 20 ¥ 0.2 = 236 V
Eb1 f1N1 fN f 236
\ = = 1 1 = 1 =
Eb2 f2 N 2 1.4 f2 N1 1.4 f2 Eb2
f1 330.4 330.4
or, = =
f2 Eb2 V - 0.2 I a2
E Te is constant,
Te1 = Te2
or f1Ia1 = f2 Ia2
or 20 f1 = f2 Ia2
f1 Ia f
or = 2 or, Ia2 = 20 1
f2 20 f2
f1 330.4
So, =
f2 f
240 - 0.2 ¥ 20 1
f2
f1
Considering =x
f2
330.4
x=
240 - 4 x
or 4x2 – 240x + 330.4 = 0
Taking negative sign,
240 - ( 240 2 - 4 ¥ 4 ¥ 330.4)
x= = 1.41
2¥4
! 3/227 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
So, f1 = 1.41 f2
or f2 = 0.71 f1
So the flux must be reduced by (1 – 0.71) = 0.29 or 29%.
! Qspcmfn!3/82
B!331!W!ed!tivou!npups!ublft!5!B!bu!op.mpbe!boe!71!B!po!gvmm!mpbe-!uif!tivou!gjfme!boe!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!cfjoh!331!W!boe!1/3!W/!Csvti!dpoubdu!espq!jt!3!W/!Jg!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo!xfblfot!uif!gjfme!
cz!5&-!gjoe!uif!qfsdfoubhf!dibohf!jo!tqffe!gspn!op.mpbe!up!gvmm.mpbe/
Solution
Given, V = 220 V; rsh = 220 W: ra = 0.2
At no-load condition,
ILO = 4 A and f = f1
At full-load conditions,
ILf l = 60 A and f2 = (1 – 0.04) f1 = 0.96 f1
Let N1 and N2 be the speed at no-load and full load condition.
220
Field current Ish = A=1A
220
\ Iao = 4 – 1 = 3 A and Iafl = (60 – 1) = 59 A
Now, Ebo = 220 – 3 ¥ 0.2 = 219.4 V
and Ebfl = 220 – 59 ¥ 0.2 = 208.2 V
Ebo fN
\ = 1 1
Ebfl f2 N 2
N1 E f 219.4 0.96 f1
or = bo 2 = ¥ = 1.0116
N 2 Ebfl f1 208.2 f1
Change of speed from no-load to full-load is 0.0116 or 1.16%.
! Qspcmfn!3/83
Gjoe!uif!op.mpbe!boe!gvmm.mpbe!tqffet!pg!b!331!W-!5.qpmf!tivou!npups!ibwjoh!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub;!1/15!
Xc!gmvy-!1/15!W bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf-!271!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst-!xbwf!dpoofdujpo-!gvmm.mpbe!mjof!dvs.
sfou!pg!:6!B-!op.mpbe!mjof!dvssfou!pg!:!B-!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!55!W/!
Solution
Here, P = 4, V = 220 V, f = 0.04 Wb, Ra = 0.04 W, Z = 160 and A = 2
220
Also, Rsh = 44 W and Ish = A=5A
44
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/228
! Qspcmfn!3/84
B!331!W!tfsjft!npups!svot!bu!511!sqn!boe!ublft!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!61!B/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!boe!qfsdfou.
bhf!dibohf!jo!upsrvf!jg!uif!mpbe!jt!sfevdfe!tp!uibu!uif!npups!ublft!31!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!uif!
gjfme.djsdvju!sftjtubodf!jt!1/6!W/!Bttvnf!uibu!uif!gmvy!jt!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!gjfme!dvssfou/
Solution
Given V = 220 V, N1 = 400 rpm. IL1 = Ia1 = 50 A
(Ra + Rse) = 0.5 W, IL2 = Ia2 = 20 A
Let the torque when line current is 50 A be Te1 and when the line current is 20 A, the torque be
Te 2
Now Eb1 = V – Ia1(Ra + Rse) = 220 – 50(0.5) = 195 V
and Eb2 = V – Ia2(Ra + Rse) = 220 – 20(0.5) = 210 V
Eb1 f1N1 I a1 N1
Also, = = (E f μ Ia)
Eb2 f2 N 2 I a2 N 2
Eb Ia 210 50
or N2 = 2 = 1 N 1 = ¥ ¥ 400 = 1077 rpm
Eb1 I a2 195 20
Te2 f2 I a2 I a22
= = (E f μ Ia)
Te1 f1I a1 I a21
2
Te2 Ê 20 ˆ 4
or =Á ˜ =
Te1 Ë 50 ¯ 25
Ê 4ˆ
Percentage change in torque is Á1 - ˜ ¥ 100% or, 84%.
Ë 25 ¯
! 3/229 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/85
B!511!W!ed!tivou!npups!ibwjoh!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W!boe!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!311!W-!
esbxt!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!211!B!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Uif!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe!jt!2611!sqn!boe!uif!csvti!dpoubdu!
espq!jt!3!W/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!tqffe!bu!ibmg!mpbe-!boe!)c*!uif!tqffe!bu!261&!pg!gvmm!mpbe/
! Qspcmfn!3/86
B!31!IQ-!361!W!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/3!W!boe!b!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!261!W/!
Bu!op.mpbe!boe!sbufe!wpmubhf-!uif!tqffe!jt!2361!sqn!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!4!B/!Bu!gvmm!mpbe!
boe!sbufe!wpmubhf-!uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!61!B!boe!uif!gmvy!jt!sfevdfe!6&!gspn!jut!op.mpbe!wbmvf/!Xibu!
jt!uif!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe@
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/22:
Solution
The generated emf at no-load, Enl = 250 – 3 ¥ 0.2 = 249 AV
Iao = 3A,
250
Field current, If = = 1.67 A
150
At full-load, Iaf l = 50 – 1.67 = 48.33 A
Eaf l = 250 – 48.33 ¥ 0.2 = 240.33 V
Ê 240.33 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
Nf l = 1250 ¥ Á ¥
Ë 249.4 ˜¯ ÁË 0.95 ˜¯
= 1268 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!3/87
B!tfsjft!npups!svot!bu!911!sfw0njo!xifo!uif!wpmubhf!jt!511!W!boe!uif!dvssfou!jt!36!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!jt!1/5!W!boe!uif!tfsjft.gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!1/3!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!sftjtubodf!up!cf!dpoofdufe!
jt!tfsjft!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!up!711!sfw0njo!xjui!uif!tbnf!dvssfou/
Solution
At 800 rpm emf,
E1 = V – I (Ra + Rse)
= 400 – (25) (0.4 + 0.2)
= 400 – 15 = 385 V
At 600 rev/min, since the current is unchanged, the flux is unchanged.
E1 N
Thus, E μ fN or E μ N, and = 1
E2 N 2
385 800
Hence, =
E2 600
(385) (600)
or, E2 = = 288.75 V
(800)
and E2 = V – I (Ra + Rse + R)
Hence, 288.75 = 400 – (25) (0.4 + 0.2 + R)
400 - 288.75
Rearranging gives 0.6 + R = = 4.45
25
From which extra series resistance, R = 4.45 – 0.6
= 3.85 W
Thus, an addition of a series resistance of 3.85 W reduces to the speed from 800 rev/min to 600
rev/min.
! 3/231 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/88
B!361!W!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!b!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!311!W!boe!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/9!W/!Ju!jt!
pqfsbujoh!bu!gvmm.mpbe-!esbxjoh!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!41!B!boe!cz!jotfsujoh!sftjtubodf!jo!uif!gjfme!
djsdvju-!uif!tqffe!jt!jodsfbtfe!up!2311!sqn/!Jg!uif!mpbe!upsrvf!jt!mjofbsmz!qspqpsujpobm!up!tqffe-!gjoe!
uif!wbmvf!pg!fyufsobm!sftjtubodf!jo!uif!gjfme!djsdvju/
Solution
Since torque is given by,
EI a
T=
2p ( N / 60)
T1 E1I a1 N 2
We can write, = ◊
T2 E2 I a2 N1
E1I a1 / N1 N1 E1I a1 Ê N1 ˆ 2
= fi =
E2 I a2 / N 2 NL E2 I a2 ÁË N 2 ˜¯
If If1 and If 2 are the field currents at speeds 1000 rpm and 1200 rpm respectively then
250
I f1 = = 1.25 A
200
E1 Nf N1I f1
= 1 1 =
E2 N 2f2 N 2 I f 2
E N 176.8 1000
If2 = 2 1 I f1 = ¥ ¥ 1.25
E1N 2 226 1200
= 0.815 A.
250
Now field resistance = = 306.78 W
0.815
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/232
! Qspcmfn!3/89
B!611!W!ed!tfsjft!npups!esjwft!b!mpbe!upsrvf!xijdi!jodsfbtft!bt!uif!dvcf!pg!tqffe/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!
boe!tfsjft!gjfme!sftjtubodf!gps!uif!npups!bsf!1/7!W!boe!1/9!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Ju!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!b!tqffe!
pg!2111!sqn!xijmf!esbxjoh!b!dvssfou!pg!36!B/!Uif!tqffe!jt!sfevdfe!up!911!sqn!cz!dpoofdujoh!b!
ejwfsufs!sftjtubodf!bdsptt!uif!bsnbuvsf!xjoejoh/!Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!ofx!mjof!dvssfou!boe!bsnbuvsf!sftjt.
ubodf-!boe!)c*!wbmvf!pg!ejwfsufs!sftjtubodf/
Solution
Let Ia and Isf be current through the armature and series field. Torque T μ fIa. For a series motor,
f μ If l neglecting saturation. Therefore, T μ If1 Ia. Also, T μ N3 and back emf E μ NIsf. Let suffix 1
refer to variable at 1000 rpm and 2 refer to those at 800 rpm.
E2 V - Rs I sf1 - Ra I a1 N 2 I sf 2
Then, = = (i)
E1 V - Rs I sf 2 - Ra I a2 N1I sf1
T2 I sf 2 ◊ I a2 Ê N1 ˆ
3
We also have, = =Á ˜ (ii)
T1 I sf 2 ◊ I a1 Ë N1 ¯
with no diverter across the armature or the series field, Isf1 = Ia1 = 25 A. Substituting numerical
values in the above equation we get,
T2 I sf 2 I a2 Ê 800 ˆ 3
= =Á ˜
T1 25 ¥ 25 Ë 1000 ¯
3
Ê 800 ˆ
Isf2 Ia2 = Á
Ë 1000 ˜¯
= 320 (v)
320
\ Isf2 = (vi)
I a2
! 3/233 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/8:
B!611!W!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/6!W/!Bu!b!tqffe!pg!911!sqn-!ju!esbxt!bo!bs.
nbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!61!B!xifo!esjwjoh!b!mpbe!upsrvf!uibu!wbsjft!bt!uif!trvbsf!pg!tqffe/!)b*!Gjoe!uif!
fyufsobm!sftjtubodf!up!cf!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!bsnbuvsf!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!up!861!sqn/!
)c*!Gjoe!wpmubhf!bdsptt!uif!bsnbuvsf!ufsnjobmt/!)d*!Gps!b!op.mpbe!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!6!B-!gjoe!uif!
op.mpbe!tqffe!xjui!uif!fyufsobm!sftjtubodf!jo!uif!djsdvju/!Bttvnf!uif!fydjubujpo!up!cf!dpotubou/
Solution
Since the field excitation is constant, motor torque is proportional to armature current, as T μ Ia.
As the load torque is proportional to square of the speed, N2 μ Ia.
2 2 2
Ê N1 ˆ I a1 Ê N2 ˆ Ê 750 ˆ
\ ÁË N ˜¯ = fi I = I 1Á = 50 ¥ Á ˜ = 43.95 A
Ë N1 ˜¯ Ë 800 ¯
a2 a
2 I a2
Also, E2 /E1 = N2 /N1 as the excitation is constant. Therefore,
750
E2 = ¥ [500 – (0.5 ¥ 50)] = 445.3 V
800
If Re is the external resistance in the armature circuit, total resistance in the armature circuit will
be,
V - E 500 - 445.3
Ra + Re = = = 1.24 W
I a2 43.95
\ external resistance in series with armature,
= 1.24 – 0.5 = 0.74 W.
(b) Voltage across armature terminals is
Va = 500 – (43.95 ¥ 0.74) = 467.5 V and
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/234
! Qspcmfn!3/91
B! 511! W! ed! tivou! npups! ibt! b! dpotubou! fydjubujpo! boe! uif! bsnbuvsf! jt! dpoofdufe! up! b! wbsjbcmf!
wpmubhf!tpvsdf/!Uif!npups!esjwft!b!mpbe-!uif!upsrvf!pg!xijdi!wbsjft!bt!uif!dvcf!pg!tqffe/!Uif!mpbe!
upsrvf!jt!71!On!bu!sbufe!bsnbuvsf!wpmubhf!boe!uif!npups!esbxt!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!41!B/!Gjoe!
)b*!tqffe!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf-!)c*!bsnbuvsf!wpmubhf!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!up!91&!pg!jojujbm!wbmvf-!)d*!uif!
sbohf!pg!bsnbuvsf!wpmubhf!sfrvjsfe!gps!b!sbohf!pg!tqffe!gspn!2311!sqn!up!911!sqn/!Bttvnf!uif!
bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!up!cf!1/5!W/
Solution
(a) The back emf of the motor is
E = V – Ia1 Ra = 400 – (0.4 ¥ 30) = 388 V
Power developed by the motor is,
2p N1T
E Ia1 = 388 ¥ 30 = 11640 W =
60
Therefore, initial speed is
11640 ¥ 60
N1 = = 1853.5 rpm
2p ¥ 60
(b) Final speed is given by
N2 = 0.8 ¥ 1853.5 = 1482.8 rpm
Therefore, final torque is, T2 = 0.83 ¥ 60 = 30.72 Nm and the new power developed is,
Ê 1482.8 ˆ
P2 = Á 2p ¥ ˜ ¥ 30.72 = 4767.7 W
Ë 60 ¯
Also at constant excitation,
I a2 T1 30.72
= fi Ia2 = ¥ 30 = 15.36 A
I a1 T1 60
! 3/235 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/92
Po!gvmm.mpbe-!b!411!W!tfsjft!npups!ublft!:1!B!boe!svot!bu!26!sfw0t/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/2!W!
boe!uif!tfsjft!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!jt!61!nW/!Efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!xifo!efwfmpqjoh!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf!
cvu!xjui!b!1/3!W!ejwfsufs!jo!qbsbmmfm!xjui!uif!gjfme!xjoejoh/!)Bttvnf!uibu!uif!gmvy!jt!qspqpsujpobm!up!
uif!gjfme!dvssfou*/
Solution
At 300 V, emf E1 = V – IR
= V – I (Ra + Rse)
= 300 – (90) (0.1 + 0.05)
= 300 – 13.5
= 286.5 V
With the 0.2 W diverter in parallel with Rse, the equivalent resistance,
(0.2) (0.05)
R= = 0.04 W
0.2 + 0.05
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/236
! Qspcmfn!3/93
B!611!W!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/6!W/!Ju!svot!bu!911!sqn!esbxjoh!bo!bsnbuvsf!
dvssfou!pg!61!B!xifo!esjwjoh!b!mpbe!upsrvf!xijdi!wbsjft!bt!uif!trvbsf!pg!uif!tqffe/!Uxp!fyufsobm!
sftjtubodft!S2!boe!S3!bsf!dpoofdufe!tvdi!uibu!S3!jt!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!S2!jt!jo!qbsbm.
mfm!xjui!uif!bsnbuvsf!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!up!861!sqn/!Jg!S2!>!26!W,!)b*!dbmdvmbuf!uif!wbmvft!pg!S3/
)c*!Xjui!uif!fyufsobm!sftjtubodft!sfubjofe!jo!uif!djsdvju-!jg!uif!mpbe!jt!uispxo!pgg!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!
dvssfou!sfevdft!up!6!B-!gjoe!uif!op.mpbe!tqffe/
Solution
(a) From the solution for Problem 2.79, the voltage across the armature = 467.5 V and current
through the armature = 43.95 A at a speed of 750 rpm. Whatever be the configuration, these
values of voltage and current should be same for a speed of 750 rpm. Therefore, when a
! 3/237 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
467.5
resistance R1 = 15 W is connected across the armature, current through R1 is Ir1 = =
15
31.17 A. Total current through the series resistance R2 is Ir2 = 43.95 + 31.17 = 75.12 A. But
Ir2 is also given by Ir2 = (500 – 467.5)/R2
500 - 467.5
\ R2 = = 0.43 W
75.12
(b) The combination of supply mains, R1 and R2 as seen from the armature terminals can be
replaced by a Thevenin generator with a source emf of
R1 15
Vth = ¥ 500 = ¥ 500 = 485.98
R1 + R2 15 + 0.43
= 486 V
R1R2
in series with a resistance Re = = 0.418
R1 + R2
Therefore, when the motor draws no-load current of 5 A,
Eo = 486 – [5 ¥ (0.418 + 0.5)] = 481.41 rpm
and the back emf at 750 rpm is
Ef = 467.5 – (43.95 ¥ 0.5) = 445.43 V
Therefore, no-load speed is
481.41
No = ¥ 750 = 810.6 rpm.
445.43
! Qspcmfn!3/94
B!611!W!tivou!npupst!svot!bu!jut!opsnbm!tqffe!pg!21!sfw0t!xifo!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!231!B/!Uif!
bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/13!W/!
! )b*! Efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!xifo!uif!dvssfou!jt!71!B!boe!b!sftjtubodf!pg!1/6!W!jt!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!
xjui!uif!bsnbuvsf-!uif!tivou!gjfme!sfnbjojoh!dpotubou/
! )c*! Efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!xifo!uif!dvssfou!jt!71!B!boe!uif!tivou!gjfme!jt!sfevdfe!up!91&!pg!jut!
opsnbm!wbmvf!cz!jodsfbtjoh!sftjtubodf!jo!uif!gjfme!djsdvju/
Solution
(a) The back emf at 120 A,
Eb1 = V – Ia Ra = 500 – (120) (0.2)
= 500 – 24
= 476 V
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/238
! Qspcmfn!3/95
B! 5.qpmf-! 361! W-! ed! tfsjft! npups! ibt! b! dpncjofe! tfsjft! gjfme! boe! bsnbuvsf! sftjtubodf! pg! 3!W/! Ju!
esbxt!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!26!B!bu!911!sqn/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!boe!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!xifo!uif!np.
ups!esjwft!b!mpbe!upsrvf!pg!6!On/!Ofhmfdu!nbhofujd!tbuvsbujpo/
Solution
Back emf of the motor is,
E = 250 – (2 ¥ 15) = 220 V
Since E μ Nf which means that E = kNIa (\ f μ Ia)
where K is a constant.
E 220
Therefore, K= = = 0.0183
NI a 800 ¥ 15
Therefore, E = 0.0183 NIa (i)
Eb I a 0.0183 NI a2
and T= = = 0.175 Ia2 (ii)
2p ( N / 60) 2p ( N / 60)
The back emf is also given by, E = 250 – 2Ia (iii)
! 3/239 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
250
Solving for Ia we get, Ia =
2 + 0.0183 N
0.175 ¥ 250 2
\ T=
( 2 + 0.0183 N ) 2
At steady state, T = TL is,
0.175 ¥ 250 2
5=
( 2 + 0.0183 N ) 2
or, 3.35 ¥ 10–4 N2 + 0.0732 N = 2183.5
! Qspcmfn!3/96
B!61!lX!cfmu.esjwfo!tivou!hfofsbups!jt!svoojoh!bu!411!sqn!boe!efmjwfst!sbufe!mpbe!up!b!361!W!cvt.
cbs/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodft!bsf!1/136!W!boe!61!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Tveefomz-!uif!cfmu!
csfblt!boe!uif!nbdijof!dpoujovft!up!svo!bt!b!npups!ubljoh!6!lX!gspn!cvtcbst/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!pg!
uif!npups!bmmpxjoh!csvti!espq!pg!2!W!qfs!csvti/
Solution
When the machine acts as a generator, we have
P = 50,000 W, N1 = 300 rpm, V = 250 V, Ra = 0.025 W and Rsh = 50 W
P 50000
\ IL = = A = 200 A
V 250
V 250
Ish = = A=5A
Rsh 50
Ia = (IL + Ish) = (200 + 5)A = 205 A
E1 = V + Ia Ra + 2 ¥ 1 = (250 + 205 ¥ 0.025 + 2)
E1 = 257.125.
When the machine acts as a motor, we have
5000
IL = A = 20 A
250
Ia = (20 – 5)A = 15 A
E2 = 250 – 15 ¥ 0.025 – 2 = 247.625 V
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/23:
! Qspcmfn!3/97
Uif!fmfduspnbhofujd!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!jo!b!npups!jt!261!On/!Jg!uif!gjfme!gmvy!jt!efdsfbtfe!cz!31&!boe!
bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!jodsfbtfe!cz!26&-!gjoe!uif!ofx!fmfduspnbhofujd!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe/
Solution
Electromagnetic torque Te μ Flux ¥ Armature current. If f1 and Ia1 be the flux and armature cur-
rent when the developed torque is 150 Nm then
150 = K f1 Ia1 (where K is constant).
If Te2 be the new electromagnetic torque then
Te2 = K ¥ 0.8 f1 ¥ 1.15 Ia1 = 150 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 1.15 = 138 Nm.
! Qspcmfn!3/98
B!511!W!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!boe!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!boe!311!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!
Ju!ublft!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!61!B!boe!svot!bu!2111!sqn/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!xifo!b!
211!W!sftjtups!jt!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!gjfme!xjoejoh-!uif!mpbe!upsrvf!sfnbjojoh!tbnf/!Bttvnf!
uibu!gjfme!gmvy!jt!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!gjfme!dvssfou/
Solution
Here, V = 400 V; Ra = 0.3; Rsh = 200 W; IL1 = 50 A
and N1 = 1000 rpm
Let the speed of the motor be N2 and line current be IL2 when the 100 W resistor is connected in
series with the field winding.
400 400
Now, Ia1 = 50 – = 48 A and Ish1 = =2A
200 200
400 4
and Ish2 = = A = 1.33 A
200 + 100 3
E Te1 = Te2
Te1 f1 I a1 I sh1 I a1 2 ¥ 48
so, =1= = =
Te2 f2 I a2 I sh2 I a2 4 Ê 4ˆ
¥ÁI - ˜
3 Ë L2 3¯
4Ê 4ˆ
or ÁË I L2 - ˜¯ = 96
3 3
4
or IL2 – = 72
3
! 3/241 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
or IL2 = 73.33 A
\ Ia2 = 73.33 – 1.33 = 72 A
! Qspcmfn!3/99
B!611!W!ed!tivou!npups!svot!bu!361!sqn!bu!sbufe!gvmm.mpbe!dpoejujpo!boe!ublft!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvs.
sfou!pg!311!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/23!W/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!xifo!uif!gjfme.djsdvju!
sftjtubodf!jt!jodsfbtfe!tvdi!uibu!uif!gmvy!jt!sfevdfe!up!91&!pg!uif!opsnbm!wbmvf!boe!uif!npups!jt!
mpbefe!gps!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!211!B/
Solution
Given, V = 500 V, N1 = 250 rpm, Ia = 200 A and Ra = 0.12 W
Eb1 = V – Ia Ra = 500 – 200 ¥ 0.12 = 476 V
Let initial flux be f.
When armature current Ia¢ is 100 A, the flux f¢ = 0.8 f, and the speed is N, we have
Eb2 = V – Ia¢ Ra = 500 – 100 ¥ 0.12 = 488 V
Eb1 f N1 Eb f 488 f
E = or, N2 = 2 N1 = ¥ ¥ 250
Eb2 f ¢ N 2 Eb1 f ¢ 476 0.8 f
\ N2 = 320 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!3/9:
B!tfsjft!npups!xjui!bo!votbuvsbufe!nbhofujd!djsdvju!boe!1/6!W!upubm!sftjtubodf-!xifo!svoojoh!bu!
b!dfsubjo!tqffe-!ublft!71!B!bu!611!W/!Jg!uif!mpbe!upsrvf!wbsjft!bt!uif!dvcf!pg!tqffe-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!
sftjtubodf!sfrvjsfe!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!cz!36&/
Solution
Here, Ra = 0.5 W, V = 500 V and Ia1 = 60
Let initial speed be N1 and when resistance R is connected speed be N2.
N2 = (1 – 0.25)N1 = 0.75 N1
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/242
Te μ N3
3
Te1 N3 Ê 1 ˆ
= 13 = Á ˜
Te2 N 2 Ë 0.75 ¯
3
Te1 I a21 (60) 2 Ê 1 ˆ
= =Á
Ë 0.75 ˜¯
Also =
Te2 I a22 I a22
\ Ia2 = 38.97 A
Eb1 = 500 – 60 ¥ 0.5 = 470
Eb1 = 500 – 38.97(0.5 + R) = 480.5 – 38.97 R
Eb1 470 fN I a N1 60 ¥ N1
Now, = = 1 1 = 1 = = 2.053
Eb2 480.5 - 38.97 R f2 N 2 I a2 N 2 38.97 ¥ 0.75 N1
480.5 – 38.97 R = 228.9
or R = 6.455 W.
! Qspcmfn!3/:1
B!331!W!tfsjft!npups!ibt!b!upubm!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W/!Bu!tqffe!2611!sqn-!ju!esbxt!b!mjof!
dvssfou!pg!21!B/!Xifo!b!4!W!sftjtups!jt!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju-!ju!esbxt!b!mjof!
dvssfou!pg!7!B/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!nbdijof!xifo!uif!4!W!sftjtups!jt!dpoofdufe!boe!uif!sbujp!pg!uxp!
nfdibojdbm!pvuqvut/!Bttvnf!uif!gmvy!bu!7!B!jt!86&!pg!uibu!xjui!21!B/
Solution
Given V = 220 V, Ra = 0.3 W, N1 = 1500 rpm, IL1 = Ia1 = 10 A, R = 3 W
Back emf without 3 W resistor (Eb1) = 220 – 10 ¥ 0.3 = 217 W
Back emf with 3 W resistor (Eb2) = 220 – 6 ¥ (3 + 0.3) = 200.2 V
If f be the (since Ia2 = 6 A) flux in the first case then flux with resistance connected is 0.75 f
(given).
Eb1 N1f
So = (where N2 is the new speed)
Eb2 N 2 ¥ 0.75 f
N1Eb2 1500 ¥ 200.2
or N2 = = = 1895 rpm
0.75 Eb1 0.75 ¥ 217
Eb1 I a1 217 ¥ 1500
The ratio of the two mechanical outputs = = = 0.88.
Eb2 I a2 200.2 ¥ 1845
! Qspcmfn!3/:2
B!ed!tfsjft!npups!svot!bu!2611!sqn!boe!ublft!211!B!gspn!511!W!tvqqmz/!Uif!dpncjofe!sftjtubodf!
pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!jt!1/6!W/!Jg!bo!beejujpobm!sftjtubodf!pg!6!W!jt!jotfsufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!
bsnbuvsf!djsdvju-!gjoe!uif!npups!tqffe!jg!uif!fmfduspnbhofujd!upsrvf!jt!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!trvbsf!
pg!uif!tqffe/
! 3/243 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
N = 1500 rpm; Ia = IL = 100 A; V = 400 V
(Ra + Rse) = 0.5 W
μ fIa
Te
As μ Ia
f
μ Ia2
Te
Again, μ N2
Te
Hence, μN
Ia
\ Ia
= KN (K being a constant)
100 1
or, K= =
1500 15
Now, Eb1 = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) = 400 – 100 ¥ 0.5 = 350 V
and Eb2 = V – Ia2 (Ra + Rse + 5) = 400 – Ia2 (5.5)
If the speed is N when the 5 W resistor is connected then we can write
È N1 = initial speed ˘
Eb1 N1 350 1500 Í ˙
= or, = Í = 1500 rpm ˙
Eb2 N2 400 - 5.5 I a 2 N
ÍÎ N 2 ∫ N ˙˚
or, 350 N = 600,000 – 5.5 ¥ K ¥ N ¥ 1500
or, N = 667 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!3/:3
B!ed!tivou!npups!svot!bu!861!sqn!gspn!361!W!tvqqmz!boe!ublft!b!gvmm.mpbe!mjof!dvssfou!pg!71!B/!Jut!
bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!sftjtubodft!bsf!1/5!W!boe!236!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Bttvnjoh!3!W!csvti!espq-!dbmdv.
mbuf!op.mpbe!tqffe!gps!b!op.mpbe!mjof!dvssfou!pg!7!B!boe!uif!sftjtubodf!up!cf!beefe!jt!jo!tfsjft!xjui!
uif!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju!up!sfevdf!uif!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe!up!711!sqn/
Solution
Given, Nf l = 750 rpm; V = 250 V; If l = 60 A
Ra = 0.4 W, Rsh = 125 W
Inl = 6 A
250 È Ê V ˆ˘
Iaf l = 60 – = 58 A ÍE I afl = Á I afl = r ˜ ˙
125 Î Ë sh ¯ ˚
Ebf l = 250 – 58 ¥ 0.4 – 2 = 224.8 V [E Ebfl = V – Iafl ¥ ra]
250 È V ˘
Ianl = 6 –
125
=4A ÍE I anl = I nl - I sh = I nl - r ˙
Î sh ˚
Ebnl = 250 – 4 ¥ 0.4 – 2 = 246.4 V [E Ebnl = V – Ianl ¥ ra – brush drop]
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/244
[The subscript nl stands for no-load parameters while suffix fl stads for full-load parameters]
If N be the no-load speed then we have
Ebnl 246.4
N = Nfl ¥ = 750 ¥ = 822 rpm
Ebfl 224.8
If R be the resistance connected in series with the armature circuit then we can write,
Eb = [250 – Ia (0.4 + R) – 2] and N ¢ = 600 rpm
or Eb = [248 – 60(0.4 + R)] = 224 – 60 R
224 - 60 R 600 È Eb N¢˘
\ = E =
246.4 822 Î Ebnl N ˙˚
Í
or 224 – 60 R = 179.85
or R = 0.736 W.
! Qspcmfn!3/:4
B!511!W!tfsjft!npups!svot!bu!911!sqn!boe!ublft!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!71!B/!Gjoe!uif!tqffe!boe!qfsdfou.
bhf!dibohf!jo!upsrvf!jg!uif!mpbe!jt!sfevdfe!tp!uibu!uif!npups!ublft!61!B/!Uif!dpncjofe!sftjtubodf!
pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!djsdvju!jt!1/7!W/
Solution
Here, V = 400 V, N1 = 800 rpm, IL1 = 60 A, (Ra + Rse) = 0.6 W
Eb1 = 400 – 60 ¥ 0.6 = 364 V
Te μ Ia2 (for series motor)
\ Te1 = K¢ (60)2 = 3600 K¢, where K¢ is constant
when IL = 50 A = IL2
Eb2 = 400 – 50 ¥ 0.6 = 370 V
Eb1 fN I a N1 I L1 N1
E = 1 2 = 1 =
Eb2 f2 N 2 I a2 N 2 I L2 N 2
Eb1 60 ¥ 800
\ = , where N2 is the speed when IL = 50 A
Eb2 50 ¥ N 2
60 ¥ 800 ¥ 370
\ N2 = rpm = 976 rpm
50 ¥ 364
Let Te2 = K¢(50)2, where Te2 is the torque when IL = 50 A
Te1 - Te2 (60) 2 - (50) 2
So, percentage change in torque = ¥ 100% =
Te1 (60) 2
3600 - 2500
= ¥ 100% = 30.56%.
3600
! 3/245 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/:5
B! 331! W! tivou! npups-! xifo! svoojoh! mjhiu-! ublft! 8! B! boe! svot! bu! 2361! sfw0njo/! Uif! bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!jt!1/2!W!boe!uif!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!221!W/!B!tfsjft!xjoejoh!pg!1/16!W!sftjtubodf!
jt!beefe-!mpoh!tivou!boe!dvnvmbujwfmz!dpoofdufe/!Uijt!xjoejoh!jodsfbtft!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!cz!31&!
xifo!uif!npups!jt!ubljoh!jut!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!73!B/!Bttvnjoh!uif!jodsfbtf!jo!gmvy!qspqpsujpobm!up!
uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!boe!ofhmfdujoh!uif!fggfdu!pg!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo-!gjoe!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!
)b*!xifo!svoojoh!mjhiu-!boe!)c*!xifo!ubljoh!73!B/
Solution
220
Shunt field current = = 2 A (= Ish)
110
At light load line current = 7 A (= ILO)
So, armature current is (7 – 2) = 5 A (= Iao)
\ Ebo = 220 – 5 ¥ 0.1 = 219.5 V (for shunt motor)
When series winding is added and full-load line current is 62 A, the armature current is (62 – 2)
= 60 A (= Iafl).
This 60 A, when flowing through a series field, increases the flux by 20%.
5
Hence, 5 A (at light load) when flowing through a series field increases the flux by ¥ 20 =
1.66%. 60
For compound motor Eb1 = 220 – 5 ¥ 0.1 – 5 ¥ 0.05 = 219.25 V
[E Ebo = V – drop in armature – drop in series resistance (for no-load current)]
(a) If No be the speed of the motor when running light and operated as a compound motor, we
can write,
No 219.25
=
1250 219.5
or No = 1248 rpm.
(b) When motor takes 62 A,
Armature current Ia = (62 – 2) = 60 A
f = 1.2 f0 where f0 is the flux of shunt motor when it is running light.
Also, Back emf Eb1 = 220 – 60 ¥ 0.1 – 60 ¥ 50 = 211 V (at full load)
! Qspcmfn!3/:6
B!ed!tivou!npups!svoojoh!bu!2311!sqn!ibt!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/26!W/!Uif!dvssfou!ublfo!cz!
uif!bsnbuvsf!jt!71!B!xifo!uif!bqqmjfe!wpmubhf!jt!331!W/!Jg!uif!mpbe!jt!jodsfbtfe!cz!41&-!gjoe!uif!
wbsjbujpo!jo!uif!tqffe/
Solution
Given Ra = 0.15 W
When speed N1 = 1200 rpm, the back emf is
Eb1 = 220 – 60 ¥ 0.15 = 211 V
Let the output power be P1.
If the load is increased by 30%, the output power P2 = 1.3 P1 and let the back emf and speed be
Eb2 and N2 respectively.
We have, Eb2 Ia2 = 1.3 Eb1 Ia1 = 1.3 ¥ 211 ¥ 60 = 16458 W
16458
Now Eb2 = 220 – Ia2 ¥ 0.15 = 220 – 0.15 ¥
Eb2
or E b22 = 220 Eb2 – 2468.7 or E b22 – 220 Eb2 + 2468.7 = 0
220 ± 48400 - 9874.8 220 ± 196
or Eb2 = =
2 2
or Eb2 = 208.14 V
208.14
Speed = ¥ 1200 = 1184 rpm.
211
! Qspcmfn!3/:7
B!wfoujmbujoh!gbo!jt!esjwfo!cz!b!331!W-!21!lX!tfsjft!npups!boe!svot!bu!911!sqn!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Uif!upubm!
sftjtubodf!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju!jt!1/7!W/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!tqffe!boe!qfsdfoubhf!dibohf!jo!upsrvf!jg!
uif!dvssfou!ublfo!cz!uif!npups!jt!sfevdfe!cz!61&!pg!uif!gvmm.mpbe!wbmvf/!Uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups!
jt!93&/!Bttvnf!uif!gmvy!up!cf!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!gjfme!dvssfou/
Solution
Output = 10,000 W
10, 000
\ input = (E efficiency = 0.82) = 12195.12 W
0.82
Input 12195.12
At full-load current, I1 = = = 55.4 A
Voltage 220
and speed N1 = 800 rpm
Let the flux be f1 at this speed and load current.
Back emf (Eb1) = 220 – 55.4 ¥ 0.6 = 186.76 V [E Eb1 = V – I1 ra]
! 3/247 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Eb2 f1 Eb I
So, N2 = N1 = 2 1 N1 (E f μ I in the series motor)
Eb1 f2 Eb1 I 2
203.35
or N2 = ¥ 2 ¥ 800 = 1742 rpm
186.70
If T1 and T2 be the torque at full-load and 50% of the full load then
2 2
T1 Ê I1 ˆ Ê 2 ˆ
= =Á ˜ =4
T2 ÁË I 2 ˜¯ Ë 1 ¯
T1 - T2
Hence, percentage change in torque (D T%) is ¥ 100
T1
T1
T1 -
or DT = 4 ¥ 100% = 3 ¥ 100% = 75%.
T1 4
! Qspcmfn!3/:8
Bo!fohjof.sppn!wfoujmbups!gbo!tfsjft!npups!ibt!b!upubm!sftjtubodf!pg!1/6!W!boe!svot!gspn!b!221!W!
tvqqmz!bu!2111!sqn!xifo!uif!dvssfou!jt!39!B/!Xibu!sftjtubodf!jo!tfsjft!xjui!uif!npups!xjmm!sfevdf!
uif! tqffe! up! 861! sqn@! Uif! mpbe! upsrvf! jt! qspqpsujpobm! up! uif! trvbsf! pg! uif! tqffe! boe! uif! gjfme!
tusfohui!dbo!cf!bttvnfe!up!cf!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!dvssfou/
Solution
When current I1 = 28 A, Speed N1 = 1000 rpm
Given torque T1 μ N12. If f1 be the flux then f1 μ I1
Now for series motor T μ I12
\ N12 μ I12 or N1 μ I1
Eb1 = 110 – 28 ¥ 0.5 = 96 V
Let R be the resistance to be added to reduce speed to 750 rpm, i.e., N2 = 750 rpm and let flux
be f2.
\ Eb2 = 110 – I2(R + 0.5) (i)
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/248
! Qspcmfn!3/:9
B!341!W-!21!lX!tivou!npups!xjui!b!tubufe!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!pg!96&!svot!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2111!sqn/!
Bu!xibu!tqffe!tipvme!uif!npups!cf!esjwfo!jg!ju!jt!vtfe!bt!b!hfofsbups!up!tvqqmz!bo!fnfshfodz!mjhiu.
joh!mpbe!bu!341!W@!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/3!W!boe!uif!gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!226!W/!Gjoe!uif!lX!
sbujoh!pg!uif!nbdijof!voefs!uijt!dpoejujpo/!Bttvnf!uibu!uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!tbnf!jo!cpui!uif!dbtft/
Solution
Output = 10 kW = 10,000 W
10000
Input = = 11764.7 W
0.85
230
Shunt field current = A = 2 A (= Ish)
115
11764.7
Full-load line current = A = 51.15 A (= If l)
230
When the machine runs as a motor,
Armature current [(Ia(m)) = (If l – Ish)] = 51.15 – 2 = 49.15 A
Back emf [(Eb(m)) = V – Ia(m) ¥ Ra] = 230 – 49.15 ¥ 0.2 = 220.17 V
When used as a generator,
Armature current [Ia(g) = If l + Ish] = 51.15 + 2 = 53.15 A
Generated emf [Eb(g) = V + Ia(g) ¥ ra] = 230 + 53.15 ¥ 0.2 = 240.63 V.
If Ng be the speed of the generator then
240.63 È N g Eb ( g ) ˘
Ng = 1000 ¥ = 1093 rpm ÍE = ˙
220.17 ÍÎ N m Eb( m ) ˙˚
230 ¥ 51.15
Rating of the machine (V ¥ If l ¥ 10–3) = kW = 11.76 kW.
1000
! 3/249 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/::
B!tfsjft!ed!npups!jt!svo!po!b!331!W!djsdvju!xjui!b!sfhvmbujoh!sftjtubodf!pg!S!W!gps!tqffe!bekvtunfou/!
Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!dpjmt!ibwf!b!upubm!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W/!Po!b!dfsubjo!mpbe!xjui!S!cfjoh!{fsp-!
uif!dvssfou!jt!31!B!boe!uif!tqffe!jt!2311!sqn/!Xjui!bopuifs!mpbe!boe!S!tfu!bu!4!W-!uif!dvssfou!jt!
26!B/!Gjoe!uif!ofx!tqffe!boe!bmtp!uif!sbujp!pg!uif!uxp!wbmvft!pg!uif!qpxfs!pvuqvu!pg!uif!npups/!Bt.
tvnf!uif!gjfme!tusfohui!bu!26!B!up!cf!91&!pg!uibu!bu!31!B/
Solution
With R =0W
Line current I1 = 20 A, N1 = 1200 rpm
Back emf (Eb1) = 220 – 20 ¥ 0.3 = 214 V
With R =3W
I2 = 15 A
Hence, , Back emf Eb2 = 220 – 15 ¥ 3.3 = 107.5 V
170.5
The new speed N2 = 1200 ¥ = 1195 rpm
214 ¥ 0.8
E Power output μ Torque μ Speed, i.e. Power output μ f IN
\ Ratio of power outputs = (fI1 N1/0.8 fI2 N2)
20 ¥ 1200
Or, ratio of the two values of output is = = 1.67.
15 ¥ 1195 ¥ 0.8
! Qspcmfn!3/211
B!tfsjft.xpvoe!ed!npups!svot!bu!611!sqn!boe!jt!dpoofdufe!bdsptt!331!W!tvqqmz/!Uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!
21!B!boe!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju!jt!1/7!W/!Gjoe!uif!sftjtubodf!up!cf!jotfsufe!jo!tfsjft!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!
pg!uif!nbdijof!up!511!sqn!bttvnjoh!upsrvf!up!wbsz!bt!uif!trvbsf!pg!uif!tqffe/
Solution
Given N1 = 500 rpm, V = 220 V. Ia1 = 10 A, (Ra + Rse) = 0.6 W
N2 = 400 rpm and Te 1 μ N2
Eb1 = V – Ia1 (Ra + Rse) = 220 – 10 ¥ 0.6 = 214 V
Eb2 = V – Ia2 (0.6 + R)
where R is the resistance to be inserted in series with the armature.
Now, for series motor Te μ Ia2.
Te1 I a21 N12 (500) 2 25
Hence, = = = =
Te2 I a22 N 22 ( 400) 2
16
16 4
or Ia2 = I = Ia1 = 0.8 Ia1 = 0.8 ¥ 10 = 8 A
25 a1 5
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/24:
Eb1 f1N1 I a1 N1
and = = (E in series motor f μ Ia)
Eb2 f2 N 2 I a2 N 2
214 10 ¥ 500
or =
220 - 8(0.6 + R) 8 ¥ 400
or (220 – 4.8 – 8R)50 = 32 ¥ 214 = 6848
or 215.2 – 8R = 136.96
or R = 9.78 W.
! Qspcmfn!3/212
B!511!W!ed!tfsjft!npups!ublft!31!B!bu!sbufe!dpoejujpo!boe!uif!tqffe!jt!2111!sqn/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!jt!1/6!W/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!wbmvf!pg!uif!sftjtubodf!uibu!nvtu!cf!beefe!up!pcubjo!uif!sbufe!
upsrvf!)b*!bu!tubsujoh-!boe!)c*!bu!911!sqn/
Solution
Given, V = 400 V, Ia = 20 A, N1 = 1000 rpm and Ra = 0.5 W
(a) Since back emf Eb μ fN, hence, at starting, when N = 0, Eb = 0.
To obtain rated torque at starting, let R be connected in series with the armature.
V – Ia (Ra + R) =0
or 400 = 20(0.5 + R)
or R + 0.5 = 20
or R = 19.5 W
(b) Let R¢ be the resistance connected in series with the armature when the speed is 800 rpm, i.e.,
N2 = 800 rpm
Eb1 = V – Ia1 Ra = 400 – 20 ¥ 0.5 = 390 V
Eb2 = V – Ia2(Ra + R¢) = 400 – 20(0.5 + R¢) = 390 – 20R¢
Eb1 N1f1 N1I a1 N
= = = 1 (As Ia1 = Ia2 since the torque is constant)
Eb2 N 2f2 N 2 I a2 N 2
390 1000
or =
390 - 20 R¢ 800
or 8 ¥ 390 = 3900 – 200 R¢
or R¢ = 3.9 W.
FGGJDJFODZ!PG!ED!NBDIJOFT! 3/37
È Losses ˘ È Output (Input - Losses) ˘
Efficiency (h) = Í1 - ÍE h - Input -
Î Input ˙˚ Î Input ˙
˚
! 3/251 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Ê Losses ˆ
For a generator, hg = Á1 - , where V is the terminal voltage and IL is the line current;
Ë VI L + Losses ˜¯
VIL is the output power.
losses
For a motor, hm = 1 – ; here VIL is the input power.
VI L
h may also be expressed in percentage, if multiplied by 100.
Dpoejujpo!gps!Nbyjnvn!Fggjdjfodz!gps!b!ed!Hfofsbups!)Tivou!Uzqf*
The efficiency of a dc generator is given by
VI L
hg =
VI L + I a2 Ra + V f I f + W0
Here, VIL = Output power
Ia2 Ra = Armature copper loss
Vf If = Shunt-field copper loss
W0 = No-load rotational loss.
Now, Vf If + W0 = constant (= C) and If = Ia = IL for series motor. For shunt motor If is negligible
and hence, it can be assured that IL is approximately equal to Ia.
VI L
Thus, we have hg =
VI L + I L2 Ra + C
Maximum efficiency occurs when
dh g
=
(VI L + I L2 Ra + C )V - VI L (V + 2I L Ra ) = 0
dI L (VI L + I L2 Ra + C ) 2
This gives
VIL + IL2 ra + C = VIL + 2 IL2 ra
Or, C = IL2 ra
Hence, maximum efficiency of a dc generator is achieved when, constant loss = variable arma-
ture circuit loss. Hence, a generator has maximum efficiency when variable loss equals constant
loss. For dc motor also maximum efficiency occurs when variable loss becomes equal to the contact
loss.
The load current at the maximum efficiency is given by,
Constant loss
IL =
ra
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/252
! Qspcmfn!3/213
B!211!W!ed!hfofsbups!tvqqmjft!b!dvssfou!pg!26!B!xifo!svoojoh!bu!2611!sfw0njo/!Jg!uif!upsrvf!po!
uif!tibgu!esjwjoh!uif!hfofsbups!jt!23!On-!efufsnjof!)b*!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!hfofsbups-!boe!)c*!uif!
qpxfs!mptt!jo!uif!hfofsbups/
Solution
Output power
(a) The efficiency of a generator = ¥ 100%
Input power
The output power is the electrical output, VI watts. The input power to a generator is the
mechanical power in the shaft driving the generator, Tw or T (2pn) watts, where T is the
torque in Nm and n is speed of rotation in rev/s.
VI
Hence, for a generator, efficiency, n = ¥ 100%
T ( 2p n)
(100) (15) (100)
i.e., h= %
Ê 1500 ˆ
(12) (3p ) Á
Ë 60 ˜¯
i.e., efficiency = 79.6%
(b) Input power = Output power + Losses
È Ê 1500 ˆ ˘
i.e., losses = T(2pn) – VI = Í(12) ( 2p ) Á – [100 ¥ 15]
Î Ë 60 ˜¯ ˙˚
= 1885 – 1500 = 385 W
! Qspcmfn!3/214
B!21!lX!tivou!hfofsbups!ibwjoh!bo!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju!sftjtubodf!pg!1/86!W!boe!b!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!
236!W!hfofsbuft!b!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!pg!361!W!bu!gvmm!mpbe/!Efufsnjof!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!hfofsbups!
bu!gvmm!mpbe-!bttvnjoh!uif!jspo-!gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mpttft!bnpvou!up!711!X/
Solution
The output power = 10,000 W = VI
10000 10000
From which, load current I = = = 40 A
V 250
V 250
Field current, If = = =2A
R f 125
Armature current, Ia = If + I = 2 + 40 = 42 A
! 3/253 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Efficiency,
Ê VI ˆ
h= ¥ 100%
Á VI + I R + I V + C ˜
2
Ë a a f ¯
Ê 10, 000 ˆ
=Á ¥ 100%
Ë 1000 + ( 42) (0.75) + ( 2) ( 250) + 600 ˜¯
2
10000
= ¥ 10% = 80.5%.
12423
! Qspcmfn!3/215
B!431!W!tivou!npups!ublft!b!upubm!dvssfou!pg!91!B!boe!svot!bu!2111!sfw0njo/!Jg!uif!jspo-!gsjdujpo!boe!
xjoebhf!mpttft!bnpvou!up!2/6!lX-!uif!tivou!gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!51!W!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!
1/3!W-!efufsnjof!uif!pwfsbmm!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups/
Solution
V 320
Field current, If = = =8A
Rf 40
Armature current Ia = I – If = 80 – 8 = 72 A
C = Iron, friction and windage losses = 1500 W
Ê VI - I a2 Ra - I f V - C ˆ
Efficiency, h=Á
Ë ˜¯ ¥ 100%
VI
Ê (320) (80) - (72) 2 (0.2) - (8) (320) - 1500 ˆ
=Á
Ë (320) (80) ˜¯ ¥ 100%.
! Qspcmfn!3/216
B!361!W!tfsjft!npups!esbxt!b!dvssfou!pg!51!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/26!W!boe!uif!gjfme!sf.
tjtubodf!jt!1/16!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups/!
Solution
The efficiency in a series motor
Ê VI - I 2 ( Ra + R f ) - C ˆ
h=Á
Ë ˜¯ ¥ 100%
VI
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/254
! Qspcmfn!3/217
B!311!W!tivou!npups!ublft!23!B!xifo!svoojoh!po!op.mpbe/!Bu!ijhifs!mpbet-!uif!csvti!espq!jt!3!W!
boe!bu!mjhiu!mpbe-!ju!jt!ofhmjhjcmf/!Uif!tusbz!mpbe!mptt!bu!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!216!B!jt!61&!pg!uif!op.mpbe!
mptt/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!bu!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!216!B!jg!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!sftjtubodft!bsf!1/3!boe!
211!pint!sftqfdujwfmz/
Solution
At no-load,
No-load loss = 200 ¥ 12 = 2400 W
200
If = =2A
100
Ia = 12 – 2 = 10 A
! Qspcmfn!3/218
B!311!W!ed!npups!efwfmpqt!b!tibgu!upsrvf!pg!26!On!bu!2311!sfw0njo/!Jg!uif!fggjdjfodz!jt!91&-!efufs.
njof!uif!dvssfou!tvqqmjfe!up!uif!npups/
! 3/255 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Output power
The efficiency of a motor = ¥ 100%
Input power
The output power of a motor is the power available to do work at its shaft and is given by Tw or
T(2pn) watts, where T is the torque in Nm and n is the speed of rotation in rev/s. The input power is
the electrical power in watts supplied to the motor in VI watts.
Thus, for a motor, efficiency,
T ( 2p n)
h= ¥ 100%
VI
È (15) ( 2p ) (1200 / 60) ˘
i.e., 80 = Í ˙ (100)
Î ( 200) I ˚
(15) ( 2p ) (1200 / 60) (100)
Thus, the current supplied, I = = 11.8 A.
( 200) (80)
! Qspcmfn!3/219
B!26!lX-!341!W!tivou!hfofsbups!ibwjoh!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/26!W!boe!b!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!
341!W!efmjwfst!gvmm.mpbe!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf!boe!861!sqn/!Uif!nbdijof!jt!opx!svo!bt!b!npups!xijmf!
ubljoh!26!lX!bu!341!W/!Xibu!jt!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups@!Ofhmfdu!csvti!dpoubdu!espq/
Solution
As a generator
230
Field current, If = =1A
230
15 ¥ 103
Load current, IL = = 65.21 A
230
Armature current, Ia = IL + If = 65.21 + 1 = 66.21 A
Armature drop, Ia Ra = 66.21 ¥ 0.15 = 9.93 V
Eg = 230 + 9.93 = 239.93 V
As a motor
230
Field current, If = =1A
230
15 ¥ 10 2
Load current, IL = = 65.21 A
230
Armature current, Ia = IL – If = 65.21 – 1 = 64.21 A
Armature drop, Ia Ra = 64.21 ¥ 0.15 = 9.63 V
Em = 230 – 9.93 = 220.37 V
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/256
N m Em E
Now, = or, Nm = m Ng
Ng Eg Eg
220.37
or, Nm = ¥ 750 = 689 rpm.
239.93
! Qspcmfn!3/21:
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!b!611!W!tivou!npups!xifo!ubljoh!791!B!gspn!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub!sfdpsefe!
xifo!uif!npups!xbt!ipu;!npups!tubujpobsz!wpmubhf!espq!jo!uif!bsnbuvsf!xjoejoh!jt!25!W-!611!B!
bsnbuvsf!dvssfou-!9!B!gjfme!dvssfou!bu!opsnbm!wpmubhf/!Xifo!uif!npups!jt!svoojoh!bu!opsnbm!tqffe!
voefs!vompbefe!dpoejujpo-!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!33!B!boe!bqqmjfe!wpmubhf!jt!636!W/!Bmmpx!3!W!gps!
csvti!dpoubdu!espq!boe!2&!pg!uif!sbufe!pvuqvu!pg!491!lX!gps!tusbz!mpbe!mpttft/
Solution
Ra = 14/500 = 0.028 ohm
Rf = 500/8 = 62.5 ohms
Using the data for unloaded motor
Rotational loss = (525 – 22 ¥ 0.028 – 2) ¥ 22 – 82 ¥ 62.5 = 7.5 kW
Pin - I a2 Ra - V f I f - Vb I a - Stray load loss - Rotational loss
hm =
Pin
Ia = IL – If = 680 – 8 = 672 A
Pin = VIL = 500 ¥ 680 = 340 kW
340000 - (672) 2 ¥ 0.028 - 500 ¥ 8 - 2 ¥ 672 - 0.01 ¥ 380000 - 7500
hm =
340000
= 91.38%.
! Qspcmfn!3/221
B! 611! W-! 31! lX! tivou! npups! uppl! 3/5! B! xifo! svoojoh! mjhiu/! Gps! bo! bsnbuvsf! sftjtubodf! up! cf!
1/6!pin-!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!891!pint!boe!csvti!espq!pg!3/3!W-!gjoe!uif!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
500
If = = 0.64 A
780
IL = 2.4 A
Ia = 2.4 – 0.64 = 1.76 A
Constant loss C = (500 ¥ 1.76) – (1.762 ¥ 0.5) – (2.2 ¥ 1.76) = 874.58 W
At full-load, Pout = 20 kW
VIL = 20000 + Ia2 Ra + Vb Ia + C
IL = Ia + 0.64
500(Ia + 0.64) = 20000 + 0.5 Ia2 + 2.2Ia + 874.58
! 3/257 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/222
B!21!IQ-!361!W!tivou!npups!ublft!b!gvmm.mpbe!mjof!dvssfou!pg!51!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!sftjtubodf!
bsf! 1/3! W! boe! 361! W! sftqfdujwfmz/! Uif! upubm! csvti.dpoubdu! espq! jt! 3! W! boe! uif! dpsf! boe! gsjdujpo!
mpttft!bsf!461!X/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups/!Bttvnf!uibu!tusbz!mpbe!mptt!jt!2&!pg!pvuqvu/
Solution
The input power = 40 ¥ 250 = 10,000 W
Field resistance loss = (250/250)2 ¥ 250 = 250 W
Armature resistance loss = (40 – 1)2 ¥ 0.2 = 304.2 W
Core loss and friction loss = 350 W
Brush-contact loss = 2 ¥ 39 = 78 W
Stray load loss = 10 ¥ 746/100 = 74.6 W
Total loss = 250 + 304.2 + 350 + 78 + 74.6 = 1056.8 W
Power output = 10000 – 1056.8 = 8943.2 W
So, efficiency = (8943.2/10000) ¥ 100 = 89.43%.
! Qspcmfn!3/223
B!591!W-!31!lX!tivou!npups!ublft!3/6!B!xifo!svoojoh!bu!op.mpbe/!Ubljoh!uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!
up!cf!1/7!W-!gjfme!sftjtubodf!up!cf!911!W!boe!csvti!espq!3!W-!gjoe!uif!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
Here, V = 480 V, P = 20 ¥ 103 W, IL = 2.5 A (no-load), Ra = 0.6 A, Rsh = 800 W
V 480
\ Ish = = = 0.6 A
Rsh 800
Input power at no-load = VIL (no-load) = 480 ¥ 2.5 = 1200 W
Field copper loss = Ia2 Rsh = (0.6)2 ¥ 800 = 288 W
Armature current (no-load)
Ia = IL – Ish = 2.5 – 0.6 = 1.9 A
! Qspcmfn!3/224
B!211!lX-!331!W!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub;
Bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!>!1/2!W
Nfdibojdbm!mptt!>!6!lX
Jspo!mpttft!>!6!lX
Tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!>!331!W
Csvti.dpoubdu!espq!>!2!W!qfs!csvti!
Tusbz!mpttft!bsf!2&!pg!pvuqvu/
Gjoe!uif!fggjdjfdz!bu!gvmm!mpbe/!Bmtp!gjoe!uif!joqvu!upsrvf!jg!uif!tqffe!jt!2111!sqn/
Solution
Given, output = 100 W
Terminal voltage = 220 V
100 ¥ 103
Line current IL = = 454.54 A
220
220
Field current Ish = =1A
220
Armature Ia = IL + Ish = 454.54 + 1 = 455.54 A
Field copper loss
Ish2 Rsh = 12 ¥ 220 = 220 W
Armature copper loss
Ia2 Ra = (455.54)2 ¥ 0.1 = 20751.67 W
Brush contact loss = 1 ¥ 2 ¥ 455.54 = 911.08 W
Mechanical loss = 5000 W.
Iron loss = 5000 W
Stray losses = 0.01 ¥ 100 ¥ 103 = 1000 W
! 3/259 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/225
B!511!W!tivou!npups!xjui!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!1/2!W!boe!311!W!ublft!op.mpbe!dvssfou!
pg!21!B!bu!2611!sqn/!Jg!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!jt!211!B-!gjoe!uif!tqffe!boe!pvuqvu!upsrvf!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Bt.
tvnf!uibu!uif!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!bsf!tbnf!bu!op.mpbe!boe!gvmm.mpbe/
Solution
Given, V = 400, Ra = 0.1 W, Rsh = 200 W
At no-load,
IL1 = 10 A
N1 = 1500 rpm
V 400
Ish = = =2A
Rsh 200
\ Ia1 = IL1 – Ish = 10 – 2 = 8 A
! Qspcmfn!3/226
B!511!W!ed!tivou!npups!svot!bu!2111!sqn!boe!ublft!bo!joqvu!pg!2611!X!voefs!op.mpbe!dpoejujpo/!
Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!bsf!1/4!W!boe!311!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!uif!fggjdjfodz!xifo!
uif!nbdijof!jt!vtfe!bt!b!hfofsbups!tvqqmzjoh!211!B!bu!511!W/
Solution
For motor at no-load,
Input power = 1500 W
1500
Line current = = 3.75 A [no-load]
400
400
Shunt field current = =2A
200
Hence, armature current Ia = 3.75 – 2 = 1.75 A
Armature copper loss = (1.75)2 ¥ 0.3 = 0.9187 W [no-load]
Constant loss = Mechanical loss + Core loss + Shunt-field copper loss
= 1500 – 0.9187 = 1499.08 W
For generator, output = 100 ¥ 400 = 40,000 W
Line current = 100 A
Armature current = 100 + 2 = 102 A
Armature copper loss = (102)2 ¥ 0.3 = 3121.2 W
So, total loss = 3121.2 + 1499.08 = 4620.28 W
Output 40, 000
Efficiency = = ¥ 100% = 89.65%.
Output + Loss 40, 000 + 4620.28
! 3/261 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/227
B!311!W!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!svot!bu!2111!sqn!bu!op.mpbe!ubljoh!bo!joqvu!pg!811!X/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!jt!1/3!W!boe!uif!tivou.gjfme!dvssfou!jt!3!B/!Gjoe!uif!mjof!dvssfou!bu!xijdi!nbyjnvn!fg.
gjdjfodz!pddvst/!Bmtp!gjoe!uif!wbmvf!pg!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
At no-load, Input power = 700 W
700
Line current = = 3.5 A (no-load)
200
Shunt-field current = 2 A
Hence, armature current at no-load = 3.5 + 2 = 5.5 A
Armature copper loss at no-load = (5.5)2 ¥ 0.2 = 6.05 W
Constant loss = 700 – 6.05 = 693.95 W
Maximum efficiency occurs when constant loss = Variable loss.
In shunt machines, variable loss is the armature copper loss.
If Ia be the armature current at which maximum efficiency occurs then
Ia2 ¥ 0.2 = 693.95 A
693.05
or Ia = = 58.9 A
0.2
\ the line current at which maximum efficiency occurs is (58.9 – 2) = 56.9 A.
Output power = 56.90 ¥ 200 = 11380 W
Total losses = 693.95 ¥ 2 = 1387.9 W
(E Constant loss = Variable loss, hence, Total loss = 2 ¥ Constant loss)
11380
\ efficiency = ¥ 100% = 89.13%.
11380 + 1387.9
! Qspcmfn!3/228
B!511!W!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!hjwft!b!gvmm.mpbe!pvuqvu!pg!61!lX/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!sftjtubodf!
bsf!1/2!boe!361!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!dpsf!boe!gsjdujpobm!mpttft!bsf!uphfuifs!3111!X/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!
hfofsbufe!fng-!dpqqfs!mpttft!boe!fggjdjfodz/!
Solution
Output = 50,000 W
50, 000
Line current = = 125 A
400
400
Shunt-field current = A = 1.6 A
250
\ armature current = 125 + 1.6 = 126.6 A
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/262
! Qspcmfn!3/229
B!311!W!ed!tivou!npups!ublft!4!B!bu!op.mpbe/!Jg!uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!tivou!gjfme!sftjtubodf!bsf!1/3!W!
boe!221!W!sftqfdujwfmz-!gjoe!uif!pvuqvu!qpxfs!boe!fggjdjfodz!xifo!npups!ublft!41!B!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!
Bmtp!gjoe!uif!qfsdfoubhf!dibohf!jo!tqffe!gspn!op.mpbe!up!gvmm.mpbe/
Solution
At no-load,
IL = 3 A,
Also, Ra = 0.2 W, Rsh = 110 W;
220
\ Ish = A=2A
110
Hence, Ia = 3 – 2 = 1 A
Armature copper loss at no-load Eb1 = (1)2 ¥ 0.2 = 0.2 W
Input at no-load = V ¥ IL = 220 ¥ 3 = 660 W
Thus, constant loss = 600 – 0.2 = 659.8 W
Back emf Eb1 = V – Ia Ra = 220 – 1 ¥ 0.2 = 219.8 V
At full-load,
IL = 30 A
So, Ia = 30 – 2 = 28 A
Armature copper loss at full-load is (28)2 ¥ 0.2 = 156.8 W
Total loss at full-load = 156.8 + 659.8 = 816.6 W
Input power at full-load = 220 ¥ 30 = 6600 W
\ output power at full-load = (6600 – 816.6)W = 5783.4 W
Output 5783.4
Therefore, efficiency at full-load = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 87.63%.
Input 6600
Back emf at full-load,
(Eb2) = 220 – 28 ¥ 0.2 = 214.4 V
! 3/263 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/22:
B!361!W-!311!lX!ed!hfofsbups!xifo!bu!sftu!ublft!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!511!B!xjui!9!W!qspevdfe!
bdsptt!jut!bsnbuvsf!ufsnjobmt/!Bu!op.mpbe!dpoejujpo!boe!bu!sbufe!tqffe-!uif!mjof!boe!tivou.gjfme!dvs.
sfout!bsf!sftqfdujwfmz!47!B!boe!23!B/!Gjoe!uif!hfofsbups!fggjdjfodz!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!ibmg.mpbe/
Solution
When the generator is at rest, back emf Eb = 0
\ 0 = V – Ia Ra
V 8
or Ra = = = 0.02 W
I a 400
At no-load condition,
IL = 36 A and Ish = 12 A
\ Ia = 36 – 12 = 24 A
Armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra = (24)2 ¥ 0.02 = 11.52 W [at no-load]
Input = 36 ¥ 250 W
Constant losses = 36 ¥ 250 – 11.52 (E Constant losses = Input – Armature copper loss)
= 8988.48 W.
At full-load,
Output power = 200,000 W
200, 000
Line current IL = A = 800 A
250
Armature current (Ia) = 800 + 12 = 812 A
\ armature copper loss at full-load is
Ia2 Ra = (812)2 ¥ 0.02 = 13186.88 W
Total losses = 13186.88 + 8988.48 = 22175.35 W
200, 000
\ efficiency at full-load = ¥ 100% = 90%
200, 000 + 22175.36
At half-load,
800
IL = = 400 A
2
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/264
Ia = 400 + 12 = 412 A
200, 000
Output = W = 100,000 W
2
Armature copper loss = (412)2 ¥ 0.02 = 3394.88 W (at half load).
Total loss at half-load = 3394.88 + 8988.48 = 12383.36 W
100, 000
\ efficiency at half-load = ¥ 100% = 88.98%.
100, 000 + 12383.36
! Qspcmfn!3/231
B!2611!lX-!661!W-!27.qpmf!tfsjft!hfofsbups!svot!bu!261!sqn/!Xibu!nvtu!cf!uif!vtfgvm!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!
jg!uifsf!bsf!3611!mbq.dpoofdufe!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst!boe!gvmm.mpbe!dpqqfs!mpttft!bsf!36!lX@
Solution
In a series generator,
Line current = Armature current
1500 ¥ 103
Hence, Ia = A = 2727.27 A
550
Now, copper loss = Ia2 Ra = 25 ¥ 103 W
25 ¥ 103
\ Ra = = 0.00336 W
( 2727.27) 2
Generated emf E = V + Ia Ra = 550 + 2727.27 ¥ 0.00336 = 599.167 V
If f be the flux per pole, we can write
Pf ZN 16 f ¥ 2500 ¥ 150
559.167 = = = 6250 f
60 A 60 ¥ 16
\ f = 0.08947 Wb.
! Qspcmfn!3/232
B!tipsu.tivou!dpnqpvoe!hfofsbups!tvqqmjft!b!dvssfou!pg!211!B!bu!b!wpmubhf!pg!331!W/!Uif!sftjtubodf!
pg!uif!tivou!gjfme-!tfsjft!gjfme!boe!bsnbuvsf!bsf!61!W-!1/136!W!boe!1/16!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!upubm!
csvti!espq!jt!3!W!boe!uif!upubm!jspo!boe!gsjdujpobm!mpttft!bsf!2111!X/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!hfofsbufe!fng-!
)c*!dpqqfs!mpttft-!boe!)d*!hfofsbups!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
IL = 100 A, V = 200 V, Rsh = 50 W, Rse = 0.025 W and Ra = 0.05 W.
Also, brush drop = 2 V.
Total iron and friction losses = 1000 W
Voltage across shunt field (or across armature terminals)
= 220 + 100 ¥ 0.025 = 220 + 2.5 = 222.5 V
! 3/265 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
222.5
Thus, Ish = A = 4.45 A
50
Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 4.45 = 104.45 A
(a) Generated voltage = 222.5 + 104.45 ¥ 0.05 + 2 = 229.72 V
(b) Copper losses = Ia2 Ra + Ish2 Rsh + IL2 Rse
= (104.45)2 ¥ 0.05 + (4.45)2 ¥ 50 + (100)2 ¥ 0.025
= 1785.615 W = 1.78 kW
! Qspcmfn!3/233
B!511!W!ed!tivou!npups!svot!bu!op.mpbe!bu!2611!sqn!xjui!2111!X!joqvu/!Uif!tivou.gjfme!dvssfou!jt!
2!B!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/3!W/!Gjoe!uif!mjof!dvssfou!bu!xijdi!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pddvst!
boe!uif!wbmvf!pg!uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
Given, V = 400 V, N = 1500 rpm
Input power = 1000 W, Ish = 1 A and Ra = 0.2 W
1000
Line current at no-load = = 2.5 A
400
Armature current at no-load = 2.5 – 1 = 1.5 A
Armature copper loss at no-load (Ia2 Ra) = (1.5)2 ¥ 0.2 = 0.45 W
Constant loss = 1000 – 0.45 = 999.55 W.
For maximum efficiency, Constant loss = Variable loss
If Ia¢ be the armature current at maximum efficiency condition then
Ia¢2 ¥ 0.2 = 999.55 or, Ia¢ = 70.69 A
! Qspcmfn!3/234
B!21!lX-!311!W!tipsu.tivou!dpnqpvoe!ed!hfofsbups!ibt!b!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!pg!:1&/!Jg!uif!bsnb.
uvsf-!tfsjft!boe!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!bsf!1/3-!1/2!boe!61!W!sftqfdujwfmz-!gjoe!uif!dpncjofe!nf.
dibojdbm!boe!dpsf!mptt!pg!uif!nbdijof/
Solution
Output power = 10,000 W
10 ¥ 103
Line current = A = 50 A
200
h = 0.9
Output 10, 000
Input power = = = 11,111 W
h 0.9
Total loss = 11,111 – 10,000 = 1111 W
Voltage across the shunt field or armature terminals is = 200 + 50 ¥ 0.1 = 205 V
205
Hence, Ish = = 2.05 A
100
Shunt-field copper loss = (Ish2 Rsh) = (2.05)2 ¥ 50 = 210.125 W
Series-field copper loss = Ise2 Rse
= (50)2 ¥ 0.1 = 250 W
Also Ia = 2.05 + 50 = 52.05 A
Armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra = (52.05)2 ¥ 0.2 = 541.84 W
\ Mechanical + Core losses = 1111 – 541.8 – 210.125 – 250 = 109.035 W.
! Qspcmfn!3/235
B!31!lX-!511!W!ed!tivou!hfofsbups!ibt!op.mpbe!spubujpobm!mpttft!pg!911!xbuut/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!
tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodft!bsf!1/4!W!boe!311!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!uif!joqvu!qpxfs!boe!fggjdjfodz/!Bmtp!
dbmdvmbuf!uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!boe!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!qpxfs!pvuqvu/
Solution
V 400
Ish = = A=2A
Rsh 200
P 20 ¥ 103
IL = = = 50 A
V 400
Hence, Ia = (IL + Ish) = (50 + 2)A = 52 A
Ê 1600 + 1600 ˆ
Maximum efficiency = Á1 - = 0.8987 or 89.87%.
Ë 28400 + 1600 + 1600 ˜¯
! Qspcmfn!3/236
B!361!lX-!341!W!mpoh.tivou!dpnqpvoe!hfofsbups!tvqqmjft!86&!pg!uif!sbufe!mpbe!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf/!
Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!tfsjft.gjfme!sftjtubodft!bsf!1/11:!W!boe!1/114!W/!Gjoe!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!hfo.
fsbups!jg!uif!tivou.gjfme!dvssfou!jt!24!B/!Xifo!uif!nbdijof!jt!svo!bt!b!npups!bu!op.mpbe-!uif!bsnb.
uvsf!dvssfou!jt!36!B!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf/
Solution
Here, P = 250 ¥ 0.75 kW = 187.5 kW
V = 230 V
Ra = 0.009 W and Rse = 0.003 W
P 187500
Ish = 13 A and IL = = A = 815.22 A
V 230
So, Ia = IL + Ish = 828.22 A
Armature copper loss (= Ia2 Ra) = (828.22)2 ¥ 0.009 W = 6173.54 W
Field copper loss = Shunt-field copper loss + Series-field copper loss
= {230 ¥ 13 + (828.22)2 ¥ 0.003}W = 5047.8 W
When the machine runs at no-load as a motor,
Ia = 25 A
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/268
Ish = 13 A
\ IL = 13 + 25 = 38 A
Input power = IL ¥ V = (38 ¥ 230)W = 8740 W
Total copper losses = {(25)2 ¥ 0.009 + 230 ¥ 13 + (25)2 ¥ 0.003}W = 2997.5 W
No-load rotational loss = Input power – Copper losses = (8740 – 2997.5)W = 5742.5 W
For a generator,
Total losses = (6173.54 + 5047.8 + 5742.5)W = 16963.84 W = 16.964 kW
Output Output
Efficiency = ¥ 100 = ¥ 100
Input Output + Loss
187.5
= ¥ 100% = 91.7%.
187.5 + 16.964
! Qspcmfn!3/237
B!711!W!ed!npups!esjwft!b!71!lX!mpbe!811!sqn/!Uif!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!211!W!boe!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!jt!1/27!W/!Jg!uif!npups!fggjdjfodz!jt!96&-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!tqffe!bu!op.mpbe!boe!tqffe!sfhvmb.
ujpo/
Solution
Output = 60,000 W, V = 600, N1 = 700 rpm, Rsh = 100 W,
Ra = 0.16 W, h = 0.85
Output power 60000
Input power = = = 70588 W
Efficiency 0.85
Input power 70588
\ IL = = = 117.65 A
Terminal voltage 600
V 600
Ish = = A=6A
rsh 100
Ia = IL – Ish (for motor) = 117.65 – 6 = 111.65 A
Also, Eb1 = V – Ia Ra = 600 – 111.65 ¥ 0.16 = 582.136 V
At no-load,
Eb2 = V = 600 V
It no-load, speed is N2 then
Eb2 600
N2 = N1 = 700 ¥ rpm = 721 rpm
Eb1 582.136
721 - 700
Speed regulation = ¥ 100% = 3%.
700
! 3/269 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/238
B!311!W!tivou!npups!ibt!Sb!>!1/2!W-!Sti!>!351!W!boe!spubujpobm!mptt!jt!347!X/!Po!gvmm.mpbe-!uif!mjof!
dvssfou!jt!:/9! B!xjui!uif!npups!svoojoh!bu!2561! sqn/! Gjoe! )b*! uif! nfdibojdbm! qpxfs! efwfmpqfe-!
)c*!qpxfs!pvuqvu-!)d*!mpbe!upsrvf-!boe!)e*!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
Here, V = 200 V, Ra = 0.1 W, Rsh = 240 W, If l = 9.8 A
Nf l = 1450 rpm. Rotational loss = 236 W
V 200
\ Ish = = = 0.833 A
rsh 240
and Ia = (If l – Ish ) = 9.8 – 0.833 = 8.97 A
Also, Eb = V – Ia Ra = 200 – 8.97 ¥ 0.1 = 199 V
(a) Mechanical power developed is Eb Ia = 199 ¥ 8.97 = 1785 W = 1.785 kW
(b) Power output = 1785.9 – 236 = 1549 W = 1.55 kW
Power output 1549 ¥ 60
(c) Load torque = = = 10.2 Nm
w 2p ¥ 1450
Output 1549
(d) Full load efficiency = = = 0.791 = 79.1%.
Input 200 ¥ 9.8
! Qspcmfn!3/239
B!311!W!tivou!npups!ublft!21!B!xifo!svoojoh!bu!op.mpbe/!Uif!csvti!espq!jt!3!W!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!ofh.
mjhjcmf!bu!op.mpbe/!Uif!tusbz!mpbe!mptt!bu!mjof!dvssfou!pg!211!B!jt!61&!pg!uif!op.mpbe!mptt/!Gjoe!uif!fggj.
djfodz!bu!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!211!B!jg!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!sftjtubodft!bsf!1/3!W!boe!211!W!sftqfdujwfmz/
Solution
V = 200 V, ILO = 10 A, Brush drop = 2 V,
V 200
Ish = = A=2A
rsh 100
At no-load, Ia = ILO – Ish = 10 – 2 = 8 A
Again, (Input = Loss) = 200 ¥ 10 = 2000 W (at no-load)
= No-load rotational loss + Shunt-field copper loss
\ No-load rotational loss = 2000 – 200 ¥ 2 – 82 ¥ 0.2 = 1587.2 W
[E Shunt field copper loss at no-load = Ia2 (no-load) ¥ Ra = (82 ¥ 0.02)W]
When IL = 100 A
Ia = 100 – 2 = 98 A
Stray load loss = 0.5 ¥ 2000 = 1000 W
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/26:
! Qspcmfn!3/23:
B!35!lX-!351!W-!211!B-!2611!sqn!ed!tfsjft!npups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!gvmm!mpbe!mpttft!fyqsfttfe!jo!
qfsdfoubhf!pg!npups!joqvu;
Bsnbuvsf!dpqqfs!mptt!>!4&
Gjfme!dpqqfs!mptt!>!3/6&
Spubujpobm!mptt!>!3&
Jg!uif!npups!esbxt!ibmg!uif!sbufe!dvssfou!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf-!efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!boe!tibgu!qpxfs!
pvuqvu/
Solution
Input power = 24 ¥ 103 = 24,000 W
Rotational loss = 0.02 ¥ 24,000 = 480 W
Armature copper loss = 0.03 ¥ 24,000 = 720 W
Field copper loss = 0.025 ¥ 24,000 = 600 W
\ total copper loss = (720 + 600) W = 1320 W Ia2 (Ra + Rse)
1320
or (Ra + Rse) = W = 0.132
(100) 2
Eb1 = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) = 240 – 100(0.132) = 226.8 V
100
Now, IL = = 50 A
2
\ Eb2 = 240 – 50 ¥ 0.132 = 233.4 V
(a) If N be the required speed,
Eb2 f2 N 50 ¥ N
= = (As IL μ f in series motor)
Eb1 f1 ¥ 1500 100 ¥ 1500
100 ¥ 1500 233.4
or N= ¥ = 3087 rpm
50 226.8
! Qspcmfn!3/241
B!36!IQ-!351!W-!2111!sqn-!5.qpmf!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!2111!dpoevdupst!bssbohfe!jo!uxp!qbsbmmfm!
qbuit/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!djsdvju!sftjtubodf!jt!1/4!W-!gjfme!dvssfou!boe!mjof!dvssfou!bsf!3!B!boe!211!B!
sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!)b*!gmvy!qfs!qpmf-!)c*!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe-!)d*!spubujpobm!mpttft-!boe!)e*!upubm!mpttft!
fyqsfttjoh!bt!b!qfsdfoubhf!pg!qpxfs/
Solution
Output power P = 25 HP = 25 ¥ 735.5 W = 18387.5 W
V = 240 V, N = 1000 rpm, P = 4, Z = 1000
A = 2, Ra = 0.3 W, Ish = 2 A, IL = 100 A
Ia = IL – Ish = 100 – 2 = 98 A
and Eb = V – Ia Ra = 240 – 98 ¥ 0.3 = 210.6 V
Pf ZN
(a) Also Eb = where f = flux per pole
60 A
60 AEb 60 ¥ 2 ¥ 210.6
or f= = = 0.0063 Wb
PZN 4 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1000
Pf ZI a 4 ¥ 0.0063 ¥ 1000 ¥ 98
(b) Te = Nm = = 196.62 Nm
2p A 2p ¥ 2
(c) Power developed by the motor (= Eb Ia) = 210.6 ¥ 98 = 20638.8 W
Rotational losses = Eb Ia – Output power = 20638.8 – 18387.5 = 2251.3 W
(d) Armature copper loss (= Ia2 Ra) = (98)2 ¥ 0.3 = 2881.2 W
Field copper loss (= V Ish) = 240 ¥ 2 = 480 W
Total losses = (2881.2 + 480 + 2251.3)W = 5612.5 W
5612.5
\ % loss = ¥ 100% = 30.52%.
18387.5
! Qspcmfn!3/242
B!331!W!tivou!npups!ublft!21/36!B!po!gvmm.mpbe/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!1/9!W!boe!uif!gjfme!sf.
tjtubodf!jt!991!W/!Uif!mpttft!evf!up!gsjdujpo-!xjoebhf!boe!uif!jspo!bnpvou!up!261!X/!Gjoe!uif!pvuqvu!
qpxfs!boe!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups!po!gvmm.mpbe/
Solution
Motor input on full-load = 220 ¥ 10.25 = 2255 W
220
Field current = = 0.25 A
880
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/272
! Qspcmfn!3/243
B!331!W!tivou!hfofsbups!jt!sbufe!up!ibwf!b!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!311!B/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!gjfme!sftjt.
ubodf!bsf!1/17!W!boe!66!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!spubujpobm!mpttft!bsf!4!lX/!Gjoe!uif!joqvu!qpxfs!pg!uif!
hfofsbups!boe!uif!mpbe!dvssfou!gps!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
V 220
Field current Ish = = =4A
Rsh 55
Armature current Ia = Ift + Ish = 200 + 4 = 204 A
Armature copper loss (Ia2 ¥ Ra) = (204)2 ¥ 0.06 = 2496.96 W
2
Field copper loss = Ish ¥ Rsh = (4)2 ¥ 55 = 880 W
Rotational loss = 3000 W
Constant loss = Field copper loss + Rotational losses = 880 + 3000 = 3880 W
Variable losses (= Armature copper loss) = 2496.96 W
Input power of generator = Output power + Total losses
= 220 ¥ 200 + 3880 + 2496.96
= 50.377 kW [E Total losses = Constant loss + Variable loss]
Condition for maximum efficiency is given by
Variable loss = Constant loss
If Ia be the armature current for maximum efficiency then
Ia2 ¥ 0.06 = 3880 [E Variable loss is (Ia2 ¥ 0.06)W and constant loss is 3880 W]
or Ia = 254.3 A
Hence, load current for maximum efficiency is (254.3 – 4) or 250.3 A.
! Qspcmfn!3/244
B!ed!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/:!W!boe!ublft!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!29!B!gspn!
341! W! ed! nbjot/! Dbmdvmbuf! uif! qpxfs! pvuqvu! boe! pwfsbmm! fggjdjfodz! pg! uif! npups! jg! uif! spubujpobm!
mpttft!bsf!nfbtvsfe!up!cf!223!X!boe!uif!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!411!W/
! 3/273 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Armature current = 18 A
230
Field current = = 0.767 A
300
Line current = 18.767 A
Armature copper loss = (18)2 ¥ 0.9 = 291.6 W
Field copper loss = (0.767)2 ¥ 300 = 176.48 W
Total losses = 291.6 + 176.48 + 112 = 580.08 W
Output power = Input power – Loss = 18.767 ¥ 230 – 580.08 = 3736.33 W = 3.74 kW
Output 3736.33
Overall efficiency = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 86.56%.
Input 18.767 ¥ 230
! Qspcmfn!3/245
B!5!lX-!216!W-!2311!sqn!tivou!npups!xifo!svoojoh!mjhiu!bu!opsnbm!tqffe!ublft!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvs.
sfou!pg!4!B!bu!213!W-!opnjobm!wpmubhf!cfjoh!bqqmjfe!up!uif!gjfme!xjoejoh/!Uif!gjfme!boe!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodft!bsf!:6!W!boe!1/2!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!pvuqvu!qpxfs!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups!
xifo!pqfsbujoh!bu!216!W!boe!ubljoh!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!51!B/!Bmmpx!3!W!espq!bu!uif!csvtift/
Solution
Given, line current IL is 40 A.
105
Field current Ish = A = 1.1 A
95
\ armature current Ia = 40 – 1.1 = 38.9 A [E Ia = IL – Ish]
At full-load, output power = 105 ¥ 40 – 183.6 – 38.9 ¥ 2 – 105 ¥ 1.1 + (38.9)2 ¥ 0.1 = 3672 W.
[Here, Output power = Input power – Total losses in the machine.
Total losses = Rotational losses + Brush loss + Field loss + Armature loss
= 183.6 + 38.9 ¥ 2 + 105 ¥ 1.1 + (38.9)2 ¥ 0.1]
Output 3762
\ Efficiency = ¥ 100 = ¥ 100% = 87.42%.
Input 105 ¥ 40
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/274
! Qspcmfn!3/246
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!op.mpbe!dvssfou!ublfo!cz!b!211!lX-!571!W!tivou!npups!bttvnjoh!uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!
gjfme! sftjtubodf! up! sfnbjo! dpotubou! boe! frvbm! up! 1/14! W! boe! 57! W! sftqfdujwfmz/! Uif! fggjdjfodz! bu!
gvmm.mpbe!jt!99&/
Solution
460
Field current = A = 10 A
46
At light load,
Input (= Losses) = Ia2 Ra + Constant losses
or 460 (Ia + 10) = Ia2 ¥ 0.03 + Constant losses …(i)
Output
At full-load, Efficiency = = 0.88
Input
100 ¥ 103
\ input = = 113.636 kW
0.88
Total loss = (Input – Output) = 113.636 – 100 = 13.636 W
Input power 113.636 ¥ 103
\ Input current = = = 247 A
Voltage 460
\ Constant loss = Total loss – Full-load armature copper loss
= 13636 – (247)2 ¥ 0.03 = 11805.73 W
This loss remains same at full-load as well as at no-load.
\ from Eq. (i), 460 Ia + 4600 = Ia2 ¥ 0.03 + 11805.73
or Ia2 – 15333.33 Ia + 240190
15333.33 ± 15302
Ia =
2
or Ia = 15.5 A (at no-load)
\ No-load current = 15.5 + 10 = 25.5 A.
! Qspcmfn!3/247
B!ed!tivou!nbdijof!ibt!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf-!jodmvejoh!csvtift-!1/5!W!boe!uif!gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!
271!W/!Uif!nbdijof!ublft!6!B!xijmf!svoojoh!bt!b!npups!bu!911!sqn!bu!op.mpbe!bu!331!W/!Dbmdvmbuf!
uif!tqffe!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!nbdijof!xifo!ubljoh!56!B!bu!331!W/!Bttvnf!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo!up!
xfblfo!uif!gjfme!cz!4&/
Solution
220
Shunt-field current Ish = A = 1.375 A
160
At no-load, line current 5 A (= ILO)
! 3/275 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
TUBSUJOH!PG!B!ED!NPUPS! 3/38
3/38/2! Offe!gps!Tubsufs!jo!b!ed!Npups
The armature current of a motor is given by
V - Eb
Ia =
Ra
Thus, Ia depends upon Eb and Ra when V is kept constant. When a motor is first switched on, the
armature is stationary so the back emf Eb is zero (Eb μ speed).
The initial starting armature current Ia is thus, given by
V -0 V
Ias = =
Ra Ra
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/276
Since the armature resistance of a motor is very small (generally less than one ohm), therefore,
the starting armature current Ias would be very large. For example, if a motor with 0.2 ohm arma-
ture current is connected directly to a 230 V supply then the armature current at start is obtained as
V 230
Ias = = = 1150 A
Ra 0.2
This large current would damage the brushes, commutator or windings. Also it may damage
supply installation.
As the motor speed increases, the back emf increases and difference (V – Eb) goes on decreas-
ing. This results in the gradual decrease of Ias until the motor attains its stable rated speed and the
corresponding back emf. Under this condition, the armature current reaches its desired rated value.
Thus, it is found that the back emf helps the armature resistance in limiting the current through the
armature.
Since the starting current is very large, at the time of starting of dc motors (expect very small
motor), an extra resistance must be connected in series with the armature. This would limit the
initial current to a safe value until the motor has built up the stable speed and back emf Eb. This
external starting resistance is basically known as the starter resistance.
The external series resistance is divided into sections which are cut out one by one as the speed
of the motor increases and the back emf builds up. When the speed of the motor attains its normal
value, the extra resistance is completely cut out.
3/38/3! Nfuipet!pg!Tubsujoh
2/!Ejsfdu!Tubsujoh
This method is rarely used and may be suitable for very low rating motors where high inrush of
starting current for the short period does not damage the system. In fact, for very small motors,
starting current is not very high and is tolerable to both the source and line. For higher rating
motors, direct on-line starting may lead to heavy sparking at the commutator, heavy voltage drop in
the line, damage to the dc supply source and mechanical damage of the motor.
3/!Bsnbuvsf!Sftjtubodf!Tubsujoh
This is the most common method of starting of dc motors. It is simple as well as reliable. Only a
variable resistance is needed to be added in series with the armature during start. The resistance is
gradually reduced and finally made to zero when the motor attains speed close to the full speed. For
this purpose of armature resistance starting, we will describe two types of starter.
When the motor is at rest, the starter handle S is kept in the ‘OFF’ position by spring and the
motor is disconnected from the supply. When the motor is to be started, the handle is moved to the
stud 1. The shunt field and the holding coil get the supply and the entire starting resistance is con-
nected is series with the armature. The armature starts rotating and the handle is gradually moved
through all the studs until it touches the holding magnet. The magnet is called the no-volt release
or low-voltage release coil. In case of power failure, the holding coil gets demagnetized and the
handle is brought back to “OFF” position by a spring action. Again, if by any chance, the shunt-field
winding gets open-circuited, the holding magnet gets demagnetized and the starter handle returns
to the “OFF” position.
There is another coil called overload release coil which protects the motor against excessive load
current. When armature current exceeds a particular value, the overload release coil attracts the
soft-iron armature and as a result, the no-volt release coil gets short circuited. The starter is pulled
back to the “OFF” position by the spring action as the holding coil gets demagnetized. The motor
is thus, automatically switched off.
Starting resistors
2 3
1 4
OFF 5
Soft iron 6 ON
keeper
S
b
a
Overload
No volt
release
release coil
coil
b a
L F A
A
dc
Supply Arm
F
AA
Gjh/!3/78! Uisff.qpjou!tubsufs
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/278
In a three-point starter, the field circuit and the no-volt release coil are in series. To obtain the
speed above the rated speed, the field current should be reduced. If the field current is reduced
below a certain level, the electromagnetic force of the no-volt release coil may become less than
the spring force. In this condition, the starter handle may return to the OFF position and the motor
stops. Hence, the three-point starter cannot be used where speed control above the rated speed is to
be obtained by shunt-field control.
)c*! Gpvs.Qpjou! Tubsufs! The four-point starter connected to a dc shunt motor is shown in Fig.
2.68. Here, four terminals are made available. They are L, L, F, A. Under normal running condition,
the holding magnet is in series with a resistance R as shown in Fig. 2.68. The resistance R prevents
short circuit of the supply mains when the overload release coil operates. When the holding coil gets
short circuited by overload release coil, the current through R is limited by the starting resistance
and its own resistance.
Starting resistors
2 3
1 4
OFF 5
Soft Iron ON
6
keeper
HC
H b
OR
b a
R
M
L L F A
F
FF
AA
Gjh/!3/79! Gpvs.qpjou!tubsufs
! 3/279 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
In a four-point starter, the change of the field current by field rheostat is possible without effect-
ing the no-volt release coil current. Hence, the electromagnetic force of the holding magnet remains
unaffected and remains more than the spring pull for any value of speed.
The limitation of this starter is that it does not provide high-speed protection to the motor. If
under running condition, the field gets opened, the field current reduces to zero. The motor tries to
run with dangerously high speed due to residual flux. In a three-point starter, as the no-volt release
coil is in series with the field, under such a condition, the starter is returned to the “OFF” position.
But in a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the supply and its
current is maintained irrespective of the current through the field winding. Hence, it continues to
remain in the “ON” position as long as there is supply. Thus, it does not protect the motor from field
failure conditions.
4/!Dbmdvmbujpo!pg!Tubsufs!Tufqt!gps!b!Tivou!Npups!
Let there be n steps in the resistance starter and let r1, r2, r3, … , rn – 1 and Ra be the total resistance
between the respective starter step and the remote terminal of the motor (see Fig. 2.69).
R1
R2
R3 r1
r2
r3
F Arm. Ra
Gjh/!3/7:! Tubsufs.tufq!dbmdvmbujpo!gps!b!tivou!ed!npups
I1
Input
Current (I)
I2
Iload
Speed
Gjh/!3/81! Qspgjmf!pg!Jb!wt/!tqffe!gps!uif!ed!npups!evsjoh!tubsujoh!xjui!uif!sftjtubodf!tubsufs
V - Ebm
And I1 =
rm +1
Thus, (I2/I1) = (rm + 1/rm)
r1 r r rn - 1 I1
i.e. = 2 = 3 =…= = = a (say)
r2 r3 r4 Ra I2
Thus, we can write,
n -1
r1 r2 rn - 1 Ê I1 ˆ
¥ ¥? ?¥ =Á ˜ = an – 1
r2 r3 Ra Ë I2 ¯
n -1
r1 ÊI ˆ
or, = an -1 = Á 1 ˜ [2.38(a)]
Ra Ë I2 ¯
V
Also, r1 = [2.38(b)]
I1
I r I V V
and, a = a.an – 1 = 1 ◊ 1 = 1 ◊
n
= (2.39)
I 2 Ra I 2 I1Ra I 2 Ra
Thus, once a designer fixes up the upper and lower current limits of armature current during
starting, starter step calculation can be done as follows:
(a) To calculate r1 from Eq. [2.38(b)]
(b) To calculate the number of steps n choosing the nearest integral value using Eq. (2.38a)
(c) To calculate r1, r2, r3, … , rn – 1 from equations
rn – 1 = aRa
rn – 2 = arn – 1
A
r3 = ar4
! 3/281 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
r2 = ar3
r1 = ar2
5/!Dbmdvmbujpo!pg!Tubsufs!Tufqt!gps!b!Tfsjft!Npups!
The series motor flux varies as the armature current changes. In order to find the starter resistances,
let us assume that the magnetization characteristic of the series motor is linear. We also assume that
similar to the shunt motor starter, here also the limiting currents are I1 and I2 while the correspond-
ing fluxes per pole are f1 and f2 respectively.
I1 f1
= a; =b
I2 f2
Bu!Tuve!2
V
r1 =
I1
Back emf when the handle leaves the stud 1 is E1 = V – I2 r1
Bu!Tuve!4! Back emf when the handle touches the stud 3 is given by
E¢2 = bE2
V - E2¢ V - b E2 V - b(V - I 2 r2 )
\ r3 = = =
I1 I1 I1
V V bI r br
= - b + 2 2 = r1 - b r1 + 2
I1 I1 I1 a
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/282
R1 = r1 – r2 = br1 ÊÁ1 - ˆ˜
1
Ë a¯
b b
R2 = r2 – r3 = ( r1 - r2 ) = R1
a a
2
b Ê bˆ
R3 = r3 – r4 = ( r2 - r3 ) = Á ˜ R1
a Ëa¯
and so on.
R1 R2 a
\ = = º = = r (a constant)
R2 R3 b
Magnetization curve being linear, r = 1
\ R1 = R2 = R3 = … = Rn – 1
ED!NPUPS!TUBSUJOH!DJSDVJUT! 3/39
To operate three-point or four-point starters, two actions are necessary. The first is to pick the size
and number of resistor segments necessary in order to limit the starting current to its desired value.
The second one is to design a contact circuit that shuts the resistor bypass contacts at proper time
to remove those parts of the resistor from the circuit.
The older dc motor starters used a continuous starting resistor which was gradually cut out of the
circuit by a person moving its handle. This system had problems as it largely depended on the per-
son starting the motor not to move its handle too quickly or too slowly. If the resistance were cut out
too quickly (before the motor could speed up enough), the resulting current flow would be too large.
On the other hand, if the resistance were cut out too slowly, the starting resistor could burn. Since
these starters depended on a person for their correct operation, these motor starters were subjected
to human error problem. In modern times, they have been displaced by automatic starter circuits.
Figure 2.71 slows some devices which are used in automatic starter circuits. They are fuses,
pushbutton switches, relays, time-delay relays and overloads. The fuses [shown in Fig. 2.71(a)]
are placed in the power lines leading to motors. When a motor develops short circuit, the fuses in
the line leading to it will burn, opening the motor control circuit before any damage of the motor.
Figure 2.71(b) shows spring-type pushbutton switches. They are of two types—normally open and
normally closed. Normally open contacts are open when the button is resting and closed when the
button is pushed. Normally closed contacts are closed when the button is resting and open when
it is pushed. A relay [shown in Fig. 2.71(c)] consists of a main coil and a number of contacts.
! 3/283 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The main coil is symbolized by a circle and the contacts are shown as parallel lines. The contacts
are of two types, normally open and normally closed. A normally open contact is one which is
open when the relay is de-energized and a normally closed contact is one which is closed when
the relay is de-energized. When the relay is energized, the normally open contacts close and the
normally closed contacts open. A time-delay relay [shown in Fig. 2.71(d)] behaves exactly like an
ordinary relay except that there is an adjustable time delay before its contacts change state when
it is energized. Figure 2.71(e) shows an overload. It consists of a heater coil and some normally
shut contacts. The current flowing to a motor passes through the heater coils. When the load on
the motor becomes very large, the current flowing to the motor will heat up the heater coils, which
will cause the normally shut contacts of the overload to open. These contacts activate some type of
motor-protection circuitry.
M
Normally open Normally closed
Normally Normally
open closed
(a) (b) (c)
i i
TD OL OL contact
Heater
Normally Normally
open closed
(d) (e)
Gjh/!3/82! )b*! Gvtf! )c*! Qvticvuupo! txjudift! )d*! Sfmbz! dpjm! boe! dpoubdut! )e*! Ujnf.efmbz! sfmbz! boe!
dpoubdut!)f*!Pwfsmpbe!boe!dpoubdu
One common motor starting circuit is shown in Fig. 2.72 using the above components. In this
circuit, a series of time-delay relays shut contacts which remove each section of the starting resis-
tor at the correct time after power is applied to the motor. When the start bottom is pushed in the
circuit, the motor’s armature circuit is connected to its power supply and the machine starts with
all resistance in the circuit. However, relay 1TD energizes at the same time as the motor starts, so
after some delay, the 1TD contacts will shunt and remove part of the starting resistance from the
circuit. Simultaneously, relay 2TD is energized, so after another time delay, the 2TD contacts will
shut and remove the second part of the timing resistor. When the 2TD contacts shut, the 3TD relay
is energized, so the process repeats again, and finally the motor runs at full speed with no starting
resistance present in its circuit. If the time delays are picked properly, the starting resistors can be
cut out at just the right times to limit the motor’s current to its design values.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/284
+ Supply –
Switch
F1 (fuse) F2
Radj Rf Lf
FL
M EA M
Rstart
+
–
OL
FL OL
M
1TD
M
2TD
1TD
3TD
2TD
Gjh/!3/83! B!ed!npups.tubsujoh!djsdvju!vtjoh!ujnf.efmbz!sfmbzt!up!dvu!pvu!tubsujoh!sftjtubodf
! 3/285 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
+ Supply –
F1 F2
Radj Rf Lf
FL
M EA M
Rstart
+
–
OL
1AR
2AR
F3 1TD 2TD 3TD F4
Start 3AR
Stop
FL OL
1A
1AR
2A
2AR
3AR
3A
Gjh/!3/84! B!ed!npups.tubsujoh!djsdvju!vtjoh!dpvoufs.wpmubhf!tfotjoh!sfmbzt!up!dvu!pvu!uif!tubsujoh!
sftjtups
Another type of motor starter is shown in Fig. 2.73. Here, a series of relays sense the value of EA
in the motor and cut out the starting resistance as EA rises to preset levels. This type of starter is bet-
ter than the previous one, since if the motor is loaded heavily and starts more slowly than normal,
its armature resistance is still cut out when its current falls to the proper value.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/286
Note that both starter circuits have a relay in the field circuit labeled FL. This is a field-loss relay.
If the field current is lost for any reason, the field-loss relay is de-energized which turns off the
power to the M relay. The normally open contacts open and disconnect the motor from the power
supply when the M relay de-energizes.
There is an overload in each motor starter circuit. If the power drawn from the motor is exces-
sive, these overloads heat up and open the OL normally shut contacts, thus, turning off the M relay.
When the M relay de-energizes, its normally open contacts open and disconnect the motor from
the power supply. Hence, the motor is protected against damage from prolonged excessive loads.
FMFDUSJD!CSBLJOH!PG!ED!NPUPST! 3/3:
It is often necessary to stop a running motor quickly. Any rotating object acquires kinetic energy.
Hence, how fast we can bring the object to rest will depend upon how quickly we can extract kinetic
energy and make arrangements to dissipate that energy elsewhere. If a motor is simply discon-
nected from the supply, it will eventually come to stop, but will take longer time practically in large
motors having high rotational inertia. It is known that in motor mode, electromagnetic torques act
along the direction of rotation while in a generator, the electromagnetic torques act in the opposite
direction of rotation. Hence, by forcing the motor to operate as a generator, a torque opposite to
the direction of rotation will be imposed on the shaft, thereby helping the machine to stop quickly.
During braking, the kinetic energy stored in the rotor is either dissipated in an external resistance
or fed back to the supply mains. There are mainly three types of braking: (a) plugging (b) dynamic
braking, and (c) regenerative braking.
3/3:/2! Qmvhhjoh!
In this method of braking, the connections to the armature 1 (S) R
+ –
are reversed suddenly. This is illustrated with the help of F
Fig. 2.74. Here, S is a double-throw switch. When the Normal DC supply
DC supply Arm. during plugging
motor is under normal operating condition, S is connect-
ed to positions 1 and 2. To initiate braking, S is thrown
– +
to the position 1¢ and 2¢ at t = 0, thereby disconnecting 2 (S)
the left-hand supply and the machine is connected to the
Gjh/!3/85! Qmvhhjoh
right-hand supply.
Eb + V
As the right-hand supply has opposite polarities, the armature current is Ia = , where V is
ra + R
the right-hand supply voltage, ra is the armature resistance and R is the series resistance connected
with the right hand supply. Ia also reverses its direction producing electromagnetic torque in the
direction opposite to that of the direction of rotation of the machine. Hence, speed decreases and
Eb and Ia also decreases. Care should be taken to disconnect the supply the moment the armature
speed becomes zero, otherwise the machine will gradually pick up speed and continue to rotate in
the reverse direction.
! 3/287 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3/3:/3! Ezobnjd!Csbljoh
In this method of braking, the motor is disconnected from the supply and a braking resistance is
connected to its terminals. The field circuit remains unchanged. The motor works as a generator
driven by the stored mechanical energy and the power generated is dissipated in the braking resis-
tance. Now the electromagnetic torque acts in the opposite direction to the direction of rotation of
the motor as Ia has changed its direction but flux (f) does not (T μ fIa). Speed decreases and brak-
ing torque also decreases and finally becomes zero.
3/3:/4! Sfhfofsbujwf!Csbljoh!
A dc motor goes into regenerative braking mode if its speed becomes sufficiently high so that
back emf Eb is greater than the supply voltage V. The armature current and torque are reversed.
The kinetic energy of the machine is converted into electric energy and returned to supply. Hence,
braking torque is provided up to the speed at which emf and supply voltage are equal. Thus, brak-
ing is possible only for a limited range of speed because as speed is decreasing it is not possible to
maintain emf at a higher value than the supply voltage. Now the question is how the speed becomes
large enough to make Eb > V causing regenerative braking. Such a situation may occur in practice
when the mechanical load itself becomes active. Let us consider a dc motor coupled to the wheel
of a locomotive which is moving along a plain track without any gradient. But if the track has a
downward gradient, a component of the gravitational force appears along the track which tries to
accelerate the motor and may increase the speed such that Eb becomes greater than V. Regenerative
braking in this case will not stop the motor but will help to arrest rise of dangerously high speed.
UFTUJOH!PG!ED!NBDIJOFT! 3/41
In order to find out losses, efficiency and temperature rise, dc machines are tested. Direct loading
test may be performed on small machines but for large shunt machines, indirect methods are used.
Swinburne’s test and Hopkinson’s tests are most commonly used for testing of dc machines.
3/41/2! TxjocvsofÕt!Uftu!
It is an indirect method of testing of dc machines Io
where losses are measured separately and the ef- + A A
Iao
ficiency at any desired load is predetermined.
A
The machine is operated as a motor at rated dc If
Supply V Armature
voltage and speed. The circuit diagram is exhib- Shunt
ited in Fig. 2.75. field
–
Here, no-load armature current (Ia0) is given
Gjh/!3/86! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!gps!Txjocvsof!uftu
by, Iao = Io – If, where Io = no-load mains current
and If = shunt field current.
No-load input power (Wo) = VIo; V being the dc supply voltage.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/288
It may be observed that the no-load power of the dc machine supplies the armature copper loss
(Pcuo) at no-load, friction and windage losses (Pfw) and iron loss in the core (Pic). The field cur-
rent is adjusted at its rated value for accurate determination of no-load loss. When the machine is
loaded, the temperature of the armature and field winding increases due to (I 2 r) losses. Thus, heat
resistance calculation is to be applied while calculating I 2 r losses. If t1 be the ambient temperature
and t2 be the temperature rise over t1 we can write,
Rt1 = R0(1 + a0 t1) (2.41)
and Rt1+ t2 = R0[1 + a0(t1 + t2)] (2.42)
[Here, a0 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C.]
1 + a 0 (t1 + t 2 )
\ Rt1+ t2 = Rt1 (2.43)
1 + a 0 t1
The stray loss (Ps) is given by
Ps = Iron loss + Friction and windage loss
= No-load input power – Field copper loss – No-load armature copper loss
i.e. Ps = VIo – Pfcu – Pcuo (2.44)
Also, constant losses (Pc) are obtained as follows:
Pc = No-load input power – No-load armature copper loss
i.e., Pc = VIo – Pcuo = Ps + Pfcu (2.45)
By knowing the constant losses of the machine, its efficiency at any other load can be obtained
as follows:
2/!Xifo!uif!Nbdijof!Svot!bt!Npups!
Motor input power = VI
Armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra = (I – If)2 Ra
Constant losses = [(I – If)2 Ra + Pc]
Motor efficiency is obtained as
Input power - Losses
h=
Input
(VI - ( I - I f ) 2 Ra - Pc )
= ¥ 100 (in %) (2.46)
VI
3/!Xifo!uif!Nbdijof!Svot!bt!Hfofsbups!
Generator output = VI
Armature current (Ia) = I + If
! 3/289 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
4/!Bewboubhft!pg!TxjocvsofÕt!Uftu!
(a) It is a convenient and economical method of testing dc machines as the power required to test
a large machine is less.
(b) The efficiency can be predetermined at any load current I.
5/!Ejtbewboubhft!pg!TxjocvsofÕt!Uftu
In case there is a change in iron loss from no-load to full-load, error will appear in the calculation
(iron loss at full-load may change due to distortion in field flux caused by armature reaction). Again
as the test is on no-load, it is impossible to know whether commutation would be satisfactory at
full-load and whether the temperature rise would be within the specified limits.
Swinburne’s test is recommended for machines where field flux is constant. Also, it is applicable
for shunt machines only.
3/41/3! IpqljotpoÕt!Uftu!)Cbdl.up.Cbdl!ps!Sfhfofsbujwf!Uftu*
This test is used to determine the losses and efficiency of dc machines. In this method, full-load
test is carried out on two shunt machines, preferably identical ones. The machines are mechani-
cally coupled and are adjusted electrically such that one of them runs as a motor and the other as a
generator as shown in Fig. 2.76. The mechanical output of the motor drives the generator and the
electrical output of the generator is used for supplying some part of the input to the motor. As there
are losses in the machines, the generator output is not sufficient to drive the motor and vice versa.
The losses are supplied either by an extra motor or by electricity from the supply mains. The two
shunt machines are connected in parallel and they are started as unloaded motors. Then the field
of one is weakened and that of the other is strengthened so that the former runs as a motor and the
latter as a generator. The usual method of start is as follows: machine M is started up from the sup-
ply mains with the help of a starter, whereas the main switch S of the other machine is kept open.
Its speed is adjusted to normal value by means of its field regulator. Machine M drives the machine
G as a generator and its voltage is read on the voltmeter V. The voltage of G is adjusted by its field
regulator until the voltmeter V1 reads zero, thereby showing that its voltage is the same, both in
polarity and magnitude as that of the main supply. Thereafter, S is closed to run the machines in par-
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/28:
allel. By adjusting the respective field regulators, any load can now be thrown on to the machines.
The generator current I1 can be adjusted to any desired value by increasing the excitation of G or
by reducing the excitation of M and the corresponding values of different ammeters are read. The
electrical output of the generator plus the small power taken from the supply is taken by the motor
and is given out as a mechanical power after supplying the motor losses. If supply voltage is V then
motor input = V(I1 + I2), where I2 is the current taken from the supply. Generator output = VI1
A2
I2 I1 S I1
+
(I1 +I2)
A1 A3
V1 I3
I4
A4 (I1 + I3)
(I1 + I2 – I4)
Fm FG
Coupling
+
V V
M G
Field R1 Field
regulator regulator
I3
(I1 + I2) I1
– I2 I1
Gjh/!3/87! IpqljotpoÕt!uftu!)Npups!tubsufs!jt!opu!tipxo!jo!djsdvju!ejbhsbn*
But total motor and generator losses are equal to the power supplied by the mains. Power drawn
from supply = VI2
If we subtract the armature and shunt Cu losses from this, we get the stray losses of both ma-
chines.
Total stray losses for the set = VI2 – [(I1 + I3)2 Ra + (I1 + I2 – I4)2 Ra + VI3 + VI4] = W
Making one assumption that stray losses are equally divided between the two machines, we have
stray loss per machine = W/2
For Generator
Total losses = (I1 + I3)2 Ra + VI3 + W/2 = Wg
VI1
Output = VI1 \ hg =
VI1 + Wg
For Motor
Total losses = (I1 + I2 – I4)2 Ra + VI4 + W/2 = Wm
V ( I1 + I 2 ) - Wm
Input = V(I1 + I2) \ hm =
V ( I1 + I 2 )
The advantages of Hopkinson’s test are as follows:
1. Power required for the test is small as compared to the full-load powers of the two machines.
2. As machines are being tested under full-load conditions, the temperature rise and the
commutation qualities of the machines can be observed.
3. Because of full-load conditions, any change in iron loss due to flux distortion at full-load, is
being taken into account.
The only disadvantage is with regard to the availability of two identical machines.
3/41/4! Csblf!Uftu!
The brake test is used to determine the efficiency of small motors. In this test, the motor is directly
loaded by a belt or rope brake on a water-cooled pulley mounted on the shaft of the motor. The load
is adjusted by tightening the rope or belt. The belt may have its ends attached to spring balances. If
the readings of the spring balances be S1 and S2 and calibrated in kilograms then
Output torque = (S1 – S2)r ¥ 9.81 Nm, where r is the radius of the pulley in m
( S1 - S2 )r ¥ 9.81 ¥ 2p N
Power output = W, where N is the speed in rpm
60
If V be the motor terminal voltage and IL is the input line current then
Power input = VIL W
( S - S )r ¥ 9.81 ¥ 2p N
\ efficiency of the motor = 1 2 ¥ 100%
60 V I L
The disadvantages of this test are that the spring balances do not give steady readings and the
frictional loss differs for different adjustments of the rope or belt.
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/292
BQQMJDBUJPOT!PG!ED!NBDIJOFT! 3/42
At present, bulk electrical energy is generated with the help of the alternator. Whenever electrical
energy in dc form is required, it has been observed that it is much cheaper to convert ac to dc by
transformer rectifier equipment rather than with the use of dc generator. Some applications of dc
generators are dynamometers, dc welding generators, control-type dc generators for closed-loop
systems, permanent magnet dc generators (tachogenerators), etc. The dc separately excited shunt
and cumulatively compounded generators are normally used for generating dc supplies to feed dc
machinery and apparatus. The dc level compound generator is used where a constant output voltage
in a wide range is required. The dc differentially compound generators are used in the single opera-
tor dc arc-welding sets. Its special highly drooping load characteristic especially matches with the
arc characteristics required for dc arc welding. They are also used in arc lamps and arc furnaces.
The dc motors are widely used as they possess excellent torque–speed characteristic and offer a
wide range of speed control. The dc shunt motor has a speed regulation of 5–10%, and hence, it is
used for constant-speed drives like pumps, blowers, fans, etc. Though induction motors are pref-
erable in these applications, the dc shunt motor is cheaper for low-speed drives. When the driven
load requires a wide range of speed control, both below and above rated speed, a dc shunt motor is
employed, e.g. in lathes. These motors are widely used in steel and aluminium rolling mills and the
Ward Leonard speed control system.
The dc series motors have high starting torque and the speed automatically decreases with the
increase in load torque. These motors are best suited for driving hoists, trains, excavators, cranes,
etc. For traction purposes, a dc series motor is the only choice. Hence, they are used in all types of
electric vehicles, street cars, battery-powered portable tools, etc. The dc series motors also find ap-
plications in battery-driven automobiles and in driving permanently connected loads such as fans.
A cumulative compound motor can operate with the characteristics of both a shunt and series
motor. When the shunt field is weaker than the series field, it works as a series motor and when the
series field is weaker than the shunt field, it works as a shunt motor. These motors find their appli-
cations when there is considerable variation in the voltage across the terminals of the motor. The
series field helps in reducing the fluctuations of current drawn from the mains. These motors are
used where high starting torque and fairly constant speed is required such as presses, conveyors,
elevators, rolling mills, heavy planers, etc. A differential compound motor is rarely used due to its
unstable operation.
! Qspcmfn!3/248
B!31!lX-!611!W!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!fggjdjfodz!pg!:1&!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!dpqqfs!mptt!jt!51&!
pg!uif!gvmm.mpbe!mptt/!Uif!gjfme!sftjtubodf!jt!361!pint/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!sftjtubodf!wbmvft!pg!b!5.tfdujpo!
tubsufs!tvjubcmf!gps!uijt!npups!xifo!tubsujoh!upsrvf!jt!mftt!uibo!3Jgm/
Solution
Pout = 20 kW
! 3/293 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
20
Pin = = 22.22 kW
0.9
Ploss (fl) = 22.22 ¥ 0.1 = 2.222 kW = 2222 W
Pc (fl) = 2222 ¥ 0.4 = 888.8 W
IL = 20 ¥ 1000/500 = 40 A
If = 500/250 = 2A
Ia (fl) = 40 – 2 = 38 A
888.8
Ra = = 0.616 ohm
(38) 2
Ia = 2Ia (fl) = 76 A
K =4+1=5
From Eq. (2.39),
V 500
an = = = 10.68
I a Ra 76 ¥ 0.616
\ a = 1.81
V 500
R1 = = = 6.58 W
Ia 76
R1 6.58
Now, R2 = = = 3.64 ohms r1 = R1 – R2 = 2.94 W
a 1.81
R
R3 = 2 = 2.01 ohms r2 = R2 – R3 = 1.63 W
a
R
R4 = 3 = 1.11 ohms r3 = R3 – R4 = 0.9 W
a
R4
R5 = = 0.615 ohms r4 = R4 – R5 = 0.5 W/
a
! Qspcmfn!3/249
Uif!IpqljotpoÕt!uftu!po!uxp!nbdijoft!hbwf!uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmut!gps!gvmm.mpbe;!351!W!mjof!wpmubhf<!
59!B!mjof!dvssfou-!fydmvejoh!gjfme!dvssfou<!491!B!npups!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou<!5!B!boe!4/9!B!gjfme!dvs.
sfout/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!fbdi!nbdijof/!Bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!fbdi!nbdijof!jt!1/13!W/
Solution
Iag = Iam – IL = 380 – 48 = 332 A
Motor
Ifm = 3.8 A, Pin.m = 240 (380 + 3.8) = 92.11 kW
2
PLm = Pst + Iam Ra + VIfm = 3220 + (380)2 ¥ 0.02 + 240 ¥ 3.8 = 7.02 kW
(92.11 - 7.02)
hm = = 92.38%
92.11
Generator
Ifg = 4.4
Pout, g = 240 ¥ 332 = 79.68 kW
2
PLm = Pst + Iam Ra + VIfg = 3220 + (332)2 ¥ 0.02 + 240 ¥ 4 = 6.38 kW
79.68
hg = = 92.58%.
79.68 + 6.38
! Qspcmfn!3/24:
B!361!W!tivou!npups!svot!bu!2311!sqn!esbxjoh!6!B!pg!mjof!dvssfou!evsjoh!uif!Txjocvsof!uftu/!Ju!ibt!
bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!3!W!jodmvejoh!uif!fggfdu!pg!csvtift!boe!b!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!271!W/!
Bttvnf!dpotubou!fydjubujpo!boe!)b*!Ftujnbuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!boe!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe-!xifo!ju!ublft!23!B!
gspn!uif!nbjot/!)c*!Ftujnbuf!uif!joqvu!qpxfs!esbxo!xifo!uif!mpbe!jt!tvdi!uibu!uif!tqffe!jt!:1&!pg!
op.mpbe!tqffe/!)d*!Gps!b!efwfmpqfe!qpxfs!pg!3111!X-!gjoe!uif!tqffe/
Solution
(a) No-load power input = 250 ¥ 5 = 1250 W.
Shunt-field current = 250/160 = 1.56 A.
No-load armature current = 5 – 1.56 = 3.44 A
No-load armature copper loss = (3.44)2 ¥ 1 = 11.83 W
Shunt-field copper loss = 250 ¥ 1.56 = 390 W
Therefore, rotational loss = Pr = 1250 – 390 – 11.83
= 848.17 W
No-load back emf = Eo = 250 – (1 ¥ 3.44) = 246.56 V
When the motor draws 12 A, armature current,
Ia1 = 12 – 1.56 = 10.44 A. Input = 250 ¥ 12 = 3000 W.
Therefore, efficiency is,
3000 - [((10.44) 2 ¥ 1) + ( 250 ¥ 1.56) + 848.17]
h1 = ¥ 100%
3000
= 55.1%
Back emf E1 = 250 – (1.0 ¥ 10.44) = 239.56 V
! 3/295 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!3/251
B!611!W!dpnqpvoe!npups!svot!bu!op.mpbe!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2611!sqn/!Uif!tivou!gjfme!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!
pg!236!W!boe!b!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!pg!2611/!Cz!jodmvejoh!b!tfsjft!gjfme-!uif!tqffe!jt!up!cf!sfevdfe!up!
911!sqn!bu!xijdi!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!61!B/!Upubm!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!tfsjft!gjfme!
jt!1/6!W/!Gjoe!uif!ovncfs!pg!tfsjft!uvsot!qfs!qpmf/!Bttvnf!uif!sfmbujpo!cfuxffo!uif!qfsdfoubhf!gmvy!
qfs!qpmf!f!boe!uif!qfsdfoubhf!bnqfsf!uvsot!qfs!qpmf!G!bt!f!>!261!)2!Ð! eÐG0:2*-!xifsf!211&!G!dps.
sftqpoet!up!uif!op.mpbe!gjfme!bnqfsf!uvsot-!boe!211&!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!bt!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!bu!211&!G/
Solution
On no-load, total field ampere turns Fsh may be taken to be that due to shunt field only.
500
Therefore, Fsh = Ish Tsh = ¥ 1500 = 6000 AT
125
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/296
No-load back emf Eo μ No fo and the full load Ef μ Nf ff. But Ef = 500 – (50 ¥ 0.5) = 475 V.
Ef No 475 1000
\ ff = ¥ ¥ fo = ¥ ¥ fo = 1.187 fo
Eo Nf 500 800
which is 118.7% of fo. From the given equation for fo, we have 118.7 = 150 (1 – e–F/91)
fi F = 143 AT
Hence, series field provides the additional 43% ampere turns, i.e. 0.43 ¥ 6000 = 50 ¥ Ts
where Ts = Number of turns in series field coil
6000
\ Ts = 0.43 ¥ = 51.6 52 Turns.
50
! Qspcmfn!3/252
B!511!W!tivou!npups!ibt!bo!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/6!W!boe!b!tivou.gjfme!sftjtubodf!pg!311!W!
boe!jt!svoojoh!bu!2111!sqn/!Ju!ibt!b!spubujpobm!mptt!pg!611!X/!)b*!Gjoe!uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz-!boe!
)c*!tqffe!boe!fggjdjfodz!xifo!uif!npups!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!ibmg!uibo!uibu!jo!)b*/
Solution
(a) The efficiency of the motor is given by,
Pout Pout Pout
h= = =
Pin Pout + Ploss Pout + Pac + Psh + Pr
where Pout = Output power, Pin = Input power
Pac = Armature copper loss, Psh = Shunt field copper loss, Pr = Rotational mechanical losses
Since Psh + Pr = Pk = 400 (400/200) + 500 = 1300 = Constant loss
We have, Ploss = Ia2 Ra + 1300
Taking developed power EIa as the output, the efficiency is,
EI a (V - I a Ra ) I a (V - I a Ra ) I a
h= = =
EI a + I a2 Ra + Pk (V - I a Ra ) I a + I a2 R + Pk VI a + Pk
dn
For maximum efficiency, = 0. This gives the quadratic equation,
dI a
Ê 2P ˆ P Ê 2600 ˆ Ê 1300 ˆ
I a2 + Á k ˜ I a - k = I a2 + Á ˜ Ia - Á
Ë 0.5 ˜¯
=0
Ë V ¯ Ra Ë 400 ¯
Solving this, we get Ia = 47.84 A
Therefore, maximum efficiency hmax = 88.03% and the corresponding output is,
EI a
Pout = = 24.44 HP
736
! 3/297 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(b) In this case, Ia = 0.5 ¥ 47.84 = 23.92 A and the back emf E [400 – (0.5 ¥ 23.92)] = 388.04 V
Since E μ N at constant exitation, we have
N2 388.04
= fi N2 = 1032 rpm
1000 376.08
Corresponding output power is Pout = EIa = 9282 W and losses = 0.5 ¥ 23.922 + 1300
= 1586 W. Therefore, efficiency is,
928
h= = 85.4%.
9282 + 1586
! Qspcmfn!3/253
Uif!tubsufs!gps!b!511!W!ed!tfsjft!npups!ibt!6!sftjtubodf!tfdujpot!boe!uif!dvssfou!mjnjut!bsf!211!B!
boe!261!B/!Uif!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!boe!tfsjft!gjfme!xjoejoh!jt!1/3!W/!Cfuxffo!uif!dvssfou!
mjnjut-!uif!gmvy!dibohft!cz!21&/!Gjoe!uif!sftjtubodf!pg!fbdi!tfdujpo/
Solution
V
At stands till, E = 0 therefore, I1 =
R1
where R1 is the total resistance in the armature circuit including those of the 5 starter section in
series.
400
For I1 = 150 A, R1 = = 2.67 W. As the current reduces to 100 A, back emf is given by,
150
E2 = 400 – (2.67 ¥ 100) = 133 V
As the first section of resistance Rt1 is cut out R1 reduces to R2 = R1 – Rt1. Hence, the current
suddenly increases to 150 A but speed cannot change instantaneously. The increase of current
through the series field increases the flux by 10%. Accordingly, the back emf increases to 1.1 ¥ 133
V - E2
= 146.3 V is, E2 = 146.3 V. R2 is such that the current is limited to 150 A, i.e., R2 = = 1.69 W
150
Therefore, the value of the first section of starting resistance Rt1 = R1 – R2 = 2.67 – 1.69 = 0.98 W
As the current reduces to 100 A, back emf is given by,
E3 = 400 – (1.69 ¥ 100) = 231 V
As the second section of resistance Rt2 is cut out, R2 reduces to R3 where R3 = R2 – Rt2. Hence,
the current suddenly increases to 150 A but speed cannot change instantaneously. The increase of
current through the series field increases the flux by 10%. Accordingly, the back emf increases to
1.1 ¥ 231 = 254.1 V. R3 is such that the current is limited to 150 A. So,
400 - 254.1
R3 = = 0.9726 W
150
\ the value of the second section of starting resistance = Rt2 = R2 – R3 = 1.69 – 0.9726 = 0.717 W
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/298
Similarly, the values of remaining sections are calculated. They are Rt3 = 0.713 W, Rt4 = 0.0034 W,
Rt5 = 0.0034 W/
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot
1. Name the different parts of a dc machine and state the function of each part.
2. Explain the principle of operation of a dc generator.
3. Explain the following terms:
(a) Coil open (b) Back pitch
(c) Front pitch (c) Dummy coil
4. Distinguish between
(a) Simplex and multiplex winding (b) Single and double layer winding
(c) Lap and wave winding (d) Progressive and retrogressive winding
5. Derive the emf and torque equations of a dc machine.
6. Explain with neat diagram the function of commutator in a dc machine.
7. Compare the following:
(a) Series field and shunt field winding
(b) Separately excited and self-excited machine
(c) Cumulatively and differentially compound machine
(d) Long shunt and short-shunt compound machine
(e) Three point and four-point starter
8. Explain the conditions for voltage build-up in self-excited generators.
9. Define the critical field resistance and critical speed of a dc shunt generator.
10. Describe the process of voltage build up in self-excited generators.
11. Draw and explain the nature of speed-torque and torque-current characteristics of
(a) shunt motors (b) series motors
12. Explain why:
(a) A dc series motor is never run on no-load.
(b) Field circuit of a dc shunt motor should never be disconnected when the motor is under
running condition.
(c) Starters are required for running dc motors.
(d) Some parts of dc machines are laminated.
(e) The shunt-field winding has high resistance while the series-field winding has low resis-
tance.
13. What are the methods used for improving commutation in dc machines?
14. What are the functions of interpoles and compensating windings in dc machines?
15. Explain the cross magnetization and demagnetization effects of armature reaction in a dc
machine.
! 3/299 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Qspcmfnt
1. A 250 V lap-wound dc machine has full-load armature current of 100 A. The armature
resistance is 0.2 W and the number of armature conductors is 272. The contact drop for the
two brushes is 2 V and flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. Determine the speed if the machine is (a) a
generator, and (b) a motor. [1200 rpm, 1006 rpm]
Hint:
[For generator: E = V + Ia Ra + Brush drop = 272 V
60 EA
\ N= = 1200 rpm
Pf Z
For motor: E = V – Ia Ra – Brush drop = 228 V
\ N = 1006 rpm]
2. Determine the emf generated by a dc generator which generates 400 V under normal condition
when (a) flux is reduced to 80%, (b) speed is increased to 125% with flux normal, (c) speed is
reduced to 25% with flux normal, (d) speed is increased to 125% and flux is reduced to 80%,
and (e) speed is reduced to 80% and flux is reduced to 80%.
[320 V, 500 V, 100 V, 400 V, 256 V]
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/29:
Hint:
N1 f 2
[E2 = E1 ¥ ¥ when f2 = 80% or f1, E2 = 400 ¥ 0.8 = 320 V]
N 2 f1
3. A 1000 V, 1500 rpm, 10-pole dc generator has a wave-connected armature with 200 coils,
each coil having 5 turns. Each turn has a resistance of 0.006 W and carries a rated current of
10 A. Determine the (a) number of commutator bars, (b) flux per pole, and (c) electromagnetic
torque converted on the shaft. [200, 0.004 Wb, 131 Nm]
Hint:
[(a) Number of commutator bars = Number of coils
(b) Ia = 2 ¥ 10 = 20 A
200
Number of coils of each parallel path =
2
200
\ resistance of each path = ¥ 5 ¥ 0.006 W
2
200
¥ 5 ¥ 0.006
The total armature resistance Ra = 2
2
60 AE 60 ¥ 2 ¥ (V + I a Ra )
\ f= =
PZN 10 ¥ (5 ¥ 200 ¥ 2) ¥ 1500
EI a
(c) Torque = ]
N
2p
60
4. The shunt field, series field and armature resistance of a dc generator is 40 W, 0.03 W and
0.06 W respectively. Determine the generated voltage of the machine with terminal voltage of
250 V and load current of 100 A for the following cases:
(a) when used as a shunt generator,
(b) when used as a short compound generator,
(c) when used as a long shunt compound generator, and
(d) when used as a series generator. Assume brush contact drop of 2 V in each case.
[258.375 V, 261.38 V, 261.56 V, 261 V]
5. A dc generator operating at rated load has a terminal voltage of 240 V. Determine the no-load
voltage if the voltage regulation is 2.5%. [246 V]
6. A 240 V, 20 HP, 850 rpm shunt motor draws a current of 72 A when operating at rated
conditions. The armature and shunt-field resistances are 0.242 W and 95.2 W respectively.
Determine the percentage reduction in flux required to obtain a speed of 1650 rpm while
drawing an armature current of 50.4 A. [47.4%]
Hint:
240
[Ish = A = 2.52 A
95.2
! 3/2:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
8750 8750
\ h= =
8750 + 2 ¥ Constant loss 8750 + 1300
= 87.07%]
14. A 230 V dc series motor develops rated output at 1500 rpm while taking 20 A. The armature
and series field resistances are 0.3 W and 0.2 W respectively. Determine the resistance that
must be added to obtain rated torque (a) at starting, and (b) at 1000 rpm. [11 W, 3.667 W]
15. A dc generator has 12000 AT/pole as armature mmf. The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch is
0.7, flux density in the interpolar gap is 0.3 Wb/m2 and length of interpolar gap is 1.25 cm.
The machine is provided with compensating winding and interpoles. Determine the mmf for
compensating winding and interpoles. [8400 AT/pole, 6584 AT/pole]
0.3 1.25
Hint: [mmf in air gap = -7
¥
4p ¥ 10 100
= 2984 AT/pole
Total mmf = 12000 + 2984 = 14984 AT/pole
The mmf of compensating winding = 12000 ¥ 0.7 = 8400 AT/pole
\ mmf of interpoles = 14984 – 8400 = 6584 AT/pole]
16. The armature and shunt field resistance of a 800 kW, 500 V dc generator is 0.005 W and 50
W respectively. The mechanical and iron losses are 10 kW and 11 kW respectively whereas
the stray loss is 1% of the output. Assuming the brush contact drop to be 1 V per brush, find
(a) efficiency at full-load, (b) efficiency at half-load, and (c) input torque and induced torque
at full-load. The speed of the generator is 1500 rpm.
[94%, 91.97%, 5415 Nm, 5230 Nm]
17. A 250 V dc shunt motor has armature and field resistance of 0.6 W and 150 W respectively.
The motor operates at no-load with armature current of 5 A and 1000 rpm speed. If the
machine drives a load requiring torque of 100 Nm, calculate the armature current and speed
of the motor. If the motor is required to develop 10 kW at 1200 rpm, what is the required
value of the external resistance in the field circuit? Neglect saturation and armature reaction.
[42.4 A, 909 rpm, 49 W]
18. A 200 V shunt motor with a constant main field drives a load, the torque of which varies as
the square of the speed. When running at 600 rpm, it takes 30 A. Determine the speed at
which it will run and the current it will draw, if a 20 W resistor is connected in series with the
armature. [33.65 rpm, 9.436 A]
Hint:
[Neglecting field current IL = Ia = 30 A
T μ N2
Again, T μ Ia
! 3/2:5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
I a1 N12 30 (600) 2
\ Ia μ N2 or, = or =
I a2 N 22 I a2 N 22
30 N 600 E1 200
or, Ia2 = N 22 ◊ Again 1 = = =
3600 N 2 N 2 E2 200 - I a2 ¥ 20
Solving the above two equations, N2 = 33.65 rpm and Ia2 = 9.436 A]
19. A 250 V, 15 kW shunt motor has a maximum efficiency of 88% and a speed of 700 rpm when
delivering 80% of its rated output. The resistance of the field winding is 100 W. Determine
the efficiency and speed when the motor draws a current of 78 A from the mains.
[87%, 678 rpm]
20. A 50 kW, 400 V, 800 rpm dc shunt motor is to be braked by plugging. Determine initial value
of the plugging torque if the initial plugging current is 200 A and the value when the speed
falls to half its full-load value. Given full-load armature current as 140 A and armature circuit
resistance as 0.1 W. [853 Nm, 8827 Nm]
Hint: [Eb = 400 – 140 ¥ 0.1 = 386 V
50 ¥ 103
Tfl = = 597 Nm
800
2p ¥
60
200
Initial plugging torque = 597 ¥ = 853 Nm as T μ Ia
140
386
At half-speed, Eb = = 193 V
2
400 - 193
\ Ia = = 2070 A
0.1
2070
Plugging torque at half-speed = 597 ¥ = 8827 Nm]
140
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. A 4 point starter is used to start and control the speed of a
(a) dc shunt motor with armature resistance control
(b) dc shunt motor with field weakening control
(c) dc series motor
(d) dc compound motor [GATE 2011]
2. The dc motor which can provide zero speed regulation at full load without any controller is
(a) series (b) shunt
(c) cumulative compound (d) differential compound [GATE 2007]
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft 3/2:6
Speed
B
C
D
Torque
24. A dc shunt motor is operating at rated load at rated speed. If the motor terminal voltage is
reduced to half, then neglecting saturation and armature reaction
(a) both wm and Te remains constant, Ia is doubled
(b) both wm and Ia remains constant, Te is doubled
(c) wm remains constant, both Ia and Te are doubled
(d) Ia remains constant, both wm and Te are doubled
25. A 6 pole dc generator runs at 1000 rpm. The frequency of current in the armature winding is
(a) zero Hz (b) 25 Hz
(c) 50 Hz (d) 100 Hz
Botxfst
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c)
4
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst
JOUSPEVDUJPO! 4/2
In a modern power system, electrical power is generated at voltages from 11 kV to 25 kV. Conse-
quently, change of voltage is necessary at each transition, i.e. from generation to transmission and
transmission to distribution. The electrical machine which performs this voltage-change operation
is the transformer. Moreover, in the area of utilization of electrical energy, various ranges of volt-
ages are required in the machinery, plants, appliances, apparatus and devices in order to get the best
economy, performance, safety and convenience. A transformer is easily capable of linking all these
systems of different voltages.
A transformer may be defined as a static electric device that transfers electrical energy from
one circuit to another circuit at the same frequency but with changed voltage (or current or both)
through a magnetic circuit.
USBOTGPSNFS!BT!B!DPVQMFE!DJSDVJU! 4/3
A transformer is a device with magnetic coupling. Its operation can be well understood by treating
it as a coupled circuit. Let us consider two coils, carrying alternating currents i1 and i2, are magneti-
cally coupled. The leakage flux of coil 1 is f11 which is the flux linking only coil 1 and not coil 2.
Similarly, the leakage flux of coil 2 is f22. Both the coils have mutual fluxes f21 and f12 where f21
is the flux of coil 2 linking coil 1, and f12 is the flux of coil 1 linking coil 2 as shown in Fig. 3.1.
! 4/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Gjh/!4/2
M=K L1L2
The coefficient of coupling is defined as the fraction of total flux that links the coils, i.e.
f12 f21
K= =
f1 f2
Since f12 < f1 and f21 < f2 hence the maximum value of K is unity.
Multiplying Eq. (3.5) and Eq. (3.6), we get
f12 f21 K f1 ◊ K f2
M2 = N1N2 = N1N2
i1 i2 i1 i2
f f
or, M2 = K2 N1 1 N2 2 = K2L1 L2
i1 i2
\ M =K L1L2 (3.7)
Let us now consider that the coupled coils are fed by two voltage sources v1 and v2 as shown in
Fig. 3.2.
i1 i2
M
R1 R2
+ +
v1 L1 L2 v2
Gjh/!4/3
As the flux of both the coils oppose each other, applying KVL in both the circuits, we get
di1 di
v1 = R1i1 + L1 -M 2 (3.8)
dt dt
di di
v2 = R2i2 + L2 2 - M 1 (3.9)
dt dt
Assuming sinusoidal voltage sources at steady state, the Eqs (3.8) and (3.9) can be modified as
v1 = i1R1 + jwL1i1 – jwMi2
v2 = i2R2 + jwL2i2 – jwMi1
or, v1 = i1(R1 + jwL1) – jwMi2 (3.10)
and v2 = i2(R2 + jwL2) – jwMi1 (3.11)
Èv1 ˘ È Z11 Z12 ˘ Èi1 ˘
In matrix form, Í ˙=Í ˙Í ˙ (3.12)
Îv2 ˚ Î Z 21 Z 22 ˚ Îi2 ˚
QSJODJQMF!PG!PQFSBUJPO! 4/4
The principle of operation of a transformer is explained with the aid of Fig. 3.3. A transformer
works on the principle of electromagnetic induction between two or more coupled circuits.
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, a current
(termed exciting current, If) flows through it. The exciting current produces an alternating flux (f)
in the core, which links with both the winding (primary and secondary). According to Faraday’s
laws of electromagnetic induction, the flux will cause self-induced emf E1 in the primary and mutu-
ally induced emf E2 in the secondary winding. But according to Lenz’s law, primary induced emf
will oppose the applied voltage. Therefore, in brief, we can say emf induced in the primary winding
is equal and opposite to the applied voltage.
When a load is connected to the secondary side, current will start flowing in the secondary wind-
ing. Voltage induced in the secondary winding is responsible to deliver power to the load connected
to it. In this way, power is transferred from one circuit (primary) to another (secondary) winding
through a magnetic circuit by electromagnetic induction. This is the working principle of the trans-
former. The induced emf in the secondary E2 is also in phase opposition to the applied voltage V1
at primary. If the secondary is open circuited, terminal voltage V2 at the secondary is equal in mag-
nitude and in phase with the induced emf at secondary.
If f
V2
V1 E1 E2
Gjh/!4/4
FNG!FRVBUJPO! 4/5
Since the applied voltage is sinusoidal at the primary, the flux produced by the exciting current is
also sinusoidal (assuming f μ I).
Thus, core flux is given by f = fmax sin wt. If the coil has N turns then instantaneous value of the
induced emf e is given by
df
E = –N
dt
d
or e =–N (fmax sin wt)
dt
or e = –2pf fmax N cos wt V (\ w = 2pf)
Êp ˆ Ê pˆ
or e = –2p f fmax N sin Á - w t ˜ = 2p f fmax N sin Á w t - ˜
Ë2 ¯ Ë 2¯
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/6
Ê pˆ
The maximum value of the induced emf will be obtained when sin Á w t - ˜ is 1,
Ë 2¯
i.e. Emax = 2pf fmax N V (3.13)
If N1 be the primary number of turns then the rms values of induced voltage at primary is given by
E1 = 4.44 fmax f N1 V (3.14(a))
(As the induced voltage in the primary winding is equal and opposite to the applied voltage, so
V1 = 4.44 fmax f N1V.)
Similarly, the rms value of the induced emf at secondary is obtained as
E2 = 4.44 fmax f N2V (3.14(b))
Thus, for a single-phase ideal transformer, the expressions for the induced voltages at the pri-
mary as well as at the secondary windings can be obtained from equations (3.14(a)) and (3.14(b)).
In these equations, V denotes voltage.
DPOTUSVDUJPO!PG!B!TJOHMF.QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/6
A single-phase transformer consists of primary and secondary windings placed on a magnetic
core.* The magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon steel laminations (CRGO steel). The laminations
reduce eddy-current loss and silicon steel reduces hysteresis loss. There are two general types of
transformers, core-type and shell-type.
4/6/2! Dpsf.uzqf!Usbotgpsnfs
A single-phase core-type transformer consists of a two-core (upper and bottom yoke) magnetic
frame. The primary and secondary coils are spilt into two parts. Half the turns of primary and the
secondary are placed on each core.
A three-phase core-type transformer consists of a minimum three cores, each provided with the
primary and secondary coils of one phase.
*
Magnetic cores are made up of lamination to reduce eddy-current loss. Therefore, the net cross-sectional area of the
core occupied by the magnetic material is less than its gross cross section. This ratio is known as stocking factor which
is less than unity.
! 4/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Generally, circular coils (winding) are used in the core-type transformer, which indicate theoreti-
cally that a circular core should be used. It is very complicated to manufacture a circular core and as
a result, the stepped core is generally used. However, for small transformers, a rectangular or square
core can be used. A schematic diagram showing the magnetic frame and the windings on the cores
for single-phase core-type transformer has been shown in Fig. 3.4.
Gjh/!4/5
4/6/3! Tifmm.uzqf!Usbotgpsnfs
A single-phase shell-type transformer consists of a magnetic frame with a central core (limb) and
two side cores, completing the path of magnetic flux. Primary and secondary coils (winding) are
placed on the central core in a particular configuration as shown in Fig. 3.5. Such an arrangement
forms a shell of iron around the copper. The central leg flux f is divided at the yoke section, half,
that is f/2 towards each side leg. As the flux in the section of yoke and side cores is only half, the
cross section of the yokes and side cores is approximately half the section of the central limb.
Gjh/!4/6
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/8
On-site repairment is more easy in a core-type transformer whereas robustness is more in a shell-
type transformer.
4/6/4! Dpnqbsjtpo!pg!Dpsf.uzqf!boe!Tifmm.uzqf!Usbotgpsnfst
In the core-type transformer, windings surround a considerable part of steel core whereas in shell-
type, the steel core surrounds a major part of the winding. Hence, for a given output and voltage
rating, the shell-type transformer requires more iron but less conductor material than a core-type
transformer.
In the core-type, the transformer has a two-legged core and in shell-type, the transformer has a
three-legged core as shown in Fig. 3.4 and Fig. 3.5 in case of a single-phase transformer. Hence,
the core-type flux has a single path around the legs and in shell-type, the flux flows through two
different paths.
In a core-type transformer, concentric coils are used whereas in shell-type interleaved or sand-
wiched coils are used.
JEFBM!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/7
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer studied to understand the concepts easily. An
ideal transformer possesses the following characteristics.
1. The core of the transformer is highly permeable so that it requires very small magnetomotive
force (mmf) to set up the flux in the core.
2. Its leakage flux is zero, that is the entire flux is confined to the core and links with both the
windings.
3. The resistance of primary and secondary windings is negligible.
4. There are no losses due to resistance, hysteresis and eddy currents.
For an ideal transformer, the demagnetizing mmf of the secondary winding is equal in magnitude
and opposite in polarity to the magnetizing mmf of the primary winding. Also, the apparent power
drawn from the primary is equal to the apparent power transferred to the secondary, i.e.
I1N1 = I2N2 (3.15)
V1I1 = V2I2 (3.16)
where I1 and I2 are the currents through the primary and secondary winding respectively and V1 and
V2 are the voltage across the primary and secondary windings respectively.
Hence, the transformer transforms the voltage from one level to another without affecting the
power level.
! 4/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
EJTUSJCVUJPO!BOE!QPXFS!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/8
Transformers are classified according to their service type.
1. Distribution transformer
2. Power transformer
4/8/2! Ejtusjcvujpo!Usbotgpsnfs
Small step-down transformers (up to 500 kVA), used to step down the low transmission voltage
to distribution voltage or the distribution voltage (11 kV) to standard service voltage (440 V), are
known as distribution transformers.
Thus, these transformers are used to supply power for general purpose. The minimum standard
rating is 5 kVA. These transformers remain energized to the line for all the 24 hours of the day,
whether they are supplying any load or not. These transformers are normally operating on a varying
load during the day. Thus, constant losses occur in the transformer for the whole day, and copper
losses are different during different periods of the day. As such, these transformers should have
lower iron losses compared with full-load copper losses. These should have maximum efficiency
nearly at 50 percent of full-load. Their efficiency should be measured on the basis of energy, that is
all-day efficiency, which is equal to the ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh during the whole
day. These transformers have good voltage regulation and are designed for small value of leakage
reactance.
4/8/3! Qpxfs!Usbotgpsnfs
Transformers with ratings above 500 kVA and used in generating stations and substations for
stepping up or stepping down the voltage are called power transformers. These transformers will
be in operation during the load periods and can be disconnected during light load periods (at least
one or two should remain in operation during light-load periods also in a substation). Hence, power
transformers should have maximum efficiency at nearly 80 percent full-load. These transformers
are designed to have considerably greater leakage reactance. For these transformers, the voltage
regulation is less important than the current limiting effect of higher leakage reactance.
USBOTGPSNBUJPO!SBUJP! 4/9
Let
N1 = Number of turns in the primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in the secondary winding
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/:
[E1I1 and E2I2 are the primary and secondary powers (volt amperes)]
I1 E2 N 2 1 Ê V2 ˆ
or = = = = (3.18)
I 2 E1 N1 K ÁË V1 ˜¯
Thus, we find that the current is transformed in the reverse ratio of the voltage. If a transformer
steps up the voltage, it steps down the current. If it steps down the voltage, it steps up the current.
JNQFEBODF!USBOTGPSNBUJPO! 4/:
In Fig. 3.6, an impedance Z2 is connected across the secondary winding at its output. The primary
winding is connected to a voltage source V1. The number of turns in the two windings are assumed
to be N1 and N2. Induced emfs E1 and E2 are in phase opposition to V1. Since V2 is the secondary
terminal voltage, it is also in the opposite phase of V1.
! 4/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
I1 I2
V1 |E1 | N1 N2 |E2| Z2 V2
Gjh/!4/7
The impedance Z2¢, as seen from the input side, can be obtained by dividing voltage V1 by I1.
Thus, we can write
V1 V1 ¥ (V2 I 2 )
Z 2¢ = =
I1 I1 ¥ (V2 I 2 )
Ê V ˆ Ê I ˆ ÊV ˆ
= Á 1 ˜ ¥ Á 2 ˜ ¥ Á 2 ˜ = K ¥ K ¥ Z2 = K2 Z2
Ë V2 ¯ Ë I1 ¯ Ë I 2 ¯
Z 2¢
i.e., = K2 (3.19a)
Z2
! Qspcmfn!4/2
Gjoe!uif!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!uif!dpsf!pg!b!21.uvsot!usbotgpsnfs!gps!b!wpmubhf!pg!61!W!bu!61!I{/!
Uif!gmvy!efotjuz!jt!1/:!Xc0n3/
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/22
Solution
Number of turns: N = 10
Voltage E = 50 V
Frequency f = 50 Hz
Flux density B = 0.9 Wb/m2.
! Qspcmfn!4/3
Uif! fng! qfs! uvso! gps! b! tjohmf.qibtf! 5510331! W-! 61! I{! usbotgpsnfs! jt! bqqspyjnbufmz! 26! W/! Gjoe!
)b*!uif!ovncfs!pg!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!uvsot-!boe!)c*!uif!ofu!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!dpsf-!gps!b!
nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!pg!2!Xc0n3/
Solution
E1 = 440 V E2 = 220 V f = 50 Hz
14.67
\ A= m2 = 0.066 m2.
4.44 ¥ 1 ¥ 50
! 4/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/4
B!opo.tjovtpjebm!wpmubhf!W!>!261!tjo!425u!Ð!86!tjo!2681u!jt!bqqmjfe!up!uif!361.uvso!xjoejoh!pg!b!
usbotgpsnfs/!Gjoe!uif!dpsf!gmvy!bt!b!gvodujpo!pg!ujnf/
Solution
If f is the flux then
df
V = –N where (N) is the number of turns
dt
df V
or =–
dt N
1 1
or f=-
N Ú Vdt = -
N Ú (150 sin 314t – 75 sin 1570t) dt
1 È 150 75 ˘
=– Í - cos 314t + cos 1570t ˙
250 Î 314 1570 ˚
or f = (0.0019 cos 314t – 0.00019 cos 1570t) Wb.
! Qspcmfn!4/5
B!22-111!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!gmvy!efotjuz!pg!2/3!Xc0n3!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf!boe!gsfrvfodz/!Opx!
bmm!uif!mjofbs!ejnfotjpot!pg!uif!dpsf!bsf!epvcmfe<!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!uvsot!bsf!ibmwfe!boe!uif!
usbotgpsnfs!jt!fofshj{fe!gspn!33111!W-!61!I{!tvqqmz/!Cpui!uif!usbotgpsnfst!ibwf!uif!tbnf!dpsf!
nbufsjbm!boe!uif!tbnf!mbnjobujpo!uijdloftt/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!gmvy!efotjuz!gps!uif!ofx!usbotgpsnfs/!
Solution
V = 4.44 f Bm AN
V1 11, 000 50 ¥ 1.2 AN
= =
V2 22, 000 1
50 ¥ Bm ¥ 22 A ¥ N
2
Bm = 1.2 Wb/m2.
! Qspcmfn!4/6
B!411!lWB!usbotgpsnfs!ibwjoh!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!pg!4111!W!bu!61!I{!ibt!411!qsjnbsz!boe!61!tfd.
poebsz!uvsot/!Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!gvmm.mpbe!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!dvssfout-!)c*!uif!op.mpbe!tfdpoebsz!
joevdfe!fng-!boe!)d*!uif!nbyjnvn!gmvy!jo!uif!dpsf!)ofhmfdujoh!bmm!mpttft*/
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/24
Solution
(a) The full-load primary currents
kVA ¥ 103
(I1) =
V1
300 ¥ 103
= A
3000
= 100 A
Also, I1 N1 = I2N2
I1N1 100 ¥ 300
\ I2 = = A = 600 A
N2 50
E1 N1
(b) =
E2 N 2
E1N 2 3000 ¥ 50
\ E2 = = = 500 V
N1 300
(c) E1= 4.44 fm f N1
E1 3000
fm = = Wb
4.44 f N1 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 300
= 0.04504 Wb.
! Qspcmfn!4/7
Up!usbotgpsn!bo!jnqfebodf!pg!9W!sftjtups!up!bo!jnqfebodf!pg!86W-!b!usbotgpsnfs!jt!vtfe/!Bttvn.
joh!uif!usbotgpsnfs!up!cf!jefbm!pof-!efufsnjof!uif!sfrvjsfe!uvsot!sbujp/
Solution
If the turns ratio of the transformer is K then
K2 ¥ 8 = 75
75
\ K=
8
or K = 3.
! Qspcmfn!4/8
Uif!uvsot!sbujp!)qsjnbsz!up!tfdpoebsz*!pg!bo!jefbm!usbotgpsnfs!jt!2;5!boe!b!sftjtubodf!pg!211W!jt!
dpoofdufe!up!uif!tfdpoebsz!tjef!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/!Uif!qsjnbsz!tjef!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!21!W-2!lI{!
tpvsdf/!Efufsnjof!uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou!boe!wpmubhf!bdsptt!uif!211!W!sftjtups/
Solution
N1 1
= .
N2 4
! 4/25 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/9
B!511061!W-!71!I{!tufq.epxo!usbotgpsnfs!jt!up!cf!pqfsbufe!bu!61!I{/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!ijhiftu!tbgf!joqvu!
wpmubhf-!boe!)c*!usbotgpsnbujpo!sbujp!jo!cpui!gsfrvfodz!bqqmjdbujpot/
Solution
E1 = 400 V E2 = 50 V f = 60 Hz
E E1 = 4.44 fm f N1
400
\ 4.44 fm N1 = = 6.67
60
(a) If E¢1 be the highest safe input at 50 Hz;
E¢1 = 4.44 fm N1 ¥ 50 = 6.67 ¥ 50 = 333.5 V
(b) Transformation ratio at 60 Hz
E1 400
= =8
E2 50
At 50 Hz, the secondary induced emf is given by
N2 N
E¢2 = E¢1 = 2 ¥ E1¢
N1 N1
N 2 E2 50 1
Now, = = =
N1 E1 400 8
1
So, E2¢ = E¢1
8
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/26
E1¢
or =8
E2¢
Transformation ratio at 50 Hz is also 8.
! Qspcmfn!4/:
B!2111!lWB!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!uvsot!pg!5111!boe!2111!sftqfdujwfmz!boe!jo.
evdfe!wpmubhf!jo!uif!tfdpoebsz!jt!2111!W/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!qsjnbsz!wpmu-!)c*!uif!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!
gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou-!boe!)d*!uif!tfdpoebsz!dvssfou!xifo!211!lX!mpbe!bu!1/9!q/g/!jt!dpoofdufe!bu!uif!
pvuqvu/!
Solution
Given: kVA = 1000 N1 = 4000 N2 = 1000 E2 = 1000
N1 N
(a) Primary voltage E1 = E2 = 1 ¥ 1000 = 4000 V
N2 N2
VA 1000 ¥ 103
(b) Primary full-load current I1 = = = 250 A
E1 4000
N1 4000
Secondary full-load current I2 = I1 ¥ = 250 ¥ = 1000 A
N2 1000
(c) Secondary current at 100 kW and 0.8 p.f. load
100 ¥ 103
I2 = = 125 A.
0.8 ¥ 1000
!Qspcmfn!4/21
B!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!551!W!tvqqmz/!Uif!wpmubhf0uvso!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!
jt!2/2!W/!Uif!tfdpoebsz!wpmubhf!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jt!gpvoe!up!cf!331!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!uvsot
! )c*! Dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!uif!dpsf!jg!uif!nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!jt!2/36!U
Solution
Voltage/turn = 1.1 V
E1 = 440 V E2 = 220 V
440
(a) N1 = = 400 = Primary turns
1.1
220
N2 = = 200 = Secondary turns
1.1
! 4/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(b) We know,
E1 = 4.44 f N1 Bmax A
Here,
E1 = 440 V f = 50 Hz
N1 = 400 Bmax = 1.25 T
440
\ A = Cross section of the core = m2
4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 400 ¥ 1.25
= 3.964 ¥ 10–3 m2
= 39.64 cm2.
! Qspcmfn!4/22
Uif! dpsf! pg! b! tjohmf.qibtf! 44110551! W-! 61! I{! usbotgpsnfs! jt! pg! trvbsf! dsptt! tfdujpo-! fbdi! tjef!
cfjoh!251!nn/!Jg!nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!jo!uif!dpsf!jt!opu!up!fydffe!2!U-!efufsnjof!uif!ovncfs!pg!
uvsot!sfrvjsfe!gps!fbdi!xjoejoh/
Solution
Flux = Flux density ¥ Area
= 1 ¥ (140 ¥ 10–3)2 = 0.0196 Wb
Let N1 and N2 be the number of turns in the primary and secondary winding respectively,
\ E1 = 3300 = 4.44 ¥ 0.0196 ¥ 50 ¥ N1
\ N1 = 758.4
As N1 cannot be a fraction, we can consider N1 to be 758 or 759.
If N1 = 758 then flux density becomes greater than 1 T.
Hence, N1 = 759
E 440
Now N2 = N1 2 = 759 ¥ = 101.2
E1 3300
or = 102
(N2 cannot be 101 as flux density will not exceed 1 T).
! Qspcmfn!4/23
Uif!dpsf!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!26111!nn3!boe!uif!xjoejoh!
bsf!diptfo!up!pqfsbuf!uif!dpsf!bu!b!nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!pg!2/2!U!gspn!b!61!I{!tvqqmz/!Jg!uif!tfd.
poebsz!xjoejoh!dpotjtut!pg!77!uvsot-!ftujnbuf!uif!lWB!pvuqvu!jg!uif!xjoejoh!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!mpbe!
pg!7!W!jnqfebodf!wbmvf/
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/28
Solution
A = 15000 mm2 = 0.015 sqm
Bm = 1.1 Wb/m2 f = 50 Hz
N2 = 66
E2 = 4.44 Bm A f
N2 = 4.44 ¥ 1.1 ¥ 0.015 ¥ 50 ¥ 66
= 241.758 V
242.758
I2 = A = 40.46 A
6
E I 241.758 ¥ 40.46
kVA output = 2 32 = = 9.78.
10 103
! Qspcmfn!4/24
Uif!wpmubhf!sbujp!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!221110!221!W!bu!op.mpbe/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!ovn.
cfs!pg!uvsot!jo!fbdi!xjoejoh!jg!uif!nbyjnvn!wbmvf!pg!uif!gmvy!jo!uif!dpsf!jt!9/3!nXc/
Solution
E1 = V1 = 11000 V
E2 = V2 = 110 V
fmax = 8.2 mWb = 8.2 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Let N1 and N2 be the number of turns of the primary and secondary windings respectively.
E1 = 4.44 f fmax N1
E1 11000
N1 = =
4.44 f f max 4.44 ¥ 8.2 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 50
= 6042.63
ª 6043
E2 N 2
=
E1 N1
E2 110
\ N2 = N1 ¥ = 6043 ¥
E1 11000
= 60.43 ª 61.
! 4/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/25
B!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!eftjhofe!up!pqfsbuf!bu!3!W!qfs!uvso!boe!uvsot!sbujp!pg!4;2/!Jg!uif!tfd.
poebsz!xjoejoh!jt!up!tvqqmz!b!mpbe!pg!9!lWB!bu!91!W-!gjoe!uif!)b*!qsjnbsz!tvqqmz!wpmubhf-!)c*!ovncfs!
pg!uvsot!po!fbdi!xjoejoh-!boe!)d*!uif!dvssfou!jo!fbdi!xjoejoh/
Solution
N1 3
=
N2 1
E1 E2
= =2
N1 N1
E2 = 80 V
N1
(a) E1 = E2 ¥ = 80 ¥ 3 = 240 V
N2
E 240
(b) 1 = =2
N1 N1
\ N1 = 120
N1
and N2 = = 40
3
8 ¥ 103
(c) Primary current I1 = = 33.33 A
240
8 ¥ 103
Secondary current I2 = = 100 A.
80
! Qspcmfn!4/26
Uif!dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!uif!dpsf!pg!b!5!lWB-!5110311!W-!61!I{!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibwjoh!nbyj.
nvn!2/6!U!gmvy!efotjuz!jt!411!dn3/!Efufsnjof!uif!gpmmpxjoh;!
! )b*! Uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!pg!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoht
! )c*! Uif!fng!qfs!uvso
! ! Uif!tubdljoh!gbdups!pg!uif!dpsf!jt!1/96/
Solution
Here, E1 = 400 V E2 = 200 V f = 50 Hz Bmax = 1.5 T
A = 300 cm2 = 300 ¥ 10–4 m2 Stacking factor = 0.85
E1
(a) Primary turns = N1 =
4.44 f ¥ Bmax ¥ A ¥ stacking factor
400
=
4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 300 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 0.85
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/2:
= 47.10
ª 47
E2 N 2
We know, =
E1 N1
200
\ N2 = Secondary turns = ¥ 47
400
= 23.5
ª 24
E1 400
(b) Emf/turn = = = 8.51.
N1 47
! Qspcmfn!4/27
B!36!lWB-!5510221!W-!61!I{!tjohmf.qibtf!tufq.epxo!usbotgpsnfs!jt!eftjhofe!up!xpsl!xjui!2/6!W!
qfs!uvso!xjui!b!gmvy!efotjuz!opu!fydffejoh!2/46!U/!Efufsnjof!)b*!uif!sfrvjsfe!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!po!
uif!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoht!!sftqfdujwfmz-!)c*!uif!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!uif!jspo!dpsf-!boe!
)d*!uif!tfdpoebsz!dvssfou/
Solution
E1 E
= 2 = 1.5
N1 N 2
Bm = 1.35
E1 = 440 and E2 = 110 V
kVA = 25
E1 440
(a) N1 = = = 293.33 or 294
1.5 1.5
E 110
N2 = 2 = = 73.33 or 74
1.5 1.5
E1
(b) Cross-sectional area A=
4.44 ¥ Bm ¥ f ¥ 294
440
=
4.44 ¥ 1.35 ¥ 50 ¥ 294
= 0.005 sqm
When A = 0.005
E2
Bm =
4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.005 ¥ 74
! 4/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
25 ¥ 103
(c) Secondary current I2 = = 227.27 A.
110
! Qspcmfn!4/28
B!3110511!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!qfbl!gmvy!efotjuz!pg!2/2!Xc0n3!jo!uif!dpsf!boe!uif!ofu!bsfb!pg!
dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!uif!dpsf!jt!1/13!trn/!Jg!uif!dvssfou!efotjuz!jo!uif!dpoevdups!jt!4!B0nn3!boe!dpoevd.
ups!ejbnfufs!pg!qsjnbsz!dpjm!jt!4!nn/!Efufsnjof!uif!lWB!sbujoh!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!boe!uif!ovncfs!
pg!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!uvsot/
Solution
Diameter of the primary coil conductor is 3 mm.
p (3) 2
\ cross section of the primary coil is
4
= 7.068 sq. mm
Current density of the conductor is 3 A/mm2.
\ current in the primary coil = 7.068 ¥ 3 = 21.204A
kVA rating of the primary coil = 21.204 ¥ 2000 = 4240.8
Now E1 = 4.44 A Bm f N1
where A is the area of the core and N1 is the number of primary turns.
200 = 4.44 ¥ 0.02 ¥ 1.1 ¥ 50 ¥ N1
\ N1 = 41
E
N2 = 2 N1 = 82.
E1
! Qspcmfn!4/29
B!21!lWB-!31110311!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!nbhofujd!dpsf!pg!71!dn3!dsptt!tfdujpo!boe!b!nfbo!
mfohui!pg!81!dn/!Uif!bqqmjdbujpo!pg!3111!W!jo!uif!qsjnbsz!dbvtft!b!nbhofujd!gjfme!joufotjuz!pg!611!
BU0n!boe!b!nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!pg!2/2!Xc0n3/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!)b*!uvsot!sbujp-!)c*!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!
jo!fbdi!xjoejoh-!boe!)d*!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou/
Solution
E1 N 2000
(a) = 1 = = 10
E2 N 2 200
\ turns ratio is 10 :1.
(b) Bm = 1.1 Wb/m2
E1 = 4.44 fm f N1
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/32
E1 2000
\ N1 = =
4.44 A Bm f 4.44 ¥ 60 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 1.1 ¥ 50
= 1365
E 200
N2 = 2 N1 = ¥ 1365 = 137
E1 2000
(c) Magnetic field intensity H = 500 AT/m
Mean length l = 75 cm = 0.75 m
If Im is the magnetizing current then
Im N1 = Hl
Hl 500 ¥ 0.75
\ Im = = = 0.275 A.
N1 1365
! Qspcmfn!4/2:
B!61!lWB!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dpoofdufe!up!3611!W-!61!I{!tvqqmz/!Uif!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoe.
bsz!uvsot!bsf!611!boe!211!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Pqfo!djsdvju!tfdpoebsz!wpmubhf!
! )c*! Dvssfou!gpmmpxjoh!uispvhi!uif!xjoejoht!po!gvmm.mpbe
! )d*! Uif!nbyjnvn!wbmvf!pg!gmvy
Solution
Here,
N1 = 500
N2 = 100
E1 = 2500 V
N2 100
E2 = E1 ¥ = 2500 ¥ = 500 V
N1 500
(a) \ the secondary voltage on open circuit is 500 V.
(b) kVA rating of the transformer = 50 kVA
50 ¥ 103
Primary full-load current = A
2500
= 20 A
50 ¥ 103
Secondary full-load current = A
500
= 100 A
(c) E1 = 4.44 f fmax N1
E1 2500
\ fmax = = Wb
4.44 f N1 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 500
= 0.0225 Wb.
! 4/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
OP.MPBE!PQFSBUJPO!PG!B!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/21
A transformer is said to be on no-load, if its primary winding is connected to an ac supply source
and the secondary is open. The instantaneous flux (f) linking with both the windings is given as
f = fm sin wt.
Therefore, the induced emf in primary winding is given as
df d
E1 = –N1 = –N1 (fm sin wt)
dt dt
Ê pˆ
= –N1 w fm cos wt = N1 w fm sin Á w t - ˜ 3.20(a)
Ë 2¯
Similarly, the induced emf in the secondary winding is given as
Ê pˆ
E2 = N2 w fm sin Á w t - ˜ 3.20 (b)
Ë 2¯
We consider the transformer to be ideal (i.e. there are no voltage drops in the windings). E1 and
E2 are in phase opposition to V1.
Gjh/!4/8 O ! O"#
DPODFQU!PG!MFBLBHF!SFBDUBODF! 4/22
The actual flux set up by the magnetizing current in the transformer can be divided into two com-
ponents, as shown in Fig. 3.8, namely, (a) useful flux linking both the windings of the transformer
which remains practically constant at all values of load, and (b) leakage flux fL linking with one
winding only. The flux that links with the primary, but not with the secondary, is known as primary
leakage flux, while that which links with the secondary, but not the primary winding is called the
secondary leakage flux. The value of leakage flux is proportional to the load on the transformer.
Gjh/!4/9
When the transformer is operating at no-load, the leakage flux is negligible. On loading the
transformers, leakage fluxes are increased, because both the windings carry appreciable current.
The leakage flux linking with one winding only is due to the total ampere turns of that winding,
while the useful flux is due to the difference between the primary and the secondary ampere turns.
! 4/35 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Leakage fluxes produce a self-induced back emf in their respective windings. They are, there-
fore, equivalent to a small choke in series with the respective windings, the reactance of which is
called the leakage reactance of the windings, X1 and X2.
The effect of leakage reactance is to cause a voltage drop in the respective windings. The leakage
reactance is reduced to a minimum by placing both the primary and the secondary windings on both
limbs of the magnetic frame in a single-phase core-type transformer.
The voltage drop caused by leakage flux is proportional to the load current. The greater the load
current, the greater is the magnitude of both the primary and secondary ampere turns and hence the
greater is the respective leakage fluxes in both primary and secondary windings. Although leakage
flux has an adverse effect on the transformer output voltage, it proves extremely useful under severe
short-circuit conditions. The large voltage drop caused by the intense leakage flux limits the current
to a lower value than would otherwise occur if no leakage were present and thus helps avoid damage
to the transformer.
The relationships between coil flux, leakage flux and mutual flux for the respective primary and
secondary coils are given by
f1 = fm +fll
f2 = fm – fl2
when f1 and f2 are the next fluxes in the primary and secondary coils, fm is the mutual flux, fl1 and
fl2 are the leakage fluxes associated with the primary and secondary coils.
The flux question justifies why and how the leakage flux in both windings serves to reduce the
output voltage of the secondary. Less flux in the secondary coil (Ef2 = fm – fl2) results in lower
secondary voltage than if less leakage were present.
The voltage drop caused by the leakage flux is proportional to the load current. With higher load
current, the primary and secondary AT both will increase and has the respective leakage fluxes in
the primary and secondary will be higher. It will cause the secondary terminal voltage to drop fur-
ther due to higher leakage flux.
PQFSBUJPO!PG!B!USBOTGPSNFS!PO!MPBE! 4/23
When the transformer is loaded, load current I2 flows in the secondary winding. Secondary number
of turns being N2, the secondary ampere-turns is I2 N2; it sets up flux f2 in the core, which opposes
the flux f already set up by the no-load current. f2 f
As a result, the flux linking with primary is
f1
reduced. The difference between applied voltage
and induced voltage in the primary will, however, V I1 I2
1 E1 E2 V2 Load
exist resulting in additional current in the primary
(say of magnitude I 1¢ ). The primary turns being
N 1, these additional ampere-turns I 1¢ N 1 will
produce flux f1 in the opposite direction of f2 Gjh/!4/: $
(i.e. in the same direction of the original flux f).
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/36
Magnetic equilibrium will be achieved when f1 = f2, thus leaving behind the initial flux f. Therefore,
from the above discussion, it is evident that additional primary, ampere-turns, which is equal in
magnitude, to the secondary ampere-turns, is opposite in direction (Fig. 3.9).
The phasor diagram of the transformer on load can be drawn for different types of loadings and
is explained below.
The no-load phasor diagram is drawn and discussed earlier. Let us now consider load current I2
while the load is of inductive nature. I2 will be lagging the secondary voltage (i.e. E2 or V2). When
there is no voltage drop in the transformer (transformer being ideal) then |V2| = |E2|. To counterbal-
ance the secondary ampere-turns, additional primary current I¢1 will flow and will be 180° out of
phase of I2. The total primary current I1 is the phasor sum of the no-load current Io and of the ad-
ditional primary current I 1¢ . Complete phasor diagram of the transformer on load for inductive load
has been shown in Fig. 3.10(b). Figures 3.10(a) and (c) represent phasor diagrams no load when
load has unity power factor and leading power factor respectively.
#% #
#
Gjh/!4/21 $ & &
O ! O"#
! 4/37 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Figure 3.11(a) shows the phasor diagram of a transformer under lagging load power factor and
considering internal voltage drop (the transformer is now not an ideal one). The voltage (–E1) has
been replaced by V¢1 for convenience. Alternatively, V 1¢ may be treated as a voltage drop in the
primary in the direction of flow of primary current. The primary current I1 flows through primary
resistance R1 and primary leakage reactance X1. Hence, primary voltage is given as
V1 = V1¢ + I1 (R1 + jX1), where V1¢ is (–E1)
V1 jI1X1
I1R1
V¢1
I¢1 I1
Iw Io
fm
Im
I2
V2
I2R2
jl2X2 E2
E1
Gjh/!4/22)b* ' (J W )
Figures 3.11(b) and 3.11(c) represent the phasor diagrams of the transformer (not an ideal one)
operating with unity power factor and leading power factor respectively.
V1 jI1X1 jI1X1
V1
I1R1
I1R1
V¢1
V¢1 I1
I¢1
I¢1 I1
Io Io
Iw fm Iw
Im Im fm
I2
q2
V2
I2
V2
I2R2 E2 E2
jI2X2
E1 I2R2
jI2X2 E1
(J W ) (J W )
USBOTJFOU!CFIBWJPVS!XIFO!MPBEJOH! 4/24
BOE!VOMPBEJOH
The transient behaviour of a transformer while loading and unloading has been discussed in this
section considering constant permeability and no leakage flux.
According to Lenz’s law, the emf induced in the secondary winding of a transformer opposes
the flux that caused it. When a load is placed in the secondary winding, the secondary current sets
up an mmf of its own in opposition to the primary mmf. Thus, for a very brief instant, the core flux
decreases to
N1 I m - N 2 I 2
fm =
Reluctance of core
The decrease in flux causes a decrease in the primary-induced emf E1 which in turn causes an
Ê V - E1 ˆ
increase in the primary current I1 ÁE I1 = 1 . This additional primary current I 1¢ is the load
Ë R1 ˜¯
! 4/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
component of primary current (I1 = Io + I 1¢ ). The mmf I 1¢ N2 caused by the current I ¢ adds its mmf to
the magnetizing component causing the flux to increase. Hence,
N1I m + N1I1¢ - N 2 I 2
fm =
Reluctance of core
The primary current increases until N1 I ¢1 = N2 I2 and under this condition, fm and E1 returns to
the same value as under no-load condition of the transformer. Any difference between E1 at no-load
and E1 at load is due to small additional increase in voltage drop due to the resistance in the primary
winding. Thus, the final steady-state primary current under load conditions is
I1 = Io + I1¢
= Io + I 2¢
N2
where I 2¢ is the secondary current referred to the primary and I2¢ = I2 ¥
N1
While removing load from the secondary, opposite action takes place. I2 decreases to zero and
I2 N2 also reduces to zero. The resultant transient increase in mutual flux produces a transient in-
crease in counter emf causing the primary current to drop back to its initial no-load value.
Although described as step-by-step process, the actual behaviour, when loading or unloading, is
essentially simultaneous and takes place in a fraction of a second.
FRVJWBMFOU!DJSDVJU!PG!B!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/25
Though the ideal transformer winding does not have any resistance, in actual practice, there is
always some resistance of the windings. This causes a voltage drop. The resistance of the primary
winding is represented by R1 and that of the secondary by R2.
The actual transformer has another deviation from the ideal transformer. Not all of the flux
produced by the primary winding links with the secondary winding in the actual transformer. Simi-
larly, not all of the flux produced by the secondary winding links with the primary winding. The
difference between the total flux linking with the primary winding and the mutual flux f linking
with both winding is called the primary leakage flux. Similarly, the secondary leakage flux can also
be expressed.
We can write Kirchhoff ’s voltage equations for the primary and secondary sides of the trans-
former (Fig. 3.12) as
V1 = I1 R1 + jI1 X1 – E1 = I1 (R1 + jX1) – E1 (3.23a)
and E2 = I2 R2 + jI2 X2 + V2 = I2 (R2 + jX2) + V2 (3.23b)
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/3:
Gjh/!4/23 '*
The equivalent circuit gives the interpretation of the above equations. Further, we know the
primary current I1 is composed of two currents I2¢ and Io. Also, the current Io consists of two com-
ponents, Im and Iw. Therefore, the current Io can be considered to be split into two parallel branches.
The current Iw accounts for the core loss, and hence is shown to flow through resistance Ro. The
current Im represents the magnetizing current and is shown to flow through a pure reactance Xo. This
branch consisting of the parallel Ro and Xo is called the magnetizing branch of the transformer. Ro
is known as the core loss resistance and Xo the magnetizing reactance.
Using the impedance transformation, we can draw the simplified equivalent circuit of a trans-
former, as referred to the primary side only or to the secondary side only.
We have seen earlier that an impedance connected across the secondary appears as K2 times,
when referred to the primary (here, K = N1/N2, where K is the transformation ratio). Therefore, to
simplify the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.12, we can transfer the resistance R2 and the reactance X2
to the primary side, by simply multiplying each of them by K 2. The total resistance and the total
reactance in the primary side then becomes
Re1 = R1 + K2 R2 = R1 + R¢2 and Xe1 = X1 + K 2 X2 = X1 + X¢2
where R¢2 = K 2 R2 and X 2¢ = K2 X2.
The equivalent circuit of the transformer now simply reduces to the one as shown in Fig. 3.13(a).
1
Here, I 2¢ = I2
K
V2¢ = KV2
Re1 = R1 + R¢2
R2 = K2 R2
Xe1 = X1 + X2¢
X2¢ = K2 X2
I1 = Io + I¢2
! 4/41 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Re1 = R1 + K2R2
I1 (I2/K)
Io I¢2 Xe1
= (X1 + K2X2) L
O
V1 Ro Xo A
Iw Im V¢2 = KV2 D
Gjh/!4/24)b* '*
Similarly, the equivalent circuit as referred to secondary side can also be drawn. But in this case,
the equivalent resistance and reactance as referred to the secondary side will be
The equivalent circuit referred to the secondary is shown in Fig. 3.13(b). Here, R¢o and Xo¢ repre-
sents the core resistance and the magnetizing reactance referred to the secondary.
L
V¢1 = V1/K R¢o O
X¢o V2 A
D
I¢w I¢m
Gjh/!4/24)c* '*
Here,
I1¢ = KI1
V
V¢1 = 1
K
Re2 = R2 + R1¢
2
Ê 1ˆ
= R2 + R1 Á ˜
Ë K¯
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/42
2
Ê 1ˆ
Xe2 = X2 + X1¢ = X2 + X1 Á ˜
Ë K¯
I2 = I1¢ + I2
BQQSPYJNBUF!FRVJWBMFOU!DJSDVJU! 4/26
PG!B!USBOTGPSNFS
Since in a transformer, the magnitude of Io is very low (1 – 3% of the full load current). We can
neglect the magnetizing branch for simplicity. The equivalent circuit neglecting the magnetizing
branch is called the approximate equivalent circuit [Fig. 3.14(a) and Fig. 3.14(b)].
1
Re2 = R2 + R1; Re1 = R1 + K2R2
K2
1
Xe2 = X2 + X1; Xe1 = X1 + K2X2
K2
1
V1¢ = V1; V2¢ = KV2
K
I1¢ = KI1; I2¢ = (I2/K)
Gjh/!4/25)b* + * Gjh/!4/25)c* + *
! 4/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
NBHOFUJ[BUJPO!DVSSFOU!JO! 4/27
B!SFBM!USBOTGPSNFS
f, im f
im
Gjh/!4/27 , -
It can be observed that im is not purely sinusoidal in nature. However Fourier analysis of the cur-
rent waveform reveals that the magnetizing current im consists of a fundamental sine component
along with some odd harmonic component, the predominant being the third harmonic component
as shown in Fig. 3.17.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/44
im
im
Fundamental component of im
Gjh/!4/28 . jn
When the supply voltage is sinusoidal, the flux is also sinusoidal while the magnetizing current
im contains third harmonic components. But the triplen frequency current in a transformer can
only exist if there is a triplen frequency component of emf. But a triplen frequency emf can exist
only in the presence of triplen frequency flux. Hence, the actual waveform of flux is the resultant
of fundamental and third harmonic flux components. When the flux density in the core is high, the
harmonic component is more pronounced in the flux waveform and as a result, the resultant flux
departs appreciably from the ideal sine wave.
If a sinusoidal magnetizing current is furnished, the flux wave will fail to reach its sinusoidal
peak value and will become flat topped as shown in Fig. 3.18. The emf induced by it will then be
peaky with third (and other) harmonics. A flat-topped flux density waveform may be written as
B = Bm1 sin wt + Bm3 sin 3wt
Gjh/!4/29 / -
! 4/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/31
B!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!uvsot!sbujp!pg!9/!Uif!sftjtubodft!pg!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!boe!mpx.wpmu.
bhf!xjoejoht!bsf!2/6!W!boe!1/16!W!sftqfdujwfmz!boe!uif!sfbdubodft!bsf!21!W!boe!1/6!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!
Gjoe!)b*!uif!wpmubhf!up!cf!bqqmjfe!up!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef!up!pcubjo!b!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!211!B!po!
uif!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!po!tipsu!djsdvju-!boe!)c*!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!po!tipsu!djsdvju/
Solution
N
If NH and NL be the number of turns of the high-voltage and low-voltage windings then H =
8 (given). NL
Resistance of high-voltage winding RH = 1.5 W
Resistance of low-voltage winding RL = 0.05 W
Reactance of high-voltage winding XH = 10 W
Reactance of low-voltage winding XL = 0.5 W
Full-load current on the high-voltage side = 100 A
N 100
\ full-load current on the high voltage side = 100 ¥ L = = 12.5 A
NH 8
Equivalent impedance referred to the high-voltage side
= (RH + R¢L) + j(XH + XL¢ )
= {1.5 + 0.05(8)2} + j {10 + 0.5(8)2} = 4.7 + j42 = 42.26–83.6° W
(a) The voltage to be applied to the high-voltage side to obtain full-load current is 12.5 ¥ 42.26
= 528.25 V
(b) Power factor on short circuit is cos 83.6° = 0.111.
! Qspcmfn!4/32
B! 77110551! W-! 61! I{! tjohmf.qibtf! usbotgpsnfs! ibt! ijhi.wpmubhf! boe! mpx.wpmubhf! xjoejoh! sftjt.
ubodft!pg!1/6!W!boe!1/1118!W!sftqfdujwfmz!boe!sfbdubodft!pg!3!W!boe!1/112!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!uif!
dvssfou!boe!uif!joqvu!qpxfs!xifo!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!331!W-!61!I{!tvqqmz-!
uif!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!cfjoh!tipsu!djsdvjufe/
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/46
Solution
N H 6600
= , RH = 0.5 W, RL = 0.0007 W,
NL 440
XH = 2 W, XL = 0.001 W
Equivalent impedance referred to the high-voltage side,
ÊN ˆ
2 ÏÔ Ê N ˆ ¸Ô
2
ZeH = RH + RL Á H ˜ + j Ì X H + X L Á H ˜ ˝
Ë NL ¯ ÔÓ Ë N L ¯ Ô˛
Ê 6600 ˆ
2 ÏÔ Ê 6600 ˆ ¸Ô
2
= 0.5 + 0.0007 Á + j Ì2 + 0.001Á
Ë 440 ˜¯ Ë 440 ˜¯ ˝
ÓÔ ˛Ô
= 0.6575 + j 2.225 = 2.32 – 73.54° W
220
\ current in the high-voltage side when low voltage is short circuited is A = 94.83 A
2.32
Input power = 220 ¥ 94.83 cos 73.54° = 5911 W = 5.9 kW.
! Qspcmfn!4/33
B!wpmubhf!W!>!311!tjo!425u!jt!bqqmjfe!up!uif!usbotgpsnfs!xjoejoh!jo!b!op.mpbe!uftu/!Uif!sftvmujoh!
dvssfou!jt!gpvoe!up!cf!j!>!4!tjo!)425u!Ð!71¡*/!Efufsnjof!uif!dpsf!mptt!boe!snt!wbmvf!pg!uif!fydjujoh!
dvssfou/
Solution
The instantaneous exciting current i = 3 sin (314t – 60°)
3
rms value of exciting current Ie = A = 2.12 A
2
The instantaneous applied voltage (V) = 200 sin 314t
200
rms value of voltage V1 = V
2
No-load power factor angle = (qo) = 60°
200 ¥ 3 200 ¥ 3 1
\ core loss (= V1 Ie cos qo) = cos 60° = ¥ = 150 W.
2 2 2 2
! Qspcmfn!4/34
B!211!lWB-!35110351!W-!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!bo!fydjujoh!pg!1/75!B!boe!b!dpsf!mptt!
pg!811!X-!xifo!jut!ijhi!wpmubhf!tjef!jt!fofshj{fe!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf!boe!gsfrvfodz/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!uxp!
dpnqpofout!pg!fydjujoh!dvssfou/
! 4/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Exciting current Io = 0.64
Core loss = (V1 Io cos qo) = 700 W, where cos qo is the no-load p.f. and V1 is the voltage of the
primary winding.
700
So, cos qo = = 0.456
2400 ¥ 0.64
The core-loss component of exciting current
= Io cos qo = 0.64 ¥ 0.456 = 0.292 A
The magnetizing component of exciting current
= Io sin qo = 0.64 ¥ sin (cos–1 0.456) = 0.569 A.
! Qspcmfn!4/35
B!tjohmf.qibtf! dpsf.uzqf! usbotgpsnfs!ibt!qsjnbsz! xjoejoh! wpmubhf! pg! 7711! W! bu! 61! I{! xjui! 611!
uvsot/!Uif!nfbo!mfohui!pg!uif!mbnjobufe!dpsf!jt!3!n/!Uif!kpjout!dbvtf!bo!fggfdujwf!bjs!hbq!pg!1/3!nn/!
Uif!nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!jo!uif!dpsf!jt!2/4!Xc0n3!boe!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!nbhofuj{joh!tusfohui!
gps!tiffu!tuffm!jt!:11!BU0n!boe!uif!tqfdjgjd!mptt!jt!4!X0lh/!Jg!uif!efotjuz!pg!uif!tuffm!jt!8/9!h0dn4-!
efufsnjof!uif!op!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!uif!qsjnbsz!boe!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
Ampere turns for the steel core = 2 ¥ 900 = 1800
B
Ampere turns for the air gap = ¥ 0.2 ¥ 10–3
mo
1.3
= ¥ 0.2 ¥ 10–3
4p ¥ 10 -7
= 207
The total ampere turns = 1800 + 207 = 2007
2007
Peak magnetizing current = = 4.014 A
500
4.014
Rms value of magnetizing current = Im = = 1.278 A
2
If A be the cross section of the core then
E = 4.44 Bm A f N
6600 = 4.44 ¥ 1.3 A ¥ 50 ¥ 500
\ A = 0.0457 sqm
The volume of the steel core = 2 ¥ 0.0457
= 0.0915 m3
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/48
! Qspcmfn!4/36
Uif!qsjnbsz!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!b!8/:8!lW0377!lW-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!jt!276!nI!boe!qsjnbsz!
nbhofuj{joh!sfbdubodf!jt!246!I/!Efufsnjof!uif!pqfo.djsdvju!tfdpoebsz!wpmubhf!jg!uif!qsjnbsz!bq.
qmjfe!wpmubhf!jt!8:81!W/
Solution
The secondary voltage referred to the primary is the voltage across the magnetizing reactance
since the secondary is open circuited.
j 135 w
\ V1¢ = V1 ¥
j (0.165 + 135)w
135
= 7970 ¥ = 7960.27 V
135.165
\ open-circuit secondary voltage
266
V2 = 7960.27 ¥ = 266.01 V.
7960
! Qspcmfn!4/37
Uif!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!b!571!W03511!W!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!tfsjft!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!48/3!W!
sfgfssfe!up!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef/!B!mpbe!dpoofdufe!up!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef!bctpsct!36!lX!bu!vojuz!
qpxfs!gbdups!boe!uif!wpmubhf!bdsptt!uif!mpbe!jt!561!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!wpmubhf!boe!
qpxfs!gbdups!bt!nfbtvsfe!bu!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!ufsnjobmt/
Solution
25000
Load current IL = = 55.5 A
450
This current is referred to the low-voltage side.
! 4/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/38
B! 46! lW! gffefs! xjui! :6! ,! k471! W! jnqfebodf! tvqqmjft! b! tjohmf.qibtf! mpbe! uispvhi! b! 46! lW;
3511!W!usbotgpsnfs!xiptf!frvjwbmfou!jnqfebodf!jt!1/34!,!k!2/38!W!sfgfssfe!up!jut!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef/!
Uif!mpbe!jt!271!lX!bu!1/9:!mfbejoh!qpxfs!gbdups!boe!3451!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!bu!uif!ijhi.
wpmubhf!ufsnjobmt!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/!Bmtp!efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!bu!uif!tfoejoh!foe!pg!uif!gffefs/
Solution
The load current
160, 000
IL = = 68.37 A
2340
p.f. = 0.89 lead
Equivalent impedance of the feeder and transformer referred to the low-voltage side
2
Ê 2400 ˆ
= (95 + j 360) Á
Ë 35000 ˜¯
ZeL + 0.23 + j 1.27
= 0.677 + j 2.96
The voltage at the sending end of the feeder
35000
Vs = {2340 + (0.677 + j 2.96) 68.37 cos -1 0.89}
2400
or, Vs = 14.58 {2340 + 3.03 ¥ 68.37 ¥ 104.25∞}
= 14.58 {2289 + j 200.78}
= 33.5 kV
The voltage at the high-voltage terminals of the transformer
35000
VH = {2340 + (0.23+ j1.27) ¥ 68.37 cos -1 0.89}
2400
= 14.58 {2340 + 1.29 ¥ 68.37 106.85∞}
= 14.58 {2314.4 + j 84.4}
= 33.7 kV.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/4:
! Qspcmfn!4/39
B!8:81!W0231!W-!61!I{!qpufoujbm!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!qbsbnfufst!sfgfssfe!up!uif!ijhi.
wpmubhf!xjoejoh;
Y2!>!2832!W-!Y3¢!>!29:8!W-!Yn!>!893!l W-!S2!>!2489!W-!S3¢ !>!2713!W
! )b*! Efufsnjof! uif! nbhojuvef! boe! qibtf! bohmf! )xjui! sftqfdu! up! uif! ijhi.wpmubhf! tpvsdf*! pg! uif!
wpmubhf! bu! uif! tfdpoebsz! ufsnjobmt! bttvnjoh! uibu! uif! tfdpoebsz! jt! pqfo! djsdvjufe! boe! uif!
qsjnbsz!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!8/:8!lW!tpvsdf/
! )c*! Jg!b!2!lW!sftjtujwf!mpbe!jt!dpoofdufe!up!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobmt-!efufsnjof!uif!nbhojuvef!boe!
qibtf!bohmf!pg!uif!tfdpoebsz!wpmubhf/
Solution
(a) The terminal voltage on the primary side
V1 j X m 7970 ¥ j 782 ¥ 103
V1¢ = =
R1 + j ( X 1 + X m ) 1378 + j (1721 + 782 ¥ 103 )
= 7952 0.11∞
\ voltage on the secondary terminals under open-circuit condition
120
V2 = V1¢ ¥ = 120 0.11∞ V
7920
2
ÊN ˆ
(b) RL when referred to primary side R¢L= RL Á 1 ˜ = 4.41 mW. The equivalent impedance
ËN ¯ 2
referred to the primary side when 1 kW resistive load is connected
jX m ( R2¢ + jX 2¢ + RL¢ )
Ze1 = R1 + jX1 +
jX m + R2¢ + jX 2¢
j 782 ¥ 103 (1602 + j 1897 + 4.41 ¥ 106 )
= 1378 + j1721 +
j 782 ¥ 103 + 1602 + j 1897 + 4.41 ¥ 106
-1483454 + j 1252764
= 1378 + j1721 +
1602 + j 783897
= 1378 + j1721 + 769.94 ¥ 103 79.95∞
= 135738.32 + j759846.9
7970
\ primary current I1 =
135738.32 + j 759846.9
= 0.01 -79.87∞ A
! 4/51 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
N1
Secondary current I2 = I1¢ ¥ = 0.1195 0.054∞ A
N2
\ V2 = I2 ¥ RL = 119.7 0.054∞ V.
! Qspcmfn!4/3:
B! 311! W-! 6! B-! 61! I{! dvssfou! usbotgpsnfs! ibt! uif! gpmmpxjoh! qbsbnfufst! bt! tffo! gspn! uif! 311! B!
)qsjnbsz*!xjoejoh;
Y2!>!856!mW-!Y 3¢ !>!924!mW-!Yn!>!418!n W-!S2!>!247!mW!S3¢ !>239!mW
Efufsnjof!uif!nbhojuvef!boe!qibtf!bohmf!pg!uif!tfdpoebsz!dvssfou!bttvnjoh!b!dvssfou!pg!311!B!jo!
uif!qsjnbsz!boe!uif!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoh!tipsu!djsdvjufe/
Solution
5
\ secondary winding current I2 = I1¢ ¥ = 4.987 0.024∞ A.
200
! Qspcmfn!4/41
B!26!lW;!286!lW-!236!NWB-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!jnqfebodft!pg!1/11:6!
,!k!1/174!qfs!voju!fbdi/!Uif!nbhofuj{joh!sfbdubodf!jt!k259!qfs!voju/!Efufsnjof!uif!qsjnbsz!boe!
tfdpoebsz!sftjtubodft!boe!sfbdubodft!boe!uif!nbhofuj{joh!sfbdubodft!)sfgfssfe!up!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!
tjef*!jo!pint/
Solution
Base impedance referred to the low-voltage side
( Base kV ) 2 (15) 2
ZBL = = = 1.8 W
Base MVA 125
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/52
! Qspcmfn!4/42
B!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!b!sbujp!pg!5510311!W!ublft!b!op.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!9!B!bu!b!q/g/!pg!1/36!
)mbhhjoh*/!Jg!uif!tfdpoebsz!tvqqmjft!b!dvssfou!pg!331!B!bu!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!)mbhhjoh*-!ftujnbuf!uif!dvssfou!
ublfo!cz!uif!qsjnbsz!gspn!uif!tvqqmz/
Solution
Secondary load current I2 = 220 A
N2 200
\ load component of the primary current (= I 1¢ ) = I2 = 220 ¥ = 100 A.
N1 440
No-load component of the primary current Io = 8 A. Referring to Fig. 3.10 (b), the horizontal and
vertical components of I1¢ are (I1¢ sin q) and (I 1¢ cos q), where cos q = 0.8. Similarly, the horizontal
and vertical components of Io are (Io sin qo) and (Io cos qo) where cos qo = 0.25. So, the horizontal
component of the primary current
= (I 1¢ sin q + Io sin qo)
i.e. I1H = 100 sin (cos–1 0.8) + 8 sin (cos–1 0.25) = 67.75 A
Vertical component of the primary current
I1V = (I 1¢ cos q + Io cos qo)
= 100 ¥ 0.8 + 8 ¥ 0.25 = 82 A
! Qspcmfn!4/43
B!77110551!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!qsjnbsz!sftjtubodf!pg!251!W!boe!b!tfdpoebsz!sftjt.
ubodf!pg!1/36!W/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodft!sfgfssfe!up!uif!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoh!boe!qsjnbsz!
xjoejoh!sftqfdujwfmz/
Solution
Primary resistance R1 = 140 W
! 4/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/44
B!28/6!lWB-!5710226!W!tjohmf.qibtf-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!sftjtubodft!pg!
1/47!W!boe!1/13!W!sftqfdujwfmz!boe!uif!mfblbhf!sfbdubodft!pg!uiftf!xjoejoht!bsf!1/93!W!boe!1/17!W!
sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!up!cf!bqqmjfe!up!uif!qsjnbsz!up!pcubjo!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!xjui!uif!
tfdpoebsz!xjoejoh!tipsu!djsdvjufe/!Ofhmfdu!uif!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou/
Solution
17500
Full-load primary current I1 = = 38.04 A
460
R1 = 0.36 W and R2 = 0.02 W
X1 = 0.82 W and X2 = 0.06 W
Equivalent resistance referred to the primary
2
Ê 460 ˆ
Re1 = R1 + R 2¢ = 0.36 + 0.02 Á = 0.68 W
Ë 115 ˜¯
Equivalent reactance referred to the primary
2
Ê 460 ˆ
Xe1 = X1 + X2¢ = 0.82 + 0.06 ¥ Á = 1.78 W
Ë 115 ˜¯
Equivalent impedance referred to the primary
As the secondary is short circuited, the voltage applied to obtain full-load current = I1 Ze1
= (38.04 ¥ 1.905) = 72.48 V.
! Qspcmfn!4/45
B!tjohmf.qibtf!tufq.epxo!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!qbsujdvmbst;!uvsot!sbujp!5;2-!op!mpbe!dvssfou!
6!B!bu!1/4!q/g/!mbhhjoh-!221!W!tfdpoebsz!wpmubhf-!tfdpoebsz!mpbe!pg!21!lWB!bu!1/9!q/g/!)mbhhjoh*/!Gjoe!
)b*!uif!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!ofhmfdujoh!uif!joufsobm!wpmubhf!espq-!)c*!uif!tfdpoebsz!dvssfou!po!mpbe!)d*!
uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou-!boe!)e*!uif!qsjnbsz!q/g/
Solution
N1 E
=4= 1 E2 = 110 V
N2 E2
(a) \ E1 = 4 ¥ 110 = 440 V
10, 000
(b) Secondary load current (I2) = = 90.91 A
110
(c) If (I 1¢) is the load component of the primary current then from I1¢N1 = I2N2 or,
N 1
I 1¢ = I2 2 = 90.91 ¥ = 22.73 A
N1 4
If I1 is the primary current then,
I1 cos q1 = Io cos qo + I1¢ cos q, where Io and I1¢ are the no-load and load component of primary
current, cos qo and cos q are the no-load p.f. and secondary load p.f. respectively.
So, I1 cos q1 = 5 ¥ 0.3 + 22.73 ¥ 0.8 = 19.684 A
Again, I2 sin q1 = 5 sin (cos–1 0.3) + 22.73 sin (cos–1 0.8)
= 18.4 A
! Qspcmfn!4/46
B!7/7!lW-!61!I{!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!b!usbotgpsnbujpo!sbujp!)2;1/17*!ublft!b!op.mpbe!dvs.
sfou!pg!1/8!B!boe!b!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!8/938!B!xifo!uif!tfdpoebsz!jt!mpbefe!up!231!B!bu!b!q/g/!pg!
1/9!mbhhjoh/!Xibu!jt!uif!op.mpbe!q/g/@
! 4/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
I2 = 120 A
Load p.f. (cos q = 0.8 lagging or, q = cos–1 0.8 = 36.87°)
N1 1
=
N 2 0.06
No-load primary current Io = 0.7 A
N2
Load component of primary current (= I1¢) = I2 = 120 ¥ 0.06 = 7.2 A
N1
Full-load primary current I1 = 7.827 A
Let no-load p.f. angle be qo
Referring to Fig. 3.10(b),
I 12 = I 02 + I1¢2 + 2Io I1¢ cos (qo – q)
(7.827) 2 - (0.7) 2 - (7.2) 2
or cos (qo – q ) = = 0.886
2 ¥ 0.7 ¥ 7.2
or (qo – q ) = cos–1 0.886 = 27.625°
or qo = 27.625° + 36.87° = 64.495°.
! Qspcmfn!4/47
Jg!uif!qpxfs!joqvu!up!b!5510331!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!211!X-!efufsnjof!uif!bdujwf!boe!sf.
bdujwf!dpnqpofout!pg!op.mpbe!dvssfou!xifo!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!jt!lfqu!pqfo/!Bttvnf!uif!q/g/!pg!
uif!op.mpbe!dvssfou!up!cf!1/3!mbh/
Solution
Po = V1 Io cos fo
Active power component of no-load current
Po 100
Iw = Io cos fo = = A = 0.2272 A
V1 440
Po
No-load current = (Io) =
V1 cos q o
100
= A = 1.136 A
440 ¥ 0.2
Reactive component of no-load current
Im = I o2 - I w2 = (1.136) 2 - (0.2272) 2
= 1.1130 A.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/56
! Qspcmfn!4/48
B!3310221!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ublft!bo!joqvu!pg!511!WB!bu!op.mpbe!boe!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf/!
Uif!dpsf!mptt!jt!211!X/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!jspo!mptt!dpnqpofou!pg!op.mpbe!dvssfou-!boe!)c*!uif!nbhofuj{joh!
dpnqpofou!pg!op.mpbe!dvssfou!boe!op.mpbe!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
V1 Io = 400
400 400
Io = = = 1.82 A
V1 220
Core loss = (V1 Io) cos qo
100 = 400 cos qo
100
or, cos qo = = 0.25
400
Core loss component of no-load current = Io cos qo
core loss
=
V1
100
= = 0.4545 A
220
! Qspcmfn!4/49
B!411!lWB-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibwjoh!b!wpmubhf!sbujp!pg!77110771!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!xjoejoh!
sftjtubodft!boe!sfbdubodft;
S2!>!2/7!W!!!S3!>!1/126!W!!!Y2!>!5!W!!!Y3!>!1/16!W
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!sfgfssfe!up!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!xjoejoh/
Solution 2
ÊN ˆ
Re1 = R1 + R2 Á 1 ˜
ËN ¯2
È Ê 6600 ˆ ˘
2
= Í1.6 + 0.015 Á ˙W
ÍÎ Ë 660 ˜¯ ˙
˚
= 3.1 W
As the primary winding is the high-voltage winding, Ro1 is the equivalent resistance referred to
the high-voltage winding.
! 4/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2
ÊN ˆ
Xe1 = X1 + X2 Á 1 ˜
ËN ¯ 2
2
= 4 + 0.05 ÊÁ 6600 ˆ˜
Ë 660 ¯
= 9.0 W.
! Qspcmfn!4/4:
B!tjohmf!usbotgpsnfs!ibwjoh!311!boe!211!uvsot!jo!jut!tfdpoebsz!boe!qsjnbsz!xjoejoht!ibt!sftqfd.
ujwf!sftjtubodft!pg!1/344!W!boe!1/178!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!sftjtubodf!pg!)b*!uif!qsjnbsz!jo!ufsnt!pg!uif!
tfdpoebsz!xjoejoh-!)c*!uif!tfdpoebsz!jo!ufsnt!pg!uif!qsjnbsz!xjoejoh-!boe!)d*!uif!upubm!sftjtubodf!
pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jo!ufsnt!pg!uif!qsjnbsz/
Solution
(a) The resistance of the primary winding in terms of the secondary winding
2 2
ÊN ˆ Ê 200 ˆ
R1¢ = R1 Á 2 ˜ = (0.067) ÁË 100 ˜¯
Ë N1 ¯
= 0.268 W
(b) The secondary resistance in terms of the primary winding
2 2
ÊN ˆ Ê 100 ˆ
R¢2 = R2 Á 1 ˜ = (0.233) Á = 0.05825 W
Ë N2 ¯ Ë 200 ˜¯
(c) The total resistance of the transformer in terms of the primary
Re1 = R1 + R¢2 = 0.067 + 0.05825 = 0.12525 W.
! Qspcmfn!4/51
B!tjohmf.qibtf!44110511!W!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!xjoejoh!sftjtubodft!boe!sfbdubodft;
S2!>!1/7!W! S3!>!1/123!W! Y2!>!4/:!W! Y3!>!1/16!W
Uif!tfdpoebsz!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!mpbe!ibwjoh!b!sftjtubodf!pg!6!W!boe!joevdujwf!sfbdubodf!pg!4!W/!
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!boe!uif!qpxfs!dpotvnfe!cz!uif!mpbe/!
Solution
Since the results required refer to the secondary side, we use the simplified equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 3.14(b).
2
Ê N2 ˆ
Re2 = R2 + R1 Á
Ë N1 ˜¯
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/58
2
Ê 400 ˆ
= 0.012 + 0.6 Á
Ë 3300 ˜¯
= 0.0208 W
2
ÊN ˆ
Xe2 = X2 + X1 Á 2 ˜
ËN ¯ 1
2
Ê 400 ˆ
= 0.05 + 3.9 Á
Ë 3300 ˜¯
= 0.1073 W
Ze2 = Re2 + j Xe2 = [0.0208 + j0.1073] W
ZL = (5 + j3) W
The total impedance in the secondary circuit is,
Z = Ze2 + ZL
= [5.0208 + j3.1073] = 5.9045 31.75∞
400 0∞ 400 0∞
Also, I2 = = = 67.74 - 31.75∞ A
Z 5.9045 31.75∞
! Qspcmfn!4/52
B!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!uvsot!sbujp!pg!6/!Uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!boe!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoe.
joht!ibwf!uif!sftjtubodft!boe!sfbdubodft!2/1!W-!1/13!W-!6!W!boe!1/26!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!
wpmubhf!up!cf!bqqmjfe!bu!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef!up!pcubjo!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!361!B!jo!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!
xjoejoh!po!tipsu!djsdvju!boe!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!po!tipsu!djsdvju/
Solution
N1
=5 R1 = 1.0 W R2 = 0.02 W
N2
! 4/59 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
X1 = 5 W X2 = 0.15 W
2
ÊN ˆ
Re1 = R1 + R2 Á 1 ˜ = 1.0 + 0.02 (5)2 = 1.5 W
Ë N2 ¯
2
ÊN ˆ
Xe1 = X1 + X2 Á 1 ˜ = 5 + 0.15 (5)2 = 8.75 W
ËN ¯2
Power factor
Re1 1.5
cos qsc = = = 0.169
Ze1 8.877
I2 N2 = I1 N1
N 1
I1 = I2 2 = 250 ¥ = 50 A
N1 5
Vsc = I1 Ze1 = (50 ¥ 8.877) V = 443.85 V.
! Qspcmfn!4/53
Uif!frvjwbmfou!jnqfebodf!pg!b!21!lWB-!3310551!W-!tjohmf.qibtf-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!sfgfssfe!up!uif!
mpx.wpmubhf!tjef!jt!)1/3!,!k1/6*!W/!Uif!dpsf!mptt!sftjtubodf!boe!nbhofuj{joh!sfbdubodf!bsf!211!W!boe!
261!W!sftqfdujwfmz-!cpui!sfgfssfe!up!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef/!Jg!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!dvssfou!jt!31!B!bu!b!mbh.
hjoh!q/g/!pg!1/9-!gjoe!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!joqvu!dvssfou!boe!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf/
Solution
ReL = 0.2 W ¸
˝ [Low-voltage side resistance and reactannce]
X eL = 0.5 W ˛
Ro = 100 W ¸
˝ [Magnetizing branch resistance and reactannce at low-voltage side]
X o = 150 W ˛
\ ZeL = 0.5385 –68.2° W
High-voltage current (IH) = 20 ––cos–1 0.8 = 20 ––36.86° V
440
The high-voltage current referred to low-voltage side = IH¢ = 20 ¥ = 40 A
220
220 220
The no-load component of current (Io) = - j
100 150
= (2.2– j1.47) A
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/5:
! Qspcmfn!4/54
B! 611! lWB-! tjohmf.qibtf-! 31110311! W-! 61! I{/! usbotgpsnfs! ibt! b! 1/3! W! ijhi.wpmubhf! sftjtubodf!
boe!b!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!1/5!W/!Uif!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!jt!1/113!W!boe!uif!mfblbhf!
sfbdubodf!jt!1/119!W/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!frvjwbmfou!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!ijhi.
wpmubhf!tjef!boe!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef-!)c*!uif!frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf!boe!frvjwbmfou!sfbdubodf!espq!
jo!wpmut!boe!jo!qfsdfou!pg!uif!sbufe!xjoejoh!wpmubhft!fyqsfttfe!jo!ufsnt!pg!ijhi.wpmubhf!rvboujujft/
Solution
(a) Equivalent winding resistance referred to the high-voltage side
2 2
ÊN ˆ Ê 2000 ˆ
Re1 = R1 + R2 Á 1 ˜ = 0.2 + 0.002 ¥ Á = 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4 W
ËN ¯ 2
Ë 200 ˜¯
Equivalent reactance referred to the high-voltage side
2 2
Ê N1 ˆ Ê 2000 ˆ
Xe1 = X1 + X2 Á = 0.4 + 0.008 ¥ Á = 0.4 + 0.8 = 1.2 W
Ë N ˜¯ 2
Ë 200 ˜¯
Equivalent resistance referred to low-voltage side
2 2
Ê N2 ˆ Ê 200 ˆ
Re2 = Re2 + Re1 Á = 0.002 + 0.2 ¥ Á = 0.002 + 0.002 = 0.004 W
Ë N ˜¯
1
Ë 2000 ˜¯
Equivalent reactance referred to low-voltage side
2 2
Ê N2 ˆ Ê 200 ˆ
Xe2 = X2 + X1 Á = 0.008 + 0.4 ¥ Á = 0.008 + 0.004 = 0.012 W
Ë N1 ˜¯ Ë 2000 ˜¯
(b) Equivalent resistance drop referred to high-voltage side
500 ¥ 103
= I1 Re1 = ¥ 0.4 = 250 ¥ 0.4 = 100 V
2000
! 4/61 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
I1Re1 100
Percent equivalent resistance drop = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 5%
V1 2000
Equivalent reactance drop referred to the low-voltage side
500 ¥ 103
I1 Xe1 = ¥ 1.2 = 250 ¥ 1.2 = 300 V
2000
Percent equivalent resistance drop
I1 X e1 300
¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 15%.
V1 2000
! Qspcmfn!4/55
B!6!lWB-!511091!W!usbotgpsnfs!ibwjoh!Sfr!)IW*!>!1/36!W!boe!Yfr!)IW*!>!6!W!boe!tvqqmz!b!mbhhjoh!
mpbe/!Uif!nfufs!sfbejoht!)xifo!qmbdfe!po!IW!tjef*!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
J2!>!27!B!!!!!!W2!>!511!W! ! Q2!>!6!lX
Bu!uijt!dpoejujpo-!b!wpmunfufs!jt!dpoofdufe!bdsptt!uif!mpbe!ufsnjobmt/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!wpmunfufs!sfbe.
joh!xifo!uif!fydjujoh!dvssfou!jt!{fsp/
Solution
5 ¥ 103
cos q1 = = 0.78
16 ¥ 400
\ q1 = 38.6° (lagging)
\ I1 = 16 - 38.6∞
Considering the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3.14 (a),
V2¢ = 400 0∞ – 16 38.6∞ (0.25 + j5)
= 400 –16 [cos (–38.6°) + j sin (–38.6°)] [0.25 + j5]
= 347 – j 89.9 = 352 V
352 ¥ 80
V2 = = 70.4 V.
400
! Qspcmfn!4/56
B!36!lWB-!3410226!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub;
S2!>!1/23!W! S3!>!1/15!W Y2!>!!1/3!W!!Y3!>!1/16!W
Gjoe!uif!usbotgpsnfs!mpbejoh!xijdi!xjmm!nblf!uif!qsjnbsz!joevdfe!fng!frvbm!jo!nbhojuvef!up!uif!
qsjnbsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dbsszjoh!uif!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou/!Ofhmfdu!nbhofuj{.
joh!dvssfou/!
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/62
Solution
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3.19.
230
Transformation ratio = =2
115
Referring to the 230 V side,
R ¢2 = (2)2 ¥ 0.04 = 0.16 W X 2¢ = (2)2 ¥ 0.05 = 0.2 W
25 ¥ 103
I1 (full load) = = 108.7 q1 A
230
According to the question,
230 – 108.7 (0.12 cos q1 + 0.2 sin q1) = 230
or tan q1 = –0.6
! Qspcmfn!4/57
Uif!op.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!b!71110511!W-!tjohmf.qibtf-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!jt!1/16!B/!Ju!dpotvnfst!91!X!
qpxfs!bu!op.mpbe!xifo!tvqqmz!jt!hjwfo!up!m/w/!tjef!boe!i/w/!tjef!jt!lfqu!pqfo/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Qpxfs!gbdups!pg!op.mpbe!dvssfou
! )c*! Jspo.mptt!dpnqpofou!pg!dvssfou!
! )d*! Nbhofuj{joh!dpnqpofou!pg!dvssfou
! 4/63 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
No-load power (Wo) = 80 W
No-load current (Io) = 0.05 A
V = 6000 V
(a) Wo = VIo cos qo
80
fi cos qo = = 0.266
6000 ¥ 0.05
No-load p.f. = 0.266 lagging
(b) Iron-loss component of current = Iw = Io cos qo
= 0.05 ¥ 0.266
= 0.0133 A
(c) Magnetizing component of current
Im = Io sin qo
= Io 1 - cos 2 q o
= 0.05 1 - 0.266 2
= 0.0482 A.
! Qspcmfn!4/58
B!33110331!W-!lWB-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ublft!b!op.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!2/6!B!xifo!ijhi.wpmubhf!
xjoejoh!jt!lfqu!pqfo/!Uif!jspo.mptt!dpnqpofou!pg!op.mpbe!dvssfou!jt!frvbm!up!1/3!B/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!
gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Op.mpbe!joqvu!qpxfs
! )c*! Nbhofuj{joh!dpnqpofou!boe!q/g/!pg!op.mpbe!dvssfou
Solution
Io = 1.5 A
Iw = Io cos qo = 0.2 A
V1 = E1 = 2200 V
E2 = V2 = 220 V
(a) No-load input power
= V1 Io cos qo
= 2200 ¥ 0.2 = 440 W
Iw
(b) cos qo =
Io
0.2
= = 0.133 (lagging)
1.5
sin qo = 1 - 0.1332 = 0.99
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/64
! Qspcmfn!4/59
Uif!sbujp!pg!uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!pg!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoht!jt!21/!Uif!mpbe!dvssfou!po!uif!
tfdpoebsz!jt!211!B!bu!1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/!Uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou!jt!36!B!bu!1/8!q/g/!mbhhjoh/!
Gjoe!uif!op.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!boe!jut!qibtf!xjui!sftqfdu!up!uif!wpmubhf/!Ofhmfdu!uif!
bohmf!cfuxffo!Ð!F2!boe!W2/
Solution
Refer Fig. 3.10(b).
Turns ratio: 10
Secondary current: 100 A
Power factor (cos q): 0.8 or q = 36.87°
Primary current: 25 A
Power factor (cos q1): 0.7 or q1 = 45.57°
After resolving Io, I 2¢ and I1 into their x and y components, we can write
I1 cos q = I 2¢ cos q + Io cos fo
Io cos qo = I1 cos q1 – I 2¢ cos q
I 2 100
= 25 ¥ 0.7 –10 ¥ 0.8 [I 2¢ = = = 10 A]
10 10
= 9.5 A
I1 sin q = I 2¢ sin q2 + Io sin qo
= Io sin qo = 25 ¥ 0.694 – 10 ¥ 0.6 = 11.35
I o sin q o 11.35
\ tan qo = = = 1.195
I o cos q o 9.5
fi qo = 50.08°
9.5
Io = = 14.8 A
cos 50.08∞
\ no-load current is 14.8 A and the angle between no-load current and voltage is 50.08°.
! Qspcmfn!4/5:
B!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!21!B!bu!511!W!boe!1/96!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/!Uif!qsjnbsz!boe!
tfdpoebsz!mfblbhf!jnqfebodf!bsf!1/4!,!k2/3!pint!boe!4!,!k!5/6!pint!boe!uif!uvsot!sbujp!jt!1/6/!Jg!
Jx!>!1/6!B!boe!Jn!>!1/9!B-!efufsnjof!W2-!J2!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!uif!qsjnbsz!ufsnjobmt/
! 4/65 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
I2 = 10 A
V2 = 400 V
cos q = 0.85
E2 = V2 + I2 (R2 + jX2) = 400 + 10 - cos -1 0.85 (3 + j4.5)
= 400 + 10 - 31.8∞ ¥ 5.4 56.31∞
= 400 + 54 24.5∞
= 449.14 + j22.39 = 449.7 2.85∞
N1
\ E1 = E2 = 449.7 ¥ 0.5 = 224.85 V
N2
I1¢ N1 = I2 N2
N 1
\ I1¢ = I2 2 = 10 ¥ = 20 A
N1 0.5
From Fig. 3.11(b),
I1¢ lags V 1¢ by 31.8° and V1¢ = –E1
Iw is in phase with V1¢.
Considering V1¢ as reference in the primary side
Iw = 0.5 0∞
Im = 0.8 - 90∞
\ I1 = I 1¢ + Iw + Im = 20 - 31.8∞ + 0.5 + 0.8 - 90∞
= 17– j10.54 + 0.5 – j0.8
= 17.5 – j11.34 = 20.85 - 32.94∞A
V1 = V1¢ + I1 R1 + j I1 X1
= 224.85 + 20.85 - 32.94∞ (0.3 + j 1.2)
= 224.85 + 20.85 - 32.94∞ ¥ 1.237 75.96∞
= 224.85 + 25.8 43∞
= 243.72 + j 17.6°
= 244.35 4.13∞ V
! Qspcmfn!4/61
B!31103111!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!fydjufe!gspn!311!W!tvqqmz/!Uif!frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf!boe!
sfbdubodf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!bsf!1/6!W!boe!2!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!dpsf.mptt!sftjt.
ubodf!boe!nbhofuj{joh!sfbdubodf!bsf!789!W!boe!454!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Jg!uif!mpbe!sftjtubodf!jt!911!W-!
efufsnjof!uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou-!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!qsjnbsz!ufsnjobmt/
Solution
Refer Fig. 3.13(a).
The load resistance referred to the low-voltage side
2
Ê 200 ˆ
RL¢ = 800 ¥ Á =8W
Ë 2000 ˜¯
V1 200 200
I 2¢ = = = = 23.368 - 6.7∞
Re1 + jXe1 + RL¢ 0.5 + j1 + 8 8.5 + j1
200
Iw = = 0.295 A
678
200
Im = = 0.583 - 90∞ A
j 343
I1 = I¢2 + Iw + Im = 23.368 - 6.7∞ + 0.295 + 0.583 - 90∞
! Qspcmfn!4/62
B!7!lWB-!5110211!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!S *!)IW*!>!1/36!boe!Y *!)IW*!>!5!W!boe!mbhhjoh!mpbe!jt!cfjoh!
tvqqmjfe!cz!ju!sftvmujoh!jo!uif!gpmmpxjoh!nfufs!sfbejoht!)nfufst!bsf!qmbdfe!po!uif!IW!tjef*
J2!>!31!B-!W2!>!511-!Q2!>!7!lX
Gps!uijt!dpoejujpo-!dbmdvmbuf!xibu!b!wpmunfufs!xpvme!sfbe!jg!dpoofdufe!bdsptt!uif!mpbe!ufsnjobmt/!
Bttvnf!fydjujoh!dvssfou!up!cf!{fsp/
Solution
Input power factor
6 ¥ 1000
cos q1 = = 0.75
400 ¥ 20
\ q1 = 41.4° lagging
! 4/67 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Primary current
I1 = 20 - 41.4∞
Secondary terminal voltage referred to the primary side
V2¢ = 400 0∞ – 20 - 41.4∞ (0.25 + j4)
= 400 – (15 – j13.22) (0.25 + j4)
= 400 – 3.75 – j60 + j3.305 –52.88
= 350.87 – j56.7
= 355.42 V
\ load terminal voltage
355.42 ¥ 100
VL = = 88.86 V.
400
! Qspcmfn!4/63
B!211!lWB-!33110341!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!bo!IW!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!pg!1/2!W!boe!mfblbhf!
sfbdubodf!pg!1/5!W/!Uif!MW!xjoejoh!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!pg!1/115!W!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!1/13!W/!
Gjoe!uif!frvjwbmfou!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf-!sfbdubodf!boe!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!IW!boe!MW!tjeft/!
dpowfsu!uiftf!up!q/v/!wbmvft/
Solution
Z1 = r1 + jxl1 = (0.1 + j0.4) W
Z2 = r2 + jxl2 = (0.004 + j0.02) W
2
Ê 2200 ˆ
Z¢2 = a2 (r2 + jxl2) = Á (0.004 + j0.02)
Ë 230 ˜¯
= (0.366 + j 1.83) W
Z (HV) = Z1 + Z 2¢ = (0.466 + j2.23) W
Similarly, Z (LV) = Z 1¢ + Z2
2
Ê 230 ˆ
=Á (0.1 + j0.4) + (0.004 + j0.02)
Ë 2200 ˜¯
= (0.0051 + j0.0244) W
Since p.u. value is the same whether referred to HV or LV side, referring it only to HV winding,
we get
ZB (base impedance refereed to HV winding)
( KV ) 2B ( 2.2)
ZB (HV) = = = 48.4 W
( MVA ) B 100 ¥ 10 -3
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/68
0.466 + j 2.23
Z p.u. (HV) =
48.4
= (0.0096 + j0.046) p.u.
Similarly,
(0.23) 2
ZB (LV) = = 0.529 p.u.
100 ¥ 10 -3
0.0051 + j 0.0244
Zp.u. (LV) = = (0.0096 + j0.046) p.u.
0.529
= Zp.u. (HV).
! Qspcmfn!4/64
Bo!bvejp.gsfrvfodz!jefbm!usbotgpsnfs!jt!fnqmpzfe!up!dpvqmf!b!66!W!sftjtubodf!mpbe!up!bo!fmfdusjd!
tpvsdf!xijdi!jt!sfqsftfoufe!cz!b!dpotubou!wpmubhf!pg!6!W!jo!tfsjft!xjui!bo!joufsobm!sftjtubodf!pg!
3611!W/
! )b*! Efufsnjof!uif!uvsot!sbujp!sfrvjsfe!up!fotvsf!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!usbotgfs!cz!nbudijoh!uif!mpbe!
boe!tpvsdf!jnqfebodf!)j/f/!cz!jodsfbtjoh!uif!61!W!tfdpoebsz!jnqfebodf!up!3611!W!xifo!sf.
gfssfe!up!uif!qsjnbsz*/!
! )c*! Gjoe!uif!mpbe!dvssfou-!wpmubhf!boe!qpxfs!voefs!dpoejujpot!pg!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!usbotgfs/
Solution
(a) Load resistance is 50 W.
When referred to primary for maximum power transfer, the secondary impedance should be
equal to the internal resistance of source, i.e. 2500 W.
If N1 and N2 be the primary and secondary turns then
2
ÊN ˆ
2500 = Á 1 ˜ ¥ 50
ËN ¯ 2
N1
or, = 7.07
N2
2
ÊN ˆ
(b) The internal resistance referred to the load side, i.e. secondary side is 2500 ¥ Á 2 ˜ = 50 W
Ë N1 ¯
Load resistance = 50 W
\ total resistance referred to the secondary side is 100 W.
N 5
Source voltage referred to secondary side is 5 ¥ 2 = V
N1 7.07
5
\ load current = A = 7.07 mA
7.07 ¥ 100
! 4/69 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/65
B!21!lWB-!21110211!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!jt!pqfsbufe!bu!op.mpbe!po!sbufe!wpmubhf-!uif!joqvu!cfjoh!
231!X-!1/26!q/g/!xifo!ju!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!sbufe!mpbe-!uif!wpmubhf!espqt!jo!uif!upubm!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!
boe! uif! upubm! sftjtubodf! bsf-! sftqfdujwfmz-! 3&! boe! 2&! pg! uif! sbufe! wpmubhf/! Efufsnjof! uif! joqvu!
qpxfs!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!xifo!uif!usbotgpsnfs!efmjwfst!9!lX!bu!291!W!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh!up!mpbe!po!
MW!tjef/
Solution
Zp.u. = (0.01 + j0.02)
( KV ) 2B (1) 2
ZB (HV) = = = 100 W
( MVA ) B 10 ¥ 10 -3
\ Z(HV) = (0.01 + j 0.02) ¥ 100 = (1 + j2) W
Load on transformer = 8 kW at 180 V and 0.8 p.f.,
\ lagging current drawn by load
8 ¥ 103
I2 = = 55.55 A (Refer Fig. 3.13a)
180 ¥ 0.8
55.55
I 2¢ (HV) = = 5.55 A
10
Po = 8 kW, Qo = 8 tan cos–1 0.8 = 5.98 kVAR
VH = 1000 + 5.55 (1 ¥ 0.8 + 2 ¥ 0.6) = 1011.1 V
Parameters of the magnetizing branch [Fig. 3.10(a)]
120
Go = = 120 ¥ 10–6 >
(1000) 2
cos qo = 0.15 , qo = 81.4°
Bo = Go tan qo = 120 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 6.61
= 793.2 ¥ 10–6 >
Active power loss in series resistance = (5.55)2 ¥ 1= 0.0308 kW
Reactive power loss in series reactance = (5.55)2 ¥ 2 = 0.0616 kVAR
Active power loss in shunt conductance = (1011.1)2 ¥ 120 ¥ 10–6
= 0.122 kW
Reactive power loss in shunt susceptance = (1011.1)2 ¥ 793.2 ¥ 10–6
= 0.811 kVAR
Input power = (8 + 0.0308 + 0.122) + j (5.98 + 0.0616 + 0.811) = 8.153 + j 6.853
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/6:
! Qspcmfn!4/66
36!lWB-!3510231!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub;
s2!>!1/21!W-!s3!>!1/15!W-!Y2!>!1/4!W-!Y3!>!1/17!W
Gjoe! uif! usbotgpsnfs! mpbejoh! xijdi! xjmm! nblf! uif! qsjnbsz! joevdfe! wpmubhf! frvbm! up! uif! qsjnbsz!
ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dbsszjoh!uif!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou-!Ofhmfdu!uif!nbhofuj{joh!
dvssfou/
Solution
240
Transformer ratio = =2
120
Referring to the 240 V side,
r¢2 = 4 ¥ 0.04 = 0.16 W, X2¢ = 4 ¥ 0.06 = 0.24 W
25 ¥ 1000
I1 (fl) = = 104.17 q 1 A
240
240 – 104.17 (0.10 cos q1 + 0.3 sin q1) = 240
0.10
or tan q1 = – = – 0.33
0.3
q = –18.4°
P.f. = cos q1 = 0.95 lagging
V2 = 240 –104.17 -18.9∞ (0.16 + j 0.24)
= 240 – (98.84 – j32.88) (0.16 + j 0.24)
= 240 – 15.81 – j 23.72 + j 5.26 – 7.89
= 208.3 – j 18.46
= 209.12 - 5∞
\ q2 = 18.4° + 5° = 23.4°
cos q2 = 0.918 lagging
209.12 ¥ 104.17 ¥ 0.918
\ load =
1000
= 19.99 kW.
! 4/71 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/67
Uif!sftjtubodf!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!b!41!lWB-!3511W0351W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
SI!>!1/79!W-!SM>!1/1179!W-!YI!>!8/9!W!boe!YM!>!1/189!W/!Dpotjefs!uif!usbotgpsnfs!up!efmjwfs!jut!
sbufe!lWB!up!b!mpbe!po!uif!mpx!wpmubhf!tjef!xjui!341!W!bdsptt!uif!mpbe/!Efufsnjof!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmu.
bhf!po!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef!xifo!mpbe!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!)b*!1/96!mbhhjoh-!boe!)c*!1/96!mfbejoh/
Solution
The high-voltage-side resistance and reactance referred to the low-voltage side
2
Ê 240 ˆ
R¢H = 0.68 ¥ Á = 0.0068 W
Ë 2400 ˜¯
2
Ê 240 ˆ
XH¢ = 7.8 ¥ Á = 0.078 W
Ë 2400 ˜¯
Neglecting the magnetizing current, the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the high-
voltage side
ReL = 2 ¥ 0.0068 = 0.0136 W
XeL = 2 ¥ 0.078 = 0.156 W
30 ¥ 103
Load current IL = = 130.435 A
230
\ terminal voltage of the high-voltage side referred to the low-voltage side
-1
VH¢ = 230 + 130.435 - cos 0.85 (0.0136 + j0.156)
! Qspcmfn!4/68
B!231!W03511!W-!61!I{-!61!lWB!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!nbhofuj{joh!sfbdubodf!pg!45/7!W!xifo!sfgfssfe!up!
uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef/!Uif!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!231!W!xjoejoh!jt!38/5!n W!boe!!uibu!pg!ijhi.wpmubhf!
xjoejoh!jt!22/3!W/
! )b*! Dbmdvmbuf!uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou!boe!uif!tfdpoebsz!wpmubhf!xifo!231!W!jt!bqqmjfe!up!uif!qsj.
nbsz!xjui!uif!tfdpoebsz!tjef!pqfo!djsdvjufe/
! )c*! Xjui!uif!tfdpoebsz!tipsu!djsdvjufe-!efufsnjof!uif!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!xijdi!xjmm!sftvmu!jo!sbufe!
dvssfou!jo!uif!qsjnbsz!xjoejoh/!Efufsnjof!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!dvssfou!jo!uif!tfdpoebsz!xjoe.
joh/
Solution
Xl1 = 0.0274 W, Xm1 = 34.6 W
Xl2 = 11.2 W
Xl2 when referred to the low voltage side is
2
Ê 120 ˆ
X l¢2 = 11.2 ¥ Á = 0.028 W
Ë 2400 ˜¯
Neglecting the core-loss resistance, the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the low-
voltage side with secondary open circuited is shown in Fig. 3.20.
0.0274 W 0.028 W
I1 I¢2
V1 34.6 W
V¢2
34.6
I1¢ = 417 ¥ = 416.66 A
34.6 + 0.028
\ current in the secondary winding
120
I2 = I1¢ ¥ = 20.83 A.
2400
! Qspcmfn!4/69
Uif! qsjnbsz! pg! b! usbotgpsnfs! jt! dpoofdufe! up! b! wpmubhf! tpvsdf! pg! 9! W! jo! tfsjft! xjui! bo! joufsobm!
sftjtubodf!pg!3!lW/!Uif!mpbe!po!uif!tfdpoebsz!tjef!jt!61!W/!)b*!Efufsnjof!uif!wbmvf!pg!uvsot!sbujp!
gps!xijdi!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!jt!tvqqmjfe!up!uif!mpbe!boe!uif!wbmvf!pg!uif!nbyjnvn!qpxfs/!)c*!Jg!uif!
tpvsdf!sftjtubodf!jt!sfqmbdfe!cz!3!lW!sfbdubodf-!gjoe!uif!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!usbotgfssfe!up!uif!mpbe/
Solution
(a) The 50 W load resistance when transferred to the primary side should be equal to 2 kW for
maximum power to be transferred across the load. If N1 be the turns in the primary winding
and N2 in the secondary winding then
2
ÊN ˆ
50 ¥ Á 1 ˜ = 2000
ËN ¯ 2
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/74
N1 2000
or, = = 6.32
N2 50
8
Current in the primary winding I1 = = 2 ¥ 10–3 A
2000 + 2000
\ primary current transferred to the secondary winding I1¢ = 2 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 6.32 A
Maximum power Pmax = (2 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 6.32)2 ¥ 50
= 8 mW.
(b) The primary impedance is 2 kW.
Hence, for maximum power transfer
2
ÊN ˆ
50 ¥ Á 1 ˜ = 2 ¥ 103
ËN ¯2
N1
\ = 6.32
N2
When load resistance is transferred to the primary side, the total equivalent impedance
referred to the primary is (2 + j2) kW or the magnitude of the impedance is
22 + 22 = 2 2 kW
\ current in the primary winding
8
I1 = A = 2.83 ¥ 10–3 A
2 2 ¥ 10 3
WPMUBHF!SFHVMBUJPO!PG!B!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/28
As the current is taken by the load through the transformer, the load terminal voltage changes be-
cause of the voltage drop in the internal impedance of the transformer.
The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the difference in the magnitude of second-
ary terminal voltage between no-load (I2 = 0) and full rated load (I2 = I2fl) at a given p.f. with the
same value of primary voltage for both rated load and no-load. It is expressed as either a per unit or
a percentage of the rated load voltage. The term voltage regulation is used to identify the character-
istic of the voltage change in a transformer with loading.
! 4/75 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The voltage regulation is an important measure of transformer performance. The limits of volt-
age variation are specified in terms of voltage regulation. For example, a transformer in public
supply systems must be so adjusted that the voltage at the terminals of the consumers should not
exceed ± 5%.
Per-unit voltage regulation in terms of primary values can be written by modifying Eq. (3.25) as
follows:
V1
- |V2fL |
a
= (3.27)
|V2fL |
V
where V2nL = 1
a
It is assumed that V1 is adjusted so that the rated voltage is obtained at the secondary terminals
under given load conditions.
If the voltage drop (|V2nL| – |V2fL|) is divided by no-load secondary voltage then it is known as
voltage regulation down, whereas in voltage regulation up, the voltage drop is divided by full-load
secondary voltage.
FYQSFTTJPO!PG!WPMUBHF!SFHVMBUJPO! 4/29
V2 = V2 0∞ = V2 + j0
I2 = I2 - q 2 = I2 cos q2 – jI2 sin q2
Ze2 = Re2 + jXe2
V
E2 = 1 = V2 + I2Ze2
a
= V2 + j0 + (I2 cos q2 – jI2 sin q2) (Re2 + jXe2)
= (V2 + I2Re2 cos q2 + I2Xe2 sin q2) + j(I2Xe2 cos q2 – I2 Re2 sin q2)
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/76
Figure 3.21(a) shows the phasor diagram for lagging power factor cos q2. Here, V2 is taken as
reference phasor. I2 lags behind V2 by q2. I2Re2 is in phase with I2 and I2Xe2 leads I2 by 90°. The
Ê V1 ˆ
phasor sum of V2, I2 Re2 and I2Xe2 is E2 Á =
Ë a ˜¯
C
E2
2
I 2Z e
I2Xe2
V2 D
F
0 A q2
q2
I2
90°– q2
Re
2
B G
I2
Gjh/!4/32)b*
The expression for E2 can also be found from the phasor diagram of Fig.3.21(a).
From D OFC,
OC2 = OF2 + CF2 = (OA + AD + DF)2 + (CG – FG)2
Per-unit regulation V1
E2 - V2 a - V2
= =
V2 V2
4/29/2! Bu!Mbhhjoh!Qpxfs!Gbdups
Since the term (I2Xe2 cos q2 – I2Re2 sin q2) is small compared with the term (V2 + I2Re2 cos q2 +
I2Xe2 sinq2), it can be neglected. That is,
I2Xe2 cos q2 – I2Re2 sin q2 = 0,
E2 - V2 I 2 Re 2 cos q 2 + I 2 Xe 2 sin q 2
=
V2 V2
4/29/3! Bu!Mfbejoh!Qpxfs!Gbdups
For leading power factor q2,
Bmufsobujwfmz
For leading power factor, replace q2 by –q2 in the results for lagging power factor.
V1
I2 = a I2Xe2
E2
I2Ze2
q2 I2Re2
V2
Gjh/!4/32)c*
The expression for E2 can also be obtained from the phasor diagram of the transformer referred
to the secondary. At leading power factor, the phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 3.21(b).
Approximate regulation at leading power factor
E2 - V2 I 2 Re 2 cos q 2 - I 2 Xe 2 sin q 2
E= =
V2 V2
4/29/4! Bu!Vojuz!Qpxfs!Gbdups
For unity power factor,
I2 = I2 0∞ = I2 + j0
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/78
E2 = V2 + I2 Ze2
= V2 + j0 + (I2 + j0) (Re2 + jXe2) = (V2 + I2Re2) + jI2Xe2
| E2 | = [(V2 + I 2 Re 2 ) 2 + ( I 2 Xe 2 ) 2 ]
| E2 | - | V2 |
Voltage regulation =
| V2 |
The expression for E2 at unity power can also be obtained from the expression for E2 at lagging
power factor by putting q2 = 0. Then cos q2 = 1 and sin q2 = 0.
QFS.VOJU!FYQSFTTJPO!GPS!SFTJTUBODF-!MFBLBHF! 4/2:
SFBDUBODF!BOE!JNQFEBODF!WPMUBHF!ESPQT
Full-load voltage drop occurring in a transformer can be expressed as a fraction (usually in per unit
or percent) of the full-load terminal voltage.
Let
IfI1 = Full-load primary current
IfI2 = Full-load secondary current
V1 = Rated primary voltage
V2 = Rated secondary voltage
Per-unit resistance voltage drop of a transformer
( Full-load primary current ) ¥ ( Equivalent resistance referred to primary)
4
Rated primary voltage
( Full-load secondary current ) ¥ ( Equivalent resistance referred to secondary)
=
Rated secondary voltage
If l1 Re1 If l 2 Re 2
= = (3.28)
V1 V2
The per-unit resistance voltage drop is usually called the per-unit resistance Rp.u..
If l1 Xe1 If l 2 Xe 2
Similarly, per-unit reactance voltage drop = = = Xp.u. and per-unit impedance
V1 V2
Ifl 1 Ze1 Ifl 2 Ze 2
voltage drop = = = Zp.u.
V1 V2
! 4/79 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
BQQSPYJNBUF!QFS.VOJU!WPMUBHF!SFHVMBUJPO! 4/31
Approximate per-unit regulation at lagging power factor cos q2
I 2 Re 2 cos q 2 + I 2 Xe 2 sin q 2
=
V2
I 2 Re 2 I X sin q 2
= cos q2 + 2 e 2
V2 V2
= Rp.u. cos q2 + Xp.u. sin q2
DPOEJUJPO!GPS![FSP!WPMUBHF!SFHVMBUJPO! 4/32
Approximate voltage regulation
I 2 Re 2 cos q 2 + I 2 Xe 2 sin q 2
=
V2
For zero voltage regulation,
I2Re2 cos q2 + I2Xe2 sin q2 = 0
I2 Xe2 sin q2 = – I2Re2 cos q2
R
tan q2 = – e 2 (3.31)
Xe 2
ÊR ˆ
q2 = –tan –1 Á e 2 ˜ (3.32)
ËX ¯ e2
The negative sign indicates that zero voltage regulation occurs when the load is capacitive (that
is, the power factor is leading).
DPOEJUJPO!GPS!NBYJNVN! 4/33
WPMUBHF!SFHVMBUJPO
d
For maximum voltage regulation, (regulation) = 0
dq 2
d ( I R cos q 2 + I 2 Xe 2 sin q 2 )
= e2 e2 =0
dq 2 V2
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/7:
1 Ê Re 2 Xe 2 ˆ I2 2 2
=
V2 ÁË I 2 Re 2 Z + I 2 Xe 2 Z ˜¯ = V Z (Re2 + Xe2) (3.36)
e2 e2 2 e2
I 2 Ze22 I 2 Ze 2
= = = Zp.u.
V2 Ze 2 V2
Thus, the magnitude of maximum voltage regulation is equal to the per-unit value of equivalent
leakage impedance of the transformer.
! Qspcmfn!4/6:
B!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!3!qfsdfou!sftjtubodf!boe!6!qfsdfou!sfbdubodf/!Gjoe!jut!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm!
mpbe-!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/
Solution
Voltage regulation
= Rep.u. cos q2 + Xep.u. sin q2
= 0.02 ¥ 0.8 + 0.05 ¥ 0.6 = 0.046 p.u. = 4.6%.
! Qspcmfn!4/71
B!31110511!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!bo!frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf!pg!1/14!q/v/!boe!bo!frvjwbmfou!
sfbdubodf!pg!1/19!q/v/!Gjoe!uif!gvmm.mpbe!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbh!jg!uif!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!jt!
2611!W/!Gjoe!bmtp!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bu!gvmm!mpbe/
Solution
E2 - V2
Voltage regulation = = Rp.u. cos q2 + Xp.u. sin q2
E2
E2 - V2
or, = 0.03 ¥ 0.8 + 0.08 ¥ 0.5 = 0.072
E2
! 4/81 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/72
B!331!02211!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!pg!1/7!W!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!2/6!W!
cpui!sfgfssfe!up!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef/!Gjoe!uif!q/g/!bu!xijdi!sfhvmbujpo!jt!{fsp/!Uif!gvmm.mpbe!qsjnbsz!
dvssfou!jt!41!B/
Solution
220
Full-load secondary current I2 = 30 ¥ =6A
1100
I 2 Re 2 6 ¥ 0.6
Rp.u. = = = 0.0033
E2 1100
I 2 Xe 2 6 ¥ 1.5
Xp.u. = = = 0.0082
E2 1100
Voltage regulation is (Rp.u. cos q2 + Xp.u. sin q2), where (cos q2) is the lagging p.f.
Hence, 0.0033 cos q2 + 0.0082 sin q2 = 0
or, tan q2 = –0.4024
i.e. cos q2 = 0.93 and the negative sign indicates leading p.f.
The regulation is zero at 0.93 p.f. leading.
! Qspcmfn!4/73
B!7710!331!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!qsjnbsz!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W!boe!b!tfdpoebsz!sftjt.
ubodf!pg!1/146!W/Uif!dpssftqpoejoh!sfbdubodf!wbmvft!bsf!1/6!W!boe!1/17!W/!Ftujnbuf!uif!qfsdfou.
bhf!sfhvmbujpo!gps!b!tfdpoebsz!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!61!B!bu!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!)mbhhjoh*/
Solution
2
Ê 220 ˆ
Re2 = 0.3 ¥ Á + 0.0035 = 0.0683 W
Ë 660 ˜¯
2
Ê 220 ˆ
Xe2 = 0.5 ¥ Á + 0.06 = 0.1155 W
Ë 660 ˜¯
I 2 Re 2 cos q 2 + I1 Xe 2 sin q 2
Voltage regulation =
E2
50
= {0.0683 ¥ 0.8 + 0.1155 ¥ 0.6} = 0.028 or, 2.8%.
220
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/82
! Qspcmfn!4/74
B!31!lWB-!31110331!W-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!qsjnbsz!sftjtubodf!pg!3/2!W!boe!b!tfdpoe.
bsz!sftjtubodf!pg!1/137!W/!Uif!dpssftqpoejoh!mfblbhf!sfbdubodft!bsf!3/6!W!boe!1/14!W/!Ftujnbuf!
uif!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm.mpbe!voefs!q/g/!dpoejujpot!pg!)b*!vojuz-!)c*!1/6!mbhhjoh-!boe!)d*!1/6!mfbejoh/
Solution
20 ¥ 103
I2 = = 90.91 A
220
2
Ê 220 ˆ
Re2 = 2.1 ¥ Á + 0.026 = 0.0514 W
Ë 2000 ˜¯
2
Ê 220 ˆ
Xe2 = 2.5 ¥ Á + 0.03 = 0.06025 W
Ë 2000 ˜¯
I2
(a) Voltage regulation at unity p.f. = {Re2 cos q2 + Xe2 sin q2}
E2
90.91
= ¥ 0.0514 ¥ 1 = 0.0212 or 2.12%
220
(b) Regulation at (0.5 lagging) p.f.
90.91
= {0.0514 ¥ 0.5 + 0.06025 sin (cos–1 0.5)}
220
= 0.322 or, 3.22%.
90.91
(c) Regulation at (0.5 leading) p.f. = {0.0514 ¥ 0.5 – 0.06025 sin (cos–1 0.5)}
220
= –0.0109 or –1.09 %.
! Qspcmfn!4/75
B!6!lWB!5510331!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!pg!
3!W!boe!1/9!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!sfbdubodft!bsf!21!W!boe!2/6!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!
Gjoe!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bu!gvmm!mpbe-!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/
Solution
If V2 be the secondary terminal voltage at full-load and E2 the secondary terminal voltage at
no-load then
E2 = V2 + I2Re2 cos q2 + I2Xe2 sin q2
or V2 = E2 – I2 Re2 (0.8) – I2Xe2 (0.6)
! 4/83 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2
Ê 220 ˆ
Re2 =2¥Á + 0.8 = 0.5 + 0.8 = 1.3 W
Ë 440 ˜¯
2
Ê 220 ˆ
Xe2 = 10 ¥ Á + 1.5 = 2.5 + 1.5 = 4 W
Ë 440 ˜¯
5 ¥ 103
I2 = = 22.73 A
220
\ V2 = 220 – 22.73 (1.3 ¥ 0.8 + 4 ¥ 0.6) = 220 – 22.73 ¥ 3.44 = 141.8 V.
! Qspcmfn!4/76
B!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!5&!sftjtubodf!boe!7&!sfbdubodf!espq/!Gjoe!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm.mpbe!
)b*!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh-!)c*!1/9!q/g/!mfbejoh-!boe!)d*!vojuz!q/g/
Solution
(a) Regulation at 0.8 p.f. lagging = Rp.u. cos q2 + Xp.u. sin q2
= 0.04 ¥ 0.8 + 0.06 ¥ 0.6
= 0.032 + 0.036 = 0.068 or 6.8 %
(b) Regulation at 0.8 p.f. leading = Rp.u. cos q2 – Xp.u. sin q2
= 0.04 ¥ 0.8 – 0.06 ¥ 0.6
= 0.032 – 0.036 = – 0.004 or –0.4%
(c) Regulation at unity p.f. {= Rp.u. cos q2} = 0.04 ¥ 1 = 0.04 or 4%.
! Qspcmfn!4/77
B!51!lWB-!36110611!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!qbsbnfufst;!S2!>!9!W-!S3!>!1/6!W-!
Y2!>!31!W-!Y3!>!1/9!W/!Gjoe!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!boe!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bu!gvmm.mpbe!gps!
b!q/g/!pg!1/9!mbhhjoh/!Uif!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!jt!ifme!dpotubou!bu!3611!W/
Solution
Equivalent resistance referred to low-voltage side
2
Ê 500 ˆ
Re2 = 0.5 + 8 ¥ Á = 0.5 + 0.32 = 0.82 W
Ë 2500 ˜¯
Equivalent reactance referred to low-voltage side
2
Ê 500 ˆ
Xe2 = 0.8 + 20 ¥ Á = 0.8 + 0.8 = 1.6 W
Ë 2500 ˜¯
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/84
40 ¥ 103
Full-load secondary current I2 = 80 A
500
Voltage regulation = (I2 Re2 cos q2 + I2 Xe2 sin q2)/E2
80
= {0.82 ¥ (0.8) + 1.6 ¥ (0.6)}
500
129.28
= = 0.258 or 25.6%
500
If V2 be the secondary terminal voltage then
E2 - V2
= 0.256 or, V2 = (1 – 0.256) 500 = 372 V.
E2
! Qspcmfn!4/78
B!36!lWB-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!sbufe!31110511!W!bu!op.mpbe-!ibt!S2!>!6/1!W-!Y2!>!21!W-!S3!>!
1/3!W-!Y3!>!1/6!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!bqqspyjnbuf!wbmvf!pg!uif!tfdpoebsz!wpmubhf!bu!gvmm.mpbe-!1/9!qpxfs!
gbdups!)mbhhjoh*-!xifo!uif!qsjnbsz!bqqmjfe!wpmubhf!jt!3111!W/
Solution
N1 E 2000
= 1 = =5
N 2 E2 400
2 2
ÊN ˆ Ê 1ˆ
Re2 = R2 + R1 Á 2 ˜ = 0.2 + 5.0 Á ˜ = 0.4 W
ËN ¯1
Ë 5¯
2 2
ÊN ˆ Ê 1ˆ
Xe2 = X2 + X1 Á 2 ˜ = 0.5 + 10 Á ˜ = 0.9 W
ËN ¯1
Ë 5¯
V I
kVA = 2 2
1000
1000 ¥ 25
I2 = A = 62.5 A
400
Power factor = cos q2 = 0.8, sin q2 = 0.6
N2 1
E2 = E1 = 2000 ¥ = 400 V
N1 5
E2 = V2 + I2Re2 cos q2 + I2Xe2 sin q2
400 = V2 + 62.5 ¥ 0.4 ¥ 0.8 + 62.5 ¥ 0.9 ¥ 0.6
V2 = (400 – 20 – 33.75) V = 346.25 V.
! 4/85 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/79
Tipx!uibu!gps!b!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs-
q/v/!sfhvmbujpo!>!\)Sq/v/!,!dpt!f*3!,!)Yq/v/!,!tjo!f*3^203!Ð!2
xifsf!f!joejdbuf!uif!q/g/!bohmf!bu!uif!pvuqvu!tjef!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/
Solution
Let E 2¢ represent the secondary induced voltage during load condition when V2 is the terminal
voltage.
E¢2 = I2 Rer2 + j I2 Xer2 + V2
(Rer2 and Xer2 represent the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to secondary)
! Qspcmfn!4/7:
Efsjwf!uif!dpoejujpo!gps!{fsp!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo/!Bmtp!tipx!uibu!uif!nbhojuvef!pg!nbyjnvn!wpmubhf!
sfhvmbujpo!frvbmt!uif!q/v/!wbmvf!pg!frvjwbmfou!mfblbhf!jnqfebodf/
Solution
Approximate condition for zero regulation
IR cos q – IX sin q = 0
or tan q = R/X
\ cos q = cos tan–1 R/X
R X
For maximum regulation tan q = X/R \ cos q = and sin q =
Z Z
Maximum value of voltage regulation
IR cos q + IX sin q
=
V2
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/86
Ê R Xˆ
IÁR + X ˜
Ë Z Z¯
=
V2
I ( R 2 + X 2 ) IZ 2 IZ
= = = = Zp.u.
V2 Z V2 Z V2
! Qspcmfn!4/81
B!21!lWB-!33110331!W!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!obnfqmbuf!mfblbhf!jnqfebodf!pg!9&/!Xibu!wpmubhf!nvtu!cf!
bqqmjfe!po!IW!tjef!up!djsdvmbuf!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!xjui!uif!MW!tipsufe@
Solution
Z HV (W) IHV ( rated )
= 0.08
VHV ( rated )
ZHV (W) IHV (rated) = 0.08 VHV (rated) = 0.08 ¥ 2200 = 176 V = Vsc.
! Qspcmfn!4/82
Gps!Qspcmfn!4/65-!bttvnf!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!wbsjfe!xijmf!uif!mpbe!dvssfou!boe!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobmt!
bsf!ifme!gjyfe/!Xjui!uif!ifmq!pg!b!qibtps!ejbhsbn-!gjoe!uif!mpbe!qpxfs!gbdups!gps!xijdi!sfhvmbujpo!
jo!{fsp/
Solution
The phasor diagram is drawn in Fig. 3.22.
IZ
–AOD = sin–1
2V
p IZ
–OAD = – sin–1
2 2V
f = p – ÊÁ ˆ
p IZ
- sin -1 + q˜
Ë2 2V ¯
p IZ
= – q + sin–1
2 2V
–1
where q = tan X/R
2
q = tan–1 63.4°, Z = (12 + 22)½ = 2.24 W
1
I = 5.55 V = 1000
5.55 ¥ 2.24
\ f = 90°– 63.4°– sin–1
2 ¥ 1000
= 90° – 63.4°– 0.36° = 26.24 ° load
p.f. = 89.7 leading.
! 4/87 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
IZ
90° D IX
=V
V1
I
90°
q IR f
q
0 V2 = V A
! Qspcmfn!4/83
B!tjohmf.qibtf!mpbe!jt!gfe!uispvhi!b!44!lW!gffefs!xiptf!jnqfebodf!jt!211!,!k!531!boe!b!4404/4!lW!
usbotgpsnfs!pg!frvjwbmfou!jnqfebodf!)sfgfssfe!up!MW*!1/5!,!k2/3!W-!uif!mpbe!jt!311!lX!bu!1/9!mfbejoh!
qpxfs!gbdups!boe!7!lW/
! )b*! Dpnqvuf!uif!wpmubhf!bu!uif!tfoejoh!foe!pg!uif!gffefs/
! )c*! Dpnqvuf!uif!wpmubhf!bu!qsjnbsz!ufsnjobmt!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/
! )d*! Dpnqvuf!uif!qpxfs!joqvu!bu!uif!tfoejoh!foe!pg!uif!gffefs/
Solution
Impedance of 33 kV feeder = (100 + j 420) W
Equivalent impedance of transformer
referred to LV side = (0.4 + j 1.2) W
referred to HV side = (0.4 + j 1.2) ¥ 102 W
= 40 + j 120 W
I L¢ = 4.166 A, 0.8 p.f. leading
I2(=IL)
V V1 60 KV Load
feeder transformer
200
IL = = 41.66 A
6 ¥ 0.8
IL¢ (HV side) = 4.166 A
Ê 140.25 ˆ
p.f. = cos Á tan -1 = 0.822 leading.
Ë 202.43 ˜¯
! Qspcmfn!4/84
B!21!lWB-!31110311!W-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!qbsbnfufst;
IW!xjoejoh!s2!>!3!W! ! ! y2!>!6!W
MW!xjoejoh!s3!>!1/15!W! y3!>!1/15!W
! )b*! Gjoe!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!)j*!1/9!q/g!mbhhjoh-!)jj*!vq/g/-!boe!)jjj*!1/818!q/g/!mfbejoh!
! )c*! Dbmdvmbuf!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bu!)j*!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh-!)jj*!vq/g/-!boe!)jjj*!1/818!q/g/!
mfbejoh!xifo!efmjwfsjoh!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!xjui!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!ifme!gjyfe!bu!3lW/
Solution
We will refer transformer impedance to the LV side
RLV = 0.04 + 2/100 = 0.06 W
XL = 0.05 + 5/100 = 0.1 W
! 4/89 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
200 V V2
MPTTFT!BOE!FGGJDJFODZ!PG!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/34
Like any other machine, the efficiency of the transformer is defined as
Power output
h=
Power input
Power output
=
Power output + Power losses in the transformer
To find the efficiency, we are to know various types of losses. There are two types of losses in a
transformer:
(a) Copper losses (or I2R losses or ohmic losses) in the primary and secondary windings.
(b) Iron losses (or core losses) in the core. This again has two components:
(i) hysteresis losses, and (ii) eddy current losses.
The copper losses (PC) also have two components: (i) the primary winding copper loss, and (ii)
the secondary winding copper loss.
\ copper losses, (PC) = I 21 R1 + I 22 R2
= I12 R1 + I 12 R2¢ = I12 Ro1
Also, PC = I 22 R2 + I 22 R¢1 = I 22 Ro2 (3.37)
(For correct determination of copper losses, the winding resistance should be determined at the
operating temperature of windings.)
When alternating current flows through the windings, the core material undergoes cyclic pro-
cesses of magnetization and demagnetization.
This processes is called hysteresis.
The hysteresis losses (in watts) is given as,
Ph = Kh Bm f Vn (3.38)
where,
Kh = Hysteresis coefficient whose value depends upon the material (Kh is 0.025 for cast
steel, cast steel, 0.001 for silicon steel and 0.0001 for permalloy)
Bm = Maximum flux density (in tesla)
n = Constant, 1.5 £ n £ 2.5 depending upon the material
f = Frequency of the core material
V = Volume of core material (in m3)
The eddy currents are the circulating currents set up in the core. These are produced due to mag-
netic flux being cut by the core. The loss due to these eddy currents is called eddy current losses.
! 4/91 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
If the volume and thickness of lamination of the core is specified, the loss of the transformer depends on frequency
and maximum flux density. The core loss is the summation of hysteresis and eddy-current loss of the transformer.
The hysteresis loss (Ph) is given by the relation
Ph = CB1.6m f [C = Kh V]
. (3.41)
and the eddy-current loss (Pe) is given by the formula
2 2
Pe = DBm f [Ke t2 V = D] (3.42)
The total core loss is given by
W = Ph + Pe = CBm1.6 f + DBm f 2 (3.43)
The constants C and D can be determined by carrying out two experiments using two different frequencies at the
same maximum flux density.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/92
DPOEJUJPO!GPS!NBYJNVN!FGGJDJFODZ! 4/35
Dividing the numerator and denominator in the above expression of efficiency by (I2), we get
V2 cos q 2
h=
V2 cos q 2 + I 2 R02 + Pi / I 2
The transformer being operating at constant terminal voltage and constant power factor, we
know the value of (I2) at which the efficiency is a maximum. Obviously, the efficiency will be
maximum when (I2 Ro2 + Pi/I2) is a minimum. (h) is maximum when its first derivative with respect
to I2 is zero,
d Ê Pˆ
i.e., Á I 2 R02 + i ˜ = 0
dI Ë 2 I ¯ 2
Pi
or Ro2 – =0
I 22
or I22 Ro2 = Pi (3.44)
Thus, the efficiency at a given terminal voltage and load power factor is maximum for such a
load current (I2) which makes copper losses equal to the constant iron losses.
4/35/2! Fyqsfttjpo!gps!Mpbe!bu!Xijdi!Fggjdjfodz!jt!Nbyjnvn
Let I2fl = Full-load secondary current
I2m = Secondary current when efficiency is maximum
Ro2 = Equivalent resistance referred to the secondary
Pi = Core loss
2
Full-load copper losses = I 2fl Ro2 = Pcfl
2
Copper losses (when efficiency is maximum) are I 2m Ro2 (= Pc)
PC I2 P I2 P
So, I 22 m = = 22fl C = 2fl C
Ro 2 I 2fl Ro 2 Pcfl
2 PC Pi
or, I2m = I2fl = I2fl (3.45)
Pcfl Pcfl
Ê Core loss ˆ
Current at maximum efficiency = Current at full-load ¥ Á ˜
Ë Full-load copper loss ¯
PC
Now, V2 I2m = V2 I2fl (3.46)
Pcfl
! 4/93 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Core loss
= Full-load (VA) output ¥
Full load copper loss
Hence, if the maximum efficiency occurs at n times the full-load then n = (PC /Pcfl ) (3.46a)
! Qspcmfn!4/85
Uif! fggjdjfodz! pg! b! 2211! lWB-! 2210331-! 61! I{! tjohmf.qibtf! usbotgpsnfs! jt! :9/8&! bu! gvmm.mpbe! bu!
1/9!q/g/-!mfbejoh!boe!:9/:&!bu!gvmm.mpbe!vq/g/!Efufsnjof!)b*!jspo!mptt-!)c*!gvmm.mpbe!dpqqfs!mptt-!boe!
)d*!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!bu!v/q/g/
Solution
550 ¥ 1100 ¥ 0.8
0.987 = (i)
1
550 ¥ 1100 ¥ 0.8 + Pi + Pcfl
4
1100 ¥ 1100
0.989 = (ii)
1100 ¥ 1100 + Pi + Pcfl
Solving Eqs (i) and (ii), we get
(a) Pi = 4013.82 W
(b) Pcfl = 9444.22 W
4013.82
(c) K = = 0.65
9444.22
11000 ¥ 1100 ¥ 6.5
hmax = ¥ 100
400 ¥ 1100 ¥ 6.5 + 2 ¥ 4013.82
= 98.99%.
! Qspcmfn!4/86
Jo!b!31!lWB!-!31110311!W!usbotgpsnfs-!uif!jspo!boe!dpqqfs!mpttft!bsf!451!boe!521!X!sftqfdujwfmz-!
! )b*! Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!po!v/q/g/!bu!)j*!gvmm.mpbe-!boe!)jj*!ibmg.mpbe/
! )c*! Efufsnjof!uif!mpbe!gps!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!boe!uif!jspo!boe!uif!dpqqfs!mptt!jo!uijt!dbtf/!
Solution
Pi = 340 W, Pcfl = 410 W
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/94
20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 ¥ 100
(a) (i) h (fl, u.p.f.) = = 96.39%
20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 + 340 + 410
20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 ¥ 0.05 ¥ 100
(ii) h (1/2 fl, u.p.f.) = = 95.79%
20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 ¥ 0.5 + 340 + (.25 ¥ 400)
340
(b) K = = 0.91
410
Load for max. h = 20 ¥ 0.91 = 18.2 kVA
Pi = 340, Pc = (0.91)2 ¥ 410 = 339.52 W.
! Qspcmfn!4/87
Uif!ejbhsbn!jo!Gjh/!4/36!tipxt!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!gps!b!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs/!Uif!sbujp!pg!
tfdpoebsz!up!qsjnbsz!uvsot!jt!26/!Gjoe!uif!)b*!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf-!)c*!uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou-!
boe!)d*!fggjdjfodz/
I1
Im 0.5 W 1.2 W I2
400 V
Solution
Load impedance = 10 + j5 = 11.18 26.56∞ W
Total series impedance = (0.5 + 10) + j (1.2 + 5) = 10.5 + j6.2 = 12.194 30.56∞ W
400
Load current, I2 = A = 32.8 - 30.56∞ A
12.194 30.56∞
! Qspcmfn!4/88
B!31!lWB-!31110311!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!qsjnbsz!sftjtubodf!pg!3/2!W!boe!b!tfdpoebsz!
sftjtubodf!pg!1/137!W/!Jg!uif!upubm!jspo!mptt!jt!311!X-!gjoe!uif!fggjdjfodz!po!)b*!gvmm.mpbe!boe!bu!b!q/g/!
pg!1/6!)mbhhjoh*<!)c*!ibmg.mpbe!boe!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!)mfbejoh*/
Solution
Iron losses = 200 W
20, 000
Full-load primary current = = 10 A
2000
20, 000
Full-load secondary current = = 90.91 A
220
Total copper losses at full-load = I 12 R1 + I 22 R2
= (10)2 ¥ 2.1 + (90.91)2 ¥ 0.026
= 210 + 214.88 = 424.88 W
Output at full-load and 0.5 p.f. lag = 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.5 = 10,000 W
Input = Output + Iron losses + Copper losses
= 10,000 + 200 + 424.88 = 10,624.88 W
1
Output half-load at 0.8 p.f. leading = 20 ¥ 103 ¥ ¥ 0.8 = 8000 W
2
2
Ê 1ˆ
Copper loss at half-load = 424.88 ¥ Á ˜ = 106.22 W
Ë 2¯
Input = 8000 + 106.22 + 200 = 8306.22 W
8000
Efficiency = = 0.963 = 96.3%.
8306.22
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/96
! Qspcmfn!4/89
Uif!qsjnbsz!sftjtubodf!pg!b!5510221!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!1/39!W!boe!uif!tfdpoebsz!sf.
tjtubodf!jt!1/129!W/!Jg!uif!jspo!mpttft!bsf!nfbtvsfe!up!cf!271!X!xifo!uif!sbufe!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!jt!
bqqmjfe-!gjoe!uif!lX!mpbejoh!up!hjwf!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!bu!vojuz!q/g/
Solution
Let at (x) times the full-load, the efficiency is maximum. If PCu is the copper losses at full-load. then
x2 PCu = 160, as copper losses = iron losses when efficiency is maximum.
Now (x2 I 22 Ro2) = 160 where I2 is the full secondary current and Ro2 is the equivalent resistance
referred to secondary.
2 2
Ê N2 ˆ Ê 110 ˆ
Now Ro2 = R1 Á + R2 = 0.28 ¥ Á + 0.018
Ë N1 ˜¯ Ë 440 ˜¯
= 0.0175 + 0.018 = 0.0353 W
160
\ xI2 = A = 67.13 A
0.0355
110 ¥ 67.13 ¥ 1
The loading at unity p.f. is = = 7.38 kW.
103
! Qspcmfn!4/8:
Uif!pinjd!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoht!pg!b!38/6!lWB-!5610223!W!tjohmf.qibtf!
usbotgpsnfs!bsf!1/166!W!boe!1/11436!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Bu!uif!sbufe!tvqqmz!wpmubhf-!uif!jspo!mpttft!
bsf!281!X/!Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!bu!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!mbhhjoh-!)c*!uif!lWB!pvuqvu!bu!xijdi!
fggjdjfodz!bu!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!)mbhhjoh*-!boe!)d*!uif!wbmvf!pg!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!bu!q/g/!pg!1/9!)mbhhjoh*/
Solution
27.5 ¥ 103
Full-load primary current I1 = = 61.1 A
450
27.5 ¥ 103
Full-load secondary current I2 = = 245.53 A
112
Primary copper losses at full-load = (61.1)2 ¥ 0.055 = 205.326 W
Secondary copper losses at full-load = (245.53)2 ¥ 0.00325 = 195.93 W
Total copper losses at full-load = (205.326 + 195.93) W = 401.25 W
Iron losses = 170 W
(a) Full-load efficiency at a p.f. of 0.8 lag
Output 27.5 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
= = = 0.975 = 97.5%
Output + Total Losses 27.5 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 + 401.25 + 170
! 4/97 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(b) Let maximum efficiency occur when load is (x) times the full-load. As core losses = copper
losses under this condition,
\ x2 ¥ 401.25 = 170 or, x = 0.65
kVA output under this condition = 0.65 ¥ 27.5 = 17.9.
17.9 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
(c) Maximum efficiency =
17.9 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 170 + (0.65) 2 ¥ 401.25
14320
= = 0.9768 = 97.68%.
14659.5
! Qspcmfn!4/91
Uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!22110551!W-!411!lWB!usbotgpsnfs!jt!:8/6&!xijdi!pd.
dvst! bu! 96&! gvmm.mpbe! boe! vojuz! qpxfs! gbdups/! Nbjoubjojoh! dpotubou! tvqqmz! wpmubhf! boe! dpotubou!
mpbe!dvssfou!bu!uifjs!sbufe!wbmvft-!uif!mpbe!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!opx!wbsjfe/!Jg!uif!qfsdfoubhf!jnqfebodf!
jt!6&-!efufsnjof!uif!mpbe!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!xijdi!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!jt!njojnvn!boe!uif!
nbhojuvef!pg!uibu!wpmubhf/
Solution
The total losses at maximum efficiency is
Ê1 ˆ
= Á - 1˜ output
Ëh ¯
Ê 1 ˆ
=Á - 1˜ ¥ 300,000 ¥ 0.85 = 6538.46 W
Ë 0.975 ¯
As at maximum efficiency, copper loss is equal to core loss,
6538.46
\ core loss = copper loss = = 3269.23 W
2
At 85% full-load copper loss is 3269.23 W
\ full-load copper loss = 3269.23/ (0.85)2 = 4524.88 W
If I2 be the full-load current in the secondary side and Ro2 the equivalent resistance referred to
the high-voltage side
I 22 Ro2 = 3269.23
3269.23
\ Ro2 = 2
Ê 300, 000 ˆ
ÁË 440 ˜¯
If Rp.u. is the per unit resistance then
Ro 2 R 3269.23
Rp.u. = = 2o 2 = = 0.011
Zo 2 V /VI 300, 000
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/98
Zp.u. = 5%
Secondary terminal voltage is minimum when voltage regulation is maximum. Again, voltage
regulation is maximum
R Rp.u. 0.011
when cos q2 = o 2 = = = 0.22 lag
Zo 2 Z p.u. 0.05
If V2 is the secondary terminal voltage
V2
1– = Rp.u. cos q2 + Xp.u. sin q2
E2
V
or, 1 – 2 = 0.011 ¥ 0.22 + 0.0488 ¥ 0.975
440
or, \ V2 = (1 – 0.05) ¥ 440 = 418 V.
! Qspcmfn!4/92
B!61!lWB-!5510221!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!bo!jspo!mptt!pg!361!X/!Xjui!uif!tfdpoebsz!xjoe.
joht!tipsu.djsdvjufe-!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfout!gmpx!jo!uif!xjoejoht!xifo!36!W!jt!bqqmjfe!up!uif!qsjnbsz-!boe!
uif!qpxfs!joqvu!cfjoh!611!X/!Gps!uijt!usbotgpsnfs-!efufsnjof!)b*!uif!qfsdfoubhf!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!
bu!gvmm.mpbe-!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh-!boe!)c*!uif!gsbdujpo!pg!gvmm.mpbe!bu!xijdi!uif!fggjdjfodz!jt!nbyjnvn/
Solution
Iron loss = 250 W
50, 000
Full-load primary current = A = 113.63 A
440
50, 000
Full-load secondary current = A = 454.52 A
110
25
Total impedance referred to the primary Zo1 = W = 0.22 W
113.63
Primary input = (113.63)2 ¥ Ro1 = 500, where Ro1 = Equivalent resistance referred to the primary.
500
So Ro1 = W = 0.0387 W
(113.63) 2
If Ro2 and Xo2 be the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the secondary then
2
Ê 110 ˆ
Ro2 = (0.0387) ¥ Á W = 0.0024 W
Ë 440 ˜¯
2
Ê 110 ˆ
Xo2 = (0.2165) ¥ Á W = 0.0135 W
Ë 440 ˜¯
(a) Voltage regulation at full-load and 0.8 p.f. lagging
I 2 Ro 2 cos q 2 + I 2 X o 2 sin q 2
=
E2
454.52
= [0.0024 ¥ 0.8 + 0.0135 ¥ 0.6] = 0.0414 or 4.14%
110
(b) Let x be the fraction of full-load at which efficiency is maximum. For maximum efficiency,
core losses = copper losses
250
\ x2I 22 Ro2 = 250 or, x2 = = 0.504
( 454.52) 2 ¥ 0.0024
or x2 = 0.71.
\ efficiency is maximum when the load is 0.71 times the full-load.
! Qspcmfn!4/93
Xibu!jt!uif!sfhvmbujpo!pg!b!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!gvmm.mpbe-!1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups-!xijdi!ibt!bu!Ď!gvmm.
mpbe!vojuz!q/g/-!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!:8!&-!boe!q/v/!jnqfebodf!pg!1/19@
Solution
Maximum efficiency occurs when copper losses are equal to iron losses.
Total losses at ¾ full-load = (1 – 0.97) = 0.03 p.u.
Copper losses at ¾ full-load = 0.5 ¥ 0.03 = 0.015 p.u.
2
Ê 4ˆ
Copper losses at full-load = 0.015 Á ˜ = 0.027 p.u.
Ë 3¯
Rp.u. = 0.027 Zp.u. = 0.08
Xp.u. = 0.082 - 0.0272 = 0.0753 p.u.
! Qspcmfn!4/94
B!usbotgpsnfs!jt!sbufe!bu!211!lWB/!Bu!gvmm.mpbe!jut!dpqqfs!mptt!jt!211!X!boe!jut!jspo!jt!911!X/
Dbmdvmbuf
! )b*! Fggjdjfodz!bu!gvmm.mpbe-!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/
! )c*! Fggjdjfodz!bu!ibmg.mpbe-!1/9!q/g/
! )d*! Fggjdjfodz!bu!86&!mpbe-!1/8!q/g/
! )e*! Uif!mpbe!lWB!bu!xijdi!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pddvst/
! )f*! Uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!bu!1/:6!q/g/
Solution
S = 100 kVA
Full-load copper loss = 1000 W
Iron loss = 800 W
x S cos q 2
Efficiency h =
x S cos q 2 + Pi + x 2 Pc (full load)
(a) At full-load x =1 cos q2 = 1
1 ¥ 100 ¥ 103
h= = 0.9823 p.u. = 98.23%
100 ¥ 103 + 800 + 1000
(b) At half-load and cos q2 = 0.8
0.5 ¥ 100 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
h=
0.8 ¥ 0.5 ¥ 100 ¥ 103 + 800 + (0.5) 2 ¥ 1000
40 ¥ 103
= = 0.9744 p.u. = 97.44%
41050
(c) At 0.75 load and cos q2 = 0.7
Pi
(d) The load kVA at maximum efficiency (Smax) = Sfl
Pc ( fL)
800
(Smax) = 100 kVA
1000
= 89.44 kVA
! 4/:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/95
Xifo!b!211!lWB-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!xbt!uftufe-!uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmut!xfsf!pcubjofe;!po!pqfo!
djsdvju-!uif!qpxfs!dpotvnfe!xbt!2611!X!boe!po!tipsu!djsdvju!bu!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou-!uif!qpxfs!dpo.
tvnfe!xbt!2111!X/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!usbotgpsnfs!po!gvmm.mpbe!boe!ibmg.mpbe!xifo!xpsljoh!
bu!vojuz!q/g/
Solution
Pi = 1500 W
Pcf l = 1000 W
cos q2 = 1
(\ open-circuit test gives iron loss and short-circuit test gives copper loss)
V2 I 2 cos q 2
h f–L =
V2 I 2 cos q 2 + Pi + Pcf l
100 ¥ 103
= = 0.9756 p.u. = 97.56%
100 ¥ 103 + 1 + 1500 + 1000
1
100 ¥ ¥ 103
h1 = 2 = 0.9661 p.u. 96.61%.
f -L 1 1
2 100 ¥ ¥ 10 + 1500 + ¥ 1000
3
2 4
! Qspcmfn!4/96
Uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pg!b!611!lWB-!71110711!W-!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!1/:6!q/v/!
boe!pddvst!bu!86&!gvmm.mpbe!boe!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/!Jg!uif!mfblbhf!jnqfebodf!jt!21&-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!
wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm.mpbe-!q/g/!1/:!mbhhjoh/
Solution
At maximum efficiency, Pi = Pc
(0.75) ¥ 500 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
hmax = = 0.95
(0.75) ¥ 500 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 + 2 Pi
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/:2
Pi
Sc = = 0.75
Pcfl
9868.4
or, = Pc (f – L)
(0.75) 2
or, Pcf l = 17543.8 W
Pc ( f - L )
Rep.u. = = 0.03508 Zep.u. = 0.1 (given)
V2 I 2
\ Xep.u. = 2
Zep.u. - Rep.u.
2
= (0.1) 2 - (0.03508) 2 = 0.09364
! Qspcmfn!4/97
Uif!sftjtubodf!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodft!pg!b!31!lWB-!61!I{-!33110331!W!ejtusjcvujpo!usbotgpsnfs!
bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;!
S2!>!5!W! S3!>!1/15!W! Y2!>!6!W! Y3!>!1/16!W
! )b*! Efufsnjof!upubm!mfblbhf!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!IW!tjef!boe!MW!tjef/
! )c*! Gjoe!IW!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!boe!qfsdfoubhf!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!xifo!uif!usbotgpsnfs!hjwft!jut!
sbufe!lWB!bu!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!mbhhjoh!boe!1/9!mfbejoh!up!mpbet!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf/
! )d*! Jg!uif!dpsf!mptt!jt!91!X-!gjoe!fggjdjfodz!gps!cpui!mbhhjoh!boe!mfbejoh!q/g/
! )e*! Jg!uif!mpbe!jt!tipsu!djsdvjufe!gjoe!uif!dvssfou!jo!IW!tjeft/
Solution
2200
Transformer ratio = = 10
220
(a) Z1 (HV side) = (4 + 0.04 ¥ 102) + j (5 + 0.05 ¥ 102)
Ê 4 ˆ Ê 5 ˆ
Z2 (LV side) = Á 2 + 0.04˜ + j Á 2 + 0.05˜
Ë 10 ¯ Ë 10 ¯
= 0.08 + j 0.1
! 4/:3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
20, 000
(b) Load current = = 9.09 A
2200
V1 = 2200 + 9.09 (8 ¥ 0.8 + 10 ¥ 0.6) = 2312.72 V
2312.72 - 2200
\ % regulation = ¥ 100 = 5.12%
2200
For leading p.f.,
V1 = 2200 + 9.09 [8 ¥ 0.8 – 10 ¥ 0.6] = 2203.64 V
Percentage regulation = 0.16%
(c) Core loss Pi = 80 W
Copper loss Pc = (9.09)2 ¥ 8 = 661.02 W
20 ¥ 0.8
Efficiency = = 0.9557 p.u. = 95.57%
80 + 661.02
20 ¥ 0.8 +
1000
2200
(d) Isc (HV) = 171.79 A.
8 + j10
! Qspcmfn!4/98
B!211!lWB-!71110711!W-!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!xjoejoh!sftjtubodft!boe!
mfblbhf!sfbdubodft;
! S2! >!3/4!W!!!!S3!>!1/13!W
! Y2! >!5!W!!!!!!!Y3!>!1/6!W
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!gpmmpxjoh;!
! )b*! Frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf-!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!boe!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef
! )c*! Frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf-!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!boe!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef
! )d*! Upubm!Dv.mptt!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!gvmm.mpbe!dpoejujpo
Solution
R1 = 2.3 W R2 = 0.02 W
X1 = 4 W X2 = 0.5 W
6000
Turns ratio = = 10
600
(a) Equivalent resistance referred to HV side
= (2.3 + 102 ¥ 0.02) W
= 4.3 W
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/:4
= 4.32 + 54 2 = 54.17 W
(b) Equivalent resistance referred to LV side
Ê 2.3 ˆ
= Á 0.02 + 2 ˜ W
Ë 10 ¯
= 0.043 W
Equivalent reactance referred to HV side
Ê 4 ˆ
= Á 0.5 + 2 ˜
Ë 10 ¯
= 0.54 W
Equivalent impedance referred to HV side
= 0.0432 + 0.54 2
= 0.5417 W
100 ¥ 103
(c) Primary current (I1) =
6000
= 16.67 A
Total Cu loss = (16.67)2 ¥ 4.3 = 1194.9 W.
! Qspcmfn!4/99
Uif!iztufsftjt!boe!feez.dvssfou!mptt!pg!b!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!361!X!boe!211!X!sftqfdujwfmz/!Jg!uif!tvq.
qmz!wpmubhf!jt!611!W!bu!61!I{-!gjoe!uif!iztufsftjt!mptt!boe!feez.dvssfou!mptt!jg!uif!tvqqmz!wpmubhf!jt!
nbef!epvcmf!bu!211!I{!gsfrvfodz/
Solution
Hysteresis loss at 500 V, 50 Hz = 250 W
Eddy-current loss at 500 V, 50 Hz = 100 W
Induced emf (E) = 4.44 f fm N = 4.44 f Bm AN
E Bm f
E
fi Bm
f
! 4/:5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
E
Bm = a [a in the constant]
f
È E 500 ˘
For the first case, Bm1 = 10 a ÍAs f = 50 = 10 ˙
Î ˚
È E 1000 ˘
Bm2 = 10 a Í f = 100 = 10 ˙
Î ˚
\ Bm1 = Bm2
Ph = Cf and Pc = Df 2
Ph 250
C= = =5
f 50
100
D= = 0.04
50 ¥ 50
Now, f = 100 Hz
Ph = 5 ¥ 100 = 500 W
Pe = 0.04 ¥ 1002 = 400 W.
! Qspcmfn!4/9:
Ijhi.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dpoofdufe!xjui!311!W!tvqqmz!boe!MW!
xjoejoh!jt!tipsu!djsdvjufe/!Uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub!bsf!hjwfo;
! S2! >!2/5!W!!!!!Y2!>!7!W
! S3! >!1/17!W!!!Y3!>!1/15!W
Uvsot!sbujp!>!5
Efufsnjof!dvssfou!jo!MW!xjoejoh-!q/g/!boe!dpqqfs!mptt!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/
Solution
Ro1 = 1.4 + 42 ¥ 0.06 = 2.36 W
Xo1 = 6 + 42 ¥ 0.04 = 6.64 W
1900.8
Short-circuit power factor =
200 ¥ 28.38
= 0.335 (lagging).
! Qspcmfn!4/:1
B!211!lWB!tjohmf.qibtf!tufq.epxo!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!gvmm.mpbe!tfdpoebsz!dvssfou!pg!511!B!boe!uif!
upubm!sftjtubodf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!tfdpoebsz!jt!1/116!W/!Gjoe!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!gvmm.
3
mpbe!boe! !uif!gvmm!mpbe!bu!)b*!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups-!boe!)c*!1/9!q/g/!jg!jspo!mptt!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jt!
311!X/! 4
Solution
At full-load,
I2(fL) = 400 A
\ full-load Cu loss = 4002 ¥ 0.005 = 800 W
Total losses = (200 + 800) W = 1000 W
Output at unity p.f. = 100 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 = 105 W
105
Efficiency = ¥ 100% = 99%
105 + 1000
Output at 0.8 p.f. = 100 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 W = 80000 W
80000
Efficiency = ¥ 100%
80000 + 1000
= 98.765% (Am)
th
3
At load
4
2
Ê 3ˆ
Cu loss = Á ˜ ¥ 800 W = 450 W
Ë 4¯
3
Output at unity p.f. = ¥ 105 W = 75000 W
4
75000
Efficiency = ¥ 100% = 99.14%
75000 + 450 + 200
3
Output at 0.8 p.f. = 8000 ¥ = 60000 W
4
60000
Efficiency = ¥ 100% = 98.9%.
60000 + 200 + 450
! 4/:7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/:2
B!tjohmf.qibtf-!71110711!W!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!sftjtubodft!1/36!boe!1/129!W!
sftqfdujwfmz/!Jg!jspo!mptt!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jt!311!X-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!tfdpoebsz!dvssfou!bu!xijdi!nbyj.
nvn!fggjdjfodz!pddvst/!Bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!bu!1/:!q/g/!mbhhjoh/
Solution
6000
Turns ratio = = 10
600
R1 = 0.25 W
R2 = 0.018 W
0.25
Ro2 = 0.018 + = 0.021 W
10 2
At maximum efficiency,
Copper-loss = Iron loss
I22 Ro2 = 200
200
\ I2 = = 97.59 A
0.021
Output at maximum efficiency = 600 ¥ 97.59 ¥ 0.9 W
= 52698.6 W
= 52.69 kW
Total loss = 2 ¥ 200 = 400 W = 0.4 kW
52.69
Maximum efficiency = ¥ 100% = 99.25%.
52.69 + 0.4
! Qspcmfn!4/:3
B!tjohmf.qibtf-!261!lWB!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!bo!fggjdjfodz!pg!:9&!bu!gvmm.mpbe!po!1/9!q/g/!boe!po!ibmg!
mpbe!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/!Gjoe!uif!gpmmpxjoh;!
! )b*! Jspo!mptt
! )c*! Dpqqfs!mptt!bu!gvmm.mpbe
! )d*! Mpbe!lWB!bu!xijdi!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pddvst
! )e*! Nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh
Solution
At full-load,
150 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
= 0.98
150 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 + Pi + Pcu [Pi = iron loss and Pcu = Cu loss at full-load]
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/:8
Ê 1 ˆ
fi Pi + Pcu = 150 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 Á - 1˜
Ë 0.98 ¯
= 2448.98 W (i)
At half-load,
1
¥ 150 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
2 = 0.98
1 1
¥ 150 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 + Pi + Pcu
2 4
1 Ê 1 ˆ
fi Pi + Pcu = 75 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 ÁË 0.98 - 1˜¯
4
= 1224.49 W (ii)
Solving Eqs (i) and (ii),
Pi = 816.33 W Pcu = 1632.7 W
Say, x be the fraction of full-load to get maximum efficiency of the transformer.
Pi 816.33
x= = = 0.7071
Pcu 1632.7
! Qspcmfn!4/:4
Gjoe!pvu!uif!mpbe!)bu!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz*!boe!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pg!b!31!lWB-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbot.
gpsnfs! bu! vojuz! q/g/! Jspo! mptt! boe! gvmm.mpbe! dpqqfs.mptt! bsf! 361! X! boe! 611! X! sftqfdujwfmz/! Jg! uif!
nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pddvst!bu!96&!pg!gvmm.mpbe-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!ofx!dpsf!mptt!boe!gvmm.mpbe!Dv!mptt!bt.
tvnjoh!uibu!upubm!gvmm.mpbe!mptt!jt!b!dpotubou/
Solution
Say, x is the fraction of full-load when maximum efficiency occurs.
Pi 250
\ x= = = 0.707
Pcu 500
[Pi = iron loss Pcu = Cu loss]
\ maximum efficiency occurs at 70.7% of full-load.
! 4/:9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/:5
B!21!lWB-!5510311W-!61!I{!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!sfrvjsft!211!W!po!IW!tjef!up!djsdvmbuf!gvmm.
mpbe!dvssfou!xjui!MW!tipsu!djsdvjufe/!Uif!qpxfs!joqvu!jt!311!X/!Gjoe!uif!nbyjnvn!qpttjcmf!wpmubhf!
sfhvmbujpo!boe!q/g/!bu!xijdi!ju!pddvst/!Bmtp!gjoe!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!voefs!uijt!dpoejujpo/
Solution
10 ¥ 103
Full-load HV current = A = 22.73 A
440
Power input = 200 W = (22.73)2 Re1
Hence, Re1 = 0.387 W
100
Also, Ze1 = W = 4.4 W, hence Xe1 = Ze21 - Re21 = 4.38 W
22.73
Voltage regulation is (Rp.u. cos q2 + Rp.u. sin q2).
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/::
! Qspcmfn!4/:6
B!211!lWB-!211110311!W-!61!I{!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!offet!411!W!po!IW!tjef!up!djsdvmbuf!gvmm.
mpbe!dvssfou!xjui!MW!xjoejoh!tipsu.djsdvjufe/!Uif!qpxfs!joqvu!jt!2111!X/!Gjoe!nbyjnvn!qpttjcmf!
sfhvmbujpo!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!xijdi!ju!pddvst/!Xibu!jt!W3!voefs!uijt!dpoejujpo@
Solution
100 ¥ 103
Full-load current on HV side = = 10 A
10000
Taking 100 kVA and 10000 V as base values for high-voltage side,
10000
Base impedance = = 1000 W
10
10000
Resistance as referred to HV side = = 10 W
10 ¥ 10
300
Impedance as referred to HV side = = 30 W
10
Reactance as referred to HV side = 30 2 - 10 2
= 28.28 W
! 4/211 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
10
Rp.u. = = 0.01 p.u.
1000
28.28
Xp.u. = = 0.02828 p.u.
1000
Regulation will be maximum, when
d (Regulation )
=0
dq 2
Now, Regulation = Rp.u. cos q2 + Xp.u. sin q2
d (Regulation )
\ = –Rp.u. sin q2 + Xp.u. cos q2 = 0
dq 2
0.02828
fi tan q2 = = 2.828
0.01
Power factor = cos q2 = 0.333 lagging
sin q2 = 0.943
Regulation = (0.01) (0.333) + (0.02828) (0.943)
= 0.03 p.u. or 3%
200
V2 = = 194.17 V.
1.03
! Qspcmfn!4/:7
B!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!tvqqmjft!b!mpbe!pg!361!B!bu!1/9!q/g/!xifsfbt!joqvu!wpmubhf!pg!uif!usbot.
gpsnfs!jt!6111!W-!boe!uvsot!sbujp!jt!21;2/!Ofhmfdujoh!op.mpbe!dvssfou-!dbmdvmbuf!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!
wpmubhf!boe!pvuqvu!qpxfs/!Hjwfo![2!>!2/7!,!25/4!W!boe![3!>!1/12:!,!k1/159!W
Solution
Secondary terminal voltage (V2 –0°) is taken as reference
E2 = V2 –0° + I2 Z2
= V2 + 250 ––36.87° (0.019 + j 0.048)
[as cos f = 0.8 lagging so f = 36.87°]
= V2 + 11 + j 6.75
E1
= 10 fi E1 = 10 E2
E2
\ E1 = 10 V2 + 110 + j 67.5
V1 = E1 + I1 Z1
= 10 V2 + 110 + j 67.5 + I1 (1.6 + j 4.3)
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/212
250 – - 36.87∞
I1 = = 25 (0.8 – j 0.6)
10
\ V1 = 10 V2 + 110 + j 67.5 + 25(0.8 – j 0.6) (1.6 + j 4.3)
= 10 V2 + 206.5 + j 129.5
| V1 |2 = (10 V2 + 206.5)2 + (129.5)2
| V1 | = 5000
fi | 5000 |2 = (10 V2 + 206.5)2 + (129.5)2
V2 = 4791.82 V
Output power = 4791.82 ¥ 250 ¥ 0.8 kW
= 95.836 kW.
! Qspcmfn!4/:8
Uif!sftjtubodf!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!pg!b!23!lWB-!61!I{!33110331!W!ejtusjcvujpo!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!
bt!gpmmpxt;!
s2!>!3!W! s3!>!1/13!W! y2!>!5!W!boe!y3!>!1/15!W
Fbdi!rvboujuz!jt!sfgfssfe!up!jut!pxo!tjef!pg!usbotgpsnfs!)tvggjy!Ô2Õ!tuboet!gps!IW!boe!Ô3Õ!gps!MW*/
! )b*! Gjoe!uif!upubm!mfblbhf!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!)j*!uif!IW!tjef-!boe!)jj*!uif!MW!tjef/
! )c*! Dpotjefs!uif!usbotgpsnfs!up!hjwf!jut!sbufe!lWB!bu!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!mbhhjoh!up!b!mpbe!bu!sbufe!wpmu.
bhf/!Gjoe!uif!IW!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!boe!qfsdfoubhf!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo/
! )d*! Sfqfbu!)c*!gps!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!mfbejoh/
! )e*! Dpotjefs!uif!dpsf!mptt!up!cf!81!X/!Gjoe!uif!fggjdjfodz!voefs!uif!dpoejujpot!pg!qbsu!)c*/!Xjmm!ju!
cf!ejggfsfou!gps!uif!dpoejujpot!voefs!qbsu!)d*@
! )f*! Jg!uif!mpbe!jo!qbsu!)c*!hfut!tipsu.djsdvjufe-!gjoe!uif!tufbez.tubuf!dvssfou!jo!uif!IW!mjoft-!bttvn.
joh!uibu!uif!wpmubhf!bqqmjfe!up!uif!usbotgpsnfst!sfnbjot!vodibohfe/
Solution
2200
a= = 10
220
(a) ZL1 = (2 + 0.2 ¥ 100) + j (4 + 0.04 ¥ 100) = 4 + j 8
Ê 2 ˆ Ê 4 ˆ
ZL2 = Á + 0.02˜ + j Á + 0.04˜ = 0.04 + j 0.08
Ë 100 ¯ Ë 100 ¯
12000
(b) I¢L = = 5.45 Amp
2200
VH = 2200 + 5.45 (4 ¥ 0.8 – 8 ¥ 0.6) = 2243.6 V
43.6
% Regulation = ¥ 100 = 1.98
2200
! 4/213 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/:9
Uif!ebub!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!hjwfo!cfmpx;
Uvsot!sbujp!>!21-!S2!>!6!W-!Y2!>!9!W-!S3!>!1/3!W-!Y3!>!1/5!W-!op.mpbe!dvssfou!)2/5!B*!mfbet!uif!gmvy!cz!
bo!bohmf!pg!41¡/!B!mpbe!pg!1/:!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!dpoofdufe!up!uif!tfdpoebsz!tp!uibu!uif!mpbe!
dvssfou!jt!211!B!bu!b!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!pg!461!W/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!gpmmpxjoh!xjui!uif!ifmq!pg!b!qibtps!
ejbhsbn;
! )b*! Qsjnbsz!bqqmjfe!wpmubhf
! )c*! Uif!qsjnbsz!qpxfs!gbdups
! )d*! Uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs
Solution
Refer Fig. 3.11(a).
V2 = 350 –0° V = 350 + j 0
I2 = 100 (0.9 – j 0.4) = 90 – j 40 = 98.488 ––23.96°
Z2 = 0.2 + j 0.4
E2 = V2 + I2 Z2 = (350 + j 0) + (90 – j 40) (0.2 + j 0.4)
= 350 + j 0 + 18 – j 8 + j 36 + 16
= 384 + j 28
= 385.02 –4.17° V
\ angle between E2 and V2
a = 4.17°
E1 = 10 (384 + j 28) = 3840 + j 280
–E1 = – 3840 – j 280 = 3850.19 ––175.83°
-I -90 - j 40
I1¢ = 2 = = –9 – j 4
10 10
The angle between Io and V2 is (4.17° + 90° + 30°)
= 124.17°
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/214
! Qspcmfn!4/::
B! 661! lWB-! 61! I{! usbotgpsnfs! xjui! 24/9! lW! bqqmjfe! wpmubhf! po! uif! qsjnbsz! esbxt! 5/:4! B! boe!
4531!X/!Bopuifs!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!dpsf!xjui!mjofbs!ejnfotjpot! 2 !ujnft!bt!mbshf!bt!uif!dpssf.
tqpoejoh!ejnfotjpot!pg!uif!gjstu!usbotgpsnfs/!Jg!uif!qsjnbsz!xjoejoht!pg!cpui!uif!usbotgpsnfst!ibwf!
uif!tbnf!ovncfs!pg!uvsot-!efufsnjof!uif!op.mpbe!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!esbxo!cz!uif!tfdpoe!usbot.
gpsnfs!xjui!38/7!lW!bu!61!I{!jnqsfttfe!po!jut!qsjnbsz/!Uif!dpsf!nbufsjbm!boe!mbnjobujpo!uijdloftt!
bsf!uif!tbnf!jo!cpui!usbotgpsnfst/
Solution
If the linear dimensions of the second transformer are 2 times that of the first then its volume
is 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2 , i.e. 2 2 times the first and area is twice the first transformer. Since the voltage
! 4/215 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
applied to the second transformer is twice that of the first (2 ¥ 13.8 kV = 27.6 kV), the flux densities
in both the windings are same. Hence, core loss is proportional to the volume.
\ core loss of second transformer = 2 2 ¥ 3420
= 9673 W
\ power drawn by the second transformer is 9673 W or 9.673 kW.
Magnetizing reactance is inversely proportional to the length of core and directly proportional to
Ê m AN 2 ˆ
the cross-sectional area ÁE L = ˜
Ë l ¯
2
\ no-load current of the second transformer is 4.93 ¥ = 6.97 A.
2
UFTUJOH!PG!USBOTGPSNFST! 4/36
The efficiency and regulation of a transformer are calculated by two types of tests, called open-
circuit test and short-circuit test.
4/36/2! Pqfo.Djsdvju!Uftu!
This test is performed to measure the iron losses. Also, the core-loss resistance and magnetizing
reactance can be calculated from this test.
In this test, one of the windings of the transformer is open circuited. The rated voltage at rated
frequency is applied to the other winding. Generally, the high-voltage side is open circuited and the
rated voltage is applied at the low-voltage side.
The connections made are shown in Fig. 3.26; the rated voltage is applied through an autotrans-
former (also called variance). The readings of the wattmeter Wo, voltmeter V1 and ammeter Io are
recorded. Since the secondary is open circuited, a very small current called the no-load current
flows in the primary. This current Io is 2% to 6% of the rated current. Hence, the primary leakage
impedance drop is negligible and applied voltage V1 can be considered equal to V1¢. The equivalent
circuit gets modified to that shown in Fig. 3.27.
Gjh/!4/37! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!gps!pqfo.djsdvju!uftu
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/216
!
Gjh/!4/38! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!voefs!pqfo.djsdvju!uftu
The wattmeter reading gives the total losses, i.e. core loss and copper loss of the transformer.
The no-load current being negligible, the copper loss under no-load condition varies from 0.04%
(0.02 ¥ 0.02 ¥ 100) to 0.36% (0.06 ¥ 0.06 ¥ 100) of the rated copper loss. Hence, copper loss in
open-circuit test is negligible compared to core loss. Hence, the wattmeter reading is considered
equal to core loss.
\ Wo = Core loss
The no-load power factor
Wo
cos qo = (3.47)
V1I o
The core loss component of no-load current
IW = Io cos qo
V
\ core loss resistance Ro = 1 (3.48)
IW
The magnetizing component of no-load current
Im = Io sin qo
V
\ magnetizing reactance Xo = 1 (3.49)
Im
Ro and Xo are referred to that side of the transformer where instruments are kept, generally they
are referred to low-voltage side.
4/36/3! Tipsu.djsdvju!Uftu
This test is performed to measure the copper loss of a transformer. In addition, it gives the equiva-
lent resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer. As rated current is to be supplied in one
winding of the transformer keeping the other side short circuited, this test is generally performed
in the high-voltage side keeping the low-voltage side short circuited. The connections are made as
shown in Fig. 3.28. All the instruments are placed on the high-voltage side and a low-voltage is
applied using an autotransformer. This applied voltage is adjusted in such a way that the full-load
! 4/217 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Wsc
Isc
A
Vsc V A
HV LV !
Gjh/!4/39! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!gps!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu
current flows through both the windings. It has been observed that a primary voltage of 2% to 12%
of its rated value is sufficient to circulate rated currents. Hence, about 1% to 6% of the rated volt-
age appears across the magnetizing branch and the core flux is also 1% to 6% of its rated value.
Since core loss is proportional to the square of the core flux, the core loss is 0.01% (0.01 ¥ 0.01 ¥
100) to 0.36% (0.06 ¥ 0.06 ¥ 100) of the rated core loss. Hence, the core loss is negligible and the
wattmeter reading Wsc can be considered to be equal to copper loss only. Again at rated voltage, the
exciting current Io is 2% to 6% of the full-load current. When the voltage across exciting branch is
1% to 6% of its rated value, Io is 0.02% to 0.36% of full-load current and hence can be neglected.
The equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig. 3.29.
R1 X1 X2 R2
Isc
Vsc
!
Gjh/!4/3:! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!voefs!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu
If Vsc, Isc and Wsc be the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter reading then
Wsc
ReH = (3.50)
I sc2
Vsc
ZeH = (3.51)
I sc
2 2
XeH = ZeH - ReH (3.52)
ReH and XeH are equivalent resistance and reactance referred to high-voltage side.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/218
If the primary and secondary resistances and leakage reactances are required then
1 1
R1 = R¢2 = ReH and X1 = X2¢ = XeH
2 2
4/36/4! TvnqofsÕt!Uftu!)Cbdl!up!Cbdl!uftu!ps!Sfhfofsbujwf!Uftu*
To determine the maximum temperature rise of a transformer, Sumpner’s test is performed. This
test can also be performed to find out the efficiency of a transformer. Sumpner’s test is essentially a
load test. It requires two identical transformers whose primaries are connected in parallel. The two
secondaries are connected in series with their polarities in phase opposition. The primary windings
are supplied at rated voltage and frequency. A voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter are connected to
the input as shown in Fig. 3.30. The range of the voltmeter V2 connected across the two secondar-
ies should be double the rated voltage of either transformer secondary. As the two secondaries are
connected in phase opposition, the two secondary emfs oppose each other and no current can flow
in the secondary circuit. A regulating transformer excited by an ac mains supply is used to inject
voltage in the secondary winding. The injected voltage is adjusted till the ammeter A2 reads full-
load secondary current. The secondary current causes full-load current to flow through the primary
windings whereas the primary current remains confined to the dotted path as shown in Fig. 3.30.
The wattmeter W1 indicates total core losses, W2 indicates total copper losses and ammeter A1
indicates total no-load current of the two transformers. Thus, by this method, we can load the trans-
former to full-load but the supplying energy is only equal to that required for the losses only. This
test can be continued for a long time to determine the maximum temperature rise of a transformer.
W1
A1
ac V1
supply
V2
Regulating
Transformers
A2
W2
!
Gjh/!4/41! TvnqofsÕt!uftu
! 4/219 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
4/36/5! Qpmbsjuz!Uftu
Polarities of a transformer can be checked by a simple test requiring only voltage measurements
with a transformer on no-load. At any instant, one terminal of the primary winding is positive
with respect to the other. At the same instant, one terminal of the secondary winding is positive
with respect to the other. The polarities of the windings at any instant should be known in order to
identify the like terminals and unlike terminals. Polarity test is required for parallel operation of
transformers.
In this test, the rated voltage is applied on one winding and one V
terminal of the primary winding is connected to one terminal of the
A C
secondary winding through a voltmeter. The other two terminals of
the windings are short circuited as shown in Fig. 3.31. ~
E1 E2
Suppose the voltages induced in the primary and secondary wind-
ings are E1 and E2 respectively. If the voltmeter reading is equal to
E1 – E2 then the terminals A and C are of same polarity at any one in- B D
stant. Hence, terminals B and D will be of opposite polarities. A and !
C are like terminals and B and D are unlike terminals. If the voltmeter
Gjh/!4/42! Qpmbsjuz!uftu
reading is equal to E1 + E2 then A and C are of opposite polarities. In
that case if terminal A is positive at any instant then terminal D will be positive at that instant. At
the same instant, terminals B and C will have negative polarities.
BMM.EBZ!FGGJDJFODZ! 4/37
It is usual for the primary of a transformer to be connected permanently to the supply and for the
switching of load to be carried out in the secondary circuit. Since the copper loss varies with load
but iron loss is constant, the efficiency depending on loading and losses varies throughout the day.
For transformers which are continuously excited but supply loads only intermittently, a low iron
loss is particularly desirable, but a low copper loss is specially important where the load factor is
high. Again, for a transformer working on full-load for the greater part of the day, maximum ef-
ficiency should be arranged to occur somewhere around the full-load value but for a transformer
whose full-load value may be supplied for only ¼ of the day and the unit is only lightly loaded for
the rest of the time, it would be desirable to arrange maximum efficiency to occur at about ½ full-
load value.
Considering the above factors, the efficiency of a transformer is better estimated on an energy
rather than a power ratio and thus we have the term all-day efficiency.
! Qspcmfn!4/211
Ipx!epft!b!xbuunfufs!dpoofdufe!up!uif!qsjnbsz!xjoejoh!pg!b!usbotgpsnfs!nfbtvsf!dpqqfs!mptt!jo!
uif!tfdpoebsz!bmtp@
Solution
When rated current flows in the primary winding, the secondary winding also carries rated cur-
rent as N1 I1 = N2 I2. The copper losses in the secondary winding must be supplied from the primary
as there is no source in the secondary. Hence, the entire power is recorded by the wattmeter con-
nected to the primary which includes copper losses of the secondary windings also.
! Qspcmfn!4/212
Uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmut!xfsf!pcubjofe!jo!uftut!po!b!61!lWB-!tjohmf.qibtf-!44110511!W!usbotgpsnfs/
Pqfo.djsdvju!uftu;!4411!W-!541!X
Tipsu.djsdvju!uftu;!235!W-!26/4!B-!646!X/
)tvqqmz!hjwfo!po!IW!tjef*
Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!fggjdjfodz!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!ibmg!gvmm.mpbe!bu!1/818!q/g/!mbhhjoh-!)c*!uif!sfhvmbujpo!bu!
gvmm.mpbe!gps!q/g/!pg!1/818!)mbhhjoh!boe!mfbejoh*-!boe!)d*!gvmm.mpbe!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!voefs!uif!dpoej.
ujpo!pg!1/818!q/g/!)mbhhjoh*/
Solution
For short-circuit test data,
124 535
Ze1 = W = 8.10 W, Re1 = W = 2.285 W
15.3 (15.3)2
50, 000
(a) Rated current on the HV side = A = 15.15 A
3300
2
Ê 15.15 ˆ
So, rated copper loss = 535 ¥ Á
Ë 15.3 ˜¯
= 524.56 W
! Qspcmfn!4/213
Uif!pqfo.djsdvju!uftu!qfsgpsnfe!po!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef!pg!b!61!NWB-!9!lW089!lW-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!
hjwft!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub;!9!lW-!73/2!B!boe!317!lX/!B!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu!po!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef!hjwft!
uif!gpmmpxjoh!sfbejoht;!785!W-!7/36!lB!boe!298!lX/
! )b*! Efufsnjof!uif!frvjwbmfou!tfsjft!jnqfebodf-!sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bt!
sfgfssfe!up!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!ufsnjobmt/
! )c*! Efufsnjof!uif!fggjdjfodz!boe!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!jg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!uif!sbufe!
wpmubhf!boe!mpbe!)vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups*/
! )d*! Sfqfbu!qbsu!)c*!bttvnjoh!uif!mpbe!up!cf!bu!1/:!qpxfs!gbdups!mfbejoh/
Solution
(a) From the short-circuit test, the equivalent impedance referred to the low-voltage side is
674
ZeL = W = 0.10784 W = 107.84 mW
6250
Equivalent resistance referred to the low-voltage side
187000
ReL = W = 4.78 mW
(6250) 2
\ XeL = 107.73 mW
(b) The efficiency of the transformer at unity power factor
50 ¥ 106 ¥ 1
h= ¥ 100% = 99.2%
50 ¥ 106 ¥ 1 + 206 + 187
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/222
50 ¥ 106 ¥ 0.9
h= ¥ 100% = 99.13%
50 ¥ 106 ¥ 0.9 + 206 + 187
cos q = 0.9
\ sin q = 0.436
! Qspcmfn!4/214
B!6!lWB-!5110311!W-!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!ebub;
PD!Uftu;!311!W-!3!B-!91!X
!!TD!Uftu;!31!W-!21!W-!261!X
Uif!nfufst!bsf!qmbdfe!evsjoh!TD!uftu!po!uif!tjef!pqqptjuf!up!uibu!pg!PD!uftu/!Gjoe!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!
sfgfssfe!up!qsjnbsz!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef/
Solution
OC Test
Since rated voltage is applied during OC test, meters are placed on the low-voltage side.
400
Turns ratio = =2
200
No-load current (Io) = 2 A = (Io)LV
1
(Io)HV = 2 ¥ =1A
2
Applied voltage at no-load = 400
Vo Io cos fo = 80
fi 400 ¥ 1 ¥ cos fo = 80
80
fi cos fo = = 0.2
400
! 4/223 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
sin fo = 0.979
\ Iw = 1 ¥ 0.2 = 0.2 A
Im = 1 ¥ 0.979 = 0.979 A
Vo 400
RoL = = = 2000 W
IW 0.2
Vo 400
XoL = = = 408.58 W
I m 0.979
\ RoH = 2000 ¥ 22 = 8000 W
XoH = 408.58 ¥ 22 = 1634.32 W
SC Test
As per the given statement, the meters are placed on high-voltage side.
! Qspcmfn!4/215
B! tjohmf.qibtf! 4! lWB-! 5110311! W-! 61! I{! usbotgpsnfs! ibt! qsjnbsz! boe! tfdpoebsz! sftjtubodft! pg!
1/5!W!boe!1/2!W-!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!mfblbhf!sfbdubodft!pg!1/6!W!boe!1/26!W-!sftjtubodf!boe!
sfbdubodf!pg!fydjubujpo!djsdvju!sfgfssfe!up!qsjnbsz!bt!861!W!boe!311!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gps!PD!boe!
TD!uftut-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!nfufs!sfbejoh-!xifo!gps!cpui!uif!uftut-!tvqqmz!jt!hjwfo!po!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef/
Solution
R1 = 0.4 W X1= 0.5 W R2 = 0.1 W X2 = 0.15 W Ro = 750 W Xo = 200 W
OC Test
V1 = 400 V
400
Iw = A = 0.53 A
750
400
Im = =2A
200
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/224
Io = I m2 + I w2 = 22 + 0.532 = 2.069 A
Wo = 400 ¥ 0.53 W = 212 W
The meter readings are
400 V, 2.069 A, 212 W
SC Test
ReH = 0.4 + 22 ¥ 0.1 = 0.8 W
È 400 ˘
ÍÎAs turn ratio = 200 = 2˙˚
XeH = 0.5 + 22 ¥ 0.15 = 1.1 W
3 ¥ 103
Full-load current in high-voltage winding (I1) = A
400
= 7.5 A
Vsc = 7.5 ¥ 1.36 V = 10.2 V
Psc = (7.5)2 ¥ 0.8 = 45 W
Meter readings are
10.2 V, 7.5 A, 45 W.
! Qspcmfn!4/216
B!311!lWB!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!tvqqmjft!mpbe!uispvhipvu!35!ipvst/!Gps!8!ipvst!jo!b!ebz-!uif!
mpbe!jt!251!lX!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh!boe!gps!8!ipvst-!uif!mpbe!jt!:1!lX!bu!1/:!q/g/!Gps!sfnbjojoh!ujnf!
po!uif!sftu!qfsjpe-!ju!jt!bu!op.mpbe!dpoejujpo/!Gvmm.mpbe!Dv.mptt!jt!6!lX!boe!uif!jspo!mptt!jt!3!lX/!Dbm.
dvmbuf!uif!bmm.ebz!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/
Solution
Full-load output = 200 kVA
Full-load Cu-loss = 5 KW
Iron loss = 2 KW
All-day output = (140 ¥ 7) + (90 ¥ 7)
= 1610 kWh
2 2
Ê 140 / 0.8 ˆ Ê 90 / 0.9 ˆ
¥5¥7+Á ¥5¥7
Ë 200 ˜¯
Cu-loss for 24 hours = Á
Ë 200 ˜¯
= 26.79 + 8.75
= 35.54
Iron loss for 24 hours = 2 ¥ 24 = 48 kWh
! 4/225 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/217
B!21!lWB!6110361!W-!61!I{!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!hbwf!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!ebub;
PD!Uftu!)MW!tjef*;!361!W-!2/1!B-!91!X
TD!Uftu!)IW!tjef*;!36!W-!23!B-!211!X-
xifsf!MW!sfgfst!up!uif!mpx!wpmubhf!boe!IW!sfgfst!up!ijhi!wpmubhf!tjef/!Efufsnjof!uif!gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!sfgfssfe!up!MW!tjef
! )c*! Tfdpoebsz!mpbe!wpmubhf!bu!1/9!q/g!mbhhjoh!xjui!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou
Solution
OC Test
Meters placed to LV side and HV side are kept open.
V2 = 250 V, Io = 1.0 A, Wo = 80 W
80
cos fo = = 0.32
250 ¥ 1.0
sin fo = 1 - 0.322 = 0.947
Iw = 1 ¥ 0.32 = 0.32 A
Im = 1 ¥ 0.947 = 0.947 A
250
\ RoL = W = 781.25 W
0.32
250
XoL = W = 263.99 W
0.947
SC Test
Meters placed on HV side and LV side are short circuited.
Vsc = 25 V
Isc = 12 A
Psc = 100 W
25
ZeH = W = 2.08 W
12
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/226
100
ReH = W = 0.69 W
122
XeH = 2.082 - 0.692 W = 1.96 W
500
Turns ratio = =2
250
0.69
ReL = = 0.1725 W
22
1.96
XeL = = 0.49 W.
4
10 ¥ 103
(b) (I2)full-load = A = 40 A
250
Secondary load voltage at 0.8 p.f. lagging with full-load current
= [250 – I2 (ReL cos f + XeL sin f)]
= [250 – 40 (0.1725 ¥ 0.8 + 0.49 ¥ 0.6)]
= [250 – 17.28] V
= 232.72 V.
! Qspcmfn!4/218
B!31!lWB-!5110311!W-!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut;
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! PD!Uftu;!511!W-!2/3!B-!91!X!)MW!tjef!lfqu!pqfo*
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! TD!Uftu;!61!W-!26!B-!:1!X!)MW!tjef!tipsufe*
Efufsnjof!uif!sfhvmbujpo!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!bu!1/:!q/g/!mbhhjoh/
Solution
From OC test of the transformer, iron loss of the transformer = 80 W
SC Test
Vsc = 50 V, Isc = 15 A, Psc = 90 W
50
Ze1 = W = 3.33 W
15
90
Re1 = 2 W = 0.4 W
15
Xe1 = 3.332 - 0.4 2 = 3.3 W
400
Turns ratio = =2
200
! 4/227 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
0.4
Re2 = = 0.1 W
22
3.3
Xe2 = = 0.825 W
22
20 ¥ 103
Full-load secondary current = A
200
= 100 A
Approximate voltage drop of the transformer
= 100 (0.1 ¥ 0.9 + 0.825 ¥ 0.4)
= 42 V
42
Regulation of the transformer = ¥ 100%
200
= 21%
20 ¥ 103
Full-load primary current = = 50 A
400
Cu-loss of the transformer at full-load
2
Ê 50 ˆ
= 90 ¥ Á ˜
Ë 15 ¯
= 1000 W = 1 kW
Total full-load loss of the transformer
(1000 + 80) W = 1080 W
Secondary terminal voltage at full-load
= (200 – 42) V = 158 V
Output power = 158 ¥ 100 ¥ 0.9 = 14220 W
14220
Efficiency of the transformer = ¥ 100%
14220 + 1080
= 92.9%.
! Qspcmfn!4/219
Uif!PD!uftu!)MW!tjef*!boe!TD!uftu!)IW!tjef*!sftvmut!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!7!lWB-!3610611!W!usbotgpsnfs!
bsf!361!W-!2/3!B-!91!X!boe!36!W-!21!B-!:6!X!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!djsdvju!qbsbnfufst!sfgfssfe!
up!MW!tjef!boe!bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uif!sfhvmbujpo!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!ibmg.
mpbe!bu!1/6!q/g/!mbhhjoh/
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/228
Solution
250 1
Turns ratio = =
500 2
OC Test
V1 = 250 V, Io = 1.2 A, Wo = 80 W
80
cos fo = = 0.267
250 ¥ 1.2
sin fo = 0.964
Iw = 1.2 ¥ 0.267 = 0.32
Im = 1.2 ¥ 0.964 = 1.157
250
RoL = W = 781.25 W
0.32
250
XoL = W = 216.07 W.
1.157
SC Test
Vsc = 25 V, Isc = 10 A, Psc = 95 W
25
Ze2 = W = 2.5 W
10
95
Re2 = 2 = 0.95 W
10
Xe2 = 2.52 - 0.952 = 2.312 W
2
Ê 1ˆ
Re1 = Á ˜ ¥ 0.95 = 0.2395 W
Ë 2¯
2
Ê 1ˆ
Xe1 = Á ˜ ¥ 2.312 = 0.578 W
Ë 2¯
Regulation
6 ¥ 103
(I2)fl = = 12 A
500
DV = 12 (0.95 ¥ 0.5 + 2.312 ¥ 0.866)
[p.f. = 0.5, i.e. cos f = 0.5, sin f = 0.866]
= 29.73 V.
29.73
Voltage regulation = ¥ 100% = 5.95%.
500
! 4/229 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/21:
Uif!PD!boe!TD!uftut!po!b!3310551!W-!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!hbwf!uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmut;
PD!Uftu;!)MW!tjef*;!331!W-!1/9!B-!91!X
TD!Uftu;!)IW!tjef*;!31!W-!21!B-!236!X
Gjoe!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!sfgfssfe!up!MW!tjef!boe!bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uif!tfdpoebsz!
wpmubhf!xifo!efmjwfsjoh!6!lX!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/
Solution
OC Test
Meters placed on LV side and HV side are kept open.
V1 = 220 V, Io = 0.8 A, Wo = 80 W
80
cos fo = = 0.45
220 ¥ 0.8
sin fo = 1 - 0.452 = 0.89
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/22:
220 1
Turns ratio = =
440 2
2
Ê 1ˆ
\ ROL = Á ˜ ¥ 1.25 = 0.3125 W
Ë 2¯
2
Ê 1ˆ
XoL = Á ˜ ¥ 1.56 = 0.39 W
Ë 2¯
5 ¥ 103
Secondary current (I2) = A = 14.2 A
440 ¥ 0.8
Approximate voltage drop referred to secondary for 0.8 p.f. lagging
= I2 (ReH cos f + XeH sin f)
= 14.2 (1.25 ¥ 0.8 + 1.56 ¥ 0.6) V
= 27.49 V
\ secondary terminal voltage = (440 – 27.49) V
= 412.51 V.
! Qspcmfn!4/221
B!tjohmf.qibtf!26!lWB-!31110311!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut;
!PD!Uftu!)MW!tjef*;!311!W-!1/9!B-!91X
TD!Uftu!)IW!tjef*;!51!W-!6!B-!211!X
! 4/231 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!ibmg.mpbe!boe!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/
! )c*! Uif!mpbe!lWB!bu!xijdi!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pddvst!boe!bmtp!uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!bu!1/:!q/g/!
mbhhjoh/
! )d*! Uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!1/:!q/g/!mfbejoh!po!gvmm.mpbe!dpoejujpo/
Solution
From OC test, iron loss of the transformer = 80 W
15 ¥ 103
Full-load primary current (I1) = = 7.5 A
2000
From SC test,
40
Ze1 = W=8W
5
100
Ro1 = 2 = 4 W
5
Xe1 = 82 - 4 2 W = 6.93 W
2000
Turns ratio = = 10
200
4
Re2 = 2 = 0.04 W
10
6.93
Xe2 = 2 W = 0.0069 W
10
Approximate voltage drop at secondary
DV = I2 (Re2 cos f +Xe2 sin f)
15 ¥ 103
I2 at half-load = A
200 ¥ 2
= 37.5 A
DV = 37.5 (0.04 ¥ 0.9 + 0.0069 ¥ 0.44) V
= 1.464 V
V2¢ = (200 – 1.464)V = 198.536 V
Output power = 198.536 ¥ 37.5 ¥ 0.9
= 6700.59 W at half-load
2
Ê 1ˆ
Cu-loss at half-load = Á ˜ ¥ 100 = 25 W
Ë 2¯
(a) Efficiency of the transformer at half-load
6700.59
= ¥ 100%
6700.59 + 25 + 80
= 98.46%
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/232
2.475 ¥ 100%
Regulation = = 1.24%.
200
! Qspcmfn!4/222
B!tjohmf.qibtf!51104111!W-!7!lWB-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!hjwft!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut;
PD!Uftu!)MW!tjef*;!511-!1/9!B-!211!X
TD!Uftu!)IW!tjef*;!31!W-!21!B-!261!X
Efufsnjof!uif!gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Uif!djsdvju!dpotubout!sfgfssfe!up!MW!tjef/
! )c*! Uif! bqqmjfe! wpmubhf! boe! fggjdjfodz! jg! uif! pvuqvu! dvssfou! jt! 26! B! bu! uif! ufsnjobm! wpmubhf! pg!
4111!W!bu!1/:!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/
Solution
400 4 2
Turns ratio = = = .
3000 30 15
(a) OC Test
Meters placed on LV side.
V1 = 400 V, Io = 0.8 A, Wo = 100 W
V1 Io cos fo = Wo
100
fi cos fo = = 0.3125
400 ¥ 0.8
\ sin fo = 0.9499
Iw = Io cos fo = 0.25 A
Im = Io sin fo = 0.76 A
400
Ro1 = W = 1600 W
0.25
400
Xo1 = W = 526.316 W.
0.76
! 4/233 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
SC Test
Meters placed on HV side.
Vsc = 20 V
Isc = 10 A
Psc = 150 W
20
Ze2 = =2W
10
150
Re2 = 2 = 1.5 W
10
Xe2 = 22 - 1.52 W = 1.323 W
2
Ê 2ˆ
Re1 = Á ˜ ¥ 1.5 W = 0.027 W
Ë 15 ¯
2
Ê 2ˆ
Xe1 = Á ˜ ¥ 1.323 W = 0.024 W.
Ë 15 ¯
(b) To maintain the output voltage at 3000 V, the applied voltage can be calculated from Fig. 3.22.
V¢1
I1 Xo1
V1
I1 Ro1
V1 sin f1
f1
I1 V1 cos f1 !
Gjh/!4/43! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/222
To maintain the output voltage at 3000 V with given load, the applied voltage should be
403.93 V.
From OC test, iron loss = 100 W
From SC test, Cu-loss = 150 W at 10 A
2
Ê 15 ˆ
\ full-load Cu-loss = Á ˜ ¥ 150 W
Ë 10 ¯
= 337.5 W
\ total loss of the transformer = (100 + 337.5) W
= 437.5 W
6 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.9
\ Efficiency = ¥ 100%
6 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.9 + 437.5
5400
= ¥ 100%
5837.5
= 92.5%.
! Qspcmfn!4/223
B!26!lWB-!31110311!W-!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut;
!PD!uftu!)MW!tjef*;!311!W-!1/8!B-!96!X
TD!uftu!)IW!tjef*;!61!W-!26!B-!211!X
Efufsnjof!uif!gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Dpsf!mptt!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs
! )c*! Frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!sfgfssfe!up!IW!tjef
! )d*! Frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!sfgfssfe!up!MW!tjef
! )e*! Sfhvmbujpo!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!ibmg.mpbe!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh
! )f*! Usbotgpsnfs!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bu!gvmm.mpbe!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh
! )g*! Fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!ibmg.mpbe!bu!1/9!qpxfs!mbhhjoh
Solution
2000
Turns ratio = = 10
200
(a) Iron loss or core-loss of the transformer = 85 W
(b) From SC test,
Vsc = 50 V, Isc = 15 A, Psc = 100 W
50
Ze1 = W = 3.33 W
15
100
Re1 = 2 W = 0.44 W
15
! 4/235 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Re1 0.44
(c) Re2 = 2
= = 0.0044 W
10 100
3.3
Xe2 = = 0.033 W
10 2
15 ¥ 103
(d) (I2)fl = A = 75 A
200
\ approximate voltage drop = I2 (Re2 cos f + Xe2 sin f)
= 75 (0.0044 ¥ 0.8 + 0.033 ¥ 0.6)
= 1.749 V
1.749
\ regulation of the transformer = ¥ 100%
200
= 0.87%
(e) At full-load, transformer terminal voltage
= (200 – 1.749) V
= 198.25 V
(f) Output = 198.25 ¥ 75 ¥ 0.8 = 11895.06 W
2
Ê 75 ˆ
Cu-loss of the transformer at full-load = Á ˜ ¥ 100
Ë 15 ¯
= 2500 W
Total loss = (2500 + 85) W = 2585 W
11895.06
Efficiency at full-load = ¥ 100%
11895.06 + 2585
= 82.15%
75
A = 37.5 A
At half-load, I2 (fl/2) =
2
Now, approximate voltage drop = 37.5 (0.0044 ¥ 0.8 + 0.033 ¥ 0.6) V
= 0.875 V
Terminal voltage = (200 – 0.875) V
= 199.125 V
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/236
! Qspcmfn!4/224
B!6!lWB-!6110361!W-!61!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut;
PD!Uftu!)MW!tjef*;!361!W-!2/3!B-!91!X
TD!Uftu!)IW!tjef*;!31!W-!21!B-!211!X
Efufsnjof!uif!gpmmpxjoh;
! )b*! Bqqspyjnbuf!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!sfgfssfe!up!IW!tjef!
! )c*! Wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!boe!fggjdjfodz!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh!mpbe
! )d*! Fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!ibmg!pg!gvmm.mpbe!boe!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh!mpbe
Solution
500
Turns ratio = =2
250
OC Test
(Io)LV = 1.2 A
( I o ) HV 1
=
( I o ) LV 2
1.2
\ (Io)HV = = 0.6 A
2
SC Test
Meters placed on HV side.
Vsc = 20 V, Isc = 10 A, Psc = 100 W
20
Ze1 = W=2W
10
100
Re1 = 2 W=1W
10
\ Xe1 = 22 - 12 W = 1.732 W.
(a) Full-load secondary current of the transformer
5 ¥ 103
I2 = A = 20 A
250
Approximate voltage drop of the transformer referred to secondary
DV = I2 (Re2 cos f2 + Xe2 sin f2)
Re1 1
Re2 = 2
= W = 0.25 W
2 4
1.732
Xe2 = = 0.433 W
4
cos f2 = 0.8 (lagging)
9.196
\ regulation of the transformer = ¥ 100%
250
= 3.678%
From OC Test From SC Test
Iron loss = 80 W Cu-loss at 10 A = 100 W
\ full-load Cu-loss
2
Ê 20 ˆ
= Á ˜ ¥ 100 W = 400 W
Ë 10 ¯
\ total losses of the transformer at full-load = 80 + 400
= 480 W
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/238
! Qspcmfn!4/225
Uif!bqqspyjnbuf!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!b!3!lWB-!3110511!W!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs-!sfgfs!up!MW!tjef!
jt!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!4/44)b*/
! )b*! Bo!pqfo.djsdvju!uftu!jt!dpoevdufe!cz!bqqmzjoh!311!W!up!uif!MW!tjef/!Lffqjoh!uif!IW!tjef!pqfo-!
dbmdvmbuf!uif!qpxfs!joqvu-!qpxfs!gbdups!boe!dvssfou!esbxo!cz!uif!usbotgpsnfs/
! )c*! B!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu!jt!dpoevdufe!cz!qbttjoh!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!gspn!uif!IW!tjef!lffqjoh!uif!MW!
tjef!tipsufe/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!wpmubhf!up!cf!bqqmjfe!up!uif!usbotgpsnfs!boe!uif!qpxfs!joqvu!boe!
qpxfs!gbdups/
V1 800 W 400 W
V¢2 Vsc
!
! Gjh/!4/44)b*! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/225! ! Gjh/!4/44)c*! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!sfgfssjoh!up!
! ! IW!tjef
Solution
( 200) 2
(a) V1 = 200 Po = = 50 W
800
200
IW = = 0.25 A
800
200
Im = = 0.5 A
400
! 4/239 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Io = 0.25 + j 0.5
Io = 0.56 A, cos fo = 0.4976
(b) Referring to HV side and neglecting the magnetizing branch [see Fig. 3.33(b)],
2 ¥ 1000
Ifl(HV) = =5A
400
Z = 0.6 + j 1.6 = 1.71 –69.4° W
Vsc = 5 ¥ 1.71 = 8.55 V
P fsc = cos 69.4° = 0.352 lag
Psc = 8.55 ¥ 5 ¥ 0.352
= 15.048 W.
! Qspcmfn!4/226
B!61!lWB-!22110221!W!usbotgpsnfs!jt!uftufe-!boe!uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmu!jt!pcubjofe;.!
PD!uftu-!nfbtvsfnfout!po!MW!tjef;!411!X-!9!B-!221!W
TD!uftu-!nfbtvsfnfout!po!IW!tjef;!861!X-!33!B-!:1!W
Dpnqvuf!bmm!uif!qbsbnfufst!pg!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!sfgfssfe!up!uif!IW!boe!MW!tjef!pg!uif!usbot.
gpsnfs/
Solution
OC Test (LV Side)
8
YOL = = 0.072 �
110
300
GOL = = 0.025 �
(110) 2
1100
Transformer ratio = = 10
110
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/23:
!
Gjh/!4/45)b*! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!sfgfssfe! Gjh/!4/45)c*! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!sfgfssfe
! up!IW!tjef! ! up!MW!tjef
The equivalent circuits referred to both sides of the transformer are shown is Fig. 3.34(a) and
Fig. 3.34(b).
! Qspcmfn!4/227
B!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!jut!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pg!:9/6&!bu!21!lWB!bu!vojuz!q/g/!Evsjoh!uif!ebz-!ju!jt!
mpbefe!bt!gpmmpxt;
23!ipvst;!3!lX!bu!q/g/!1/7!
7!ipvst;!21!lX!bu!q/g/!1/9
7!ipvst;!31!lX!bu!q/g/!1/:
Gjoe!uif!Ôbmm.ebzÕ!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/!
Solution
10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1
hmax = = 0.985
10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 + 2 Pi
Pi = 76.14 W = Pc (76.14 kVA)
2 kW, 0.6 p.f, 3.33 kVA, 12 A, 2 ¥ 12 = 24 kWh/output)
È Ê 3.33 ˆ 2 ˘
76.14 Í1 + Á ˜ ˙ ¥ 12 = 1.01 kWh (loss)
Î Ë 10 ¯ ˚
! 4/241 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/228
Uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut!xfsf!pcubjofe!gps!b!21!lWB-!61!I{-!33110331!W!ejtusjcvujpo!usbotgpsnfs;!
! PD!uftu!)MW*;!331!W-!2/17!B-!236/6!X
! TD!uftu!)IW*;!66!W-!9/3!B-!386!X
! )b*! Xifo!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jt!pqfsbufe!bt!b!tufq.epxo!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!uif!pvuqvu!wpmubhf!frvbm!
up!331!W-!tvqqmzjoh!b!mpbe!bu!v/q/g/-!efufsnjof!uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!boe!uif!v/q/g/!mpbe!bu!
xijdi!ju!pddvst/
! )c*! Efufsnjof!uif!q/g/!pg!uif!sbufe!mpbe-!tvqqmjfe!bu!351!W-!tvdi!uibu!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!pc.
tfswfe!po!sfevdjoh!uif!mpbe!up!{fsp!jt!tujmm!331!W/
Solution
OC Test (LV)
1.06
YOL = = 0.0048 �
220
125.5
GOL = = 0.0026 �
( 220) 2
BOL = [(0.0048)2 – (0.0026)2]1/2 = 0.004 �.
SC Test (HV)
55 275
Z= = 6.71 W, R = = 4.09 W
8.2 (8.2) 2
\ X = 5.32 W
10 ¥ 1000
(a) Pi = 125.5 W. Ifl (HV) = = 4.55 A
2200
Pc, fl = (4.55)2 ¥ 4.09 = 84.67 W
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/242
125.5
Load at maximum efficiency = 10 ¥ = 12.17 KVA
84.67
12.17 ¥ 1
hmax (up.f.) = = 97.98%.
12.17 ¥ 1 + 2 ¥ 0.1255
! Qspcmfn!4/229
B!mjhiujoh!usbotgpsnfs!sbufe!bu!21!lWB!ibt!gvmm.mpbe!mpttft!pg!1/4!lX!xijdi!jt!nbef!vq!frvbmmz!gspn!
uif!jspo!mpttft!boe!uif!dpqqfs!mpttft/!Uif!evuz!dzdmf!dpotjtut!pg!gvmm.mpbe!gps!4!ipvst-!ibmg!gvmm.mpbe!
gps!5!ipvst!boe!op.mpbe!gps!uif!sfnbjoefs!pg!b!35.ipvs!qfsjpe/!Jg!uif!mpbe!pqfsbuft!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!
gbdups-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!bmm.ebz!fggjdjfodz/!
Solution
The load operates at unity power factor.
For the first three hours,
Energy output = 10 ¥ 1 ¥ 3 kWh = 30 kWh
For the next four hours,
1
Energy output = ¥ 10 ¥ 1 ¥ 4 = 20 kWh
2
Total energy output = (30 + 20) kWh = 50 kWh
Full-load losses = 0.3 kW
Ê 0.3 ˆ
So, iron loss = Á ˜ kW = 0.15 kW
Ë 2 ¯
0.3
Full-load copper loss = kW = 0.15 kW
2
Iron loss energy = (0.15 ¥ 24) = 3.6 kWh
Ê 0.15 ˆ
Copper loss energy = Á 0.15 ¥ 3 + 2
¥ 4˜ kWh = (0.45 + 0.15) kWh = 0.6 kWh
Ë ( 2) ¯
Energy loss = (3.6 + 0.6) kWh = 4.2 kWh
50
\ all-day efficiency = = 0.922 or 92.2%.
50 + 4.2
! 4/243 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/22:
Uif!pqfo.djsdvju!boe!tipsu.djsdvju!uftut!po!b!31!lWB-!61!I{-!35110351!W!usbotgpsnfs!hbwf!uif!gpm.
mpxjoh!sftvmut;
Ijhi.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!pqfo.djsdvjufe;!351!W-!2/149!B-!233!X
Mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!tipsu.djsdvjufe;!72/4!W-!9/44!B-!368!X
! )b*! Dpnqvuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!sbufe!wpmubhf!bu!1/9!q/g/!
! )c*! Bttvnjoh!uibu!uif!mpbe!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!wbsjfe!xijmf!uif!mpbe!dvssfou!boe!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!
wpmubhf!bsf!ifme!dpotubou-!efufsnjof!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!xijdi!sfhvmbujpo!jt!nbyjnvn/
Solution
Rated current of high-voltage side,
20 ¥ 103
IH = = 8. 33 A
2400
\ rated copper loss = 257 W
Rated core loss = 122 W
Total loss = 379 W
(a) Efficiency at full-load and 0.8 p.f.
20 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
h= = 7.368
20 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 + 379
= 97.68%
(b) From the short-circuit data, the equivalent impedance
61.3
ZeH = W = 7.36 W
8.33
Equivalent resistance ReH = 3.7 W
When regulation is maximum, the primary and secondary voltages of the transformer are in
phase. The voltage drop across the transformer is
8.33 ¥ 7.36 = 61.3088 V
61.3088
\ voltage regulation = ¥ 100% = 2.55%.
2400
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/244
! Qspcmfn!4/231
B! usbotgpsnfs! ibt! jut! nbyjnvn! fggjdjfodz! pg! 1/:86! bu! 31! lWB! bu! vojuz! q/g/! Evsjoh! uif! ebz-! ju! jt!
mpbefe!bt!gpmmpxt;
21!ipvst;!4!lX!bu!1/7!q/g/
9!ipvst;!21!lX!bu!1/9!q/g/
7!ipvst;!31!lX!bu!1/:!q/g/
Gjoe!uif!bmm.ebz!fggjdjfodz/!
Solution
kWh output = (10 ¥ 3) + (8 ¥ 10) + (6 ¥ 20) = 30 + 80 + 120 = 230 kWh
As maximum efficiency is 0.975, so total losses under this condition are [1 – 0.975] = 0.025 of
output power.
At unity p.f. output power = 20 ¥ 1 = 20 kW
Hence, losses = 0.025 ¥ 20.000 = 500 W
500
\ core losses = copper losses = W = 250 W
2
As core loss is constant for all p.f. so total core losses in 24 hours
250 ¥ 24
= kWh = 6 kWh
103
For the first 10 hours,
3
kVA load = =5
0.6
2
Ê 5ˆ 250
Total copper losses = 10 ¥ Á ˜ ¥ kWh = 0.156 kWh
Ë 20 ¯ 1000
For the next 8 hours,
10
kVA load = = 12.5
0.8
2
Ê 12.5 ˆ 250
Total copper losses = 8 ¥ Á ¥
Ë 20 ˜¯
kWh = 0.781 kWh
1000
For the last 6 hours,
20
kVA load = = 22.22
0.9
2
Ê 22.22 ˆ 250
Total copper losses = 6 ¥ Á ¥
Ë 20 ˜¯
kWh = 1.85 kWh
1000
Total copper losses = 0.156 + 0.781 + 1.85 = 2.79 kWh
Total loss = 6 kWh + 2.79 kWh = 8.79 kWh
230
All-day efficiency = = 0.963 or 96.3%.
230 + 8.79
! 4/245 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/232
Jo!b! TvnqofsÕt!uftu-!uif!xbuunfufs!sfbejoh!po! IW! tjef! boe! MW! tjef! pg! uxp! jefoujdbm! tjohmf.qibtf!
usbotgpsnfst!sbufe!611!lWB-!2201/5!lW-!61!I{-!jt!7111!X!boe!26111!X!sftqfdujwfmz/!Po!ibmg!gvmm.
mpbe!boe!1/9!q/g/-!gjoe!pvu!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs/!Bmtp!gjoe!pvu!uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!
bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
15000
Iron losses = = 7500 W = 7.5 kW
2
6000
Copper losses = = 3000 W
2
Copper losses at half full-load = (0.5)2 (3000)
= 750 W = 0.75 kW
0.5 ¥ 500 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100
Efficiency =
0.5 ¥ 500 ¥ 0.8 + 7.5 + 0.75
= 96.04%
Let us consider x to be the fraction of full-load at which maximum efficiency occurs.
Iron loss
Hence, x=
Cu-loss
7500
= = 1.58
3000
kVA for maximum efficiency = 1.58 ¥ 500 = 790 kVA
790 ¥ 1 ¥ 100
\ maximum efficiency = = 98.14%.
790 ¥ 1 + 7.5 + 7.5
! Qspcmfn!4/233
B!61!lWB-!33110221!W!usbotgpsnfs!xifo!uftufe!hbwf!uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmut;
! PD!uftu;!MW!tjef!Æ!511!X-!21!B-!221!W
! TD!uftu;!IW!tjef!Æ!2111!X!31/6!B!211!W
Dbmdvmbuf!bmm!uif!qbsbnfufst!pg!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!sfgfssfe!up!IW!boe!MW!tjeft!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/
Solution
OC Test (LV Side)
400
cos qo = = 0.3636
110 ¥ 10
Iw = 10 cos qo = 3.636 A
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/246
110 110
\ ROL = = = 30.25 W
I w 3.636
Im = 10 sin qo = 9.315 A
110
XOL = = 11.81 W.
9.315
SC Test (HV Side)
100
ZeH = = 4.87 W
20.5
1000
ReH = = 2.38 W
( 20.5) 2
30.25 W 11.81 W
V¢H VL
!
Gjh/!4/46)b*! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!sfgfssfe!up!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef
12100 W 4724 W
VH V¢L
!
Gjh/!4/46)c*! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!sfgfssfe!up!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef
QBSBMMFM!!PQFSBUJPO!!PG!UXP! 4/38
TJOHMF.QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFST
For operating transformers in parallel, their primaries are connected to the supply bus and the sec-
ondaries are connected together to form a secondary bus to feed the common load. The following
are the advantages of operating the transformers in parallel.
1. With two or more transformers feeding a load, the systems become more reliable.
2. Switching of transformers can be done depending upon the demand, so as to achieve
economical and efficient operation of the system.
3. The size and cost of stand by transformer is much less.
4. There is always a scope of future expansion of a substation.
The conditions which must be fulfilled for the satisfactory parallel operation of transformers are
as follows:
1. The transformers must be connected in the same polarity.
2. The transformation ratios of the transformers should be same.
3. Equivalent impedances of the transformers should be divided in inverse proportion to the
current ratings, that is the internal impedance drop of the transformers should be equal.
4. The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance should be equal for all the
transformers. This condition ensures that the transformers share active and reactive power
according to their ratings.
Out of the conditions listed above, the first two conditions should be strictly fulfilled, otherwise a
large circulating current will flow. Thus, the first two conditions are essential for the parallel opera-
tion of the transformers, whereas the last two conditions are desirable.
4/38/2! Mpbe!Tibsjoh!xjui!Frvbm!Uvsot!Sbujp
Consider two single-phase transformers m and n connected in parallel fulfilling all the conditions
mentioned above. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.36. According to condition (3), the ratio of
currents given by
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/248
I m Zn
= (3.53)
I n Zm
where Im and In are the currents supplied by the transformers m and n respectively. If I is the total
current supplied to the load then
I = Im + In (3.54)
Solving Eqs (3.53) and (3.54),
Zn
Im = I (3.55)
Zm + Zn
Zm
In = I (3.56)
Zm + Zn
Xm X
When the ratios and n are equal then the current Im and In will be in phase and the total
Rm Rn
current I will be the arithmetic sum of Im and In.
Transformer m Rm Xm
Im I
L
Zm L
1-f o
Em
ac supply a
d
Transformer n Rn Xn In
Zn
En
!
Gjh/!4/47! Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!jo!qbsbmmfm
Xn X
But if and m are not equal then the current Im and In will not be in phase although the mag-
Rn Rm
nitude of currents can be inversely proportional to the magnitudes of impedances. At rated output,
the phasor sum of Im and In will be the total current I under such condition. As the phasor sum is less
than the arithmetic sum, the load kVA is less than sum of the ratings of the transformers.
! 4/249 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
4/38/3! Mpbe!Tibsjoh!xjui!Vofrvbm!Uvsot!Sbujp
When the turn ratios are not equal then the secondary induced emfs are unequal. This inequality
will produce a circulating current which will flow under no-load condition. The undesirable effects
of circulating currents are as follows:
1. Increases the copper losses
2. Overload any one transformer
3. Reduces the permissible output of the bank
On load condition, this circulating current will be superimposed on the load current. Let Em and
En be the secondary induced emf in transformers m and n.
The circulating current Ic under no-load condition is given by
Em - En
Ic =
Zm + Zn
If the load impedance is ZL then
Em = Im Zm + I ZL
= Im Zm + (Im + In) ZL (3.57)
En = In Zn + I ZL
= In Zn + (Im + In) ZL (3.58)
Solving Eqs (3.57) and (3.58), we get
Em Z n + ( Em - En ) Z L
Im = (3.59)
Zm Zn + ( Zm + Zn )Z L
En Z m - ( Em - En ) Z L
In = (3.60)
Zm Zn + ( Zm + Zn )Z L
Em Z n + En Z m
I= (3.61)
Zm Zn + ( Zm + Zn )Z L
Secondary terminal voltage across load V is given by,
Em Z n + En Z m
V = I ZL = (3.62)
Zm Zn
+ Zm + Zn
ZL
In general, the load sharing of any number of transformers in parallel can more readily be found
out by applying the Millman’s theorem which states that the secondary terminal voltage V of a
number of transformers connected in parallel across a load impedance of ZL and having respective
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/24:
BVUP.USBOTGPSNFS! 4/39
A single-phase auto-transformer is a one-winding transformer in which a part of the winding is
common to both high-voltage and low-voltage sides.
Consider a single winding xyz of Fig. 3.37. The terminals x and z are the high-voltage terminals
where y and z are the low-voltage terminals. y is the suitable tapping point. The winding yz is called
common winding as it is common for both high-voltage and low-voltage sides.
TUFQ.EPXO!BVUP.USBOTGPSNFS! 4/3:
In a step-down auto-transformer, the primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage. The
source voltage V1 is applied to the full winding xyz and the load is connected across the second-
ary terminal yz. This type of arrangement is known as step-down auto-transformer and shown in
Fig. 3.37.
I1
x
I1 = Ixy
Nxy = N1 – N2
Nxz = N1
V1 Nyz = N2
p
y I2 = IL = Iyp
I = Izy
VL
Load
z !
Gjh/!4/48! Tufq.epxo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs
Since the transformer windings are physically connected, a different terminology is used for the
auto-transformer than for other types of transformers.
Let N1 = Nxz = Number of turns of full winding xyz
= Number of turns of the HV side.
! 4/251 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
I2
= aA (3.70)
I1
I
and I1 = 2 (3.71)
aA
From Eqs (3.65) and (3.71),
I aA -1
= (3.72)
I2 aA
Let E1 = Exz
E2 = Eyz
Exy = Exz – Eyz
E xy E xz - E yz E xz
= = –1
E yz E yz E yz
E
= 1 –1 (3.73)
E2
E xy
\ = aA –1 (3.74)
E yz
E xy
and aA = +1
E yz
aA = a + 1 (3.75)
where
E xy
a=
E yz
= Two-winding transformation ratio
Equation (3.75) shows that the transformation ratio of an auto-transformer is greater than that if
the same set of windings were connected as a two-winding transformer.
Equations (3.66) and (3.72) show that the ratio of voltages and currents in the windings xy and yz
are the same as if turn Nxy formed the primary and the turn Nyz formed the secondary of an ordinary
transformer having a ratio of transformation of (aA – 1). Thus, the transformer action present in an
auto-transformer takes place in the windings xy and yz.
QPXFS!SFMBUJPO!JO!BO!BVUP.USBOTGPSNFS! 4/41
An auto-transformer transfers electrical power between primary and secondary circuits partly
through induction and party by conduction. Thus, an auto-transformer has two different types of
volt-amperes: the transformed volt-amperes and conducted volt-amperes. The transformer action in
the auto-transformer takes place in the windings xy and yz (Fig. 3.37) and at balance condition, the
volt-ampere in the respective winding should be equal.
! 4/253 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
TUFQ.VQ!BVUP.USBOTGPSNFS! 4/42
In case of a step-up auto-transformer, the secondary voltage is greater than primary voltage. Hence,
the source is connected to the yz windings and the load is connected across the full windings xyz.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.38.
By using balancing mmf condition in windings xy and yz,
I2 Nxy = I Nyz (3.86)
Let the transformation for the step-up auto-transformer be defined as
N xz V2
aA = = (3.87)
N yz V1
From Eq. (3.83),
I N xy N xz - N yz N xz
= = = – 1 = aA –1
I2 N yz N yz N yz
I
\ = aA –1 (3.88)
I2
I + I2
= aA
I2
x
I2
I1
y V2 LOAD
I
SOURCE V1
z !
Gjh/!4/49! Tufq.vq!bvup.usbotgpsnfs
Again, I + I2 = I1 (3.89)
I1
and = aA (3.90)
I2
TBWJOH!JO!DPOEVDUPS!NBUFSJBM! 4/43
JO!BO!BVUP.USBOTGPSNFS
The length of the conductor in a winding is proportional to the number of turns and cross section of
a conductor is proportional to the current through it. So the total weight of the conductor material
is proportional to the product of current and number of turns.
For a two-winding transformer, the weight of the conductor material in primary is k I1 N1, the
weight of the conductor material in secondary is k I2 N2. Hence, total weight of the conductor mate-
rial is k (I1 N1 + I2 N2).
For the auto-transformer (Fig 3.37), the portion xy has (N1 – N2) turns and the current through it
is I1. Therefore, the weight of the conductor material in section xy is k I1 (N1 – N2).
The portion yz has N2 turns and the current through it is I (= I2 – I1). Therefore, the weight of the
conductor material in section yz
K (I2 – I1) N2
Total weight of conductor material
K [I1 (N1 – N2) + (I2 – I1) N2] (3.92)
Now, consider
Mauto = Weight of conductor material in an auto-transformer
M2w = Weight of conductor material in a two-winding transformer
Therefore,
M auto I1 ( N1 - N 2 ) + ( I 2 - I1 ) N 2
=
M 2w I1 N1 + I 2 N 2
( I1 N1 + I 2 N 2 ) - 2 I1 N 2
=
I1 N1 + I 2 N 2
2 I1 N1 + 2 I1 N 2
=
2 I1 N1
N2 1
=1– =1-
N1 aA
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/256
M auto 1
\ =1– (3.93)
M 2w aA
M 1
1 – auto = p.u.
M 2w aA
Saving of conductor material in using an auto-transformer,
1
= M2w – Mauto = M2w
aA
1
If = 0.1, saving of conductor material is 10 %.
aA
1
If = 0.9, saving is 90%. Hence, the use of an auto-transformer is more economical when
aA
1 Ê N2 ˆ
aA ÁË = N ˜¯ is close to unity. The ratios of transformations used in auto-transformers are 3:1 or 4:1.
1
V1 M auto 1 2
If = 3, =1- =
V2 M 2w 3 3
V M auto 1 1
If 1 = 2, =1- =
V2 M 2w 2 2
V M auto 1 3
If 1 = 4, =1- =
V2 M 2w 4 4
If the ratio of transformation is greater than 4, the advantage in the reduction of conductor mate-
rial is not much.
BEWBOUBHFT!BOE!EJTBEWBOUBHFT! 4/44
PG!BO!BVUP.USBOTGPSNFS
Bewboubhft
Auto-transformers have the following advantages:
1. Less amount of copper is required compared to a two-winding transformer.
2. Due to smaller size, auto-transformers are cheaper than the two-winding transformer of same
output.
3. It is possible to get smooth and continuous variation of voltage.
4. The resistance and reactance are less due to the absence of one winding. Hence, the voltage
regulation of the auto-transformer is superior.
5. Volt-ampere rating is more.
6. Due to reduction in core material and conductor, the ohmic losses and core losses are small
which provides higher efficiency than the equivalent two-winding transformer.
! 4/257 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Ejtbewboubhft
In spite of various advantages of auto-transformers, a number of disadvantages are present. They
are as follows:
1. Since there is no electrical isolation between primary and secondary, the risk factor appears
at high-voltage level.
2. The effective p.u. impedance of an auto-transformer is smaller compared to a two-winding
transformer. That is why, there is a high possibility of high short circuit currents for short-
circuits on the secondary side.
3. The full primary current will appear across the secondary causing higher voltage on secondary
terminal resulting in danger of accidents if the common winding is open circuited.
BQQMJDBUJPO!PG!BO!BVUP.USBOTGPSNFS! 4/45
1. Auto-transformers with a number of tappings are used for starting induction motors and
synchronous motors.
2. Auto-transformers are used as variable a.c. voltage source (variac).
3. Auto-transformers are used as boosters to give a small boost to a distribution cable for
compensating the voltage drop.
4. They are used as interconnections of power systems of different voltage levels.
5. They can be used as furnace transformers to supply power to the furnaces at the required
supply voltage.
QVMTF!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/46
Pulse
amplitude
0 Time
Pulse
duration
!
Gjh/!4/4:! Jefbm!sfdubohvmbs!qvmtf!joqvu
Figure 3.39 shows an ideal rectangular pulse input to the pulse transformer which couples a
source of pulses of electrical energy to the load. Its shape as well as other properties are maintained
properly. The size of these transformers is small and they have few turns. The inter-winding
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/258
capacitance of these transformers is low. The leakage reactance of the windings is small. Ferrites, or
wound strips, of high-permeability alloys like permalloy are used to construct the cores. Therefore,
these transformers have high magnetizing inductance. A high-voltage insulation is used between
windings and ground. Figure 3.39 shows practical rectangular input pulse to such transformers.
Small pulse transformers are used in computers, pulse generators, and so on, whereas large pulse
transformers are used in radar systems, and so on.
Vtbhf!pg!Qvmtf!Usbotgpsnfs
Pulse transformers have the following usages:
• SCR and switching transistors
• Radar systems
• Cathode ray tubes
• Microwave tube circuits
• Data-handling circuits
• Analog switching applications
• Transmission-line pulse transformers are also useful in fast pulse signal transmission
applications
• Pulse transformers are also useful in digital signal processing.
XFMEJOH!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/47
A welding transformer has thin primary windings with a large number of turns, whereas the sec-
ondary has less number of turns with less voltage and high current. One end of the secondary wind-
ing is connected to the pieces to be welded and another end, to the welding electrode as shown in
Fig. 3.40. When high current is flowing, heat is produced due to the contact resistance between the
electrode and the pieces. Highly reactive winding is used for this type of transformer, otherwise a
separate reactor may be added in series with the secondary winding.
Figure 3.41 shows the volt-ampere characteristic of a welding transformer.
Core
Electrode
Arc
ac
supply
Pieces to
be welded
Welding transformer
!
Gjh/!4/51! Xfmejoh!usbotgpsnfs
! 4/259 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Operating point
Arc voltage
Short circuit current
l !
Gjh/!4/52! Wpmu.bnqfsf!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!xfmejoh!usbotgpsnfs
Sfbdupst!Vtfe!xjui!Xfmejoh!Usbotgpsnfst!
To control the arc, various reactors are used with welding transformers. Some methods to control
the arc are given below:
)b*!Ubqqfe!Sfbdups! With the help of taps on the reactor, the output current is regulated. This
has limited number of current settings as shown in Fig. 3.42.
Selector
Secondary
Tappings
Primary Reactor
Electrode
Work
Welding transformer !
Gjh/!4/53! Ubqqfe!sfbdups
)c*!Npwjoh.dpjm!Sfbdups! Figure 3.43 shows a moving-coil reactor in which the reactive distance
between primary and secondary is adjusted. The current becomes less if the distance between the
coils is large.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/25:
Secondary Electrode
Work
!
Gjh/!4/54! Npwjoh.dpjm!sfbdups
)d*! Npwjoh.tivou! Sfbdups! Figure 3.44 shows a moving shunt reactor in which the position
of the central magnetic shunt can be adjusted. Change of the output current is obtained due to the
adjustment of the shunted flux.
)e*! Dpoujovpvtmz! Wbsjbcmf! Sfbdups! Figure 3.45 shows a continuously variable reactor in
which the height of the reactor is continuously varied. Greater reactance is obtained due to greater
core insertion and hence the output current is less.
)f*! Tbuvsbcmf! Sfbdups! Figure 3.46 shows a saturable reactor. To adjust the reactance of the
reactor, the required dc excitation is obtained from a dc controlled transducer. Reactor approaches
saturation if the dc excitation current is more. Therefore, changes of current is obtained due to the
change of reactance.
Moving shunt
Primary
Electrode
Work
!
Gjh/!4/55! Npwjoh!tivou!sfbdups
! 4/261 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Reactor
Reactor
coil
Electrode
Work
Primary
Welding transformer
Gjh/!4/56! Dpoujovpvtmz!wbsjbcmf!sfbdups
dc supply
+ – dc
transducer
Primary Secondary
Welding transformer
Electrode
Work
!
Gjh/!4/57! Tbuvsbcmf!sfbdups
JOTUSVNFOU!USBOTGPSNFS! 4/48
There are two types of instrument transformers, one is current transformer and another is potential
transformer.
4/48/2! Dvssfou!Usbotgpsnfs
Since the large alternating current cannot be passed through normal ammeters and current coils of
wattmeters, the current is reduced with the help of a current transformer. A current transformer is
a device having two windings called primary and secondary. It transfers energy from one side to
another with suitable change in level of current or voltage. It has a primary coil with a few turns
having heavy cross-sectional area. This side is connected in series with the line carrying high
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/262
current as shown in Figure 3.47. On the other hand, the secondary is made up of many turns of
fine wire having a rating of 5 A current. This is connected to the coil of a low-range meter. Current
transformers are basically step-up transformers, that is, stepping up the voltage and hence stepping
down the current. If I1 and I2 be the currents in primary and secondary sides and N1 and N2 be the
number of turns of primary and secondary windings, we can write
I 2 N1
=
I1 N 2
If the current ratio of of CT and meter reading is known, the actual line current value can be de-
termined. The secondary of a CT should not be kept open. If it is kept open, secondary current will
be zero and ampere turns produced by the secondary will be zero. Since the secondary ampere turns
oppose the primary ampere turns, the counter mmf will be zero. Hence, unopposed primary pro-
duces heavy flux in the core which causes excessive core losses. Hence, large emf will be induced
in primary and secondary. This will damage the insulation which is dangerous from the operating
point of view.
Core
Heavy Secondary
line current To load
Bar primary
I1
Primary CT I1
Secondary I2
I2 0–5 A 0.5 A
A A
Ammeter Ammeter
4/48/3! Qpufoujbm!Usbotgpsnfs
These transformers reduce the voltage and have the same basic principle as current transformers.
Figure 3.48 shows a potential transformer. The primary winding of PT consists of a large number
of turns and the secondary consists of a small number of turns. The secondary is always grounded
for safety purposes.
! 4/263 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
PT
High V 0 – 110 V
voltmeter Load
voltage
Primary of PT Secondary of PT
!
Gjh/!4/59! Qpufoujbm!usbotgpsnfs
USBOTGPSNFS!DPPMJOH! 4/49
The core and copper losses cause heating of transformers. It is necessary to ensure that temperature
of the transformer does not exceed the maximum value, otherwise it may cause damage to the insu-
lation. The following are the methods for cooling these types of transformers.
)c*!Bjs!Cmbtu!Dppmjoh! In this type of cooling, a continuous blast of filtered air is forced through
the core and windings for better cooling.
)e*!Pjm!Cmbtu!Dppmjoh! Here, forced air is passed over cooling elements of a transformer immersed
in oil.
)g*!Gpsdfe!Pjm!boe!Xbufs!Dppmjoh! In this type of cooling, metallic tubes are situated inside the
tank, below the oil level. Water is circulated through these tubes to extract heat from the oil.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/264
DPOTFSWBUPST!BOE!CSFBUIFST! 4/4:
A conservator is an air tight metal drum placed above the top of the oil tank in oil cooled
transformers. It is connected with the tank through a pipe. It takes up the expansion of oil with the
change of temperature. As the conservator is air tight it does not allow the oil to come in contact
with atmospheric air which may contain moisture. The moisture destroys the insulating properties
of the oil.
The oil expands and contracts due to the change in temperature. When the transformer cools
the oil level goes down and the air is drawn in. The incoming air is passed through a device called
breather, which contains silica gel or calcium chloride to extract moisture from air. Silica gel is
checked regularly and replaced regularly.
OBNFQMBUF!BOE!SBUJOH!PG!B!TJOHMF.! 4/51
QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFS
The specifications of transformers are given by BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) 2026. As per this
standard, every transformer must be provided with the following specifications:
Type (power, distribution, auto, etc.), year of manufacture, number of phases, rated kVA, rated
frequency, rated voltage of each winding, connection symbol, percent impedance voltage at rated
current, type of cooling, total mass, mass and volume of insulating oil.
! Qspcmfn!4/234
Uxp!311!lWB!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!up!cf!pqfsbufe!jo!qbsbmmfm/!Uif!joufsobm!jnqfebodf!pg!
usbotgpsnfs!2!jt!)1/117!,!k1/19*!q/v/!xijmf!usbotgpsnfs!3!ibt!bo!joufsobm!jnqfebodf!pg!)1/119!,!
k1/16*!q/v/!Ipx!xjmm!uifz!tibsf!b!mpbe!pg!411!lX!bu!1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups@
Solution
Z1 = (0.006 + j 0.08) = 0.08 –85.71°
Z2 = (0.008 + j 0.05) = 0.0506 –80.91°
300
Load SL = –cos–1 0.8 = 375 ––36.87° kVA
0.8
Load shared by transformer 1
Z2
S1 = SL
Z1 + Z 2
0.0506 –80.91∞
\ S1 = ¥ 375 ––36.87°
(0.006 + 0.008) + j (0.08 + 0.05)
0.0506 –80.91∞ ¥ 375 –-36.87∞
= = 145.12 ––39.81° kVA.
0.13075 –83.85∞
! 4/265 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/235
Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!sbufe!2111!lWB!boe!911!lWB!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!qbsbmmfm!up!tvqqmz!b!
mpbe!pg!2611!lWB!bu!1/9!mbhhjoh!q/g/!Uif!sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!pg!uif!gjstu!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!4&!
boe!7&!sftqfdujwfmz!boe!pg!uif!tfdpoe!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!3&!boe!8&!sftqfdujwfmz/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!lWB!
mpbejoh!boe!q/g/!bu!xijdi!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!pqfsbuft/
Solution
Choose kVA base of 1000 kVA.
1000
Z1 (p.u.) = (0. 03 + j 0.06) ¥
1000
= 0.03 + j 0.06
1000
Z2 (p.u.) = (0.02 + j 0.07) ¥
800
= 0.025 + j 0.0875
Z2
S1 = SL
Z1 + Z 2
[0.025 + j 0.0875]
= ¥ 1500 [0.8 – j 0.6]
[0.055 + j 0.1475]
0.09100 –74.05
= [1200 – j 900]
0.15742 –69.55
= 0.5781 –4.5 ¥ 1500 ––36.86
= 867.15 ––32.36 kVA
[0.03 + j 0.06]
S2 = 1500 ––36.86
0.15742 –69.55
0.067082 –63.43
= 1500 ––36.86
0.15742 –69.55
= 639.20 ––42.98 kVA.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/266
! Qspcmfn!4/236
Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst-!sbufe!2111!lWB!boe!711!lWB!sftqfdujwfmz-!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!qbsbmmfm!
po!cpui!IW!boe!MW!tjeft/!Uifz!ibwf!frvbm!wpmubhf!sbujoht!pg!22!lW0551!W!boe!uifjs!qfs!voju!jnqfe.
bodft!bsf!)1/13!,!k1/18*!boe!)1/136!,!k1/1986*!sftqfdujwfmz/!Xibu!jt!uif!mbshftu!wbmvf!pg!uif!vojuz!
qpxfs!gbdups!mpbe!uibu!dbo!cf!efmjwfsfe!cz!uif!qbsbmmfm!dpncjobujpo!bu!uif!sbufe!wpmubhf@
Solution
S1 (rated) = 1000 kVA;
S2 (rated) = 600 kVA
Choose a kVA base of 1000.
Z1 = 0.02 + j 0.07 = 0.0728 –74°
Z 2 = (0.025 + j 0.0875) ¥ 2 = 0.182 –74°
\ Z1 + Z 2 = 0.255 –74°
Z2
S1 = SL (i)
Z1 + Z 2
Z1
S2 = SL (ii)
Z1 + Z 2
0.255
From Eq. (i), SL = 1000 ¥ = 1400 kVA
0.182
0.255
From Eq. (ii), SL = 600 ¥ = 2101.65 kVA
0.0728
As total load is increased, the 1000 kVA transformer will be the first to reach its full-load.
SL (max) = 1400 kVA.
! Qspcmfn!4/237
Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!sbufe!811!lWB!boe!711!lWB!sftqfdujwfmz!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!qbsbmmfm!
up!tvqqmz!b!mpbe!pg!2111!lWB!bu!1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/!Uif!sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!pg!uif!gjstu!
usbotgpsnfs!bsf!4&!boe!7/6&!sftqfdujwfmz-!boe!pg!uif!tfdpoe!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!2/6&!boe!9&!sftqfd.
ujwfmz/!Dbmdvmbuf!lWB!mpbejoh!boe!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!xijdi!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!pqfsbuft/
Solution
S1 = 700 kVA
S2 = 600 kVA
SL = 1000 KVA, 0.8 p.f. lagging
! 4/267 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/238
B!31!lWB-!51110311!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!bo!frvjwbmfou!jnqfebodf!pg!1/13!W!jt!up!pqfsbuf!jo!
qbsbmmfm!xjui!b!26!lWB-!51110311!W-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!bo!frvjwbmfou!jnqfebodf!pg!1/136!W/!
Uif!uxp!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!qbsbmmfm!boe!nbef!up!dbssz!b!mpbe!pg!36!lWB/!Bttvnf!cpui!
uif!jnqfebodft!up!ibwf!uif!tbnf!bohmf/
! )b*! Gjoe!uif!joejwjevbm!mpbe!dvssfout/
! )c*! Xibu!qfsdfou!pg!uif!sbufe!dbqbdjuz!jt!vtfe!jo!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs@
Solution
Z1 = 0.02 W, Z2 = 0.025 W
Since the impedances have the same angle,
13.89 ¥ 1000
(a) I1 = = 69.45 A
200
11.11 ¥ 1000
I2 = = 55.55 A.
200
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/268
13.89
(b) Percentage rated capacity used in transformer 1 = = 66.95%
20
11.11
Percentage rated capacity used in transformer 2 = = 74.06%.
15
! Qspcmfn!4/239
Uxp!usbotgpsnfst!Q!boe!R!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!qbsbmmfm!boe!tvqqmz!b!dpnnpo!mpbe-!pqfo.djsdvju!fng!pg!
Q!boe!R!bsf!7111!W!boe!6911!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Frvjwbmfou!jnqfebodf!jo!ufsnt!pg!tfdpoebsz!pg!Q!boe!
R!bsf!)1/!5!,!k5*!W!boe!)1/3!,!k3*!W/!Uif!mpbe!jnqfebodf!jt!)31!,!k5*!W/!Gjoe!uif!dvssfou!tvqqmjfe!cz!
fbdi!usbotgpsnfs/
Solution
EP = 6000 V, EQ = 5800 V, ZL = (20 + j 4) W,
ZP = (0.4 + j 4) W, ZQ = (0.2 + j 2) W
E P Z Q + ( E P - EQ ) Z L
IP =
Z P ZQ + Z L ( Z P + ZQ )
6000 (0.2 + j 2) + (6000 - 5800) ( 20 + j 4)
=
(0.4 + j 4) (0.2 + j 2) + ( 20 + j 4) (0.4 + j 4 + 0.2 + j 2)
1200 + j 12000 + 4000 + j 800
=
2 (0.22 + 4) + ( 20 + j 4) (0.6 + j 6)
5200 + j 12800
=
8.08 + 12 + j 2.4 + j 120 - 24
13815.9 –67.89∞
=
-3.92 + j 122.4
13815.9 –67.89∞
= = 112.82 ––23.9° A
122.46 –91.8∞
EQ Z P - ( E P - E Q ) Z L
IQ =
Z P ZQ + Z L ( Z P + ZQ )
5800 (0.4 + j 4) - (6000 - 5800) ( 20 + j 4)
=
(0.4 + j 4) (0.2 + j 2) + ( 20 + j 4) (0.4 + j 4 + 0.2 + j 2)
2320 + j 23200 - 4000 - j 800
=
122.46 –91.8∞
-1680 + j 22400 22462.9 –94.289∞
= =
122.46 –91.8∞ 122.46 –91.8∞
= 183.43 –2.489° A.
! 4/269 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/23:
Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!N!boe!O!pg!frvbm!wpmubhf!sbujp!bsf!svoojoh!jo!qbsbmmfm!boe!tvqqmz!
b!mpbe!pg!2111!B!bu!1/9!q/g!mbhhjoh!ibwjoh!frvjwbmfou!jnqfebodft!)3!,!k5*!W!boe!)4!,!k6*!W!sftqfd.
ujwfmz/! Gjoe! uif! dvssfou! tvqqmjfe! cz! fbdi! usbotgpsnfs! boe! uif! sbujp! pg! uif! lX! pvuqvu! pg! uif! uxp!
usbotgpsnfst/
Solution
ZM = 2 + j 4
ZN = 3 + j 5
IM Z 3 + j 5 5.83 –59.04∞
= N = =
IN Z M 2 + j 4 4.47 –63.43∞
= 1.3 ––4.39°
= 1.296 – j 0.09
\ IM = (1.296 – j 0.09) IN
! Qspcmfn!4/241
Uxp!usbotgpsnfst!Q!boe!R!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!qbsbmmfm!bdsptt!b!tvqqmz!pg!2111!W/!Cpui!usbotgpsn.
fst!ibwf!op.mpbe!sbujp!pg!21110611!W/!Usbotgpsnfs!Q!jt!sbufe!bu!261!lWB-!jut!upubm!sftjtubodf!boe!
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/26:
sfbdubodf!cfjoh!3&!boe!4&!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!sbujoh!pg!usbotgpsnfs!R!jt!311!lWB-!jut!upubm!sftjtubodf!
boe!sfbdubodf!cfjoh!29&!boe!5&!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!mpbe!po!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!boe!tfdpoe.
bsz!wpmubhf!gps!b!mpbe!pg!411!lWB!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/
Solution
Considering base kVA to be 150,
150
% ZP = (2 + j 3) % ZQ = (1 + j 4)
200
= 0.75 + j 3
Total load S = 350 (0.8 – j 0.6) = 280 – j 210 = 350 ––36.87°
Ê ZQ ˆ Ê 0.75 + j 3 ˆ
SP = S Á
+ ˜ = 350 ––36.87° ÁË 2.75 + j 6 ˜¯
Ë P
Z Z Q¯
Ê 3.09 –75.96∞ ˆ
= 350 ––36.87° Á
Ë 6.6 –65.38∞ ˜¯
= 350 ––36.87° ¥ 0.468 –10.58°
= 163.8 ––26.29°kVA
ZP Ê 2 + j3 ˆ
SQ = S = 350 -36.87∞ Á
Z P + ZQ Ë 2.75 + j 6 ˜¯
3.6 56.3∞
= 350 -36.87∞ ¥
6.6 63.38∞
= 350 -36.87∞ ¥ 0.545 -7.08∞
= 190.75 -43.95∞
! Qspcmfn!4/242
Uif!sftvmut!pg!b!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu!po!uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
411!lWB;!3/6&!sbufe!wpmubhf!boe!sbufe!dvssfou!pg!1/4!q/g/!mbh
811!lWB;!6&!sbufe!wpmubhf!boe!sbufe!dvssfou!pg!1/36!q/g/!mbh
Efufsnjof!ipx!uif!usbotgpsnfst!xpvme!tibsf!b!mpbe!pg!861!lWB!jg!uifz!bsf!pqfsbufe!jo!qbsbmmfm/!Jg!
uifjs!wpmubhf!sbujoht!bsf!22!lW0511!W-!efufsnjof!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf/
Solution
Considering Irated = Ibase = 1 p.u. and Vrated = Vbase = 1 p.u.
Per unit impedance of the first transformer is
0.025 {0.3 + j sin (cos–1 0.3)} = 0.0075 + j 0.024
Per unit impedance of the second transformer is
0.5 {0.25 + j sin (cos–1 0.25)} = 0.0125 + j 0.968
Consider a common base of 700 kVA. Converting the impendaces into the common base,
700
Ze1 = (0.0075 + j 0.024) = 0.0175 + j 0. 056
300
Ze2 = 0.0125 + j 0.968
Total load S = 750 kVA
Load shared by the first transformer
Ze2 0.0125 + j 0.968
S1 = S ¥ = 750 ¥
Ze1 + Ze2 0.0175 + j 0.056 + 0.0125 + j 0.968
0.0125 + j 0.968
= 750 ¥
0.03 + j 1.024
0.968 89.26∞
= 750 ¥
1.0244 88.32∞
= 708 0.94∞ kVA
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/272
708
Current shared by the first transformer = = 2.36 p.u.
300
Voltage regulation at 2.36 p.u. current is
= 2.36 (0.0075 ¥ cos 0.94° – 0.056 ¥ sin 0.94°)
= 2.36 (0.007499 – 0.00092) = 0.0155
\ V2 = (1 – 0.0155) ¥ 400 = 393.8 V.
! Qspcmfn!4/243
Bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!tvqqmjft!b!mpbe!pg!21!lX!bu!231!W!boe!bu!vojuz!q/g/!Jg!uif!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!jt!
351!W-!efufsnjof!)b*!usbotgpsnbujpo!sbujp-!)c*!tfdpoebsz!dvssfou!boe!qsjnbsz!dvssfou!)d*!ovncfs!pg!
uvsot!jo!tfdpoebsz!jg!upubm!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!jt!511-!)e*!qpxfs!usbotgpsnfe-!boe!)f*!qpxfs!dpoevdufe!
ejsfdumz!gspn!uif!tvqqmz!nbjot!up!uif!mpbe/
Solution
(a) Transformation ratio of the auto-transformer
V 240
aA = H = = 2.
VL 120
(b) Power output PL = VL IL cos f
10 ¥ 103
\ IL = = 83.33 A
120 ¥ 1
83.33
and primary current IH = A
2
= 41.67 A.
TH
(c) aA = = 2 where TH and TL are the number of turns in the high-voltage and low-voltage
TL
winding respectively.
400
\ TL = = 200.
2
! 4/273 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!4/244
Uif!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!wpmubhft!pg!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!bsf!711!W!boe!411!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Xjui!
uif!ifmq!pg!uif!ejbhsbn-!tipx!uif!dvssfou!ejtusjcvujpo!jo!uif!xjoejoh/!Xifo!uif!tfdpoebsz!dvssfou!
jt!211!B-!bmtp!gjoe!uif!qfsdfoubhf!tbwjoht!jo!dpoevdups!nbufsjbm/
Solution
Transformation ratio
VH
aA = =2
VL
IL
\ = aA
IH
I 100
So, IH = L = = 50 A
aA 2
The current distribution in the winding is shown in Fig. 3.49.
!
Gjh/!4/5:! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/244
1
Percentage savings in conductor material in using auto-transformer = p.u. = 0.5 p.u. or 50%.
aA
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/274
! Qspcmfn!4/245
B!33110331!W!usbotgpsnfs!jt!sbufe!bu!21!lWB!bt!b!uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs/!Ju!jt!dpoofdufe!bt!bo!
bvup.usbotgpsnfs!xjui!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoh!dpoofdufe!beejujwfmz!jo!tfsjft!xjui!ijhi.wpmubhf!xjoejoh/!
Uif!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!jt!fydjufe!gspn!b!3611!W!tpvsdf/!Uif!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!jt!mpbefe!tp!uibu!uif!
sbufe!dvssfout!pg!uif!xjoejoht!bsf!opu!fydffefe/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!dvssfou!ejtusjcvujpo!jo!uif!xjoejoht-!
)c*!lWB!pvuqvu-!)d*!lWB!usbotgfssfe!dpoevdujwfmz!boe!joevdujwfmz!gspn!joqvu!up!pvuqvu-!boe!)e*!tbw.
joht!jo!dpoevdups!nbufsjbm!bt!dpnqbsfe!up!b!uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!pg!tbnf!WB!sbujoh/
Solution
10 ¥ 103
Rated current of 2200 V winding = = 4.55 A
2200
10 ¥ 1000
Rated current of 220 V winding = = 45.45 A
220
(a) Output current of auto-transformer = (4.55 + 45.45) A
= 50 A
2200 ¥ 50
(b) kVA output = = 110 kVA
1000
2200 ¥ 45.45
(c) kVA transferred conductively = = 100 kVA
1000
2200 ¥ 4.55
kVA transferred inductively = = 10 kVA
1000
1 2200
(d) Saving in conductor material = p.u. =
aA 2420
= 0.909 p.u.
= 90.9%.
! Qspcmfn!4/246
B!31!lWB-!3110611!W-!61!I{!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dpoofdufe!bt!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!xifsf!W2!
>!311!W!boe!W3!>!811!W/!Dbmdvmbuf!jut!wpmubhf!sbujp!boe!lWB!sbujoh/!Tipx!uif!dvssfou!ejtusjcvujpo!
xifo!ju!efmjwfst!uif!sbufe!lWB!up!mpbe/
Solution
700
Voltage ratio = = 3.5
200
20 ¥ 103
I2 (rated) = = 40 A
500
The auto-transformer is shown in Fig. 3.50.
! 4/275 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
I2 = 40 A
500 V
I1 Load
700 V
I1 – I2
V1 = 200 V = 16 A
!
Gjh/!4/61! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/246
- I 2 + I1 200 2
= =
I2 500 5
\ I1 = 56 A
40
\ (kVA)auto = 700 ¥ = 28.
1000
! Qspcmfn!4/247
B!31!lWB-!31110311!W-!uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!jt!up!cf!vtfe!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs-!xjui!b!dpo.
tubou!tpvsdf!wpmubhf!pg!3111!W/!Bu!gvmm.mpbe!pg!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups!dbmdvmbuf!uif!qpxfs!pvuqvu-!qpxfs!
usbotgpsnfe!boe!qpxfs! dpoevdufe/! Jg!uif!fggjdjfodz! pg! uif! uxp.xjoejoh! usbotgpsnfs!bu! 1/8! q/g/! jt!
:8&-!gjoe!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!bvup.usbotgpsnfs/
Solution
The auto-transformer is shown in Fig. 3.51.
I2
100
I1
V2 = 2200 V
I1 – I2
V1 = 2000 V
!
Gjh/!4/62! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/247
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/276
20 ¥ 103
I2 = = 100 A
200
20 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.7
h(two-winding) = 0.97 =
20 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.7 + PL
\ PL = 433 W
220 ¥ 100
h(auto-trans) = = 99.8%.
220 + 0.433
! Qspcmfn!4/248
Uif!ovncfs!pg!qsjnbsz!uvsot!pg!bo!jefbm!usbotgpsnfs!jt!311/!Po!uif!tfdpoebsz!tjef-!uif!ovncfs!pg!
uvsot!cfuxffo!B!boe!C!jt!711!boe!cfuxffo!C!boe!D!jt!411-!uif!usbotgpsnfs!tvqqmjft!b!sftjtups!dpo.
ofdufe!cfuxffo!B!boe!D!xijdi!esbxt!9!lX/!Gvsuifs-!b!mpbe!pg!2111!–56¡!W!jt!dpoofdufe!cfuxffo!B!
boe!C/!Uif!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!jt!3!lW/!Gjoe!uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou/!
Solution
The auto-transformer is shown in Fig. 3.52.
900
VAC = ¥ 2 = 9 kV
200
8
IL1 = ––0° = 0.89 A
9
600
VAB = = 6 kV
200
6 ¥ 1000
IL2 = = 6 ––45° A
1000 – 45∞
IBA = IL1 + IL2 = 0.89 + 6 ––45° = 5.13 – j 4.24 A
I LB = IL1 = 0.89 + j 0
! 4/277 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
IL1
A
1000 –450°W
600
250 B
2 kV 8 kW
300 IL2
C
!
Gjh/!4/63! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/248
Secondary
AT = 600 (5.13 – j 4.24) + 300 ¥ 0.89
= 3345 – j 2544.
3345 - j 2544
\ primary current =
200
= 16.725 – j 12.72
\ I1 = 21.01 A.
! Qspcmfn!4/249
B! 311! lWB-! 31110511! W-! tjohmf.qibtf! uxp.xjoejoh! usbotgpsnfs! jt! up! cf! vtfe! bt! bo! bvup.usbot.
gpsnfs!gps!tufqqjoh!vq!uif!wpmubhf!gspn!3111!W!up!3611!W/!Jg!bu!sbufe!mpbe-!uif!uxp.xjoejoh!usbot.
gpsnfs! ibt! 4&! mptt-! 4/6&! wpmubhf! sfhvmbujpo! boe! 6&! jnqfebodf-! dbmdvmbuf! uif! gpmmpxjoh! gps! bo!
bvup.usbotgpsnfs;
! )b*! Wpmubhf!boe!dvssfou!sbujoh
! )c*! lWB!sbujoh
! )d*! Fggjdjfodz
! )e*! Qfsdfoubhf!jnqfebodf
! )f*! Sfhvmbujpo!
! )g*! Tipsu.djsdvju!dvssfou!po!fbdi!tjef
Solution
(a) For an auto-transformer,
LV side is 2000 V and HV side is 2500 V.
200 ¥ 103
Rated current of 400 V side of two-winding transformer = = 500 A = I2 (say).
400
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/278
! Qspcmfn!4/24:
B!5510221!W-!21!lWB-!uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!jt!up!cf!fnqmpzfe!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!up!tvqqmz!
b!551!W!djsdvju!gspn!b!611!W!tpvsdf-!xifo!uftufe!bt!b!uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!bu!sbufe!mpbe!1/9!
q/g!mbhhjoh/!Jut!fggjdjfodz!jt!1/:9/
! )b*! Efufsnjof!jut!lWB!sbujoh!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs/
! )c*! Gjoe!jut!fggjdjfodz!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs/
Solution
Refer Fig. 3.53.
10 ¥ 1000
(a) I1 = = 90.9 A
110
! 4/279 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
!
Gjh/!4/64! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/24:
500 ¥ 90.9
(kVA)auto =
1000
= 45.45 kVA
- I1 + I 2 V1 110 1
= = =
I1 V2 440 4
5
\ I2 = I1 = 113.63 A.
4
(b) As a two-winding transformer, the efficiency is
10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8
h= = 0.98
10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 + PL
\ PL = 163.27 W
Full-load output as auto transformer (0. 8 p.f) = 45.45 ¥ 0.8
= 36.36 kW
As auto-transformer efficiency is
36.36
hauto = ¥ 100
36.36 + 0.1633
= 99.55%.
! Qspcmfn!4/251
B!21!lWB-!3110611!W-!61!I{/!B!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dpoofdufe!bt!bo!pvuqvu!usbotgpsnfs!
bt!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!4/65/!Efufsnjof!jut!wpmubhf!sbujp!boe!uif!lWB!sbujoh/!Nbsl!po!uif!ejbhsbn-!uif!
nbhojuveft!boe!sfmbujwf!ejsfdujpot!pg!uif!dvssfout!jo!uif!xjoejoht!bt!xfmm!bt!jo!uif!joqvu!boe!pvuqvu!
mjoft!xifo!efmjwfsjoh!uif!sbufe!lWB!up!mpbe/
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/27:
Solution
Refer Fig. 3.54(a).
I2 = 20 A
500 V 500 V
Load
Load I1 = 28 A
V2 = 700 V
Input 200 V
V1 = 200 V I1 – I2
=8A
V2 500 + 200
= = 3.5
V1 200
10 ¥ 1000
I2 (rated) = = 20 A
500
- I 2 + I1 200 2
\ = =
I2 500 5
-20 + I1 2
or, =
20 5
or, I1 = 28 A
20
\ (kVA)auto = 700 ¥ = 14.
1000
! Qspcmfn!4/252
B!21!lWB-!21110211!W-!uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!jt!up!cf!vtfe!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs-!xjui!b!dpo.
tubou!tpvsdf!wpmubhf!pg!2111!W/!Bu!gvmm.mpbe!pg!v/q/g/-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!qpxfs!pvuqvu-!qpxfs!usbotgpsnfe!
boe!qpxfs!dpoevdufe/!Jg!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!bu!1/8!q/g/!jt!:8&-!gjoe!uif!
fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!bvup.usbotgpsnfs/
! 4/281 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Refer Fig. 3.55.
I2
I1
V2 = 1100 V
V1 = 1000 V
I1 – I2
!
Gjh/!4/66! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/252
10 ¥ 1000
I2 = = 100 A
100
10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.7
hTW = 0.97 =
10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.7 + PL
\ PL = 216.5 W
110 ¥ 100
hAuto =
110 + 0.2165
= 99.8%.
! Qspcmfn!4/253
B!3310551!W-!31!lWB-!61!I{!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dpoofdufe!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!up!usbotgpsn!711!W!
up!311!W/
! )b*! Efufsnjof!uif!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!sbujp!b/
! )c*! Efufsnjof!uif!lWB!sbujoh!pg!uif!bvup.usbotgpsnfs/!
! )d*! Xjui!b!mpbe!pg!31!lWB-!1/9!q/g!mbhhjoh!dpoofdufe!up!311!W!ufsnjobmt-!efufsnjof!uif!dvssfout!
jo!uif!mpbe!boe!uxp!usbotgpsnfs!xjoejoht/
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/282
Solution
Refer Fig. 3.56.
I1
V1 = 600 V N1 I2
N2 200 V
I2 – I1
!
Gjh/!4/67! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/253
N1 600
(a) a = = =3
N 2 200
20 ¥ 1000
(b) I1 = = 45.45 A
440
600 ¥ 45.45
(kVA)auto = = 27.27
1000
20 ¥ 1000
(a) I2 = = 90.9 A
220
\ I2 – I1 = 90.9 – 45.45 = 45.45 A.
! Qspcmfn!4/254
Uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!b!2310591!W-!21!lWB!usbotgpsnfs!bu!sbufe!mpbe!boe!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!1/:8:/!Ju!
jt!pqfsbufe!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!gspn!b!711!W!tvqqmz!up!qspwjef!b!591!W!djsdvju/!Efufsnjof!uif!
lWB!sbujoh!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs/!Bmtp!efufsnjof!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!bu!gvmm.
mpbe!xjui!1/96!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/
Solution
The rated current of 120 V winding
10 ¥ 103
I1 = = 83.33 A
120
The circuit diagram of the transformer operated as an auto-transformer is shown in Fig. 3.57.
! 4/283 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
!
Gjh/!4/68! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/254
42.5
\ efficiency of the auto-transformer at full-load and 0.85 p.f. lagging is ¥ 100% or 99.5%.
42.71
! Qspcmfn!4/255
B!61!NWB-!71!I{-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibwjoh!wpmubhf!sbujoh!pg!9089!lW!ibt!dpsf!mptt!pg!317!lX!
boe!gvmm.mpbe!dpqqfs!mptt!pg!298!lX/!Jg!uijt!usbotgpsnfs!jt!up!cf!pqfsbufe!bt!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs-!
efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!sbujoht!pg!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!boe!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoht!gps!uijt!dpoofdujpo!boe!
uif!lWB!sbujoh!pg!uif!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!dpoofdujpo/!Bmtp-!efufsnjof!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!
jo!uijt!dpoofdujpo!xifo!ju!jt!tvqqmzjoh!sbufe!mpbe!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
The auto-transformer connection is shown in Fig. 3.58.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/284
I1
8 kV
86 kV
78 kV Load
!
Gjh/!4/69! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Fybnqmf!4/255
50 ¥ 106
I1 = = 6250 A
8 ¥ 103
\ kVA rating of the transformer is
= 86 ¥ 6250 = 537500
\ efficiency of the auto-transformer at unity p.f. load is
537500 ¥ 1
= 0.9993 or 99.93%.
537500 ¥ 1 + 393
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpo!
1. Define a transformer. Explain the principle of operation of a transformer.
2. Distinguish between core-type and shell-type transformer. Why is the low-voltage winding
placed near the core? Why is the core of a transformer laminated?
3. Derive an expression for the induced emf in the transformer winding.
4. What is an ideal transformer? Draw and explain the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer.
5. What is power transformer and distribution transformer?
6. Explain how the primary current increases as the current in the secondary side of the
transformer is increased.
7. What is meant by ‘equivalent resistance referred to primary’ and ‘equivalent resistance
referred to secondary’?
! 4/285 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
8. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a single-phase transformer under lagging p.f.
9. Draw the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer and describe the various parameters
involved in it.
10. Define voltage regulation of a transformer. Derive an expression for voltage regulation under
lagging p.f. load.
11. Derive the condition for zero voltage regulation and condition for maximum voltage
regulation. What is the value of the maximum voltage regulation?
12. Describe briefly the various losses in a transformer.
13. Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer.
14. Explain why:
(a) Open-circuit test is generally conducted on the low-voltage side and short-circuit test is
conducted on the high-voltage side of the transformer.
(b) Open-circuit test is conducted at rated voltage and short-circuit test is conducted at
rated current.
(c) Core loss is neglected in short-circuit test and copper loss is neglected in open circuit
test.
15. Discuss how polarity of a transformer is determined from polarity test.
16. Explain how maximum temperature rise is obtained from Sumpner’s test.
17. What are the conditions for parallel operation of transformer?
18. What are the advantages of parallel operation of transformers?
19. Deduce expressions for load shared by two transformers connected in parallel (a) turns ratios
of the transformers are same, and (b) turns ratios of the transformers are unequal.
20. Define an auto-transformer. State its merits and demerits over a two-winding transformer.
What are the applications of an auto-transformer?
21. In an auto-transformer, the power transferred from primary to secondary circuit is partly by
conduction and partly by induction. Explain.
22. Derive an expression for the rating of an auto-transformer as a fraction of the rating of a two-
winding transformer when the auto-transformer has a transformation ratio of a.
23. What are the different methods of cooling of transformers?
24. Define all-day efficiency of transformer.
25. What do you mean by instrument transformers? Explain in brief each of them.
26. What is a winding transformer? What are the uses of a pulse transformer?
Qspcmfnt
1. The primary winding of a 50 Hz transformer is supplied from a 440 V, 50 Hz source and has
200 turns. Find the (a) peak value of flux, and (b) voltage induced in the secondary winding
if it has 50 turns.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/286
Hints:
f = 50 Hz
E1 = 440 V
N1 = 200
(a) If fm is the peak value of flux then
E1 = 4.44 f fm N1
440
or fm = Wb = 0.0099 Wb.
4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 200
(b) N2 = 50
Voltage induced in the secondary
E2 = 4.44 f fm N2 = 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.0099 ¥ 50 V = 110 V.
2. A 200/50 V, 50 Hz transformer has a core area of 100 cm2. The maximum value of the flux
density is 1 Wb/m2. Assuming 9% loss of area due to laminations, find the primary and
secondary number of turns and transformation ratio.
Hints
A = 100 ¥ 10–4 m2 = 0.01 m2
E1 = 200 V; E2 = 50 V; Bm = 1 Wb /m2
Assuming 9% loss of area, net area of core = 0.01 ¥ 0.9 m2 = 0.009 m2
E1 200
Primary turns N1 = = = 100
4.44 f Bm A 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 1 ¥ 0.009
E2 50
Secondary turns N2 = N1 = ¥ 100 = 25
E1 200
E1 N1 100
Transformer ratio = = = 4.
E2 N 2 25
3. A single-phase transformer has 200 and 100 turns respectively in its secondary and primary
windings. The resistance of the primary winding is 0.05 W and that of the secondary is
0.3 W. Find the resistance of (a) the primary winding referred to the secondary, and (b) the
secondary winding referred to the primary. Also find the equivalent resistance of the primary.
Hints:
Number of turns of primary winding N1 = 100
Number of turns of secondary winding N2 = 200
Resistance of primary winding R1 = 0.05 W
Resistance of secondary winding R2 = 0.3 W
! 4/287 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
At full-load,
Core losses + Copper losses
0.97 = 1 –
osses
Output + Core losses + Copper lo
Pc + Pcu
or 0.97 = 1 –
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 + Pc + Pcu
Pc + Pcu
or = 0.03
10000 ¥ Pc + Pcu
or Pc + Pcu = 309.278 W (i)
At half-load,
1
Pc + P
0.97 = 1 – 4 cu
1 1
10 ¥ 103 ¥ + Pc + Pcu
2 4
1 Ê 1 ˆ
or Pc + Pcu = 150 + 0.03 ÁË Pc + Pcu ˜¯
4 4
1 150
or Pc + Pcu = = 154.693 W (ii)
4 0.97
Solving Eqs (i) and (ii),
Pcu = 206.185 W
and PC = 103.1 W.
6. A single-phase transformer supplies a load of 20 kVA at a p.f. of 0.81 (lagging). The iron
loss of the transformer is 200 W and the copper losses at this load is 180 W. Calculate (a) the
efficiency, (b) if the load is now changed to 30 kVA at a p.f. of 0.91 (lagging), calculate the
new efficiency.
Hints:
Iron loss = 200 W
Copper loss at a load of 20 kVA is = 180 W
(a) Output at 0.81 p.f. (lag) = 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.81 = 16200 W
Total losses = 200 + 180 = 380 W
Input = Output + Losses = 16200 + 380 = 16580 W
Output 16200
Efficiency = = = 0.977 = 97.7%
Input 16580
! 4/289 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
8. Calculate the values of Ro, Xo, R1 and X1 in the diagram shown in Fig. 3.59 of a single-phase
8 kVA, 22/440 V, 50 Hz transformer of which the following are the test results:
Open-circuit test
220 V, 0.9 A, 90 W on the low-voltage side
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/28:
Short-circuit test
20 V, 15 A, 100 W on the high-voltage side
!
Gjh/!4/6:! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!gps!)Qspc/!9*
Hints:
From the open-circuit test data,
90
No-load p.f. cos qo = = 0.4545
220 ¥ 0.9
\ sin qo = 0.89
V1 220
Core loss resistance Ro = = W = 537.83 W
I o sin q o 0.9 ¥ 0.4545
V1 220
Magnetizing reactance Xo = = = 274.65 W
I o sin q o 0.89 ¥ 0.9
From short-circuit test data,
100
ROH = Ro2 = W = 0.444 W
(15) 2
20
ZOH = Zo2 = W = 1.33 W
15
where Ro2 and Zo2 are the equivalent resistance and impedance referred to the high-voltage
side.
Figure 3.59 shows the equivalent resistance R1 and reactance X1 referred to the low voltage
side or primary side.
2
Ê 220 ˆ
R1 = 0.444 ¥ Á = 0.111 W
Ë 440 ˜¯
Hence,
! 4/291 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2
Ê 220 ˆ
X1 =1.257 ¥ Á = 0.314 W
Ë 440 ˜¯
and
Hints:
17500
Full-load primary current = A = 38.89 A
450
17500
Full-load secondary current = A = 144.63 A
121
As 450 V is the applied voltage in OCT, so this test has been performed on the HV side and
as the current in the SCT is 38.9 A which is the rated primary or low-voltage current, so this
test has also been performed on the LV side.
From short-circuit test data,
312
Ro1 = W = 0.206 W
(38.9) 2
15.75
Zo1 = W = 0.405
38.9
and Xo1 = (0.405) 2 - (0.206) 2 = 0.3887 W
2
Ê 121 ˆ
\ Ro2 = 0.206 ¥ Á = 0.0149 W
Ë 450 ˜¯
2
Ê 121 ˆ
= 0.3487 ¥ Á = 0.0252 W
Ë 450 ˜¯
and Xo2
È 76.5 ˘
\ Losses = Í - 76.5˙ = 4.026 kW
Î 0.95 ˚
At maximum efficiency, core losses = copper losses
\ core losses = copper losses = 2.013 kW
2.013 kW is the copper losses at 90% of full-load.
2
Ê 1 ˆ
So full-load ohmic losses = 2.013 ¥ Á
Ë 0.9 ˜¯
= 2.485 kW
Voltage regulation = (Rp.u. cos q2 + Xp.u. sin q2) = 0.02485 ¥ 0.8 + 0.04338 ¥ 0.6
= 0.0459 or, 4.59%.
12. A 10 kVA single-phase transformer has a core loss of 50 W and full-load ohmic loss of 120
W. The daily variation of load on the transformer is as follows:
6 a.m to 12 noon: 5 kW at 0.7 p.f.
12 noon to 6 p.m.: 4 kW at 0.8 p.f.
6 a.m to 1 a.m.: 8 kW at 0.9 p.f.
1 a.m to 7 a.m: No-load
Find the all-day efficiency of the transformer.
Hints:
Core loss = 50 W; full-load ohmic loss = 120 W
From 6 a.m. to 12 noon,
Output = 5 ¥ 6 = 30 kWh
5
kVA load = = 7.143
0.7
2
Ê 7.143 ˆ
Ohmic losses for 6 hours = Á ¥ 120 = 61.22 W
Ë 10 ˜¯
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/294
0.104 –73.3∞
S1 = 1500 –0° ¥
(0.02 + 0.03) + j (0.1 + 0.1)
1500 ¥ 0.104 –73.3∞
= = 757.28 ––2.66° kVA
0.206 –75.96∞
Load shared by transformer 2
0.102 X –78.69∞
S2 = 1500 –0° ¥ = 742.72 –2.73° kVA.
(0.02 + 0.03) + j (0.1 + 0.1)
14. A 100 kVA transformer has iron losses of 1.2 kW and full-load copper losses of 1.5 kW.
(a) Find the KVA for maximum efficiency, and (b) efficiency at the kVA found in part (a) for
power factor of 1, 0.8 lagging and 0.8 leading.
Hints:
(a) Let x be the fraction of full-load kVA at which maximum efficiency occurs.
Then,
x2 (1.5) = 1.2
1.2
fi x= = 0.894
1.5
Load kVA for maximum efficiency = 0.894 (100)
= 89.4 kVA.
(b) (i) For power factor 1
Output = 89.4 ¥ 1 = 89.4 kW
Iron losses = 1.2 kW
Copper losses = 1.5 kW
89.4
Efficiency = ¥ 100 = 97.07%
89.4 + 1.2 + 1.5
0.8 lagging power factor
output = 89.4 ¥ 0.8 = 71.52 kW
71.52
Efficiency = ¥ 100 = 96.36%
71.52 + 1.2 + 1.5
For 0.8 leading p.f., efficiency is 96.36%
[as kW and losses are same for leading and lagging p.f.].
15. A 200/400 V single-phase transformer has a core loss of 200 W. It has a resistance of 0.75 ohm
and leakage reactance of 1.5 W, both referred to HV side. Find the p.f. at which regulation is
zero. Full-load primary current is 30 A.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/296
Hints:
200
Full-load secondary current = 30 ¥ = 15 A
400
15
Rp.u. = ¥ 0.75
400
= 0.028 p.u.
10 ¥ 1.5
Xp.u. = = 0.0375 p.u.
400
Regulation = Rp.u. cos q2 – Xp.u. sin q2 = 0
0.028
fi tan q2 = = 0.746
0.0375
Power factor = cos q2 = 0.8 leading.
[regulation can be zero when p.f. is leading]
16. Two transformers have the following characteristics:
A 150 kVA, 6600/225 V, IR = 1.5%, IX = 4%
B 300 kVA, 6600/215 V, IR = 1%, IX = 5%
They are connected in parallel. Find the no-load terminal voltage and current when 6600 V is
applied at HV terminals.
Hints:
Full-load secondary current of transformer A
150 ¥ 1000
=
225
= 666.67 A
225
ZA = (0.015 + j 0.04)
666.67
= 0.005 + j 0.0135 W
225 - 215
Circulating current at no-load =
0.005 + j 0.0135 + 0.0015 + j 0.006
= 486. 5 ––71.56° A
\ IA = 486.5 A IB = –486.5 A
V = 225 – (486.5 ––71.56°) (0.005 + j 0.0135)
= 225 – 7 ––1.88° = 218 V.
17. In a transformer if the load current is kept constant, calculate the power factor at which
maximum efficiency occurs.
Hints:
V2 I 2 cos f2
h=
V2 I 2 cos f2 + I 22 R2 + Pi
As load current constant, I 22 R2 = constant
\ I 22 R2 + Pi = constant = K
1
\ efficiency h =
K
1+
V2 I 2 cosf2
So for maximum efficiency, denominator should be minimum. This is possible when cos f2
is maximum. Hence, maximum efficiency occurs when load p.f. is unity (resistive load).
18. A 100 kVA, 50 Hz, 440/11000 V, single-phase transformer has an efficiency of 98.5% when
supplying full-load current at 0.8 p.f. lagging and an efficiency of 99% when supplying half
full-load current at unity p.f. Find the core losses and copper losses corresponding to full-
load current. At what value of load current will the maximum efficiency be attained?
Hints:
At full-load, 0.8 p.f., the efficiency = 98.5%
\ Pi + Pe(f – L) = 1218 (1)
At half-load and unity p.f. efficiency = 99%
\ Pi + 0.25 Pc (f – L) = 505 (ii)
Solving Eqs (i) and (ii),
Pi = 267.3 W Pc (f – L) = 950.7 W
100 ¥ 103
Full-load current at secondary side = = 9.09 A
11000
267.3
At maximum efficiency, I2M = 9.09 A = 4.82 A.
950.7
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/298
19. A single-phase transformer working at unity power factor has an efficiency of 90% at both
half-load and at the full-load of 500 W. Determine the efficiency at 75% full-load and the
maximum efficiency.
Hints:
V2 I 2 cos f2
h(f –L) =
V2 I 2 cos f2 + Pi + Pc ( f - L )
\ Pi + Pc (f – L) = 55.56 (i)
ÊI ˆ
V2 Á 2 ˜ cos f2
Ë 2¯
h Ê1 ˆ
= 2
ÁË f - L˜¯ ÊI ˆ Ê 1ˆ
2 V2 Á 2 ˜ cos f2 + Pi + Á ˜ Pc ( f - L )
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯
\ Pi + 0.25 Pc (f – L) = 27.78 (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get, Pi = 18.52 W Pc (f – L) = 37.04 W.
Efficiency at 75% of full-load
500 ¥ 3/4
= 2
= 0.905 p.u.
3 Ê 3ˆ
500 ¥ + Pi + Á ˜ Pc ( f - L )
4 Ë 4¯
18.52
Output at maximum efficiency = 500 = 353.55 W
37.04
\ at maximum efficiency Pc = Pi
353.55
Maximum efficiency = = 0.9051 p.u.
353.55 + 18.52 + 18.52
20. The maximum efficiency of a 100 kVA, single-phase transformer is 98% and occurs at 80%
of full-load at 0.8 p.f. lagging. If the leakage impedance of the transformer is 5%, find the
regulation at full-load.
Hints:
hmax = 0.98
\ iron loss (Pi) = 653 W
Pi
At maximum efficiency, x = = 0.8
Pc ( f - L )
\ Pc (f – L) = 1020 W
Pc ( f - L )
\ Rep.u = = 0.0102
d
! 4/299 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
5
Zep.u = = 0.05
100
Xep.u. = 0.04895
!
Gjh/!4/71! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!34
For an auto-transformer,
VH 500
aA = = = 1.25
VL 400
! 4/2:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
IL I
\ IH = = L
a A 1.25
Current through 400 V winding
IL
I = IL – IH = IL – = 0.2 IL
1.25
Since the current rating of 400 V winding is 12.5 A
0.2 IL = 12.5
or IL = 62.5
The kVA output of the auto-transformer
VL I L 400 ¥ 62.5
= = 25.
1000 1000
24. For a 2200/220 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer, the emf per turn is 12 V. Determine
the number of primary and secondary turns and the net cross-sectional area of core for a
maximum flux density of 1.5 T.
Hints:
V1 V2
= = 12
N1 N 2
2200
or, N1 = � 183
12
and N2 = 18.33 � 18
We have V1 � E1 = 4.44 f N1 fmax
12 È V1 ˘
fmax = ÍE N = 12˙
4.44 ¥ 50 Î 1 ˚
= 0.054 Wb
f max
\ cross-sectional area = = 0.036 m2.
Bmax
25. A 100 kVA, 1100/230 V, 50 Hz transformer has an HV winding resistance of 0.1 W and a
leakage reactance of 0.4 W. The LV winding has a resistance of 0.006 W and a reactance of
0.01 W. Find the equivalent winding resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the HV
and LV sides. Convert these to p.u. values.
Hints:
Z1 = r1 + j x1 = (0.1 + j 0.4) W
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/2:2
Z2 = (0.006 + j 0.01) W
Impedance referred to HV side
È Ê 1100 ˆ
2 ˘ È Ê 1100 ˆ
2 ˘
Z(HV) = Í0.1 + Á ˜ 0.006 ˙ + j Í0.4 + Á ˜ 0.01˙
Î Ë 230 ¯ ˚ Î Ë 230 ¯ ˚
= [0.237 + j 0.629] W
Similarly, impedance referred to LV sides
ÈÊ 230 ˆ 2 ˘ ÈÊ 230 ˆ 2 ˘
Z(LV) = ÍÁ ˜ 0 .1 + 0 .006 ˙ + j ÍÁ ˜ 0.4 + 0.01˙
ÎË 1100 ¯ ˚ ÎË 1100 ¯ ˚
= [0.0104 + j 0.0275] W
Base impedance referred to HV winding
( kV ) 2 (1.1) 2
ZB (HV) = = = 12.1 W
( MVA ) 100 ¥ 10 -3
0.237 + j 0.629
Zp.u (HV) = = (0.019 + j 0.052)
12.1
Zp.u. (LV) = 0.0196 + j 0.052.
(0.23) 2
[where ZB (LV) = = 0.529]
100 ¥ 10 -3
26. A 20 kVA, 2000/200 V single-phase transformer has the following parameters.
HV winding R1 = 3 W, X1 = 5.3 W
LV winding R2 = 0.05, X2 = 0.05 W
(a) Find the voltage regulation at 0.8 p.f. lagging u.p.f. and 0.707 p.f. leading.
(b) Determine the secondary terminal voltage at 0.8 p.f. lagging u.p.f. and 0.707 p.f. leading
when delivering full-load current with primary voltage fixed at 2 kV.
Hints:
Impedance referred to LV side.
È Ê 1ˆ ˘
2 È Ê 1ˆ
2 ˘
Z(LV) = Í0.05 + Á ˜ 3˙ + j Í0.05 + Á ˜ 5.3˙
Î Ë 10 ¯ ˚ Î Ë 10 ¯ ˚
= 0.08 + j 0.103 W
20 ¥ 103
\ I2 = = 100 A
200
! 4/2:3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(a) Voltage drop at 0.8 p.f. lagging = 100 [0.08 ¥ 0.8 + 0.103 ¥ 0.6] = 12.58 V
12.58
\ voltage regulation = ¥ 100 = 6.29%
200
Voltage drop at unity p.f. = 100 [0.08 ¥ 1] = 8 V
\ voltage regulation = 4%
Voltage drop at 0.707 leading p.f. = 100 [0.08 ¥ 0.707 – 0.103 ¥ 0.707] = –1.63 V
\ voltage regulation = – 0.815%.
(b) Secondary terminal voltage at 0.8 p.f. lagging
V2 = (200 –12.58) = 187.4 V
V2 (at) unity p.f. = (200 – 8) = 192 V
V2 (at) 0.707 leading p.f. (200 + 1.63) = 201.63 V.
27. A 40 kVA, 2000/200 V transformer has nameplate leakage impedance of 10%. What voltage
must be applied on the HV side to circulate full-load current with LV shorted?
Hints:
Z HV (W) I HV ( rated )
= 0.10
VHV ( rated )
350
(a) K = = 0.935
400
Load for max. h = 25 ¥ 0.935 = 23.385 kVA
Pi = 350 W. Pc = (0.935)2 ¥ 400 = 350 W.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/2:4
29. The efficiency of a 1000 kVA, 110/220 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer is 98.5% at half
full-load at 0.8 p.f. leading and 98.8% at full-load u.p.f. Calculate (a) iron loss, and (b) full-
load copper loss, and (c) maximum efficiency at u.p.f.
Hints:
500 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
0.985 =
1
500 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 + Pi + P
4 c fL
1000 ¥ 1000
0.988 =
1000 ¥ 1000 + Pi + PcfL
Solving these, we get
Pi = 4071 W PcfL = 8079 W
4071
and K= = 0.71
8079
1000 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.71
hmax = = 98.9%.
1000 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.71 + 2 ¥ 4071
30. A transformer has its maximum efficiency of 0.98 at 20 kVA at u.p.f. During the day, it is
loaded as follows:
12 hours: 2 kW at 0.6 p.f.
6 hours: 10 kW at 0.8 p.f.
6 hours: 20 kW at 0.9 p.f.
Find the all day efficiency of the transformer.
Hints:
20 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
hmax = = 0.98
20 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 + 2 Pi
2 kW, 0.6 p.f (3.33 kVA), 12 h 2 ¥ 12 = 24 kWh (output)
È Ê 3.33 ˆ 2 ˘
200 Í1 + Á ˜ ˙ ¥ 12 = 2.47 kWh (loss)
Î Ë 20 ¯ ˚
10 kW, 0.8 p.f. (12.5 kVA), 6 h 10 ¥ 6 = 60 kWh
È Ê 12.5 ˆ 2 ˘
200 Í1 + Á ˜ ˙ ¥ 6 = 1.67 kWh (loss)
Î Ë 20 ¯ ˚
20 kW. 0.9 p.f. (22.22 kVA), 6 h 20 ¥ 6 = 120 kWh
! 4/2:5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
È Ê 22.22 ˆ 2 ˘
200 Í1 + Á ˜ ˙ ¥ 6 = 2.68 kWh (loss)
Î Ë 20 ¯ ˚
204
\ h(all day energy) = = 96.77%.
204 + 6.82
31. A 400/100 V, 10 kVA, two-winding transformer is to be employed as an auto-transformer to
supply a 400 V circuit from a 500 V source. When tested as a two-winding transformer at
rated load, 0.85 p.f. lagging, its efficiency is 0.97. Find its kVA rating and efficiency as an
auto-transformer.
Hints:
I1
100
I2
V1 = 500 V
V2 = 400 V
I2 – I1
!
Gjh/!4/72! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!42
1000
I1 = 10 ¥ = 100 A
100
500 ¥ 100
(kVA)auto = = 50
1000
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.85
hTW = = 0.97
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.85 + PL
PL = 262.9 W
\ full-load output as auto (0.85 p.f.) = 50 ¥ 0.85 = 42.4 kW
42.5
hauto = = 99.38%.
42.5 + 0.2629
32. A 200/400 V, 20 kVA and 50 Hz transformer is connected as an auto-transformer to transform
600 V to 200 V.
(a) Calculate the kVA rating of an auto-transformer.
(b) With a load of 20 kVA, 0.8 p.f. lagging connected to 200 V terminals, determine the
currents in the load and two-transformer winding.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/2:6
Hints:
!
Gjh/!4/73! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!43
20 ¥ 103
I1 = = 50 A
400
600 ¥ 50
(kVA)auto = = 30
1000
20 ¥ 103
I2 = = 100 A
200
\ I2 – I1 = 50 A.
15 ¥ 1000 10 ¥ 1000
(a) I1 = = 68.2 A. I2 = = 45.6 A
220 220
15
(b) Percentage rated capacity used in transformer 1 = = 75%
20
10
Percentage rated capacity used in transformer 2 = = 66.7%.
15
34. Two single-phase transformers, rated 1000 kVA and 500 kVA respectively, are connected in
parallel on both HV and LV sides. They have equal voltage ratings of 11 kV/400V and their
p.u. impedances are (0.02 + j0.07) and (0.025 + j0.0875) respectively. What is the largest
value of the u.p.f. load that can be delivered by parallel combination at the rated voltage?
Hints:
S1 (rated) = 1000 kVA S2 (rated) = 500 kVA
Z1 = 0.02 + j 0.07 = 0.0728 –74°
Z2 = (0.025 + j 0.0875) ¥ 2 = 0.182 –74°
Z2 Z1
S1 = SL S2 = SL
Z1 + Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
\ SL = 1400 kVA SL = 3500 kVA
As total load is increased, the 1000 kVA transformer will be the first to reach its full-load.
SL(max) = 1400 kVA.
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. A single-phase air core transformer, fed from a rated sinusoidal supply is operating at no
load. The steady state magnetizing current drawn by the transformer from the supply will
have the waveform
I I
(a) (b)
t t
I I
110/220 V
R
r
4W
4W 4W
b
Y
y
B
Z Z
Pcu Pi
(a) (b)
Pi Pcu
Pi Pcu
(c) (d)
Pcu Pi
11. If a transformer primary is energized from a square wave voltage source, then its output
voltage will be
(a) zero (b) a sine wave
(c) a triangular wave (d) a pulsed wave
Tjohmf.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 4/2::
V
12. The voltage applied to a transformer primary is increased keeping constant. With this
f
(a) the core loss increases and Im also increases
(b) the core loss decreases and Im increases
(c) the core loss increases and Im remains constant
(d) the core loss and Im remains constant
13. A multimeter is connected to one terminal of primary and the other terminal of secondary to
measure resistance. The multimeter reading would be
(a) infinity (b) zero
(c) equal to resistance of the windings (d) zero or infinity
14. A transformer has leakage impedance of ze = re + jxe. Its maximum voltage regulation occurs
at a power factor of
r r
(a) e lagging (b) e leading
ze ze
r r
(c) e leading (d) e lagging
xe xe
15. When a transformer winding suffers a short circuit, the adjoining turns of the same winding
experience
(a) an attractive force
(b) no force
(c) repulsive force
(d) alternately attractive and repulsive force
16. A transformer designed for operation at 60 Hz supply is worked at 50 Hz supply system
without changing its voltage and current ratings. Compared to the full load efficiency at 60
Hz, the full load transformer efficiency at 50 Hz
(a) remains unaltered (b) decreases marginally
(c) increases marginally (d) increases by 30%
17. An auto transformer results in saving of material if
(a) turns ratio is low (b) rating of transformer is low
(b) turns ratio is high (d) rating of transformer is high
18. An auto transformer is used to step down voltage from V1 to V2. An open circuit develops in
the winding. The maximum voltage across the load can be
(a) 2V1 (b) V1 + V2
(c) V1 (d) 2V2
19. The secondary winding of a transformer is short circuited. It is required to circulate full load
rated current through the windings. The voltage applied to the primary is about
(a) 50% (b) 80%
(c) 10% (d) 100%
! 4/311 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Botxfst
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)
16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (c)
5
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst
JOUSPEVDUJPO! 5/2
The present-day power system is a three-phase system. The change of voltage in a three-phase
system is performed by a single three-phase transformer or by three single-phase transformers. The
advantages of a three-phase transformer over three single-phase transformers are the following:
1. The space required is small.
2. It is lighter and cheaper.
3. It is more efficient.
In a bank of three single-phase transformers, the magnetic circuits for each phase are indepen-
dent of each other so that the flux in the magnetic circuit of a single-phase transformer is due to the
current in the windings of that transformer only. The magnetic circuit in a three-phase transformer
has common paths for the three-phases so that the flux is due to the effect of currents in all the
three-phase.
UISFF!TJOHMF.QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFS!CBOLT!UP! 5/3
GPSN!POF!UISFF.QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFS
A three-phase transformer is formed by connecting three similar single-phase transformers. The
four possible connections of three-phase transformers are Y–D, D–Y, D–D and Y–Y. For Y (star) con-
nection of primary side, three terminals of same polarity are connected together to form the neutral.
To form the D (delta) connection on secondary side, windings are connected in series as shown in
Fig. 4.1. The total kVA of a three-phase transformer is shared by each transformer. For balanced
! 5/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
voltage and current on both sides of the primary and secondary, each transformer should be identi-
cal and the sources and load should be balanced.
A a
b
B
c
C
Gjh/!5/2! Cbol!pg!uisff!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!dpoofdufe!jo!ZÐD!dpoofdujpo
The main advantages of three single-phase transformers over a single three-phase transformer of
the same kVA ratings are the following:
1. If one of the three transformers is damaged, the system still works with reduced capacity and
the damaged one can be replaced without disturbing the supply system.
2. Only one single-phase transformer is needed as a spare part. So the stand-by requirement and
initial cost towards spare units are reduced.
3. It is more easier to transport and install single-phase transformers.
UISFF.QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFS!BT!B!TJOHMF!VOJU! 5/4
Compared to the bank of three single-phase transformers, a single unit three-phase transformer is
more popular and widely used for its light weight and less space.
According to its magnetic circuit, a three-phase transformer is classified in two ways, one is
core-type and another is shell-type transformer.
Figure 4.2 shows the three cores of a core-type transformer, where the magnetic frame is lami-
nated to reduce eddy-current loss. The LV windings are placed nearer to the core with suitable
insulation. The HV windings are placed over the LV windings with proper insulation and oil ducts
in between.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/4
Yoke
Core
LV
HV
Gjh/!5/3! Uisff.qibtf!dpsf.uzqf!usbotgpsnfs
Three single-phase shell transformers (Fig. 4.3) are stacked to construct a shell-type transformer.
Normally, in a shell-type transformer, windings are connected in star or delta connection. This
transformer is mostly used because its voltage waveforms are less distorted as it provides extra path
for third harmonic flux.
LV
HV
LV
HV
LV
Gjh/!5/4! Uisff.qibtf!tifmm.uzqf!usbotgpsnfs
UISFF.QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFS!DPOOFDUJPOT! 5/5
In a three-phase transformer, the primary and secondary windings are connected either in star or
delta. Star connection is more advantageous because it is cheaper (needs lesser turns per phase) and
its maximum voltage to core is limited to 58 percent of the line voltage (earthed neutral).
The choice of a winding connection is depending upon the operating condition of a transformer.
Generally, ‘Y’ and ‘D’ denote the high-voltage star and delta connections respectively and lower
case ‘y’ and ‘d’ denote the low-voltage star and delta connections.
! 5/5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The phase displacement between HV and LV winding depends upon the method and connection
of a winding. Depending upon the phase displacement and connection of winding, a three-phase
transformer is classified into four phasor groups:
1. Zero phase displacement (Yy0, Dd0)
2. 180° phase displacement (Yy6, Dd6)
3. 30° lag phase displacement (Dy1, Yd1)
4. 30° lead phase displacement (Dy11, Yd11)
In the above connection symbol, the first symbol represents the connections of the HV winding,
the second symbol represents LV winding and the third one, the phase displacement between HV
and LV. The angle has been indicated by a clockface hour figure. As per the clock method, the HV
line phasor is always set at 12 o’clock (zero hour) position.
5/5/2! Hspvq!2;![fsp!Qibtf!Ejtqmbdfnfou!)Zz1-!Ee1*
In this connection, the displacement between the HV and LV line emfs is zero. Figure 4.4(a) shows
the connection of the HV winding, in which A1, B1 and C1 are connected together to form the star
point and A2, B2 and C2 being the input points. LV winding is also connected in star in such a way
that there is zero phase displacement between the two line emfs. As such, LV terminals a1, b1, c1
are also connected in star and a2, b2, and c2, are the output terminals as shown in Fig. 4.4(b). The
phasor diagrams of these circuits have been shown in Fig. 4.5 (a and b) which clearly indicate zero
phase displacement.
Similarly, the circuits and the phasor diagrams can be drawn for Dd0 connections, that is HV
winding in delta and LV winding in delta with zero phase displacement. These are shown in Figs
4.6 and 4.7.
A2
A2 a2
a2
N a1
C1 A1 c1 n
b1
C2 B1 c2 b2
C2 b2
B2 c2
B2
(a) Connections of HV winding (b) Connections of LV winding+
Gjh/!5/5! Dpoofdujpo!pg!Z0z!xjui!{fsp!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/6
A2 a2
EA1A2 Ea1a2
C1 A1 c1 a 1
B1 EB Eb
2
b1
1C
c2
1B 1b
c1
C
E
E
C2 2
B2 c2 2
b2
EB2C2 (line emf) Eb2c2 (line emf)
(a) Phasor diagram for HV winding (b) Phasor diagram for LV winding
Gjh/!5/6! Qibtps!ejbhsbnt!pg!uif!djsdvjut!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!5/5
C1 A a2
A2 2 c1 a2
C2 A1 c2 a1
C2 b2
B1 B2 b1 b2
B2 c2
Gjh/!5/7! Dpoofdujpo!pg!IW!boe!MW!jo!efmub!xjui!{fsp!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou
C 1 A2 c1 a 2
E a1
E A1
2
1C
2
c1 c
C
a2
A2
E
C2 A1 c2 a1
B1 EB1B2 B2 b1 Eb1b2 b2
Gjh/!5/8! Qibtps!ejbhsbnt!pg!uif!djsdvjut!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!5/7
5/5/3! Hspvq!3;!291°!Qibtf!Ejtqmbdfnfou!)Zz7-!Ee7*
In this case, phase displacement between the HV and LV line emfs is 180°. In this group, the con-
nections of LV winding are reversed with respect to the HV winding in order to obtain 180° phase
displacement. Thus, for Yy connections; A1, B1 and C1 of HV winding are joined together to form a
star point, whereas a2, b2, c2 of the LV winding are connected together to form the neutral.
The connection diagrams of HV and LV windings for this case are shown in Fig. 4.8 and the cor-
responding phasor diagrams, in Fig. 4.9.
! 5/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A2 A2 b1
c1 c1
b1
A1 c2
N b2 n
C1 B1 a2
C2 B2
C2
B2 a1
a1
Gjh/!5/9! Z0z!dpoofdujpo!xjui!291¡!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou
Gjh/!5/:! Qibtps!ejbhsbnt!gps!uif!djsdvjut!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!5/9
On similar lines, connection diagram for Dd6 can be drawn and has been shown in Fig. 4.10.
A2 a2
C1 A2
b2
a2 b1 b 2 c1
C2 A1
C2
B1 B2
B2 a 1 c2 c2
Gjh/!5/21! Dpoofdujpo!pg!Ee7!)xjui!291°!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou*
5/5/4! Hspvq!4;!41°!Mbh!Qibtf!Ejtqmbdfnfou!)Ez2-!Ze2*
In this case, the LV line emf phasor lags the corresponding HV line emf phasor by 30°. For a delta-
star transformer with 30° lag phase displacement, the connection diagrams are shown in Fig. 4.11.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/8
a1 a1
A1 A1
B2
A2 a2 N
B1 b
B1 c2 2
C1 C2 b1
c1 b1
C1 c1
Gjh/!5/22! Uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!dpoofdujpo!Ez2!xjui!41°!mbh!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou
The phasor diagram of the above circuit showing clearly the lag of 30° of LV line emf with re-
spect to HV line emf is shown in Fig. 4.12.
b1
Phasor of line
Eb
emf of HV
2
b1
A1 B2 c E EC1B1
b2 2 c2c1 c1
30°
1
EB
a2
1C
Ph
A
Ec
1
A1
E
as
1
2a em or
A2 B1 f o of l 1 b1
Ea
f H ine
C1 EC1B1 C2 a1 V
Gjh/!5/23! Qibtf!ejbhsbnt!pg!Ez2!dpoofdujpo-!j/f/!41°!mbh!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou
Connection diagrams and phasor diagrams for Yd1 can be drawn in a similar way.
5/5/5! Hspvq!5;!41¡!mfbe!Qibtf!Ejtqmbdfnfou!)Ez22-!Ze22*!
In this case, HV and LV winding must be connected in such a way that the line emf of LV winding
leads the line emf of HV winding by 30°. The connection diagrams with Dy11 has been shown in
Fig. 4.13 and the corresponding phasor diagram, in Fig. 4.14.
a1 a1
B1
A2 B1
a2 n
A1 B2 b
A1 c2 2 b1
C2 C1 c1 b1
C1 c1
Gjh/!5/24! Dpoofdujpot!pg!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!Ez22-!j/f/!41°!mfbe!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou
! 5/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
a1
Phasor of line
a1
a2
emf of HV
E
A2 B1 EC1A1 Ec2c1 a2
b
c1 30° c 2
EB
1
1B
E a2
e 2
n
A
f li e
1
C1
E
r o sid
b1
A1 B2 a so f LV
Ph f o b1
C2 EC1A1 C1 em
Ec1a1
Gjh/!5/25! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!Ez22-!j/f/!41°!mfbe!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou
A2 a2 N n
A1 A2 a2 a1
11 Yy0 N n B1 B2 b2 b1
C2 B2 c2 b2 C1 C2 c2 c1
A2 a2 A1
A2 a2 a1
12 Dd0 C A c a B1 b1
1 0° B2 b2
C2 B2 c2 b2 C1 c1
B b C2 c2
a4 a n
A2 A1 a3
A2 a4 a2 a1
C A b c B1 b4 b3 b1
13 Dz0 n B2 b2
c C1
C2 B2 a b b4 C2 c4
c3 c1
B c4 c2
N n
A2 b1 c1
n A1 A2 a1
a2 a1
21 Yy6 N B1 B2 b1
b b1
C2 B2 a1 c1 2 c1
C1 C2 c2
A2 a1
b 1 b c1 A1 A2 a1 a2
C A B1 B2 b 1 b2 b1
2 180° 22 Dd6 a c
C2 B2 C1 c1 c2 c1
B a1 C2
b3 c3 n
A2 a
b b c A1 A2 a4 a3a2 a1
B1 a3
23 Dz6 C A c n B2 b4 b3 b2 b1
B2 C1 b3 c2
C2 C2 c c3 c1
B a a3 c3 4
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/:
A2 a2 A2 n
A1 a2 a1
31 Dy1 C A c2 n B1 B2 b2 b1
C2 B2 b2 C1 C2 c2 c1
B
a2 N
A2 c A1 A2 a2 a1
32 Yd1 c2 a B1 b2 b1
3 –30° B2
C2 N B2 b c1
b2 C1 C2 c2
a4 n
A2 N
a A1 a4 a1
c b A2 a3 a2
33 Yz1 c4 c B1 b4 b1
an B2 b3 b2
N B2 C1 c1
C2 C2 c4 c3 c2
b b4
A2 a2 A2 n
A1 a2 a1
41 Dy11 C A n b2 B1 B2
C2 b2 b1
B2 c2 C1
B C2 c2 c1
A2 a2 b N a2
A1 a1
A2
a b2 b2
42 Yd11 N B1 B2 c2
b1
4 +30° c c1
C2 B2 c2 C1 C2
a4
A2 N n
a A1
c b A2 a4 a3 a2 a1
43 Dz11 N b n b4 B1 B2 b4 b3 b2 b1
C2 B2 a C1 C2 c4 c3 c2 c1
c4 c
Gjh/!5/26! Ejggfsfou!uzqft!pg!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!dpoofdujpo
TBMJFOU!GFBUVSFT!PG!DPNNPOMZ!VTFE! 5/6
USBOTGPSNFS!DPOOFDUJPOT
2/!Tubs.Efmub!ps!Efmub.Tubs!Dpoofdujpo!)ZD!ps!DZ*!
It is a very common connection in power-supply transformers. Normally, the HV winding is delta
connected and LV winding is star connected. These connections have no problems with unbalanced
loads and third harmonics. The delta connection provides a path for the circulation of the third
harmonics and their multiples without the use of a neutral wire and assures balanced phase voltages
on the star side.
! 5/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3/!Tubs.Tubs!Dpoofdujpo!)Z.Z*
For small and high-voltage transformers, it is more economical due to less amount of insulation and
turns per phase. This connection has two problems:
(a) If the neutral is not present, the phase voltages become unbalanced when the load is
unbalanced. Hence, this connection is not suitable for unbalanced loading in the abesnce of a
neutral connection.
(b) The magnetizing current of a transformer is nonsinusoidal as it contains third harmonic
component which is necessary to produce sinusoidal flux to overcome saturation. In a
balanced system, the third harmonic currents in the three phases are additive and their sum at
the neutral of a star connection is not zero. In an ungrounded system, since there is no path
for these currents, they will distort the flux wave to produce voltage with third harmonic on
both the primary and secondary sides. The third harmonic component may be as large as
the fundamental voltage. When this voltage is added to the fundamental, the peak voltage is
nearly twice the normal value.
Both the third harmonic and the unbalanced problem may be overcome by providing a neutral
wire so that third harmonic currents can flow in the neutral instead of building up large
voltages. The neutral also provides a return path for unbalanced currents due to unbalanced
loads. When a neutral wire cannot be provided, each transformer is provided with a third
winding, called tertiary winding which is delta connected.
4/!Efmub.Efmub!Dpoofdujpo!)DD*!
This connection is suitable for both balanced and unbalanced loading. If the third harmonic is pres-
ent, it circulates in the closed path and does not affect the output voltage waveform. In case of fail-
ure of any one transformer, the other two transformers can continue to provide three-phase power
in the form of open delta connection.
The main disadvantage of this type of connection is that there is no available star point. This
connection is useful when neither primary nor secondary requires a neutral and voltages are low.
PQFO.EFMUB!PS!WÐW!DPOOFDUJPO! 5/7
If one of the transformers of delta-delta connection is inoperative while a 3f supply is connected to
primary, three equal supplies will be available at the secondary terminals on no-load and supply is
still possible with reduced capacity. This method is known as open delta or V–V connection. It has
some major applications. They are as follows:
1. If any one of the transformers in the delta-delta bank is inoperative, it is possible to continue
service with reduced capacity.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/22
2. If the three-phase load is small, it is preferable to use V–V connection and in future, if the load
increases, the open delta can be closed to increase the rating.
Figure 4.16 shows the open delta or V–V bank. The total load carried by the V–V bank is not
2/3 of the load. It is only 57.7%. For example, let us consider a delta-delta bank of three 20 kVA
transformers. If it operates in V–V, the capacity of the V–V bank is 34.62 kVA instead of (3 ¥ 20)
kVA or 60 kVA.
R r
VL
Q q
VL
P p
Gjh/!5/27! WÐW!dpoofdujpo
We can write,
D–D capacity = 3 VL IL
= 3 VL ◊ 3 IP = 3VL IP
To get V–V bank, one transformer of D–D bank must be open. In that case, the secondary line
current should be equal to the secondary phase current.
Therefore,
V -V capacity
Ratio of V–V capacity and D–D capacity =
D - D capacity
3 VL IP
= = 0.577
3 VL IP
So, V–V bank carries 57.7% of the original load. In the V–V bank, the average power factor is less
than that of the load. The V–V bank supplies a balanced cos (30° – f) and the other at cos (30° + f).
! 5/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
TDPUU!DPOOFDUJPO!PS!U.DPOOFDUJPO! 5/8
The Scott connection is used to transform three-phase to three-phase voltage or three-phase to
two-phase voltage. This connection was introduced by Charles F Scott. This connection needs two
transformers on each side instead of three transformers.
5/8/2! Tdpuu!Dpoofdujpo!gps!Uisff.qibtf!up
! Uxp.qibtf!Dpowfstjpo
In this connection, one transformer having centre taps on both primary and secondary is known as
the main transformer. The other transformer of primary and secondary whose one end is connected
to the main transformer has a 0.866 tap and it is called the teaser transformer. Three-phase supply
is given to the other end of the teaser and the two ends of the main transformer.
P p
Q q
S s
R r
Gjh/!5/28! Tdpuu!dpoofdujpo
Figure 4.18 Shows the voltage diagram of primary and secondary where the 3f supply voltage is
100 V. The turns ratio is taken as unity.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/24
P p
Teaser
transformer
86.6 V
100 V
10
10
V
V
0
0
0
0
10
10
V
V
S s
100 V R Q r q
100 V 100 V
P p
2/3
V
10
0
0V
10
N N
1/3
S s
R Q r q
30° 30°
EQR EQR
100 V Isr Isq
Gjh/!5/29! Wpmubhf!boe!qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!UÐU!dpoofdujpo!
Hence, this connection is more economical compared to V–V connection with its ratio of 0.866.
For a teaser transformer with load of unit power factor at the secondary, we can conclude the fol-
lowing from Fig. 4.19.
1. The neutral is one third way up from S.
2. The current in a teaser transformer is in phase with its voltage.
3. The current in one half of the main transformer leads the voltage whereas the current in the
other half lags the voltage.
p
86.6 V 57.7 V
100 V
57
V .7
.7 V 100 V
57
s
r q
100 V
50 V 50 V
Gjh/!5/2:! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!mpbe!bu!tfdpoebsz
Another important point is that for a balanced load of power factor cos f, the current in one half
leads the voltage by an angle cos (30° – f), whereas the current in one half lags the voltage by an
angle cos (30° + f) which is similar to the V–V connection. The Scott connection can also be used
for conversion of 3f to 2f.
5/8/3! Cfibwjpvs!Voefs!Frvbm!Mpbejoh!xjui!Vojuz!Qpxfs!Gbdups!
The two secondaries in this case carry equal currents at unity p.f. as shown in the phasor diagram
of Fig. 4.20(a). Under this condition and with the above assumptions, the current in the primary
of the main transformer balancing the secondary current will be I2, whereas current in the teaser
primary is 1.15 I2, where I2 is the current in the secondaries. The current in the primary of the
teaser transformer will be in phase with the star voltage VNC as shown in the phasor diagram of
Fig. 4.20(b). The total current in the primary of the main transformer is the resultant of the follow-
ing two components.
1. I2 to balance the secondary current of main transformer
2. One-half of the primary current in the teaser transformer in either direction from 0
Hence, the current in the lines A and B can now be obtained as shown in the phasor diagram of
Fig. 4.20(b).
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/26
C
V2b
VNC
VL
1.15 I2
VL
I2 I2
I2b = I2a = I2 VN
0.58 I2 0.58 I2
V NA N B
1.15 I2 1.15 I2
V2a
I2a A VAB = VL B
(a) Secondary side phasors (b) Primary side phasors
Gjh/!5/31! Qibtps!ejbhsbnt!voefs!cbmbodfe!mpbejoh!bu!voju!qg
The phasor diagram of Fig. 4.20(b) of the primary side clearly indicates that the resultant cur-
rent in the phase A and B are in phase with the star voltages VNA and VNB respectively. Moreover,
the resultant current in the phase A and B are equal to the primary current in the teaser transformer.
Hence, it is concluded that the three-phase side carries balanced current at unit p.f. for a balance
two-phase load of unit power factor.
5/8/4! Cfibwjpvs!Voefs!Frvbm!Mpbejoh!bu!b
! Qpxfs!Gbdups!pg!1/82!Mbhhjoh!
Figures 4.21 (a and b) show the phasor diagram of the secondary side and the primary side re-
spectively of the Scott connection under equal loading on the secondaries at a power factor of 0.71
lagging.
The phasor diagram clearly shows that the three-phase side again carries the balanced currents.
Hence, it is concluded that in case of Scott connection, if the load is balanced on one side, it will
be balanced on the other side.
It should be clearly noted that the rating of the main transformer is 15 percent greater than that
of the teaser, because the current is same in both, whereas voltage across the main transformer is
15 percent in excess.
C
V2b
I2 1.15 I2
I2b = I2a = I2 0.58 I2 VL V
NC 45°
45° VL
1.15 I2
45° N
V2a I2
45° V
A NB
VN
A VL 45° B
1.1
I2a 0.58 I2
5 I2
Gjh/!5/32! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!voefs!cbmbodfe!mpbejoh!bu!1/!82!q/g/!mbhhjoh
! 5/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
5/8/5! Cfibwjpvs!Voefs!Vofrvbm!Mpbejoh!xjui
! Ejggfsfou!Qpxfs!Gbdupst
The phasor diagram of Scott connection with unbalanced load on the secondary side (both current
and power factors being different) is shown in Fig. 4.22 (a and b). Such a phasor diagram can be
drawn in a similar way as explained above.
The phasor diagram shown above indicates clearly that the loading on the primary side is unbal-
anced. Hence, when the load is unbalanced on one side, it will be unbalanced on the other side also.
C
V2b
1.15 I2b = IC
I2b I2a
VL
VNC
f2b
Ic /2
VL
f2a V2a VA N
A V
NB
VN I2a
A VL B
I2a Ic /2 = 0.58 I2b
IB
(a) Secondary side phasors
(b) Primary side phasors
Gjh/!5/33! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!voefs!vocbmbodfe!mpbejoh!po!tfdpoebsz!tjef
5/8/6! Tdpuu!Dpoofdujpo!gps!Uisff.qibtf!up
! Uxp.qibtf!Dpoofdujpo!
To convert 3f to 2f or vice versa, the connection shown in Fig. 4.23 is used, which is nothing but
a Scott connection having two transformers of different ratings or identical transformers with suit-
able tappings.
The points s and r of the secondary are connected as shown in Fig. 4.23(b) which gives two-
phase three-wire system. Here, Esp = 86.6 V whereas Esq = 100 V. Hence, it produces two unequal
voltages. To get same volts/turn in both primary and secondary, one line of 3f supply is connected
to the point P where SP is 86.6% of the teaser primary turns. The secondary voltage will be equal
in magnitude if and only if the secondary transformers have the same number of turns which results
in a symmetrical 2f, three-wire system instead of unsymmetrical 2f, three-wire system.
Figure 4.24 shows a different connection where the primary has N1 number of turns and is the
connection between Q and R of the main transformer.
3
If the supply voltage is V1 then VPQ = VQR = VPR = V and EPS = V. The secondary terminal
2
voltage will be equal in magnitude but in quadrature to each other. Hence, S is not the neutral point.
V
Let us take N as the neutral point. Then EPN =
3
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/28
3 V
Therefore, ENS = V- = 0.288 V
2 3
0.866
So N divides the teaser winding in the ratio of 2:1 because = 0.288.
3
Scott tap
p
Two phase wire
P
Three phase
86.6 V
100 V
A1 86.6 V
S q
100 V R Q s r
100 V
Gjh/!5/34! 4f!up!3f!dpowfstjpo
IA P
I1T I2T
3
N1
2
Load
N N2
IB
P I11 = 1.15 Ki21
I1M V2T
Q
R
N1 S N1 I1M KI2M KI2M
I2T
2 2
0.58 KI2T
0.58 KI2T
= 1/2 I2T
IC 90°
N
N2 I2M
I2M I 2M
R Q I2M V2M
Load
Gjh/!5/35! B!ejggfsfou!dpoofdujpo!boe!qibtps
Sfmbujpotijq!cfuxffo!Joqvu!boe!Pvuqvu!Dvssfout
Let IA, IB and IC are the input currents in the three-phase side as shown in Fig. 4.24.
\ IA = I1T
! 5/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Neglecting the magnetizing current and considering the mmf balance of the teaser transformer
3
IA ¥ N = I2T N2
2 1
2 N2 2 I 2T
\ IA = I1T = I 2T = (4.1)
3 N1 3 a
3
or, I2T = aIA (4.2)
2
Considering the mmf balance of the main transformer,
N1 N
IB - I C 1 = I2M N2
2 2
N 2I
\ IB – IC = 2 2 I2 M = 2 M (4.3)
N1 a
a
or, I2M = (IB – IC) (4.4)
2
Since IA + IB + IC = 0 in a balanced three-phase system from Eq. (4.1) and (4.3),
Ê 2I ˆ
IA + IB + Á I B - 2 M ˜ = 0
Ë a ¯
2 I2 M
or, IA – + 2 IB = 0
a
IA I2 M
\ IB = - + (4.5)
2 a
Similarly,
IA I2 M
IC = – IA – IB = – IA + -
2 a
IA I2 M
or, IC = - - (4.6)
2 a
Now if the secondary two-phase currents are balanced then
| I2M | = | I2T | = I2
and if I2T is the reference then
I2T = I2 0∞ and I2M = I2 - 90∞ = – j I2
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/2:
1 Ê 2 I2 ˆ I
IB = - Á 0∞˜ - j 2
2Ë 3 a ¯ a
2 I2 Ê 1 3ˆ
or, IB = Á - - j
3 aË 2 2 ˜¯
2 I2
or, IB = -120∞ (4.8)
3 a
Form Eq. (4.6) and Eq. (4.7),
I2 I2
IC = - + j
3a a
2 I2 Ê 1 3ˆ
or, IC = Á- 2 + j 2 ˜
3 a Ë ¯
2 I2
or, IC = +120∞ (4.9)
3 a
2 2
ÊI ˆ ÊI ˆ
| I B | = | IC | = Á A ˜ + Á 2 M ˜
Ë 2¯ Ë a ¯
2 2
ÊI ˆ ÊI ˆ
= Á 1T ˜ + Á 2 M ˜ (4.10)
Ë 2 ¯ Ë a ¯
UISFF.QIBTF!UP!TJY.QIBTF!DPOWFSTJPO! 5/9
For three-phase to six-phase conversion, the following schemes are commonly used.
1. Double-star connection
2. Double-delta connection
3. Six-phase star connection
4. Diametrical connection
! 5/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
5/9/2! Epvcmf.Tubs!Dpoofdujpo
Figure 4.25 shows a double star connection of the transformer for 3f to 6f conversion. The prima-
ries of three identical transformers are connected in star and each secondary unit splits into two
equal parts which are connected in star.
Let the current supplied by the teaser secondary be I2T at unit power factor. The teaser primary
N2 ÊN ˆ ÊI ˆ N
current become I1T = I2T ¥ = 1.15 Á 2 ˜ I2T = 1.15 Á 1T ˜ where a = 1 is the turns ratio.
3N1 Ë N1 ¯ Ë a ¯ N2
2
The current IM1 of each half of the main transformer of the primary has the following two com-
ponents:
N2 I2 M
1. One part is required to balance the secondary current (I2M) which is I2M ¥ = and
N1 a
1
2. The other part is equal to one half of the teaser primary current or, I because the main
2 1T
transformer primary serves as the return path for teaser primary current and it divides itself
into two halves at the mid-point S.
The condition due to a balanced two-phase load at a lagging power factor of 0.866 has been
shown in Fig. 4.26(a). The three-phase side is balanced here. The main transformer rating is 15%
greater than the rating of the teaser transformer. This is due to the fact that its voltage is 15%
greater. But its current remains the same.
R Y B
A1 I A2 B1 II B2 C1 III C2
r1 r2 r3 r4 y1 y2 y3 y4 b1 b2 b3 b4
n
n1
6-phase
1 4 3 6 5 2 load
Gjh/!5/36! Epvcmf.tubs!dpoofdujpo
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/32
Figure 4.26(b) shows the condition due to an unbalanced two-phase load having different cur-
rents and power factors.
I1T = 1.15 KI2T V2T I1T = 1.15 KI2T V2T
I2M
P I2M P
2T
2T
KI
KI
KI
= 0 I1T
.58 T
2M
1
.58
I
1/2
1/2
30° q2T
=0
KI I1M
I1M 2M
N
Q 30° V2M R Q q2M V2M
R
2T
2T
I 2M
KI
I 2M
.58 T
KI
.58 T
1
1
I
I
I2M I2M
1/2
1/2
=0
=0
Gjh/!5/37! Wfdups!ejbhsbn!gps!cbmbodfe!boe!vocbmbodfe!mpbejoh
5/9/3! Epvcmf.efmub!Dpoofdujpo!
Figure 4.27 shows the double-delta connection of transformers for 3f to 6f conversion where three
identical single-phase transformers are used. The three primaries are connected in delta whereas
each transformer in the secondary unit splits into two equal connections. Each set of secondaries
are connected in delta.
5/9/4! Tjy.qibtf!Tubs!Dpoofdujpo
Figure 4.28 shows the six-phase star connection of transformers for 3f to 6f conversion where
three identical single-phase transformers are used. The three primaries are connected in delta and
the centre tap of each secondary transformer is connected to neutral.
R Y B
B1 B2
R1 R2 Y1 Y2
Primary
r1 r2 r3 r4 y1 y2 y3 y4 b1 b2 b3 b4
Secondary
n1
6-phase
1 4 3 6 5 2 load
Gjh/!5/38! Epvcmf.efmub!dpoofdujpo
! 5/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
R Y B
Primary
R1 R2 Y1 Y2 B1 B2
n n n
Secondary
r1 r2 y1 y2 b1 b2
6-phase
1 4 3 6 5 2 load
Gjh/!5/39! Tjy.qibtf!tubs!dpoofdujpo
5/9/5! Ejbnfusjdbm!Dpoofdujpo!
Figure 4.29 shows a diametrical connection. No centre tapping is used here. Neutral connections
are not required.
R Y B
R1 R2 Y1 Y2 B1 B2 Primary
r1 r2 y1 y2 b1 b2 Secondary
6-phase
1 4 3 6 5 2 load
Gjh/!5/3:! Ejbnfusjdbm!Dpoofdujpo
UISFF.QIBTF!UP!UXFMWF.QIBTF!DPOWFSTJPO! 5/:
For this connection, two banks of three-phase transformers or two three-phase transformers are
required. The connection for converting three-phase to twelve-phase is shown in Fig. 4.30. The
primary of the first three-phase transformer is connected in delta while the primary of the other is
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/34
connected in star. The secondary windings of both the transformers are connected in double-star
form. There is a phase shift of 30° between the secondary star voltages of two six-phase systems
leading to a balanced twelve-phase system.
The transformer with its primary in star must have a tertiary winding connected in delta in order
to provide a path for the secondary current. This connection is suitable for rectifier and inverter
circuits.
A B C A B C
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
a1 a2 b1 b2 c1 c2 a1 a2 b1 b2 c1 c2
1 7 5 11 9 3 2 8 6 12 10 4
Gjh/!5/41! Uisff.qibtf!up!uxfmwf.qibtf!dpowfstjpo!dpoofdujpo
! Qspcmfn!5/2
B!uisff.qibtf!tufq.epxo!usbotgpsnfs!jt!dpoofdufe!up!7711!W!po!uif!qsjnbsz!tjef/!Uif!sbujp!pg!uvsot!
qfs!qibtf!jt!21!boe!uif!mjof!dvssfou!esbxo!gspn!uif!nbjot!jt!36!B/!Gjoe!tfdpoebsz!mjof!wpmubhf-!mjof!
dvssfou!boe!pvuqvu!jg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jt!)b*!tubs.tubs-!)c*!efmub.efmub-!)d*!tubs.efmub-!boe!)e*!efmub.
tubs/!Ofhmfdu!mpttft/
Solution
Input = 3 ¥ 6600 ¥ 25/100 = 285.79 kVA.
Neglecting losses, output in each case is 285.79 kVA.
6600
(a) Primary phase voltage =
3
6600
Secondary phase voltage =
3 ¥ 10
6600
Secondary line voltage = ¥ 3
3 ¥ 10
= 660 V
Primary phase current = 25 A
Secondary phase current = 25 ¥ 10 = 250 A
! 5/35 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!5/3
B!211!iq-!551!W-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibwjoh!b!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!pg!1/:4!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!
pg!1/:!jt!gfe!gspn!b!4411!W!tztufn!uispvhi!b!44110551!efmub.tubs!usbotgpsnfs/!Gjoe!dvssfout!jo!uif!
qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!qibtf!xjoejoht!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/!Ofhmfdu!mpttft!boe!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou/
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/36
Solution
100 ¥ 735.5
Line current on secondary side =
3 ¥ 440 ¥ 0.9 ¥ 0.93
= 115.3 A
Since secondary winding is in star, phase current on secondary side is equal to line current, i.e.
115.3 A.
3300
Turns ratio = = 12.99
( 440 / 3 )
115.3
Primary phase current = = 8.876 A.
12.99
! Qspcmfn!5/4
B!611!lWB-!221110511!W-!DÐZ!ejtusjcvujpo!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!espq!pg!2&!boe!mfblbhf!
sfbdubodf! espq!pg!6&/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!usbotgpsnfs!jnqfebodf! qfs!qibtf!bt!sfgfssfe!up!ijhi.wpmubhf!
tjef-!boe!)c*!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm.mpbe-!1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
(a) Base kVA = 500
Base voltage of 11000 V for HV side
400 V for LV side
Since primary is delta connected,
Base VA per phase = 500 ¥ 1000/3
Base voltage = 11000 V
Base VA per phase
Base current =
Base voltage per phase
500 ¥ 103
=
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 103
= 15.15 A
11 ¥ 103
Base impedance for HV side (Zb) = W
15.15
= 726.07 W
Rp.u. = 0.01, Xp.u. = 0.05
Zp.u. = (0.01 + j 0.05) p.u.
Z = (Zp.u.)(Zb) = (0.01+ j 0.05) 726.07
= (7.26 + j 36.3) W
! 5/37 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!5/5
B! uisff.qibtf! usbotgpsnfs! jt! bttfncmfe! cz! dpoofdujoh! uisff! 2111! WB-! 4410221! W! tjohmf.qibtf!
usbotgpsnfst/!Efufsnjof!uif!opnjobm!wpmubhf!boe!qpxfs!sbujoht!pg!uif!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!gps!
ZÐZ-!DÐD-!ZÐD!boe!DÐZ!dpoofdujpot/
Solution
For each connection, the power rating will be 3 ¥ 1000 VA or 3 kVA
For Y–Y connection
V1L = 3 ¥ 330 = 571.57 V
V2L = 3 ¥ 110 = 190.52 V
The nominal rating of the transformer will be 3 kVA and 572/190 V.
For D–D connection
V1L = 330 V
V2L = 110 V
The nominal rating of the transformer will be 3 kVA and 330/110 V.
For Y–D connection
V1L = 3 ¥ 330 = 571.57 V
V2L = 110 V
The nominal rating of the transformer will be 3 kVA and 571.57/110 V.
For D–Y connection
V1L = 330 V
V2L = 3 ¥ 110 V =190.52 V
The nominal rating of the transformer will be 3 kVA and 330/190.52 V.
! Qspcmfn!5/6
B! uisff.qibtf! 2111! lWB-! 71110711! W-! ZÐZ-! 61! I{! usbotgpsnfs! ibt! bo! jspo! mptt! pg! 2111! X/! Uif!
nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pddvst!bu!:1&!pg!gvmm.mpbe/!Dbmdvmbuf!
! )b*! Uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bu!gvmm.mpbe!boe!1/96!q/g/
! )c*! Uif!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!bu!voujz!q/g/!
Solution
Iron loss = 1000 W
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/38
\ x2 Pcu fl = 1000
1000
Pcu fl = = 1234.56 W.
0.81
(a) Full-load
Total loss = [1000 + 1234.56] = 2234.56 W.
Output on full-load at 0.90 p.f. lagging = 1000 ¥ 0.9 ¥ 103
= 106 ¥ 0.9 W
= 900000 W
90, 0000
\ efficiency = = 0.9975 p.u.
90, 0000 + 2234.56
= 99.75%
(b) Full-load and unity p.f.
Total loss = 2234.56
Output at unity p.f. = 106 W
100, 0000
\ efficiency = p.u. = 0.9977 p.u.
100, 0000 + 2234.56
= 99.77%.
! Qspcmfn!5/7
Uxp!U.dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!vtfe!up!tvqqmz!b!551!W-!99!lWB!cbmbodfe!mpbe!up!gpsn!b!cbmbodfe!
4f!tvqqmz!pg!9/9!lW/!Efufsnjof!)b*!wpmubhf!boe!dvssfou!sbujoh!pg!fbdi!dpjm-!boe!)c*!lWB!sbujoh!pg!uif!
nbjo!boe!ufbtfs!usbotgpsnfst/
Solution
(a) Voltage across main primary = 8.8 kV = 8800 V
Voltage across teaser primary = 0.866 ¥ 8800 = 7620.8 V
The current is the same in teaser and main primary and it is equal to the line current
88 ¥ 103
IL = = 5.77 A
3 ¥ 8800
The secondary teaser voltage = 440 ¥ 0.866 = 381 V
Main voltage = 440 V
! 5/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
5.77 ¥ 8800
The secondary line current = = 5.77 ¥ 20
440
= 115.4 A
(b) Main kVA = 8800 ¥ 5.77 ¥ 10–3 = 50.776
Teasure kVA = 0.866 ¥ main kVA = 43.97.
! Qspcmfn!5/8
Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!xpsljoh!bu!211!W!bsf!tvqqmjfe!gspn!551!W-!4f!nbjo!uispvhi!b!Tdpuu!
dpoofdujpo/!Gjoe!uif!dvssfou!jo!fbdi!mjof!pg!uif!4f!nbjot!xifo!uif!qpxfs!ublfo!cz!fbdi!gvsobdf!jt!
211!lX!bu!q/g/!pg!1/8!mbhhjoh/!Uif!mpttft!jo!uif!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!ofhmjhjcmf/
Solution
440
Turns ratio = = 4.4
100
100 ¥ 103
I2 = = 1428.57 A
0.7 ¥ 100
I2T = I2M = I2 = 1428.57 A
Since the two-phase load is balanced, the three-phase side is also balanced.
1.15 ¥ 1428.57
Primary current = = 373.37
4.4
Again for star connection, phase current and line current are equal. So line current = 373.37.
! Qspcmfn!5/9
B!3111!lWB-!7/702/2!lW-!4f!efmub.tubs!dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmu/!
TD!uftu;!311!W-!231!B-!36!lX
Dbmdvmbuf!qfsdfoubhf!sftjtubodf-!sfbdubodf!espq-!boe!sfhvmbujpo!po!gvmm.mpbe!bu!q/g/!pg!1/9!)mbh*/!Uif!
jspo!mptt!evsjoh!PD!uftu!>!31!lX/
Solution
Primary phase voltage = 300 V
120
Primary current/phase = = 69.28 A
3
200
Z01 = = 2.88 W
69.28
25 ¥ 103
Now, I 12 R01 = = 8.33 ¥ 103 W = 8330 W
3
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/3:
8330
R01 = = 1.74 W
(69.28) 2
69.28 ¥ 1.74
Percentage R = ¥ 100 = 1.82
6600
Percentage X = 2.40
Percentage voltage regulation on full-load at 0.8 p.f.
= 1.82 ¥ 0.8 + 2.40 ¥ 0.6 = 2.896.
! Qspcmfn!5/:
B!gffefs!xjui!jnqfebodf!)1/8!,!k!1/3*!W!qfs!qibtf!gffet!uisff!jefoujdbm!61!lWB-!31110211!W-!61!
I{!D0Z!dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfs!cbolt/!Uif!wpmubhf!bu!uif!tfoejoh!foe!pg!uif!gffefs!jt!gjyfe!bu!3!lW!
mjof.up.mjof/!Uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmu!jt!uif!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu!sftvmu!pg!b!usbotgpsnfs!xifo!MW!ufsnjobm!jt!
tipsu.djsdvjufe/!
WIW!>!51!W-!g!>!61!I{-!JIW!>!41!B-!Q!>!911!X
Dbmdvmbuf!
! )b*! Uif!tfdpoebsz!mjof.up.mjof!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!cbol!efmjwfst!sbufe!dvssfou!up!b!cbmbodfe!uisff.
qibtf!v/q/g/!mpbe
! )c*! Uif!dvssfout!jo!uif!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoh!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!boe!jo!uif!gffefs!xjsft!
po!uif!pddvssfodf!pg!b!tpmje!uisff.qibtf!tipsu.djsdvju!bu!uif!tfdpoebsz!mjof!ufsnjobmt
Solution
(0.7 + j 0.2) W
2000 V(line) VL
D/Y
Gjh/!5/42! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspcmfn!5/:
\ ZT = (0.889 + j 0.989) W
Z total = (0.7 + j 0.2) + (0.889 + j 0.989)
= (1.589 + j 1.189) W
= 1.985, –36.8° W
\ f = 36.8°
50 ¥ 1000
(a) IL (HV) = = 43.3 0∞ A
2000 / 3
Voltage drop = IL (R cos f + X sin f)
= 43.3 (0.889 cos 36.8° + 0.989 sin 36.8°)
= 56.47 N
È Ê 2000 ˆ˘ 2000
VL (line to line) = Í 3 Á - 56.47˜ ˙
Î Ë 3 ¯˚ 100 3
= 1902.19/11.55 V
= 164.69 V
(b) Three-phase short-circuit on secondary terminals
2000 / 3
I Fsc = = 581.7 A
1.985
Isc (transformer primary) = 581.7 3 A
= 1007.5 A (line current)
2000
Isc (transformer secondary) = 1007.5 ¥
100 3
= 11633.6 A (line current).
! Qspcmfn!5/21
B!tnbmm!joevtusjbm!voju!esbxt!bo!bwfsbhf!mpbe!pg!211!B!bu!1/9!mbhhjoh!q/g/!gspn!uif!tfdpoebsjft!pg!
jut!36110361!W-!71!lWB!Z0D!usbotgpsnfs!cbol/!Gjoe
! )b*! Uif!qpxfs!dpotvnfe!cz!uif!voju!jo!lX
! )c*! Uif!upubm!lWB!vtfe!
! )d*! Uif!sbufe!mjof!dvssfout!bwbjmbcmf!gspn!uif!usbotgpsnfs!cbol!
! )e*! Uif!sbufe!usbotgpsnfs!qibtf!dvssfout!pg!uif!D.tfdpoebsjft
! )f*! Qfsdfou!pg!sbufe!mpbe!po!usbotgpsnfst!
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/42
! )g*! Qsjnbsz!mjof!boe!qibtf!dvssfout
! )h*! Uif!lWB!sbujoh!pg!fbdi!joejwjevbm!usbotgpsnfs
Solution
2500 / 3 V
100 A
2500 V
10
:1
3 250 V
Gjh/!5/43! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspcmfn!5/21
! Qspcmfn!5/22
Gjhvsf!5/44!tipxt!b!Tdpuu.dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfs-!tvqqmjfe!gspn!22!lW-!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{!nbjot!
xjui!tfdpoebsjft-!tfsjft!dpoofdufe!bt!tipxo/!Tvqqmz!611!B!bu!b!wpmubhf!pg!211! 3!up!b!sftjtujwf!mpbe/!
Uif!qibtf!tfrvfodf!pg!uif!uisff.qibtf!tvqqmz!jt!BCD/
Teaser 500 A
A
Va
( 3 /2) N1
11 KV, 3-phase
supply
IA N2
Resistive load
100 2 V
B
M
N1/2 N1/2
C
Vc N2
Gjh/!5/44! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspcmfn!5/22
! )b*! Dbmdvmbuf!uif!uvsot.sbujp!pg!uif!ufbtfs!usbotgpsnfs/!
! )c*! Dbmdvmbuf!uif!mjof!dvssfou!JC!boe!jut!qibtf!bohmf!xjui!sftqfdu!up!uif!wpmubhf!pg!qibtf!B!up!ofv.
usbm!po!uif!uisff.qibtf!tjef/
Solution
100 2
(a) Va = Vb = = 100 V
2
N1 VBC 11000
= = = 110
N2 Vb 100
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/44
3 N1
Turns ratio = ◊ = 3/2 ¥ 110 = 95.26
2 N2
2 N2
(b) IA = ¥ ¥ 500 A
3 N1
2 100
= ¥ ¥ 500 A
3 11000
= 5.249 A
N2 500
IBC = ¥ 500 A = A = 4.545 A
N1 110
V and I are in-phase because of a resistive load.
IA
IB = IB C -
2
5.249
= 4.545 – = 1.92 A
2
So IB is lagging VAN by 45°.
! Qspcmfn!5/23
Bo!71110561!W-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!efmub!dpoofdufe!po!uif!IW!tjef!boe!MW!xjoejoht!
bsf!tubs!dpoofdufe/!Uifsf!bsf!up!cf!21!W!qfs!uvso!boe!uif!gmvy!efotjuz!jt!opu!up!fydffe!2/3!Xc0n3/!
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!qfs!qibtf!po!fbdi!xjoejoh!boe!uif!ofu!jspo!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!
uif!dpsf/
Solution
Ê Eph1 ˆ
Induced voltage in the primary per turn Á ˜ = 10 V
Ë Np1 ¯
HV side phase voltage (Eph1) = Line voltage (El1) = 6000 [As it is delta connected]
6000
\ = 10
Np1
\ NP1 = 600
Eph 2
Also, = 10
Np 2
1
Now, Eph2 = ¥ 450 = 259.8 V
3
! 5/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
259.8
\ Np2 = = 25.98 ª 26
10
\ Eph2 = 4.44 Bm A f Np2
\ 10 = 4.44 ¥ 1.2 ¥ A ¥ 50
10
\ A= = 0.037 m2.
4.44 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 50
! Qspcmfn!5/24
Uxp!211!lWB!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!pqfo.efmub!up!tvqqmz!b!341!W!cbmbodfe!
uisff.qibtf!mpbe/!
! )b*! Xibu!jt!uif!upubm!mpbe!uibu!dbo!cf!tvqqmjfe!xjuipvu!pwfsmpbejoh!fjuifs!usbotgpsnfs@
! )c*! Xifo!uif!efmub!jt!dmptfe!cz!uif!beejujpo!pg!b!uijse!211!lWB!usbotgpsnfs-!xibu!upubm!mpbe!dbo!
opx!cf!tvqqmjfe@
! )d*! Qfsdfou!jodsfbtf!jo!mpbe/
Solution
(a) The rated secondary transformer current
100 ¥ 103
= = 434.78 A
230
Now load kVA = 3 ¥ 230 ¥ 434.78 ¥ 10–3 = 173.2 kVA
[As the secondary transformer current = Load current]
! Qspcmfn!5/25
Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!gvsobdft!xpsljoh!bu!211!W!bsf!dpoofdufe!up!b!7711!W-!uisff.qibtf!tvqqmz!uispvhi!
Tdpuu.dpoofdufe! usbotgpsnfst/! Efufsnjof! uif! dvssfout! jo! uif! uisff.qibtf! mjoft! xifo! uif! qpxfs!
ublfo!cz!fbdi!gvsobdf!jt!611!lX!bu!b!q/g/!pg!1/6!mbhhjoh/!Ofhmfdu!usbotgpsnfs!mpttft/
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/46
Solution
Np 6600
Turns ratio = = = 33
Ns 100
For a teaser transformer,
P2t = V2t I2t cos f 2t
550 ¥ 103
\ I2t = A = 10000 A
100 ¥ 0.5
As the two-phase load is balanced, the three-phase side is also balanced.
For the mmf balance of the teaser transformer,
3
IA ¥ N = I2t Ns
2 p
2 N
\ IA = ¥ s ¥ I2 t
3 Np
2 1
= ¥ ¥ 10000 A = 349.9 A
3 33
\ | IA | = | IB | = | IC | = 349.9 A.
! Qspcmfn!5/26
B!efmub!tubs!2201/55!lW!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!26!W!qfs!uvso!boe!nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!pg!
26!Xc0n3/!Efufsnjof!uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!qfs!qibtf!po!fbdi!xjoejoh!boe!uif!ofu!dsptt.tfdujpobm!
bsfb/
Solution
Voltage per turn is 15 V
Line voltage on HV side = Phase voltage on HV side = 11 kV
\ number of turns in the high-voltage side
11000
N1 = = 733
15
440
Phase voltage on LV side = V
3
\ number of turns on the LV side
440
N2 = = 17
3 ¥ 15
If A is the cross-sectional area of the core then
E2 = 4.44 Bm A f N2
E 1 1
or, A= 2 ¥ = 15 ¥ = 0.045 m2.
N2 4.44 Bm f 4.44 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 50
! 5/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!5/27
B!611!lWB!mpbe!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh!jt!tvqqmjfe!cz!uisff!2f!usbotgpsnfst!dpoofdufe!jo!DÐD/!Fbdi!pg!uif!
DÐD!usbotgpsnfst!jt!sbufe!bu!311!lWB-!36110361!W/!Jg!pof!efgfdujwf!usbotgpsnfs!jt!sfnpwfe!gspn!
tfswjdf-!dbmdvmbuf!gps!uif!WÐW!dpoofdujpo/
! )b*! Uif!lWB!mpbe!dbssjfe!cz!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!
! )c*! Qfsdfou!sbufe!mpbe!dbssjfe!cz!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!
! )d*! Upubm!lWB!sbujoht!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!cbol!jo!WÐW
! )e*! Sbujp!pg!WÐW!cbol!up!DÐD!cbol!usbotgpsnfs!sbujoht
! )f*! Qfsdfou!jodsfbtf!jo!mpbe!po!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!xifo!pof!usbotgpsnfs!jt!sfnpwfe
Solution
(a) Load in kVA per transformer in V–V bank
1
= ¥ 500 = 288.67 kVA
3
288.67
(b) Percent rated load carried by each transformer = ¥ 100 = 144.335 percent
200
(c) Total kVA rating of the V–V bank
= 3 ¥ 200 = 346.4 kVA
! Qspcmfn!5/28
B!61!lWB-!249110319!W-!DÐZ!ejtusjcvujpo!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!pg!2/6&!boe!sfbdubodf!pg!
9&!qfs!voju/!
Efufsnjof!uif!usbotgpsnfsÕt!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!ijhiÐwpmubhf!tjef!boe!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!
gvmm.mpbe!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/
Solution
The base impedance of the high-voltage side
(13800) 2
Zbase = = 11426 W (E high-voltage side is delta connected)
50, 000 / 3
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/48
! Qspcmfn!5/29
Uisff!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst-!fbdi!pg!sbujoh!26!lWB!-!33110221!W-!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!efmub.efmub!
gps!uisff.qibtf!cbmbodfe!pqfsbujpo/!Uif!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!jt!1/9!mbh/!Jg!uif!bssbohf.
nfou!jt!dpowfsufe!up!pqfo!efmub/!
! )b*! Efufsnjof!uif!mpbe!lWB!efmjwfsfe!jo!fbdi!dbtf!xjuipvu!pwfsmpbejoh!uif!usbotgpsnfst!boe!uif!
pqfsbujoh!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfst!pqfsbujoh!jo!pqfo!efmub/
! )c*! Gjoe!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!jg!uif!usbotgpsnfst!xfsf!pqfsbujoh!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups!jo!efmub.efmub/
! )d*! Xibu!xpvme!cf!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!gps!uif!usbotgpsnfst!jo!efmub.efmub-!jg!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!pof!
pg!uif!usbotgpsnfst!jt!up!cf!{fsp!jo!pqfo.efmub@!
Solution
Rated secondary current
15000
I2 = = 136.36 A
110
(a) In delta-delta configuration, the transformer secondary currents are the phase currents of
delta-connected secondary.
\ line current in the secondary
IL = 3 ¥ 136.36 = 236.2 A
! 5/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3 VL I L 3 ¥ 110 ¥ 236.2
Load kVA = 3
= = 45
10 103
When the transformers are connected in open-delta, the line current is the rated current of the
transformers.
\ IL = 136.36 A
! Qspcmfn!5/2:
Uxp!221!W-!tjohmf.qibtf!gvsobdft!xjui!mpbet!pg!911!lX!boe!2111!lX!pqfsbuf!bu!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!
1/818!mbhhjoh!gspn!4/4!lW-!uisff.qibtf!tvqqmz!uispvhi!b!Tdpuu.dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfs/!Efufsnjof!
uif!dvssfout!jo!uif!uisff.qibtf!mjoft/
Solution
3300 N
Turns ratio a = = 30 = 1
110 N2
For the main transformer, the secondary current
1000 ¥ 103
I2M = = 12858 A
110 ¥ 0.707
For the teaser transformers,
800 ¥ 103
I2T = = 10286 A
110 ¥ 0.707
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/4:
! Qspcmfn!5/31
Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!Tdpuu.dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfst!tvqqmz!b!uisff.qibtf!mpbe!xjui!351!W!cfuxffo!mjoft!
boe!ofvusbm/!Uif!qibtf!wpmubhf!jo!uif!uxp.qibtf!tztufn!jt!22!lW!boe!uijt!jt!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef/!Jg!
uif!nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!jo!uif!dpsf!jt!2/6!Xc0n3!boe!uif!dsptt.tfdujpobm!bsfb!pg!uif!dpsf!jt!711!
tr/!dn-!efufsnjof!uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!jo!cpui!uif!ijhi.!boe!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoht!boe!uif!qptjujpo!
pg!uif!ofvusbm!qpjou/!
Solution
If number of turns in the high-voltage side is NH,
11000 = 4.44 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 600 ¥ 10–4 ¥ 50 NH
\ NH = 550
Hence, the number of turns on the high-voltage side of both transformers is 550.
3 ¥ 240
The number of turns in the low-voltage side of the main transformer = 550 ¥ = 21
11000
3
The number of turns in the high-voltage side of the teaser transformer = ¥ 21 = 18
2
From Fig. 4.24, the number of turns between S and N
1
TNS = ¥ 18 = 6
3
th
\ the neutral point is located at the 6 turn from the point S.
! 5/51 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
QBSBMMFM!PQFSBUJPO!PG!UISFF.! 5/21
QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFST
For parallel operation of three-phase transformers, the conditions for paralleling a single-phase
transformer are required as well as the following additional conditions:
1. The ratio of voltage should refer to terminal voltage of primary and secondary.
2. The phase sequence must be identical.
3. The phase between primary and secondary of all transformers to be parallel must be identical.
The main reason for operating transformers in parallel are as follows:
1. Using a single large transformer for a large load is uneconomical and impractical too.
2. In substations, the total load required may be supplied by an appropriate number of
transformers of standard size. This reduces the spare capacity of the substation.
3. There is a scope of future expansion of a substation to supply a load beyond the capacity of
the transformers already installed.
4. If there is a breakdown of a transformer in a system of transformers connected in parallel,
there is no interruption of power supply for essential services. Similarly, when a transformer is
taken out of service for its maintenance and inspection, the continuity of supply is maintained.
If two star-star or delta-delta transformers are to be operated in parallel they must belong to
the vector group, i.e. either they both should be connected for zero phase displacement or 180°
phase displacement. A delta-delta transformer can also be operated with a star-star transformer if
they belong to the same vector group. Similarly, DY transformer can be operated with another DY
transformer and a YD transformer can be operated in parallel with another YD transformer if they
belong to the same vector group. A DY transformer can also be operated in parallel with a YD trans-
former. But a DD or YY transformer cannot be put in parallel with a DY or YD transformer, as this
would result in 30° phase displacement between primary and secondary line voltages and hence a
large circulating current will flow.
IBSNPOJD!QIFOPNFOB!JO!B!UISFF.! 5/22
QIBTF!USBOTGPSNFS
If the flux in a transformer core is sinusoidal, the induced emf is also sinusoidal but the magnetizing
current is not sinusoidal due to non-linear B-H curve for core material. The magnetizing current
contains third and higher harmonics necessary to produce sinusoidal flux. The amplitude of these
harmonics increases with increase in maximum flux density in the core.
If the phase voltage across each phase is to remain sinusoidal then the phase magnetizing cur-
rents are of the form as follows:
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/52
Iam = Im sin wt + I3m sin (3wt + q3) + I5m sin (5m + q5) … (4.11)
Ibm = Im sin (wt – 120°) + I3m sin [3 (wt – 120°) + q3] + I5m sin [5 (wt – 120°) + q5]
= Im sin (wt – 120°) + I3m sin (3wt + q3) + I5m sin (5wt + 120° + q5) … (4.12)
Icm = Im sin (wt – 240°) + I3m sin [3 (wt – 240°) + q3] + I5m sin [5 (wt – 240°) + q5]
= Im sin (wt – 240°) + I3m sin (3wt + q3) + I5m sin (5wt + 240° + q5)… (4.13)
Here, third and fifth harmonics components have been considered and higher order harmonics
are neglected. From the equations (4.11) to (4.13), it is noted that third harmonic currents of all the
three phases are in the same direction and hence they are cophasal.
2/!Efmub!Dpoofdujpo!
If Iam, Ibm and Icm represent the magnetizing current in the phase of a delta-connected winding then
the line current
Iabm = Iam – Ibm = 3 Iam sin (wt + 30°) – 3 I5m sin (5wt – 30° + q5)… (4.14)
Hence, from Eq. (4.14), it is seen that the third harmonic component does not exist in the line
current of the delta-connected transformer though it exists in the phase current. The third harmonic
current flows round the closed loop of delta-connected winding. For this reason, majority of three-
phase transformers have delta-connected winding and in case where it is not possible to have either
primary and secondary connected in delta, a tertiary winding connected in delta is provided. The
tertiary winding carries the circulating third harmonic current required by the sinusoidal flux in
each limb of the core.
A similar treatment for voltages is also applicable. Since the third harmonic current flows in the
same direction, the third harmonic voltage round the closed delta is 3V3m sin (3wt + f3). This third
harmonic voltage will circulate a third harmonic current round the closed loop of the delta.
3/!Tubs!Dpoofdujpo!
In star connection, the neutral current
Hence, under balanced condition, the current in the neutral wire is a third harmonic current hav-
ing three times the magnitude of each third harmonic phase current. If neutral wire is not present
(three-wire system), the neutral current is zero. Hence, I3m = 0. Hence, a three-phase three-wire
star-connected system suppresses the flow of third harmonic magnetizing current.
! 5/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
JOSVTI!DVSSFOU! 5/23
When a transformer is switched on, a heavy inrush of magnetizing current takes place. This tran-
sient current has distorted wave shape and the negative half-cycles may be wiped out. The transient
current lasts for only a few cycles but during this time, it causes severe dip in the supply voltage and
may cause tripping of overload and differential relays.
I3
I1
B3
B1 Bm
B¢ B¢
t1 t2
I2
B2
Gjh/!5/45! Josvti!dvssfou!boe!gmvy!efotjuz
Consider Fig. 4.34; when the transformer operates under normal condition, the flux density
follows curve B1 and magnetizing current follows curve I1. Suppose the transformer is switched
off at time t1. The current is zero at this position but the flux density has some value, say B¢. If the
transformer were not switched off, the flux density and current would have followed curve B2 and
curve I2 respectively. The curve is switched on again at t2. Since flux cannot be created or destroyed
instantly, the flux density wave starts from the initial value B¢ and traces curve B3 which is a dis-
placed sinusoid. The magnetizing current corresponding to curve B3 is I3. Since the transformer
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/54
is designed for flux density Bm, the peak value of the curve B3 will cause supersaturation of the
magnetic circuit which results in very high value of magnetizing current.
The maximum value of inrush current depends on the instant of switching on and the residual
flux density. The residual flux density in transformers may be about 50 to 60% of the maximum
flux density and is responsible for making the peak of inrush current about 2 to 5 times as high as
it would be otherwise.
!USBOTGPSNFS!UBQQJOHT! 5/24
The taps in a transformer are provided to permit small changes in the turns ratio of the transformer
A typical transformer installation might have four taps in addition to the nominal setting with spac-
ings of 2.5 percent of full-load voltage. Such an arrangement provides for adjustments up to 5%
above or below the nominal voltage rating of the transformer. The taps in a transformer permit the
transformer to be adjusted in the field to accommodate variations in local voltages.
Though taps may be provided on both the high- and low-voltage sides, the tappings are generally
provided on the high-voltage side due to the following reasons:
1. The low-voltage winding is placed next to the core due to the insulation considerations. The
high-voltage winding which is placed outside the low-voltage winding is easily accessible
and tappings can be provided easily.
2. Tap changing gears if placed in the high-voltage side will have to handle lower current as
against if they are placed in the low-voltage side.
3. As the low-voltage side has fewer number of turns, if the tappings are provided on the low-
voltage side, the variation in the output voltage will be limited. On the other hand, as the high-
voltage side has more turns, smoother control of output voltage is possible if the tappings are
provided in the high-voltage side.
The tap changer is connected where the voltage to the neutral is minimum. In a star-connected
transformer, the tapped end of the windings are connected to form the star point though physically
the tapped coils are placed in the middle of the winding. In a delta-connected transformer, it is es-
sential to provide the tapped coils in the middle so that the tap-changing gear is far removed from
the line and lighting surges.
Depending on whether the tap changer is designed to operate when the transformer is out of
service or when the transformer is in operation, it can be of two types: off-load tap changer and
on-load tap changer.
5/24/2! Pgg.Mpbe!Ubq!Dibohfs
Off-load tap changers are used for seasonal voltage variations. A simple arrangement of off-load
tap changer with six studs is shown Fig. 4.35. The high-voltage winding is tapped at 2.5% interval.
! 5/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
LV HV
2
3
S
4
6
1
Gjh/!5/46! Pgg.mpbe!ubq!dibohfs
S is a rotatable arm which can be rotatable with the help of a handle. When S short circuits studs 1
and 2, the output voltage is the full rated voltage of the high-voltage winding. When S short circuits
studs 1 and 6, the output voltage is 97.5% of the full rated voltage. Similarly, when S short circuits
studs 6 and 5, and 5 and 4, the output voltage is 95% and 92.5% respectively. When S connects studs
4 and 3 simultaneously, the output voltage is 90% of the rated voltage of the high-voltage winding.
S cannot be rotated beyond 3 in anticlockwise direction due to mechanical stress limitations.
The off-load tap changers are operated after switching off the transformer. If the transformer is
operated with S at studs 4 and 5 and it is desired to operate the transformer with S at positions 6 and
5 then the transformer must first be de-energized, and S is rotated in clockwise direction to short
circuit studs 6 and 5. After this, the transformer should be connected to the supply.
5/24/3! Po.Mpbe!Ubq!Dibohfs
In this process of tap changing, the output voltage can be varied while the transformer is in opera-
tion. No part of the tapped winding should get short circuited and some resistors or reactors are
introduced to prevent short circuit. Also, an alternate circuit is provided so that the load current can
take the alternate path when the tap-changing selection process is carried out in the main circuit.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/56
HV
LV
X
d
S
X b
Gjh/!5/47! Po.mpbe!ubq!dibohfs
When the transformer is delivering full rated voltage, the switch S is closed and switch a is con-
nected as shown in Fig. 4.36. The mmfs generated in the two identical reactors X cancel each other
as they carry equal currents in the opposite directions. When the tapping is required to be connected
at position b, the switch S is opened. In this condition, the upper reactor carries the total current.
Then switch b is closed, switch a is opened and again S is closed. This sequence of operation should
be followed every time the tap setting is changed. In modern times, the on-load tap changers are
designed for automatic operation.
JOEVDUJPO!SFHVMBUPS! 5/25
An induction regulator can be used for smooth variation of the output ac voltage. The output voltage
is changed by varying the angle between the magnetic fluxes of primary and secondary windings
unlike in a tap-changer transformer where the output voltage is regulated by altering the turns ratio.
Also, in a tap-changer transformer, smooth variation of voltage is not possible, as voltage can be
varied in discrete steps.
An induction regulator is actually an induction machine constructed to be used as a variable
voltage supplier. The rotor should be kept in a static position after turning it mechanically by the
required angle, otherwise the rotor may try to rotate as a motor, specially in case of a three-phase
regulator. The rotor rotation in an induction regulator is limited to a maximum of half revolution,
hence the slip rings and brushes are not required.
! 5/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
5/25/2! Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Sfhvmbups!
Figure 4.37 shows the construction of a single-phase regulator. The primary winding is placed in ro-
tor slots. It is designed to carry small current and has smaller conductor area. The secondary wind-
ing is housed in stator slots due to its larger cross-sectional area. In addition to the primary winding,
the rotor also carries a short-circuited compensating winding whose magnetic axis is perpendicular
to that of the primary winding. The secondary is connected in series with the output circuit. When
the primary and secondary winding axes coincide, there is maximum magnetic coupling between
them and zero magnetic coupling with the compensating winding. Hence, the secondary induced
emf is maximum and the output voltage is the sum of primary voltage and the secondary induced
emf. When the primary axis is perpendicular to the secondary axis, no emf is induced in the sec-
ondary and the output and input voltages are equal. If the primary is rotated through 180° from the
secondary winding axis, the secondary induced emf is again maximum, but of reversed polarity.
Hence, the output voltage is the difference of the primary voltage and the secondary induced emf.
If V1 is the primary voltage and E2 be the secondary induced emf then the output voltage can be
varied between V1 + E2 and V1 – E2 by moving the rotor through 180°.
Input
S
P C P
a
S
S C
Output
(a) (b)
Gjh/!5/48! Tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!sfhvmbups;!)b*!Dpotusvdujpo!)c*!Dpoofdujpo!ejbhsbn
The rating of a single-phase induction regulator is equal to the product of full-load output cur-
rent and the maximum voltage variation from normal. The advantages of a voltage regulator over a
tap-changer transformer is its smooth voltage control without interruption in the supply circuit. The
disadvantages of induction regulators are its higher initial cost and higher magnetizing current due
to the presence of air gap.
5/25/3! Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Sfhvmbups!
The three-phase induction regulator is very similar to a three-phase slip-ring induction motor. As
in a three-phase motor, the primary currents produce a constant amplitude rotating magnetic field
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/58
when the primary windings are connected to a three-phase supply. This rotating magnetic field in-
duces emfs in the secondary winding whose magnitudes depend on the primary to secondary turns
and are independent of rotor position. The phase of the secondary induced emf changes relative to
that of the primary, as the rotor is moved. Hence, a variation in the phase of the output voltage is
obtained by altering the angular position of the rotor causing a phase shift of the secondary emf. If
V1 and E2 be the input voltage and secondary induced emf respectively then the maximum output
voltage V1 + E2 is obtained when E2 is in phase with V1 and minimum voltage V1 – E2 is obtained
with E2 in phase opposition to V1. Figure 4.38 (a) shows the connection diagram of a three-phase
induction motor. Figure 4.38 (b) shows the locus of output voltage V2 which is a circle with centre
at extremity of V1 and of radius E2. When q = 0, the output voltage V2 = V1 + E2 and when q = 180°,
V2 = V1 – E2. Figure 4.38(c) shows the phasor diagram for all the three phases.
Primary Secondary R
R
V1 E2 V2
Y Y
B
E2 Input line
voltage
1
q
V2
V1 Output
line
voltage
(c)
Gjh/!5/49! Uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!sfhvmbups;!)b*!Dpoofdujpo!ejbhsbn!)c*!Mpdvt!pg!pvuqvu!)d*!Qibtps!
ejbhsbn
UISFF.QIBTF!BVUP.USBOTGPSNFST! 5/26
The working principle of a three-phase autotransformer is same as that of a single-phase auto-
transformer. Three auto-transformers are used for small ratios of transformations. Normally, star
connections are used and delta connections are avoided in such transformers. These transformers
! 5/59 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
are mainly used for interconnecting two power systems of different voltages, for example 220 kV
to 400 kV, 132 kV to 220 kV, 66 kV to 132 kV system, etc. A three phase star-connected autotrans-
former is shown in Fig. 4.39.
Gjh/!5/4:! Uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!bvupusbotgpsnfs
UISFF.XJOEJOH!USBOTGPSNFST! 5/27
Three-winding transformers contain an additional winding, other than primary and secondary
windings, called tertiary winding. Unlike two-winding transformers, the kVA rating of the three
windings are different. The voltage rating of the primary is the highest and that of the tertiary is
lowest. The voltage rating of the secondary winding lies in between primary and tertiary.
The advanges of using tertiary winding are as follows:
1. The main advantage of using tertiary winding, which is always connected in delta, is that its
delta connection suppresses any harmonic that may be generated in star-connected primary
or secondary.
2. When the secondary load currents are unbalanced, the primary currents also become
unbalanced and the circulating current is reduced in the tertiary winding. This tends to restore
both primary and secondary phase voltages to their normal phase magnitudes and angles.
3. The tertiary winding can be used to feed a load having a voltage other than that of primary and
secondary. For example, they are used to supply substation auxiliaries (lights, fans, pumps,
etc.) at a voltage different from those of primary and secondary.
4. Synchronous capacitors or static high-voltage capacitors are connected across delta-connected
output of the tertiary windings for reactive power injection into the system for power factor
correction or voltage regulation.
5. The lower voltage rating of the tertiary winding makes it suitable for use in high-voltage
transformer testing.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/5:
5/27/2! Frvjwbmfou!Djsdvju!pg!b!Uisff.xjoejoh!Usbotgpsnfs
As in a two-winding transformer, a three-winding transformer can also be represented by equiva-
lent resistance and reactance of each individual winding. Figure 4.40 shows the equivalent circuit
of a three-winding transformer referred to the primary.
R¢2 X¢2 2
I¢2
R1 X1
1
I1 Io
3
I¢3
R¢3 X¢3 V¢2
V1 Ro Xo
V¢3
Gjh/!5/51! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!b!uisff.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!sfgfssfe!up!qsjnbsz
R1 and X1 are the resistance and leakage reactance of the primary winding. R¢2 and X 2¢ are the
resistance and leakage reactance of the secondary winding referred to the primary and R2¢ and X3¢
are the resistance leakage reactance of the tertiary winding referred to the primary. I1 is the primary
winding current. I 2¢ and I 3¢ are the secondary and tertiary winding currents referred to the primary.
5/27/3! Efufsnjobujpo!pg!Uisff.Xjoejoh
! Usbotgpsnfs!Qbsbnfufst!
Similar to the two-winding transformers, the parameters of the three-winding transformer can be
determined from open-circuit and short-circuit tests.
2/!Tipsu.djsdvju!Uftu!
The equivalent leakage impedances referred to a common base can be determined from short-
circuit test. This test is performed in three stages. At first, the instruments (ammeter, voltmeter
and wattmeter) are connected in winding 1, and winding 3 is kept open circuited. A low voltage is
applied in winding 1 so that rated current flows in winding 2 which is short circuited. The voltage,
current and power rating of winding 1 are voted. The connection diagram is shown in Fig. 4.41.
! 5/61 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
W
1 2 3
A
Gjh/!5/52! Dpoofdujpo!ejbhsbn!pg!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu
I1 R1 X1
R3
X3
Gjh/!5/53! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu
If Z12 represents the short-circuit impedance of windings 1 and 2 with winding 3 open then
Z12 = Z1 + Z2 … (4.18)
Now if V1, I1, and W1 be the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings then
V1
Z12 =
I1
W1 2 2
Equivalent resistance R12 = and equivalent leakage reactance X12 = Z12 - R12
I12
In the second stage, winding 3 is short circuited and winding 2 is open circuited. A low voltage
is applied in winding 1 to circulate rated current in winding 3. If Z13 represents the short-circuit
impedance of windings 1 and 3 with winding 2 open then
Z13 = Z1 + Z3 (4.19)
Z13 can be found from the ratio of voltmeter and ammeter reading.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/62
In the third stage, all the instruments are connected in winding 2 keeping winding 1 open. Wind-
ing 3 is short circuited and a low voltage is applied to winding 2 to circulate rated current in wind-
ing 3. Z23 can be determined from this test where
Z23 = Z2 + Z3 (4.20)
Solving equations (4.18), (4.19) and (4.20),
1
Z1 = (Z12 + Z13 – Z23) (4.21)
2
1
Z2 = (Z23 + Z12 – Z13) (4.22)
2
1
Z3 = (Z13 + Z23 – Z12) (4.23)
2
where Z1 = R1 + jX1, Z2 = R2 + jX2 and Z3 = R3 + jX3
It should be remembered that Z12 and Z13 are referred to winding 1 as the instruments are con-
nected in winding 1. Z23 is referred to winding 2 as the instruments are connected in winding 2.
Hence, Z23 must be referred to winding 1 to perform the calculations on a common base.
3/!Pqfo.djsdvju!Uftu!
This test is performed on any one of the three windings to determine core losses, turns ratio and
magnetizing impedance. Winding 1 may be excited with both windings 2 and 3 open-circuited.
V1
\ N12 =
V2
V1 V V /V N
N13 = and N23 = 2 = 2 1 = 13
V3 V3 V3 /V3 N12
5/27/4! Wpmubhf!Sfhvmbujpo!pg!b!Uisff.xjoejoh!Usbotgpsnfs
The different steps for calculating voltage regulation are as follows:
1. Determine kVA in each winding for the given load. The ratio of the magnitude of the actual
kVA loading of the winding to the base kVA used are as follows:
Primary kVA loading
K1 =
base kVA
Similarly,
Secondary kVA loading Tertiary kVA loading
K2 = , K3 =
base kVA base kVA
! 5/63 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
5/27/5! Bqqmjdbujpot!pg!Uisff.xjoejoh!Usbotgpsnfst!
1. Supplying an auxiliary load at a voltage different from that of secondary
2. To feed a distribution system from two transmission circuits of different voltages
3. The secondary load can be subdivided into two secondary windings to reduce short-circuit
current.
4. It can be used for load ratio control circuit.
5. A generating station feeding two outgoing transmission systems of different voltages.
BVEJP!GSFRVFODZ!USBOTGPSNFS! 5/28
These transformers are generally small transformers used in electronic or communication circuits
for processing, control, measurement or testing with amplifiers, oscillators, etc. They are used in the
audio frequency range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. These transformers step up or step down the voltage in
high-frequency circuits and also act as an impedance transforming device for impedance matching
or sometimes they may serve some other auxiliary function such as blocking dc to pass only ac to
the next circuit. Certain larger transformers of medium power are needed for transmitters, induc-
tion and dielectric furnaces. In radio and television sets, these high-frequency transformers are
used between different amplification stages. These transformers are called intermediate frequency
transformers or IFT.
In audio frequency transformers, the iron losses have to be kept under permissible limit by using
special high-resistivity, low-hysteresis and high-permeability materials like soft ferrites or high-
permeability silicon steel.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/64
SFDUJGJFS!USBOTGPSNFS! 5/29
Rectifier transformers are used with power rectifiers when a given ac supply is required to be
rectified and used as rectified dc voltage in electric arc furnace, dc welding, battery charging,
electrolysis, electroplating and other applications. There are centre- or neutral tapped and bridge-
transformer rectifier circuits. Though a rectifier transformer has same general principles of power
transformer, the secondary of rectifier transformers feed the rectifier in current pulses. This causes
increased losses as well as leakage fluxes. Hence, compared to the power transformers, they have
lower efficiency and higher percentage impedance.
HSPVOEJOH!USBOTGPSNFS! 5/2:
When neutral of the power transformer is not available for grounding, these transformers are used.
For example, in delta-delta connection, there is no neutral point. In such cases, a star-delta trans-
former is used which is a step-down transformer. The system is connected to the star-connected pri-
mary of the grounding transformer whose neutral is grounded. The delta-connected secondary does
not supply any load but provides a closed path for the triplen harmonics. Under normal conditions,
the currents in a grounding transformer are only the exciting currents. But if a single line-to-ground
fault occurs, large currents may flow through it. Hence, a grounding transformer should be of suffi-
cient rating to withstand the effects of line-to-ground faults. Transformers with zigzag connections
are also used as grounding transformers.
USBOTGPSNFS!OBNFQMBUF! 5/31
The broad specifications of transformers are given below:
1. kVA rating
2. Rated voltage
3. Number of phases (that is, 1f or 3f)
4. Rated frequency
5. Type of connections for 3f
6. Tappings if they exist
7. Type of core
8. Power or distribution type
9. Ambient temperature (it is generally 40°C)
10. Nature of cooling
11. Rise of temperature above ambient temperature
! 5/65 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!5/32
Uxp!frvbm!sbujp-!qbsbmmfm!dpoofdufe-!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!tvqqmz!2111!lWB!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh!
bu!22!lW/!Jg!uifjs!joufsobm!jnqfebodft!bsf![B!>!2!,!k4!boe![C!>!2/6!,!k6!pint-!gjoe!lWB-!lX-!dvssfou!
boe!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs/!
Solution
For Transformer 1,
È 1.5 + j 5 ˘
kVA rating = [1000 –– cos–1 0.8] Í ˙
Î 2.5 + j 8 ˚
È 5.22 –73.3∞ ˘
= (1000 ––36.87°) Í ˙
Î 8.38 –72.65∞ ˚
= 1000 ––36.87° ¥ 0.62 –0.65°
= 620 ––36.22° kVA
kW rating = 620 ¥ cos 36.22° kW
= 500.187 kW
Power factor = cos 36.22° = 0.8 lagging
620
Current = = 32.54 A
3 ¥ 11
For Transformer 2,
È 1+ j3 ˘
kVA rating = [1000 –– cos–1 0.8] Í ˙
Î 2.5 + j 8 ˚
È 3.16 –71.56∞ ˘
= 1000 –– 36.87° Í ˙
Î 8.38 –72.63∞ ˚
= 1000 –– 36.87° ¥ 0.377 –– 1.09°
= 377 –– 37.96° kVA
kW rating = 377 (cos 37.96°) kW
= 297.24 kW
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/66
! Qspcmfn!5/33
B!611!lWB!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!1/13!q/v/!sftjtubodf!boe!1/19!q/v/!sfbdubodf!jt!dpoofdufe!
jo!qbsbmmfm!xjui!b!861!lWB!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!1/126!q/v/!sftjtubodf!boe!1/15!q/v/!sfbd.
ubodf/!Gjoe!ipx!uifz!tibsf!b!mpbe!pg!2111!lWB!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/9!mbhhjoh/!
Solution
Here, the given per unit values refer to different ratings. They should be converted to the same
base kVA, say 500 kVA.
ZA = 0.02 + j 0.08 = 0.08 –75.96° p.u.
500
ZB = (0.015 + j 0.04)
750
= 0.01 + j 0.026 = 0.0278 –68.96°
ZA + ZB = 0.02 + j 0.08 + 0.01 + j 0.026
= 0.03 + j 0.106
= 0.11 –74.197° p.u.
Total load kVA = SL
= 1000 –– cos–1 0.8°
= 1000 ––36.9°
ZB
SA = SL
ZA + ZB
0.0278 –68.96∞
= ¥ 1000 –– 36.9°
0.11 –74.197∞
= 0.253 –– 5.237° ¥ 1000 –– 36.9°
= 253 –– 42.137° [253 kVA at p.f. 0.7 lagging]
ZA
SB = ¥ SL
ZA + Z B
0.08 –75.96∞
= ¥ 1000 ––36.9°
0.11 –74.197∞
= 0.727 –1.763° ¥ 1000 –– 36.9°
= 727 –– 35.137° [727 kVA at p.f. 0.8 lagging].
! 5/67 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!5/34
Uxp!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!pg!tbnf!uvsot!sbujp!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!qbsbmmfm!boe!tvqqmz!b!upubm!mpbe!
pg!2611!lX!bu!1/96!q/g/!mbh/!Uif!sbujoht!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;!
Usbotgpsnfs!2;!911!lWB-!1/14!q/v/!sftjtubodf!boe!1/16!q/v/!sfbdubodf!
Usbotgpsnfs!3;!2111!lWB-!1/13!q/v/!sftjtubodf!boe!1/18!q/v/!sfbdubodf/
Efufsnjof!uif!qpxfs!pvuqvu!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs/!
Solution
Considering 1000 kVA as the base kVA,
1000
R1p.u. = 0.03 ¥ = 0.0375
800
1000
X1p.u. = 0.05 ¥ = 0.0625
800
1500
The load kVA is - cos -1 0.85 or 1765 - 31.8∞
0.85
\ power output of the first transformer is
0.02 + j 0.07
S1 = ¥ 1765 - 31.8∞
0.0375 + 0.02 + j (0.0625 + 0.07)
0.02 + j 0.07
or, S1 = ¥ 1765 - 31.8∞
0.0575 + j 0.1325
or, S1 = 892.3 - 24.3∞ kVA
! Qspcmfn!5/35
B!uisff.qibtf!efmub.tubs!usbotgpsnfs!xifo!dpoofdufe!up!b!tvqqmz!pg!4/4!lW!po!uif!efmub!tjef!hjwft!
b!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!pg!551!W!po!uif!tubs!tjef/!Uif!tfdpoebsz!jt!dpoofdufe!xjui!b!mpbe!pg!311!B!bu!
1/96!q/g/!mbh/!Uif!frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!espqt!bsf!3&!boe!5&!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!uif!
uvsot!sbujp/!
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/68
Solution
If E2 be the no-load voltage on the secondary side and V2 is the voltage under loaded condition,
E2 – V2 = I2 Re2 cos q2 + I2 Xe2 sin q2
E2 I R I X
or, = 1 + 2 e 2 cos q2 + 2 e 2 sin q2
V2 V2 V2
E2
or, = 1 + 0.02 ¥ 0.85 + 0.04 ¥ 0.5268
V2
E2
or, = 1.0381
V2
Line terminal voltage on star side is 440 V.
440
\ phase voltage V2 =
3
440
\ E2 = 1.0381 ¥ = 263.7 V
3
E1 3300
\ turns ratio is or or 13.
E2 263.7
! Qspcmfn!5/36
B!3!NX-!1/9!q/g/!mbh!uisff.qibtf!mpbe!jt!tvqqmjfe!gspn!b!ubq!dibohfs-!uisff.qibtf!22044!lW!efmub.
tubs!usbotgpsnfs/!Uif!usbotgpsnfs!qbsbnfufst!qfs!qibtf!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;!
S2!>!1/4!W-!S3!>!3!W-!Y2!>!6!W!boe!Y3!>!26!W/
Efufsnjof!uif!tfuujoh!pg!uif!ubq!dibohfs!up!hjwf!44!lW!bu!mpbe!boe!xifo!uif!qsjnbsz!jt!tvqqmjfe!bu!
22!lW/!Uif!qfs!qibtf!mpbe!sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!bsf!26!W!boe!6!W!sftqfdujwfmz/
Solution
To find the required tap setting, we need to know the change in the terminal voltage when it is
loaded with respect to that under no-load condition.
I 2 Re 2 cos q 2 + I 2 X e 2 sin q 2
Voltage regulation =
V2
2 ¥ 103
Secondary current I2 = = 43.74 A
3 ¥ 33 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
2
ÊN ˆ
Re2 = R¢1 + R2 + RL = R1 Á 2 ˜ + R2 + RL
ËN ¯ 1
N2 33
Now = = 3
N1 3 ¥ 11
! 5/69 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
( 3 ) + 2 + 15 = 17.9 W
2
\ Re2 = 0.3 ¥
= 5 ¥ ( 3 ) + 15 + 5 = 35 W
2
and Xe2
43.74
\ voltage regulation = {17.9 ¥ 0.8 + 35 ¥ 0.6}
33 ¥ 103 3
or, = 0.081
or, = 8.1%
! Qspcmfn!5/37
B!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!bvupusbotgpsnfs!tvqqmjft!b!cbmbodfe!uisff.qibtf!mpbe!pg!211!lX!bu!
451!W!boe!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/!Jg!uif!tvqqmz!wpmubhf!jt!511!W-!efufsnjof!uif!dvssfout!jo!uif!xjoejoh!
bt!xfmm!bt!jo!uif!joqvu!boe!pvuqvu!mjoft/!Ofhmfdu!fydjujoh!dvssfou!boe!joufsobm!wpmubhf!espqt/
Solution
100 ¥ 103 = 3 ¥ 340 ¥ IL ¥ 0.8
100 ¥ 103
\ IL = = 212.26 A
3 ¥ 340 ¥ 0.8
Input volt-amperes per phase = Output volt amperes per phase
400 340
\ IH = IL [IH = winding current]
3 3
340
\ IH = ¥ 212.26 = 180.4 A
400
Currents flowing from neutral to tapping points = (212.26 – 180.4) A
= 31.86 A.
! Qspcmfn!5/38
B!tubs0tubs0efmub!usbotgpsnfs!xjui!qsjnbsz-!tfdpoebsz!boe!ufsujbsz!xjoejoht!pg!22111044110551!W!
ibt!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou!pg!6!B/!Uif!tfdpoebsz!xjoejoh!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!cbmbodfe!mpbe!pg!911!lWB-!
1/9! q/g/! mbhhjoh! boe! uif! ufsujbsz! xjoejoh! jt! dpoofdufe! up! b! cbmbodfe! mpbe! pg! 311! lX/! Ofhmfdujoh!
mpttft-!gjoe!uif!qsjnbsz!boe!ufsujbsz!qibtf!dvssfout!jg!uif!qsjnbsz!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!1/9!mbhhjoh/!
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/6:
Solution
The secondary line current
800 ¥ 103
I2L = = 139.96 A
3 ¥ 3300
Since the secondary is star connected, the phase current
I2p.u. = 139.96 A
The secondary current transferred to the primary side
3300
I 2¢ = 139.96 ¥ = 41.988 A
11000
Let the tertiary winding be operating at a power factor of cos q3 lag.
\ the tertiary phase current
200 ¥ 103 151.51
I3 = A= A
cos q 3 ¥ 3 ¥ 440 cos q 3
11000
\ tertiary phase current I3 = (10.5) 2 + ( 2.875) 2 ¥
3 ¥ 440
= 157.14 A
! Qspcmfn!5/39
Uif!sbujoht!pg!b!uisff.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;!
Qsjnbsz;!7!NWB-!7/7!lW
Tfdpoebsz;!4!NWB-!4/4!lW
Ufsujbsz;!!!!!!4!NWB-!551!W
Uif!sftvmut!pg!tipsu.djsdvju!uftut!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
Qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz!tipsu!djsdvju!boe!ufsujbsz!pqfo!djsdvju;!!711!W-!511!B
Qsjnbsz!boe!ufsujbsz!tipsu!djsdvju!boe!tfdpoebsz!pqfo!djsdvju;!911!W-!511!B
Tfdpoebsz!boe!ufsujbsz!tipsu!djsdvju!boe!qsjnbsz!pqfo!djsdvju;!411!W-!2611!B
Ofhmfdujoh!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf-!efufsnjof!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!qbsbnfufst!sfgfssfe!up!uif!qsjnbsz/
Solution
600
Z12 = X12 = = 1.5 W
400
800
Z31 = X31 = =2W
400
300
¢ = X23
Z23 ¢ = = 0.2 W
1500
6.6
\ Z23 = X23 = 0.2 ¥ = 0.4
3.3
1.5 + 2.5 + 0.4
\ Z123 = X123 = = 2.2 W
2
X1 = 2.2 – 0.4 = 1.8 W
X2 = 2.2 – 2 = 0.2 W
X3 = 2.2 – 1.5 = 0.7 W
Base impedance for primary
(Base kV) 2 (6.6)2
= = = 7.26 W
Base MVA 6
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/72
1.8
\ X1 = p.u. = 0.248 p.u.
7.26
0.2
X2 = p.u. = 0.0275 p.u.
7.26
0.7
X3 = p.u. = 0.0964 p.u.
7.26
! Qspcmfn!5/3:
Uif!wpmubhf!sbujoh!pg!b!uisff.xjoejoh!tubs.tubs.efmub!dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfs!bsf!22111!W-!2611!W!
boe!551!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!mpbe!dpoofdufe!up!uif!tfdpoebsz!boe!ufsujbsz!bsf!2111!lWB!bu!1/86!q/g/!
mbh!boe!611!lWB!bu!1/96!q/g/!mbh!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!jg!
uif!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou!jt!9!B/!Jhopsf!mpttft/
Solution
The active power supplied by the primary is equal to the active power supplied by the secondary
and tertiary.
\ 3 ¥ 11 ¥ I1 cos q1 = 1000 ¥ 0.75 + 500 ¥ 0.85
where I1 and cos q1 are the primary current and primary power factor respectively.
\ 3 ¥ 11 ¥ I1 cos q1 = 1175 (1)
Similarly, equating for the reactive power (considering magnetizing current)
! Qspcmfn!5/41
Uif!sbujp!pg!uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!qfs!qibtf!pg!uif!qsjnbsz-!tfdpoebsz!boe!ufsujbsz!pg!b!uisff!xjoe.
joh!usbotgpsnfs!jt!21!;!6!;!4/!Uif!tfdpoebsz!mpbe!dvssfou!jt!261!B!bu!1/86!mbh!boe!ufsujbsz!mpbe!
dvssfou!jt!91!B!bu!1/96!mbh/!Efufsnjof!uif!qsjnbsz!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!jg!uif!op.mpbe!dvssfou!
jt!9!B!bu!b!mbhhjoh!q/g/!pg!1/4/
! 5/73 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Active component of primary current is 8 ¥ 0.3 or 2.4 A.
5
Active component of secondary current referred to primary is 150 ¥ 0.75 ¥ or 56.25 A.
10
3
Active component of tertiary current referred to primary is 80 ¥ 0.85 ¥ or 20.4 A.
10
\ total active component of current in the primary is 2.4 + 56.25 + 20.4 or 79.05 A.
Similarly, considering the reactive component of all currents referred to the primary the total
reactive component of current in the primary is
5 3
8 ¥ sin (cos–1 0.3) + 150 ¥ sin (cos–1 0.75) ¥ + 80 ¥ sin (cos–1 0.85) ¥ or, 69.88 A
10 10
Ê 69.88 ˆ
Power factor of primary current is cos Á tan-1 or, 0.749 lag.
Ë 79.05 ˜¯
! Qspcmfn!5/42
B!mpbe!ublft!311!B!bu!1/:!q/g/!mbh!gspn!b!uisff.qibtf!22!lW0551!W!tubs.efmub!usbotgpsnfs/!Efufs.
njof!uif!qpxfs!dpotvnfe!cz!uif!mpbe-!lWB!sbujoh!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs-!qibtf!boe!mjof!dvssfout!po!
cpui!tjeft!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/
Solution
Power taken by the load is
3 ¥ 440 ¥ 200 ¥ 0.9 W or 137.18 kW
The rating of the transformer
3 ¥ 440 ¥ 200 VA or 152.42 kVA
152.42
Phase current = Line current in the HV side = =8A
3 ¥ 11
Line current in the LV side is 200 A
200
\ Phase current in the LV side is A or 115.47 A.
3
! Qspcmfn!5/43
B!61!lX-!551!W-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!pqfsbujoh!bu!bo!fggjdjfodz!pg!96&!boe!1/9!q/g/!ublft!
qpxfs!gspn!b!22!lW0551!W!efmub!tubs!usbotgpsnfs/!Efufsnjof!uif!usbotgpsnfs!sbujoh!boe!dvssfout!
po!cpui!tjeft!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs/
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/74
Solution
50
Transformer rating = kVA or 73.53 kVA
0.85 ¥ 0.8
73.53 ¥ 103
Line current on the low-voltage side is A or 96.48 A
3 ¥ 440
As the secondary of the transformer is star connected, phase current on the low-voltage side is
also 96.48 A.
73.53
Line current on the high-voltage side is A or 3.86 A.
3 ¥ 11
Since the HV side is delta connected, the phase current on the HV side is 3 ¥ 3.86 A or 6.68 A.
! Qspcmfn!5/44
B!uisff.qibtf!61!lWB-!22!lW0551!W!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!nbyjnvn!fggjdjfodz!pg!:8&!xifo!ju!efmjwfst!
51! lWB! bu! 1/:! q/g/! boe! sbufe! wpmubhf/! Efufsnjof! uif! fggjdjfodz! pg! uif! usbotgpsnfs! gps! sbufe! lWB!
pvuqvu!boe!1/9!q/g/!mbh/!
Solution
When efficiency is maximum, the output is 40 ¥ 0.9 kW or 36 kW
1 - efficiency 1 - 0.97
\ Loss = ¥ output = ¥ 36
efficiency 0.97
= 1.113 kW
Under maximum efficiency condition,
Core loss = Copper loss
1113
\ Core loss = Copper loss = W = 556.5 W
2
40
Maximum efficiency occurs when output is 40 kVA or or 0.8 fraction of full-load.
50
2
Ê 1 ˆ
\ full-load copper loss is Á ¥ 556.5 W or 869.53 W.
Ë 0.8 ˜¯
50 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 103
The efficiency for rated output is ¥ 100% or 96.56%.
50 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 103 + 869.53 + 556.5
! Qspcmfn!5/45
Uisff!211!NWB!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!sbufe!bu!24/9077/5!lW!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!b!uisff.qibtf!
cbol/!Uif!tfsjft!jnqfebodf!pg!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!jt!1/1156!,!k!1/2:!W!sfgfssfe!up!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoe.
joh/!Gps!ZZ!dpoofdujpo-!dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!wpmubhf!boe!qpxfs!sbujoh!pg!uif!uisff.qibtf!dpoofdujpo-!boe!
)c*!uif!frvjwbmfou!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef/!
! 5/75 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
(a) The power rating of three-phase bank is 3 ¥ 100 or 300 MVA.
The voltage rating of the primary of three-phase bank is 3 ¥ 13.8 or 23.9 kV.
\ the required voltage rating is 23.9/115 kV
(b) The equivalent impedance referred to the high-voltage side is
2
Ê 66.4 ˆ
(0.0045 + j 0.19) ¥ Á W
Ë 13.8 ˜¯
or, 0.104 + j 44 W/
! Qspcmfn!5/46
Uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!ufsnjobmt!pg!b!uisff.qibtf!cbol!pg!uisff!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!tvqqmjfe!
gspn!b!uisff.qibtf-!uisff.xjsf!24/9!lW!)mjof!up!mjof*!tztufn/!Uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!
uisff.xjsf-!uisff.qibtf!tvctubujpo!mpbe!esbxjoh!vq!up!5611!lWB!bu!3411!W!mjof!up!mjof/!Tqfdjgz!uif!
sfrvjsfe!wpmubhf-!dvssfou!boe!lWB!sbujoht!pg!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!gps!uif!gpmmpxjoh!dpoofdujpot;!)b*!ZD!
)c*!DZ!)d*!ZZ!)e*!DD/
Solution
The kVA rating of the three-phase bank is 4500.
4500
\ the rating of each single-phase transformer = kVA = 1500 kVA
3
(a) For YD connection
13.8
The voltage on the high-voltage side is kV or 7.97 kV
3
The voltage on the low-voltage side is 2300 V or 2.3 kV
1500
The current in each transformer in the high-voltage side is A or 188.2 A.
7.97
1500
The current in each transformer in the low-voltage side is A or 0.652 A
2300
Hence, rating of each transformer is
7.97/2.3 kV, 188.2/0.652 A, 1500 kVA
(b) For DY connection
The rating of each transformer is
2.3 1500 1500
13.8 kV, A, 1500 kVA
3 13.8 2.3
3
or, 13.8/1.32 kV, 108.7/1129.6 A, 1500 kVA
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/76
! Qspcmfn!5/47
B! uisff.qibtf! ZD! usbotgpsnfs! pg! sbujoh! 336035! lW-! 511! NWB! ibt! b! tfsjft! sfbdubodf! pg! 22/8! W!
sfgfssfe! up! jut! ijhi.wpmubhf! tjef/! Uif! usbotgpsnfs! jt! tvqqmzjoh! b! mpbe! pg! 436! NWB! xjui! 1/:4! q/g/!
mbhhjoh!bu!b!wpmubhf!pg!35!lW!)mjof!up!mjof*!po!jut!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef/!Ju!jt!tvqqmjfe!gspn!b!gffefs!xiptf!
jnqfebodf!jt!1/22!,!k!3/3!W!dpoofdufe!up!jut!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef/!Efufsnjof!uif!mjof.up.mjof!wpmubhf!bu!
uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!boe!mjof.up.mjof!wpmubhf!bu!uif!tfoejoh!foe!pg!uif!gffefs/!
Solution
The load current per phase
325 ¥ 103
= - cos -1 0.93 = 4514 21.56∞ A
3 ¥ 24
\ when referred to the high-voltage side, the load current
24
IH = 4514 ¥ - 21.56∞ A = 833.97 - 21.56∞ A
225
3
\ phase voltage at the high-voltage side is
225 ¥ 103
VHph = + 833.97 - 21.56∞ (j 11.7)
3
= 103 ¥ 130 + 9757.5 68.44
= (133585 + j 9075) V = 133.89 kV
\ the line voltage at the high-voltage side
VHL = 133.89 ¥ 3 kV = 231.9 kV
! 5/77 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
225 × 103
VFph = + 833.97 - 21.56∞ (0.11 + j 2.2 + j 11.7)
3
= 130 ¥ 103 + 833.97 - 21.56∞ ¥ 13.9 89.54∞
= 130 ¥ 103 + 11592.18 67.98∞
= 134346.26 + j 10749.35 V
= 134.77 4.57∞ kV
\ the line voltage at the sending end of the feeder
VFL = 3 ¥ 134.77 kV = 233.4 kV.
! Qspcmfn!5/48
B!DZ!dpoofdufe!cbol!pg!uisff!jefoujdbm!211!lWB-!35110231!W-!usbotgpsnfst!jt!tvqqmjfe!xjui!qpxfs!
uispvhi!b!gffefs!xiptf!jnqfebodf!jt!1/176!,!k!1/98!W!qfs!qibtf/!Uif!tfoejoh.foe!wpmubhf!pg!uif!
gffefs!jt!ifme!dpotubou!bu!3511!W!mjof!up!mjof/!Uif!sftvmut!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu!po!pof!
pg!uif!usbotgpsnfst!xjui!jut!mpx.wpmubhf!ufsnjobmt!tipsu!djsdvjufe!bsf!
WI!>!64/5!W-!JI!>!52/8!B-!Q!>!943!X
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!mjof.up.mjof!wpmubhf!po!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!xifo!uif!cbol!efmjwfst!
sbufe!dvssfou!up!b!cbmbodfe!uisff.qibtf!vojuz!qpxfs.gbdups!mpbe/!
Solution
From the short-circuit test data, the equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to the high-
voltage side
53.4
ZeH = W = 1.28 W
41.7
832
The equivalent resistance referred to the high-voltage side reH = W = 0.478 W
( 41.7) 2
\ equivalent reactance referred to the high-voltage side
120
When the transformer is to the low-voltage side, the voltage drop is 88.65 ¥ 75.21∞
2400
or, 4.4325 75.21∞ V
\ the terminal phase voltage on the low voltage = 120 – 4.4325 75.21∞ = 118.95 V
The line voltage on the low-voltage side
= 118.95 ¥ 3 V = 206 V.
! Qspcmfn!5/49
Uif!sfbdubodf!pg!b!8/:8!lW0571!W-!86!lWB-!tjohmf.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!tfsjft!sfbdubodf!pg!1/23!
q/v/!
! )b*! Jg!uiftf!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!ZZ!uisff.qibtf!dpoofdujpo-!efufsnjof!uif!uisff.qibtf!
wpmubhf!boe!qpxfs!sbujoh-!qfs!voju!jnqfebodf!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!cbol-!tfsjft!sfbdubodf!sf.
gfssfe!up!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!boe!mpx.wpmubhf!ufsnjobmt/!
! )c*! Sfqfbu!qbsu!)b*!jg!uif!usbotgpsnfst!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!Z!po!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!tjef!boe!D!jo!uif!
mpx.wpmubhf!tjef/!
Solution
(a) For star-star connection, the voltage and power rating is
7.97 ¥ 3 kV/460 ¥ 3 V, 75 ¥ 3 kVA
or, 13.8 kV/797 V, 225 kVA
Per unit impedance is same as the per unit reactance of the single-phase transformer, i.e.
(13.8) 2
0.12 p.u. Base impedance of the high-voltage side is or 846.4 W
225 ¥ 10 -3
\ series reactance referred to HV side is 0.12 ¥ 846.4 or 102 W
Base impedance of the low-voltage side is
(797 ¥ 10 -3 ) 2
W or 2.823 W
225 ¥ 10 -3
\ series reactance referred to the low-voltage side
2.823 ¥ 0.12 W or 0.339 W
(b) For YD connection, the voltage and power rating is
( 460 ¥ 10 -3 ) 2
¥ 0.12 W or, 0.113 W/
225 ¥ 10 -3
! Qspcmfn!5/4:
Jo! Qspcmfn! 5/49-! jg! uif! sbufe! wpmubhf! jt! bqqmjfe! up! uif! ijhi.wpmubhf! ufsnjobmt! boe! uif! uisff! mpx.
wpmubhf!ufsnjobmt!bsf!tipsu!djsdvjufe-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!nbhojuvef!pg!uif!qibtf!dvssfou!jo!qfs!voju!boe!
jo!bnqfsft!po!ijhi.wpmubhf!boe!mpx.wpmubhf!tjeft/!
Solution
As the per unit reactance is 0.12 p.u., the per unit current in each case when the low-voltage side
is short circuited is
1
or 8.33
0.12
For star-star connection
Base current in the high-voltage side is
225
IH base = A
3 ¥ 13.8
\ phase current on high-voltage side is
225
¥ 8.33 A or 78.4 A
3 ¥ 13.8
Base current in the low-voltage side is
225 ¥ 103
IL base = A
3 ¥ 797
\ phase current on low-voltage side is
225 ¥ 103
¥ 8.33 A or 1358 A
3 ¥ 797
For star-delta connection
Phase current on the high-voltage side is 78.4 A.
Base current on the low-voltage side is
225 ¥ 103
IL base = A
3 ¥ 460
\ phase current on low-voltage side is
225 ¥ 103
¥ 8.33 A or 2352 A.
3 ¥ 460
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/7:
! Qspcmfn!5/51
B!uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!sbufe!370456!lW-!961!NWB!ibt!b!tfsjft!jnqfebodf!pg!1/1146!,!k!1/198!
q/v/!po!jut!cbtf/!Ju!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!37!lW-!911!NWB!hfofsbups!xijdi!dbo!cf!sfqsftfoufe!bt!b!wpmu.
bhf!tpvsdf!jo!tfsjft!xjui!b!sfbdubodf!pg!k!2/68!q/v/!po!uif!hfofsbups!cbtf/!
! )b*! Dpowfsu!uif!qfs!voju!hfofsbups!sfbdubodf!up!uif!tufq.vq!usbotgpsnfs!cbtf/
! )c*! Uif! voju! jt! tvqqmzjoh! 811! NX! bu! 456! lW! boe! 1/:6! q/g/! mbhhjoh! up! uif! tztufn! bu! uif! usbot.
gpsnfs!ijhi.wpmubhf!ufsnjobmt/!)j*!Efufsnjof!uif!usbotgpsnfs!wpmubhf!po!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef!
boe!uif!hfofsbups!joufsobm!wpmubhf!cfijoe!jut!sfbdubodf!jo!lW/!)jj*!Gjoe!uif!hfofsbups!pvuqvu!
qpxfs!jo!NX!boe!uif!qpxfs!gbdups/!
Solution
(a) The transformer base is 850 MVA and generator base is 800 MVA.
\ the reactance of 1.57 p.u. on the generator base when transferred to the transformer base
is
850
j 1.57 ¥ = j 1.67 p.u.
800
700
(b) The unit is supplying MVA or 736.84 MVA at transformer high-voltage terminals or the
0.95
736.84
unit is supplying a power of p.u. or 0.867 p.u. at 0.95 p.f. lagging
850
0.867 - cos -1 0.95
\ per unit current I=
1 0∞
= 0.867 -18.2∞
= 1 0∞ + 1.4366 71.68∞
= 1.45 + j 1.364
= 2 43.25∞ p.u = 52 43.25∞ kV
(ii) The generator terminal voltage = Transformer voltage on the low-voltage side
= 1.0767 3.76∞ p.u.
I = 0.867 -18.2∞ p.u.
\ generator output power
SG = Vt I* = 1.0767 3.76∞ ¥ 0.867 18.2∞
= 0.933 21.87∞ p.u.
! Qspcmfn!5/52
B!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!sfevdft!uisff.qibtf!wpmubhf!gspn!551!W!up!331!W!
mjof!up!mjof/!Uif!mpbe!po!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!tjef!jt!23!lX!bu!1/96!q/g/!Ofhmfdujoh!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou-!
efufsnjof!uif!dvssfou!jo!uif!xjoejoh!tfdujpot!pg!uif!bvupusbotgpsnfs/!
Solution
Since the load is balanced, the per phase power is 4 kW.
440
Per phase voltage on the high-voltage side = V = 254 V
3
220
Per phase voltage on the low-voltage side = V = 127 V
3
4000
Load current = A = 37 A
127 ¥ 0.85
220
Input current = ¥ 37 A = 18.5 A
440
The currents in the windings are
18.5, 37 A and (37 – 18.5) A or 18.5 A
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/82
A 18.5 A
.5
18 18.5 A
37 A 3
Phase
Load
18.5 A
37 A
B
Y
18.5 A
Gjh/!5/54! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspcmfn!5/52
! Qspcmfn!5/53
B!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!tvqqmjft!411!W!gspn!b!551!W-!uisff.qibtf!tztufn/!
Uif!mpbe!esbxt!91!lX!bu!1/9! q/g/!Efufsnjof!uif!dvssfout!jo!ejggfsfou!xjoejoht!pg!uif!bvupusbot.
gpsnfs!boe!tipx!uifn!jo!uif!ejbhsbn/!
Solution
80 ¥ 103
The load current = A = 192.45 A
3 ¥ 300 ¥ 0.8
300
Live current drawn from source = 192.45 ¥ A
440
= 131.21 A
The currents in the different sections of the windings are 192.45, 131.21 A and (192.45 –
131.21) A or 61.24 A. The currents are shown in Fig. 4.44.
R
131.21 A 192.45 A
61.24 A
61.24 A
192.45 A
3
Phase
Load
61
.2
4
A
192.45 A
B
131.21 A
Y
131.21 A
Gjh/!5/55! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!5/53
! 5/83 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!5/54
Uif!sbujoht!pg!uif!qsjnbsz-!tfdpoebsz!boe!ufsujbsz!xjoejoht!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!uisff.xjoejoh!usbot.
gpsnfs!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
Qsjnbsz;!!!!!!!231!lWB-!4411!W!
Tfdpoebsz;!!!!!91!lWB-!2211!W!!!!!!!!!!!!
Ufsujbsz;!!!!!!!!!!91!lWB-!!551!W
Uif!sftvmut!pg!uif!tipsu.djsdvju!uftut!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
Qsjnbsz!fydjufe-!tfdpoebsz!tipsufe;!261!W-!41!B-!2111!X
Qsjnbsz!fydjufe-!ufsujbsz!tipsufe;!251!W-!41!B-!2311!X!
Tfdpoebsz!fydjufe-!ufsujbsz!tipsufe;!!61!W-!211!B-!2361!X
Efufsnjof!uif!sftjtubodft!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodft!pg!uif!tubs!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju/!Bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uifjs!
wbmvft!gps!fbdi!xjoejoh/!
Solution
The short-circuit impedances are
150
Z12 = W=5W
30
140
Z13 = W = 4.67 W
30
50
Z23 = W = 0.5 W
100
Z23 is referred to the secondary side. Hence, the value of Z23 when referred to the primary side
2 2
ÊN ˆ Ê 3300 ˆ
Z¢23 = 0.5 ¥ Á 1 ˜ = 0.5 ¥ Á
ËN ¯2
Ë 1100 ˜¯
= 0.5 ¥ 9 = 4.5 W
\ the leakage impedances referred to the primary are
1 1
Z1 = (Z12 + Z13 – Z 2¢ 3) = (5 + 4.67 – 4.5) W = 2.585 W
2 2
1 1
Z2 = (Z12 + Z¢23 – Z13) = (5 + 4.5 – 4.67) W = 2.415 W
2 2
1 1
Z3 = (Z13 + Z 23¢ – Z12) = (4.67 + 4.5 – 5) W = 2.085 W
2 2
The short-circuit resistances are
1000
R12 = = 1.11 W
(30) 2
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/84
1200
R13 = = 1.33 W
(30) 2
1250
R23 = = 0.1250 W
(100) 2
R23 which is referred to secondary side, when referred to the primary is
2 2
ÊN ˆ Ê 3300 ˆ
¢ = R23 ¥ Á 1 ˜ = 0.1250 ¥ Á
R23 W = 1.125 W
ËN ¯
2
Ë 1100 ˜¯
! Qspcmfn!5/55
B!uisff.qibtf!cbol!dpotjtujoh!pg!uisff!tjohmf.qibtf!uisff.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfst!)Z0D0Z*!jt!fnqmpzfe!
up!tufq!epxo!uif!wpmubhf!pg!b!uisff.qibtf-!331!lW!usbotnjttjpo!mjof/!Uif!ebub!qfsubjojoh!up!pof!pg!
uif!usbotgpsnfst!jt!hjwfo!cfmpx;!
Sbujoht;
Qsjnbsz!2;!36!NWB-!331!lW-
Tfdpoebsz!3;!26!NWB-!44!lW-
Ufsujbsz!4;!21!NWB-!22!lW!
Tipsu!djsdvju!sfbdubodft!po!21!NWB!cbtf;
Y23!>!1/23!q/v/-!Y34!>!1/2!q/v/-!Y24!>!1/3!q/v/
Sftjtubodft!bsf!up!cf!jhopsfe/!Uif!D.dpoofdufe!tfdpoebsjft!tvqqmz!uifjs!sbufe!dvssfou!up!b!cbmbodfe!
mpbe! bu! 1/91! q/g/! mbhhjoh-! xifsfbt! uif! ufsujbsjft! qspwjef! uif! sbufe! dvssfou! up! b! cbmbodfe! mpbe! bu!
v/q/g/!)dpotubou!sftjtubodf*/
! )b*! Dpnqvuf!uif!qsjnbsz!mjof.up.mjof!wpmubhf!up!nbjoubjo!uif!sbufe!wpmubhf!bu!uif!tfdpoebsz!ufs.
njobmt/
! )c*! Gps!dpoejujpot!pg!qbsu!)b*-!gjoe!uif!mjof.up.mjof!wpmubhf!bu!uif!ufsujbsz!ufsnjobmt/!
! )d*! Jg!uif!qsjnbsz!wpmubhf!jt!ifme!gjyfe!bt!jo!qbsu!)b*-!up!xibu!wbmvf!xjmm!uif!ufsujbsz!wpmubhf!jo.
dsfbtf!xifo!uif!tfdpoebsz!mpbe!jt!sfnpwfe@
Solution
1
X1 = (0.12 + 0.2 – 0.1) = 0.11 p.u.
2
1
X2 = (0.1 + 0.12 – 0.2) = 0.02 p.u.
2
1
X3 = (0.2 + 0.1 – 0.12) = 0.09 p.u.
2
We assume that the phase angle of V3 with respect to the reference voltage V1 is 0°. It actually has
a small angle which must otherwise be determined. The error caused is negligible.
X1 I2 X2
I1
X3
V1 V2
I3
V3
Gjh/!5/56! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!5/55
! Qspcmfn!5/56
Uif!sftvmut!pg!uif!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu!pg!b!uisff.qibtf!Z0Z0D!uisff!xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!jt!bt!gpmmpxt;!
Qsjnbsz!fydjufe!tfdpoebsz!tipsufe;!6111-!311!B-!261!lX!
Qsjnbsz!fydjufe!ufsujbsz!tipsufe;!411!W-!26!B-!2/6!lX
Tfdpoebsz!fydjufe!ufsujbsz!tipsufe;!311!W-!61!B-!3!lX
Uif!sbujoht!pg!uif!qsjnbsz-!tfdpoebsz!boe!ufsujbsz!bsf!26!NWB!boe!44!lW-!9!NWB!boe!22!lW-!6!NWB!
boe!4/4!lW!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!sftjtubodft!boe!sfbdubodft!jo!pint!pg!uif!tubs!frvjwbmfou!
djsdvju!pg!uif!uisff.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs/!Bmtp!gjoe!uif!qfs!voju!wbmvft!pg!uif!mfblbhf!jnqfebodft/!
Solution
Since the primary and secondary are connected in star, their line current is equal to their phase
current
150 ¥ 103
\ R12 = = 1.25 W
3 ¥ ( 200) 2
1.5 ¥ 103
R13 = = 2.22 W
3 ¥ (15) 2
2 ¥ 103
R23 = = 0.267 W
3 ¥ (50) 2
As R23 is referred to secondary, when it is referred to primary,
2 2
Ê N1 ˆ Ê 33 ˆ
R¢23 = R23 Á = 0.267 ¥ Á ˜ = 2.403 W
Ë N ˜¯
2
Ë 11 ¯
1 1
\ R1 = (R12 + R13 – R¢23) = (1.25 + 2.22 – 2.403) W = 0.5335 W
2 2
1 1
R2 = (R12 + R¢23 – R13) = (1.25 + 2.403 – 2.22) W = 0.7165 W
2 2
1 1
R3 = (R13 + R¢23 – R12) = (2.22 + 2.403 – 1.25) W = 1.6865 W
2 2
Now,
Primary phase voltage 5000 3
Z12 = = W = 14.43 W
Primary phase current 200
300 3
Z13 = W = 11.547 W
15
200 3
Z23 = W = 2.31 W
50
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/88
! Qspcmfn!5/57
B!uisff.qibtf-!uisff.xjoejoh!D0D0Z-!44!lW!02211!W!0551!W-!411!lWB!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!tfdpoebsz!
mpbe!pg!311!lWB!bu!1/:!q/g/!mbhhjoh!boe!!b!ufsujbsz!mpbe!pg!211!lWB!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/!Uif!nbhofuj{.
joh!dvssfou!jt!4&!pg!sbufe!mpbe!boe!uif!jspo!mptt!jt!2/6!lX/!Efufsnjof!uif!wbmvf!pg!qsjnbsz!dvssfou!
xifo!uif!puifs!uxp!xjoejoht!bsf!efmjwfsjoh!uif!bcpwf!mpbet/!
Solution
Secondary current per phase
Secondary VA per phase
I2ph =
Secondary voltage per phase
! 5/89 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
300
¥ 103
= 3 = 90.9 A
1100
Secondary current per phase referred to primary
1100
I 2¢ = 90.9 ¥ - cos -1 0.9 = 3.03 - 25.84∞
33000
= 2.727 – j 1.32 A
Tertiary current per phase
100
¥ 103
Tertiary VA per phase
I3ph = = 3 A
Tertiary voltage per phase 440 3
= 131.216 A
Tertiary current per phase referred to primary
440
I 3¢ = 131.216 ¥ 3 - cos -1 0.8 A
33000
= 1.01 (0.8 – j 0.6) A = 0.808 – j 0.606 A
330
¥ 103
Primary rated current = 3 = 3.03 A
33000
Magnetizing current = 4% of 3.03 A = 0.1212 A
1500 / 3
Core loss component of no-load current = = 0.015 A
33000
Hence, primary no-load current
I0 = 0.015 – j 0.1212 A
\ total primary current
I1 = I0 + I 2¢ + I3¢ = 0.015 – j 0.1212 + 2.727 – j 1.32 + 0.808 – j 0.606
= 3.55 – j 2.0472 A
= 4.098 - 30∞ A
Hence, primary current is 4.098 A with a power factor of cos 30° lagging or 0.866 lagging.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/8:
! Qspcmfn!5/58
B!7/704/401/55!lW!tubs0tubs0efmub!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!qfs!voju!sftjtubodf!espqt!pg!1/119-!1/11:!boe!
1/12!boe!qfs!voju!sfbdubodf!espqt!1/16-!1/17!boe!1/176!gps!uif!qsjnbsz-!tfdpoebsz!boe!ufsujbsz!
xjoejoht!sftqfdujwfmz!po!b!2111!lWB!cbtf/!Jg!uif!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou!jt!8!B-!efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!
sfhvmbujpo!gps!b!uisff.qibtf!cbmbodfe!mpbet!pg!2311!lWB!bu!1/:!mbhhjoh!q/g/!po!tfdpoebsz!boe!911!
lWB!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh!po!ufsujbsz/!
Solution
Secondary kVA = 1200 (0.9 – j 0.436)
Tertiary kVA = 800 (0.8 – j 0.6)
! Qspcmfn!5/59
B!22111044110551!W-!Z0Z0D-!uisff.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!b!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou!pg!6!B/!Bu!sbufe!
wpmubhf-!uif!tfdpoebsz!tvqqmjft!b!cbmbodfe!mpbe!pg!411!lWB!bu!1/96!q/g/!mbh!boe!ufsujbsz!tvqqmjft!b!
cbmbodfe!mpbe!pg!261!lX/!Uif!qsjnbsz!pqfsbuft!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/:6!mbhhjoh/!Efufsnjof!uif!
qsjnbsz!boe!ufsujbsz!qibtf!dvssfout!boe!bmtp!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!xijdi!uif!ufsujbsz!pqfsbuft/!
Solution
Magnetizing current
IM = – j 5 A
300 ¥ 103
Secondary phase current I2 = = 52.486 A
3 ¥ 3300
Secondary phase current referred to primary
3300
I 2¢ = 52.486 ¥ = 15.75 A
11000
Active component of tertiary current referred to primary
150 ¥ 103 440
= I 3¢ cos q3 = ¥ A = 7.87 A
3 ¥ 440 11000
3
Assuming lagging power factor for the tertiary load
I 3¢ = 7.87 – j I3 sin q3
Total primary current
I1 = IM + I 2¢ + I 3¢
= – j 0.5 + 15.75 - cos -1 0.85 + 7.87 – j I3 sin q3
or, I1 = – j 0.5 + 13.387 – j 8.3 + 7.87 – j I3 sin q3
Now cos q1 = 0.95 lag where q1 is the primary power factor angle
\ tan q1 = 0.328
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/92
As I3 sin q3 is negative, hence tertiary is operating at leading power factor and the magnitude of
tertiary current referred to primary is
I 3¢ = ( I 3 cos q 3 ) 2 + ( I 3 sin q 3 ) 2
1100 3
\ I3 = 8.08 ¥ = 116.62 A
440
Power factor at which tertiary winding operates
7.87
cos q3 = = 0.974 leading
8.08
\ I1 = – j 0.5 + 13.387 – j 8.3 + 7.87 + j 1.83
= 21.257 – j 6.97 = 22.37 -18.15∞ A
\ primary phase current is 22.37 A.
! Qspcmfn!5/5:
Uxp!usbotgpsnfst-!fbdi!sbufe!361!lWB-!2206!lW!boe!61!I{-!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!pqfo!efmub!po!cpui!
uif!qsjnbsz!boe!tfdpoebsz/!
! )b*! Gjoe!uif!mpbe!lWB!uibu!dbo!cf!tvqqmjfe!gspn!uijt!usbotgpsnfs!dpoofdujpo/!
! )c*! B!efmub.dpoofdufe!uisff.qibtf!mpbe!pg!361!lWB-!1/9!q/g/-!6!lW!jt!dpoofdufe!up!uif!MW!ufsnjobmt!
pg!uijt!pqfo.efmub!usbotgpsnfs/!Efufsnjof!uif!usbotgpsnfs!dvssfout!po!uif!22!lW!tjef!pg!uijt!
dpoofdujpo/!
Solution
11 : 1
11 V 2 KV
2
Gjh/!5/57! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspcmfn!5/5:
! 5/93 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
250
(a) Iph (secondary) = = 50 A
5
Load kVA = Sopen delta = 3 ¥ 5 ¥ 50 = 433 kVA
250
Iph (secondary) = = 28.87 A
3¥ 5
28.87
Iline (11 kV side) = ¥ 5 = 13.12 A
11
Iphase (11 kV side) = 13.12 A.
!Qspcmfn!5/61
Uxp!usbotgpsnfst!dpoofdufe!jo!pqfo.efmub!tvqqmz!xjui!b!411!lWB!cbmbodfe!mpbe!bsf!pqfsbujoh!bu!
1/977!q/g/!mbhhjoh/!Jg!uif!wpmubhf!jt!551!W-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!gpmmpxjoh;!
! )b*! lWB!tvqqmjfe!cz!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs
! )c*! lX!tvqqmjfe!cz!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs
Solution
300 / 2
(a) kVA supplied by each transformer =
0.866
= 173.21 kVA.
(b) cos f = 0.866 (lagging)
f = 30°
\ P1 = 173.21 ¥ cos (30° – f) = 173.21 kW
P2 = 173.21 ¥ cos (30° + f) = 86.61 kW
\ total = P1 + P2 = 259.82 kW.
! Qspcmfn!5/62
B!4!f-!DÐD!cbol!dpotjtut!pg!uisff!36!lWB-!44110411!W!usbotgpsnfst!boe!tvqqmjft!b!mpbe!pg!61!lWB/!
Gps!WÐW!dpoofdujpo-!dbmdvmbuf!
! )b*! lWB!mpbe!dbssjfe!cz!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs
! )c*! Qfsdfou!pg!mpbe!dbssjfe!cz!fbdi!usbotgpsnfs!
! )d*! Upubm!lWB!sbujoh!
! )e*! Sbujp!pg!DÐD!cbol!boe!WÐW!cbol!usbotgpsnfst!sbujoht/
Solution
50
(a) kVA load supplied by each of two transformers = = 28.86 kVA
3
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/94
28.86
(b) Percent of rated load = = 1.7544 or 115.44% carried by each transformer
25
(c) kVA rating of V–V bank = 2 ¥ 25 ¥ 0.866 = 43.3 kVA
D - D rating 75
(d) = = 1.7321
V - V rating 43.3
V - V rating
or = 0.577.
D - D rating
! Qspcmfn!5/63
B!Tdpuu.dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfs!jt!gfe!gspn!b!7711!W-!uxp.qibtf!ofuxpsl!boe!tvqqmjft!uisff.qibtf!
qpxfs!bu!611!W!cfuxffo!mjoft!po!b!gpvs.xjsf!tztufn/!Jg!uifsf!bsf!611!uvsot!qfs!qibtf!po!uif!uisff.
qibtf!tjef-!gjoe!uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!jo!uif!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoht!boe!uif!qptjujpo!pg!uif!ubqqjoh!pg!
uif!ofvusbm!xjsf/!
Solution
6600 500
= where NLV is the number of turns in the low voltage winding
500 NLV
500 ¥ 500
\ NLV = = 38
6600
3
NPS = ¥ 38 = 33 (from Fig. 4.24a)
2
2
NPN = ¥ 33 = 22
3
\ the neutral point is located at 22nd turn from the point A.
! Qspcmfn!5/64
B! :11! lWB! mpbe! jt! tvqqmjfe! cz! uisff! usbotgpsnfst! dpoofdufe! jo! efmub.efmub/! Uif! qsjnbsjft! bsf!
dpoofdufe! up! b! 3411! W! tvqqmz! mjof-! xijmf! uif! tfdpoebsjft! bsf! dpoofdufe! up! b! 341! W! mpbe/! Jg! pof!
usbotgpsnfs!jt!sfnpwfe!gps!sfqbjs-!xibu!mpbe!dbo!uif!sfnbjojoh!uxp!usbotgpsnfst!tvqqmz!xjuipvu!
pwfsmpbejoh@!Xibu!bsf!uif!dvssfout!jo!uif!ijhi.!boe!mpx.wpmubhf!tjeft!pg!uif!usbotgpsnfs!xjoejoht!
xifo!dpoofdufe!jo!pqfo!efmub@
Solution
Delta-delta operation
If VL1 and IL1 are the line voltage and line current respectively on HV side,
SD – D = 3 VL1 IL1
900 ¥ 103 = 3 ¥ 2300 ¥ IL1
900 ¥ 103
\ IL1 = = 225.9 A
3 ¥ 2300
! 5/95 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!5/65
B!7711044110511! W-!tubs0tubs0efmub!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!qfs!voju!sftjtubodf!espqt!pg!1/117-! 1/118-!
1/119!boe!qfs!voju!sfbdubodf!espqt!pg!1/14-!1/139-!1/145!gps!jut!qsjnbsz-!tfdpoebsz!boe!ufsujbsz!
xjoejoht!sftqfdujwfmz!po!b!2611!lWB!sbufe!wpmubhf!cbtf/!Jut!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou!jt!6!B/!Efufsnjof!
uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpot!gps!uisff.qibtf!cbmbodfe!mpbet!pg!2611!lWB!bu!qpxfs!gbdups!1/9!mbhhjoh!po!
tfdpoebsz!boe!711!lWB!bu!qpxfs!gbdups!1/7!mfbejoh!ufsujbsz/!
Solution
Magnetizing kVA = – j 57.16
Secondary load kVA = 1200 – j 900
Tertiary load kVA = 360 + j 480
Total load on primary = 1631.34 -17∞ kVA
1631.34
Primary regulation = (0.006 ¥ 0.956 + 0.03 ¥ 0.2924)
1500
= 0.01578
Secondary regulation = 1 (0.007 ¥ 0.8 + 0.028 ¥ 0.6)
= 0.0224
600
Tertiary regulation = (0.008 ¥ 0.6 – 0.034 ¥ 0.8)
1500
= – 0.00896
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/96
! Qspcmfn!5/66
B!911!lWB-!2201/5!lW-!uisff.qibtf!efmub.tubs!usbotgpsnfs!ibt!pinjd!mptt!pg!4!lX!po!IW!tjef!boe!3!
lX!po!MW!tjef!voefs!sbufe!mpbe/!Uif!upubm!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!jt!1/19!q/v/!Efufsnjof!!
! )b*! Pinjd!wbmvft!pg!frvjwbmfou!sftjtubodf!boe!mfblbhf!sfbdubodf!po!cpui!efmub!boe!tubs!tjef!
! )c*! Qfs!voju!wbmvft!pg!sftjtubodft!po!cpui!IW!boe!MW!tjeft/!
Solution
Total ohmic loss = 3 + 2 = 5 kW
For HV side,
800
Full-load current = A
3 ¥ 11
5000 ¥ (33) 2
re1 = = 8.508 W
(800) 2
8.508 0.8
re 1 p.u. = ¥ = 0.01875 p.u.
3 (11) 2
0.08 ¥ (11) 2
xe1 = 3 ¥ = 36.3 W
0.8
For LV side,
800 3 2000
Full-load current = = A
3 ¥ 0.4 3
5000 ¥ 3
re2 = = 0.00375 W
( 2000) 2
0.00375 ¥ 0.8
re2p.u. = = 0.01875
(0.4) 2
0.08 ¥ (11) 2
xe2 = = 12.1 W/
0.8
! 5/97 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!5/67
Uxp!tjohmf.qibtf!Tdpuu.dpoofdufe!usbotgpsnfst!tvqqmz!b!uisff.qibtf-!gpvs.xjsf-!61!I{!ejtusjcvujpo!
tztufn!xjui!361!W!cfuxffo!mjoft!boe!ofvusbm/!Uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!xjoejoht!bsf!dpoofdufe!up!b!uxp.
qibtf!tztufn!xjui!b!qibtf!wpmubhf!pg!22111!W/!Bmmpx!b!nbyjnvn!gmvy!efotjuz!pg!2/3!Xc0n3!jo!b!
hsptt!dpsf!tfdujpo!pg!661!dn3/!Efufsnjof!uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!jo!fbdi!tfdujpo!pg!uif!ijhi.wpmubhf!
boe!mpx.wpmubhf!xjoejoht/
Solution
Ai = 0.9 ¥ 550 ¥ 10–4 = 0.0495 m2
11000
TS = = 834
4.44 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 0.0495 ¥ 50
Number of turns on low-voltage side of main transformer
3 ¥ 250
834 ¥ = 33
11000
Number of turns on low-voltage side of teaser transformer
3
¥ 33 = 30.
2
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot
1. What are the advantages of a single three-phase transformer over three single-phase
transformer banks of the same kVA rating? State the difference between a three-phase
transformer bank and a three-phase transformer unit.
2. What is meant by the vector group of transformers? What are the distinguishing features of
different groups? Mention their advantages and disadvantages.
3. How can the problems of unbalanced voltages and third harmonic currents be overcome in
star-star connection?
4. Explain the open-delta connection with a suitable diagram. What are the uses of this
connection?
5. What are the different schemes of three-phase to six-phase conversion? Explain with a
diagram.
6. Explain with the help of connection and phasor diagrams how a Scott connection is used to
obtain two-phase supply from three-phase supply.
7. What are the advantages of parallel operation of three-phase transformers? State the
connections to be fulfilled for operating two three-phase transformers in parallel.
8. State briefly why all three-phase transformers cannot be operated in parallel.
9. Explain the phenomenon of inrush of magnetizing current. What factors contribute to the
magnitude of inrush current?
10. Explain why it is essential to have one three-phase winding in delta for the transformers used
in three-phase systems.
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/98
11. Why are tappings provided in transformers? Give reasons for tappings being generally
provided on the high-voltage side of the transformer.
12. Explain with the help of connection diagrams the operation of off-load and on-load tap
changers.
13. Explain how a three-phase transformer is operated as a three-phase induction regulator.
14. What are the applications of grounding transformers?
15. Explain the operation of audio frequency and rectifier transformers.
16. What are the advantages of using tertiary windings in transformers? What are its applications?
17. Draw and explain the equivalent circuit of a three-winding transformer.
Qspcmfnt
1. A three-phase step-down transformer is connected to 6600 V on the primary side. The ratio of
turns per phase is 12 and the line current drawn from the mains is 20 A. Find the secondary
line voltage, line current and output if the transformer is (a) YY, (b) YD, (c) DY, and (d) DD.
[(a) 550 V, 240 A, 228.62 kVA
(b) 317.55 V, 415.68 A, 228.62 kVA
(c) 952.6 V, 138.56, 228.62 kVA
(d) 550 V, 240 A, 228.62 kVA]
2. A 11000/440 V, three-phase transformer is delta connected on the HV side and the LV
windings are star connected. There are 12 V per turn and the flux density is not to exceed
1.2 Wb/m2. Calculate the number of turns per phase on each winding and the net iron cross-
sectional area of the core. [917, 21, 450 cm2]
3. A 6600/400/110 V star/star/delta three-phase transformer has a magnetizing current of 5.5 A
and balanced three-phase loads of 1000 kVA at 0.8 lagging power factor on the secondary
and 200 kVA at 0.5 leading power factor on tertiary. Neglect losses. Find primary current,
kVA and power factor. [90.1 A, 1030 kVA, 0.875 lag]
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. Three phase transformers are connected to form a 3-phase transformer bank. The transformers
are connected in the following manner. The transformer connection will be represented by
A1 A2 a2 a1
B1 B2 b2 b1
C1 C2 c2 c1
! 5/99 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A2 c2
N
b1
A1 B1
a1
C1 b2
B2
A2
C2 a2
30°
N ]
2. Which three phase connection can be used in a transformer to introduce a phase difference of
30° between its output and corresponding input time voltages?
(a) Star-Star (b) Star-Delta
(c) Delta-Delta (d) Delta-Zigzag [GATE 2005]
3. The star delta transformer shown below is excited on the star side with a balanced, 4 wire,
3 phase, sinusoidal voltage supply of rated magnitude. The transformer is under no load
condition.
A a
B
b
C c
N
S1 S1
4. In the previous question, with S2 closed and S1 opened, the current waveform in the delta
winding will be
(a) a sinusoidal at fundamental frequency
(b) flat topped with third harmonic
(c) only third harmonic
(d) none of the above [GATE 2009]
5. Which of the following connections of three phase transformer will give the highest secondary
voltage?
(a) Star primary, star secondary
(b) Star primary, delta secondary
(c) Delta primary, delta secondary
(d) Delta primary, star secondary
6. Two three phase delta star transformers are supplied from the same source. One transformer is
DY1 connected and other is DY11 connected. The phase difference between the corresponding
phase voltage of the secondaries would be
(a) 30° (b) 0°
(c) 60° (d) 120°
7. In which transformer connection tertiary winding is used?
(a) YD (b) DD
(c) DY (d) YY
8. A DY transformer is connected in parallel to a YD transformer. The turns ratio of the former
is x times the latter. Hence, x is
(a) 3 (b) 3
1 1
(c) (d)
3 3
9. Which of the following combinations of three phase transformers can operate successfully in
parallel?
(a) YY and DY (b) YD and DD
(c) DY and DY (c) DD and DY
10. The magnitude of third harmonic in the wave shape of magnetizing current of a transformer
is about
(a) 1% (b) 20%
(c) 50% (d) 5%
11. Which of the following three phase connections of a transformer causes interference to the
nearly communication system?
(a) Star star (b) Delta star
(c) Star delta (d) Delta delta
12. A DY transformer has a phase to phase voltage transformation ratio of K
Ê Phase voltage of delta connection ˆ
ÁË K = Phase voltage of star co
onnection ˜¯
. The line-to-line voltage ratio of YD connection is
! 5/:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
K 3
(a) (b)
3 K
K
(c) K (d)
3
13. In a three-phase DY transformer shown in the figure the phase displacement of secondary line
voltage with corresponding primary line voltage will be
c2
a2
A1
C1
n
B1
b2
B b
S2
C c
S1
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst 5/:2
Botxfst
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d)
6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (c)
6
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!
Spubujoh!Nbdijoft
JOUSPEVDUJPO! 6/2
The objective of this chapter is to discuss how the basic principles and laws, as discussed in
Chapter 1, are implemented in rotating machines. The general expressions for electromagnetic
torque and generated emfs are developed. These basic torque and emf expressions are applicable to
both ac and dc machines.
Except some small motors used for domestic and specific purposes, ac machines are mostly
three-phase machines. The most commonly used ac machines are synchronous machines and in-
duction machines.
BD!XJOEJOHT! 6/3
As no commutator is needed in an ac winding it differs from a dc winding in its configuration. The
ac winding need not be a closed one like a dc winding and hence ac windings are open windings.
Since most ac machines are of three-phase type, the windings of all the three phases are identical
and spaced 120 electrical degrees apart from each other. The windings are normally connected in
star or delta connection. However, when the three windings are connected in delta, the combination
forms a closed winding.
The ac windings are characterized by the following:
1. Usually the number of phases are three.
2. Armature windings of synchronous generators and motors are usually connected in star. In
the case of three-phase induction motors, both star and delta-connected windings may be
used.
! 6/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3. The number of winding circuits in parallel per phase may be one or more than one.
4. The number of coil layers per slot may be one or two though two-layer windings are much
common.
5. The angular spread of the consecutive conductors belongs to a phase belt and the arrangement
of the end connections of ac windings differ from that of dc windings.
6/3/2! Tjohmf.!boe!Epvcmf.Mbzfs!Xjoejoht
In a single-layer winding, one coil side occupies one slot completely. Therefore, the number of coils
is equal to half the number of slots. In a double-layer winding, one coil side occupies the upper half
of one slot, while the other coil side is placed in the lower half of another slot spaced about one pole
pitch from the first one. In a single-layer winding, the coils are arranged in groups and the overhang
of each group of coils is made to cross the overhang of other groups by adjusting the size and shape
of different coil groups. However, in double-layer windings, all the coils are identical in shape and
size. Hence, a double-layer winding results in a cheaper machine. All synchronous machines and
most induction machines of medium and large capacity use double-layer windings.
The advantages of double-layer winding over single-layer winding are
1. Simple manufacture and lower cost of the coils
2. Fractional slot and chorded winding is possible
3. Lower leakage reactance and hence better performance
4. Better emf waveform
6/3/3! Qibtf!Tqsfbe!
A group of adjacent slots belonging to any one phase under one pole pair is termed phase belt. The
angle subtended by a phase belt is known as phase spread.
Let us illustrate this arrangement by considering two slots per pole per phase (i.e. 12 slots per
pole pair). The slot angle is obviously 30°. We can place the winding of phase R in slots 1–4, that
of phase Y in slots 5–8 and that of phase B in slots 9–12. Each phase belt has a spread of 120°[Fig.
5.1(a)]. The induced emfs of conductors in adjacent slots have a phase difference equal to the slot
angle. The resultant emf per phase is less than the sum of individual conductor emfs. [The phasor
sum of induced emfs in conductors of 1–4 gives the phase emf of phase R.] In another possible ar-
rangement, as shown in Fig. 5.1(b), the complete winding has been divided in six groups, each hav-
ing a spread of 60°. Here, the conductors in slots 7 and 8 serve as return conductors for slots 1 and
2 (hence the induced conductor emfs for slots 7 and 8 have been marked negative). The phasor sum
of conductor emfs gives the phase emf for the phase R. The magnitude of phase emf in Fig. 5.1(b)
is more than that in Fig. 5.1(a). Hence, Three-phase windings are always designed for 60° phase
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/4
spread. Moreover, the arrangement shown in Fig. 5.1(a) is not feasible to be used with a single-layer
winding, because there are no conductors of one pole pitch apart to form return conductors.
B
120° 120° 120° 2
3
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 120°
4
5 R
R Y B 120°
(a) 6
8
Y 7
B R
–7
–8
1 2
1 2 7 8
R B¢ Y R¢ B Y¢
(b)
Gjh/!6/2! Fggfdu!pg!qibtf!tqsfbe!po!hfofsbufe!fng;!)b*!231°!qibtf!tqsfbe!)c*!71°!qibtf!tqsfbe
6/3/4! Nvmujuvso!Dpjm!Xjoejoht!
The ac machines with small number of poles and low value of flux per pole require a large number
of conductors to have appreciable induced emf. Such machines have multiturn coils.
6/3/5! Gvmm.Qjudi!boe!Gsbdujpobm.Qjudi!Dpjmt!
Figure 5.2(a) shows a two-pole machine which contains one coil housed in stator slots. The coil
has a single turn only and one turn contains two conductors. AB and CD are the two coil sides. The
peripheral distance between two adjacent poles is called pole pitch. A pole pitch is always equal to
180 electrical degrees. In Fig. 5.2(b), the coil span is equal to the pole pitch and in Fig. 5.2(c), the
coil span is less than one pole pitch. Coil span is the distance between two coil sides of one coil.
Hence, in Fig. 5.2(b), the coil span is equal to 180° and in Fig. 5.2(c), the coil span is less than 180°
by an angle a. This angle a is called the chording angle and is defined as the angle by which the coil
span is less than 180 electrical degrees. In a full-pitch coil, the coil sides are 180 electrical degrees,
apart or the coil span is equal to one pole pitch as shown in Fig. 5.3(a). If the coil span is less than
180 electrical degrees, it is called a short pitch or chorded coil [Fig. 5.3(b)].
! 6/5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Pole
Pitch
N S N S
B C B C
Coil
spare
S a
A D A D
Gjh/!6/3! )b*!B!uxp.qpmf!nbdijof;!)c*!Dpjm!tqbo!)d*!Dipsejoh!bohmf
q = 0° q = 180°
Pole Pitch
(a)
(b)
Gjh/!6/4! )b*!Gvmm.qjudi!dpjm!)c*!tipsu.qjudi!dpjm
Fractional-pitch windings are extensively used as the resulting voltage waveform is nearly si-
nusoidal in comparison to that of full-pitch winding. Also, because of saving in copper, we use
fractional-pitch windings. It also offers greater stiffness of coils due to shorter end connections.
The only disadvantage of fractional-pitch winding is that terminal voltage is comparatively less
than that with full-pitch coils.
6/3/6! Joufhsbm!Tmpu!Xjoejoht
Since the three phases in ac machines are identical, the total number of slots in an ac machine is
always an integral multiple of three. However, the number of slots per pole phase may be an integer
or a fraction. In integral slot windings, the number of slots per pole per phase is an integer. As for
example, in a double-layer integral slot, full-pitch winding with 9 slots per pole, there are 3 slots
per pole per phase. Here, the coil span is full pitch (i.e. 9 slots). For the same winding with a coil
span of 8 slots, it gives a short pitch winding. Here, some slots hold coil sides of different phases
[Fig. 5.4].
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/6
6/3/7! Gsbdujpobm!Tmpu!Xjoejoht
In these windings, the number of slots per pole phase is a fraction. A fractional slot winding may be
single layer or double layer. Standard slotting arrangements over a wide range of pole numbers can
be used in fractional slot windings.
Coil
Sides
Upper
Lower
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
R R R B¢ B¢ B¢ Y Y Y R¢ R¢ R¢ B B B Y¢ Y¢ Y¢ R
Coil Sides
R R R B¢ B¢ B¢ Y Y Y R¢ R¢ R¢ B B B Y¢ Y¢ Y¢ R
(a)
R R R B¢ B¢ B¢ Y Y Y R¢ R¢ R¢ B B B Y¢ Y¢ Y¢ R
Coil Sides
R R B¢ B¢ B¢ Y Y Y R¢ R¢ R¢ B B B Y¢ Y¢ Y¢ R R
(b)
Gjh/!6/5! Epvcmf.mbzfs!joufhsbm!tmpu!xjoejoh;!)b*!Gvmm.qjudi!dpjmt!)c*!Tipsu.qjudi!dpjmt
The total number of slots must be a multiple of 3, so that the windings of the three phases remain
symmetrical. In a double-layer fractional slot winding, the arrangement of coil sides is repeated for
the bottom layer. Here, the coil span is always less than one pole pitch.
6/3/8! Bewboubhft!pg!Ejtusjcvufe!Xjoejoh!boe
! Gsbdujpobm.Qjudi!Xjoejoh
The advantages of distributed windings are
1. Reduction of the harmonic effect in the emf signal
2. Adding mechanical strength to the winding
3. Full utilization of armature iron and copper
The advantages of fractional-pitch windings are
1. Reduction of harmonics in the generated emf signal
2. Reduction in the copper for overhang which results in reduction in the cost of the machine
3. Reduction in magnetic losses due to the elimination of high-frequency harmonics
The only disadvantage of fractional-pitch winding is that the terminal voltage is a bit less than
that with full-pitch coils.
! 6/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
DPODFQU!PG!FMFDUSJDBM!BOE! 6/4
NFDIBOJDBM!EFHSFFT
Let us consider a two-pole machine as shown in Fig. 5.5.
N e
2
2
1
1 3 0
1 p 3 2p q
4
S 4
(a) (b)
Gjh/!6/6! )b*!Uxp.qpmf!nbdijof!xjui!tjohmf!spups!dpjm!)c*!Fng!wbsjbujpo!xjui!wu!gps!uxp!qpmf!nbdijof
We assume one rotor coil rotating at a uniform angular speed. When the rotor coil is at the
position 1, the emf in the coil is zero (though flux cutting the coil is maximum but the rate of change
of flux is minimum). Let us consider that 1 is the initial position of the rotor coil which is rotating
in the clockwise direction. After 90° revolution, it reaches the position 2 where the emf in the coil
becomes maximum (though flux cutting the coil is minimum at this position but the rate of change
of flux is maximum). When the coil reaches the position 3, the emf is zero and at the position 4, the
emf is maximum but the direction of the emf is opposite to that at the position 2. Thus, when the
rotor coil completes one revolution and returns to the position 1, the emf in the coil is again zero.
Hence, with one complete revolution of the rotor coil, one full cycle of the coil emf is generated.
Now let us consider a four-pole machine as shown in Fig. 5.6. It is assumed that the rotor coil
starts from the initial position 1 where the emf is 0. When it is at the position 2, the emf is maximum
N
4
e 6
2
S 2 6 S
4p
0
1 7 1 3 p 2p 5 7 3p 1
8 wt
N
4 8
(a) (b)
Gjh/!6/7! )b*!Gpvs.qpmf!nbdijof!xjui!tjohmf!spups!dpjm!)c*!Fng!wbsjbujpo!xjui!wu!gps!gpvs.qpmf!nbdijof
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/8
and again at the position 3, the emf is 0. At the position 4, the emf is maximum but in a direction
opposite to that at the position 1 and hence the emf is considered negative maximum. Again, at the
position 5, the emf is 0. Thus, one full cycle of emf is generated while the rotor coil completes only
half revolution by moving from the position 1 to 5. In a similar way, when the rotor coil completes
full revolution, another full cycle of emf will be generated. Hence, two cycles of emf, i.e. 720°, is
generated in one revolution of 360 mechanical degrees for a four-pole machine.
\ 720 electrical degrees = 2(360 mechanical degrees)
P
or, 720 electrical degrees = (360 mechanical degrees)
2
P
or, qelectrical = qmechanical (5.1)
2
where P is the number of poles in the machine.
P
In other words, in a P-pole machine, in one revolution of the rotor cycles of emf is generated.
2
CSFBEUI!GBDUPS! 6/5
When the coils of the same phase of the winding are placed in more than one slot per pole then the
emfs of the windings in different slots will have different phase angles. Let the angle between the
adjacent slots be g which is known as the slot angle. Hence, the emfs of the windings are displaced
from each other by an angle g. Considering three slots per pole per phase, the component emfs E1,
E2 and E3 of the coils are ab, bc and ca as shown in Fig. 5.7. The right bisectors of ab, bc and cd are
go, fo and eo respectively and they meet at the point O.
d
g
c e
g
p
f
g
b
g
g
O
g
Gjh/!6/8! Efufsnjobujpo!pg!csfbeui!gbdups
! 6/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
g ag
In triangle aog, sin =
2 ao
g
or, ag = ao sin
2
g
Emf per coil is ab = bc = cd = 2ag = 2 ao sin
2
Hence, the arithmetic sum of the coil emfs
g
= ab + bc + cd = 3 ¥ 2 ao sin
2
g
If there are q slots per pole phase then the arithmetic sum of the coil emf is q ¥ 2 ao sin
2
In the right-angled triangle apo,
ap 3g
= sin
ao 2
3g
or, ap = ao sin
2
The resultant emf ad which is the phasor sum of ab, bc and cd is given by
g
ad = 2 ap = 2ao sin 3
2
If there are q slots per pole per phase then the resultant emf is
qg
ad = 2 ao sin
2
The breadth or distribution factor is defined as the ratio of the phasor sum of the coil emfs to the
arithmetic sum of the coil emfs.
qg qg
2ao sin sin
Hence, breadth factor Kd = 2 = 2 (5.2)
g g
2ao q sin q sin
2 2
In other words, breadth factor is the ratio of the resultant emf with coils distributed in slots to the
resultant emf with the coils concentrated in one slot.
The flux-density wave may contain harmonics. Since the positive and negative halves of the flux-
density wave are identical, only odd harmonics can be present. The harmonic poles of the nth space
1
harmonic have a pitch equal to of the fundamental pole pitch.
n
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/:
Therefore, the angle between adjacent slots is ng for the nth harmonic and breadth factor for the
nth harmonic is
Ê nqg ˆ
sin Á
Ë 2 ˜¯
Kdx = (5.3)
Ê ng ˆ
q sin Á ˜
Ë 2¯
QJUDI!GBDUPS! 6/6
c
a
a a
2
b
d
a¢ a
a¢
2
a
(a) (b) a
Gjh/!6/9! Efufsnjobujpo!pg!qjudi!gbdups!gps!)b*!gvmm.qjudi!dpjm-!boe!)c*!tipsu.qjudi!dpjm
Figure 5.8(a) shows a full-pitch coil and Fig. 5.8(b) shows a short-pitch or fractional-pitch coil
with chording angle a. In the full-pitch coil, the coil emf is twice the emf of each coil side. In the
short-pitch coil, as the two coil sides are not in phase, the emf of each coil side should be added
vectorially to get the resultant emf.
Figure 5.8(b) shows emfs ab and bc on two coil sides of short-pitch coil. The resultant coil emf
a
ac = 2ad = 2ab cos
2
The arithmetic sum of coil emfs is 2ab.
Now pitch factor is defined as the ratio of the resultant emf of a chorded coil to the resultant emf
of a full-pitch coil.
a
2ab cos
Hence, pitch factor Kp = 2 = cos a (5.4)
2 ab 2
The product of breadth or distribution factor and pitch factor is known as the winding factor Kw
where
Kw = Kd ¥ Kp (5.5)
! 6/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The pitch factor given by Eq. (5.4) is for the fundamental frequency. If the flux-density distribu-
tion contains space harmonics, the pitch factor for nth harmonic is
Kpn = cos (ng /2) (5.6)
The nth harmonic emf is reduced to zero if the angle g is such that
ng
cos (ng /2) = 0 or = 90° (5.6a)
2
The flux-density distribution contains some odd harmonics (because of symmetry, even harmon-
ics are absent). Therefore, phase voltage may contain third, fifth, seventh and higher-order harmon-
ics. The components of triple harmonics are identical in the three phases and do not appear in the
line-to-line voltage. Since the strength of harmonic components of voltage decreases with increas-
ing frequency, only fifth and seventh harmonics are important. These are known as belt harmonics.
It is evident from Eq. (5.6) that the pitch factor is different for different harmonics. By proper
selection of coil span, the pitch factor for 5th and 7th harmonics can be made small and thus these
harmonics can be nearly eliminated from the voltage wave. If the coil span is 5/6 of the pole pitch,
the pitch factor is 0.259 for both 5th and 7th harmonics.
! Qspcmfn!6/2
Efufsnjof!uif!ejtusjcvujpo!gbdups!boe!uif!qjudi!gbdups!jo!b!4.qibtf!xjoejoh!ibwjoh!b!dpjm!tqbo!pg!
261¡!boe!qibtf!tqsfbe!pg!231¡/
Solution
Phase spread = 120°
Let number of slots per pole per phase be q and the angle between adjacent slots be g. Then
qg = 120°
qg
sin
Distribution factor Kd = 2
g
q sin
2
qg
sin
2 g
= [If g is small then sin = g, where g is in radians]
g 2
q
2
120∞
sin
= 2 = 0.827
120∞ p
¥
2 180∞
Now coil span = 150°
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/22
! Qspcmfn!6/3
Bo!bd!nbdijof!ibt!7!qpmft!xjui!:7!tmput/!Uif!dpjmt!bsf!xpvoe!xjui!24027!gsbdujpobm!qjudi/!Efufsnjof!
uif!qjudi!gbdups/
Solution
13
The coils are wound with fractional pitch.
16
\ the angle by which coils are short pitched
Ê 13 ˆ 3
= a = Á1 - ˜ ¥ 180° = ¥ 180°
Ë 16 ¯ 16
3 180∞
\ pitch factor Kp = cos ¥ = 0.9569.
16 2
! Qspcmfn!6/4
B!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!ibt!65!tmput!boe!7!qpmft/!Ju!ibt!tjohmf.mbzfs!xjoejoh!xjui!gvmm.qjudi!dpjmt-!
fbdi!dpjm!ibwjoh!9!uvsot/!Jg!uif!dpjmt!bsf!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!jo!71¡!qibtf!hspvqt!boe!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!
jt!1/14!Xc-!efufsnjof!uif!qibtf!wpmubhf/
Solution
54
Slots per pole per phase q= =3
6¥3
54
As slots per pole is =9
6
180∞
\ slot angle g= = 20°
9
qg 3 ¥ 20∞
sin sin
\ distribution factor Kd = 2 = 2 = 0.9598
g 20∞
q sin 3 sin
2 2
Pitch factor Kp = 1 (∵ coil is full pitch)
In a single-layer winding, the number of coils is half the number of slots.
54
\ number of coils = = 27
2
Each coil has 8 turns.
Total number of turns = 27 ¥ 8 = 216
! 6/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
216
\ number of turns per phase = = 72
3
The phase voltage E = 4.44 Kd f f N V
= 4.44 ¥ 0.9598 ¥ 0.03 ¥ 50 ¥ 72
= 460.24 V.
! Qspcmfn!6/5
Uif!upubm!ovncfs!pg!tmput!jo!b!epvcmf.mbzfs!bmufsobups!xjoejoh!jt!83/!Uif!nbdijof!ibt!9!qpmft!boe!
fbdi!dpjm!ibt!7!uvsot/!Uif!xjoejoh!jt!tipsu!qjudife!cz!4!tmput/!Jg!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jt!1/13!Xc-!efufs.
njof!uif!joevdfe!fng!qfs!qibtf/
Solution
72
Number of slots per pole phase q= =3
8¥3
180∞ 180∞
Slot angle g = = = 20°
slots per pole 72 / 8
qg 3 ¥ 20∞
sin sin
Breadth factor Kd = 2 = 20 = 0.9598
g 20∞
q sin 3 sin
2 2
The winding is short pitched by 3 slots.
\ chording angle = 3a = 3 ¥ 20° = 60°
a 60∞
\ pitch factor Kp = cos = cos = 0.866
2 2
In double-layer winding, the number of coils is equal to the number of slots.
\ total number of coils = 72
Each coil has 6 turns.
\ total number of turns = 72 ¥ 6 = 432
432
\ number of turns per phase N = = 144
3
Induced emf E = 4.44 Kd Kp f f N = 4.44 ¥ 0.9598 ¥ 0.866 ¥ 0.02 ¥ 50 ¥ 144
= 531.428 V.
! Qspcmfn!6/6
B!2611!W-!5.qpmf!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!ibt!59!tmput/!Jg!uif!dpjm!qjudi!jt!57!tmput!boe!fbdi!tmpu!ibt!3!
dpoevdupst-!efufsnjof!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf/
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/24
Solution
48
Number of slots per pole per phase q =
4¥3
=4
180∞
Slot angle g= = 15°
48/ 4
qg 4 ¥ 15∞
sin sin
\ distribution factor Kd = 2 = 2
g 15∞
q sin 4 sin
2 2
= 0.9576
Coil pitch = 46 slots
Total number of slots = 48 slots
\ the coils are short pitched by 2 slots.
\ chording angle a = 2 ¥ 15° = 30°
30∞
Pitch factor Kp = cos = 0.9659
2
Number of conductors = 48 ¥ 2
48 ¥ 2
\ total number of turns = = 48
2
48
Number of turns per phase N = = 16
3
If f be the flux per pole then
1500
= 4.44 ¥ Kd Kp f f N = 4.44 ¥ 0.9576 ¥ 0.9659 ¥ 50 ¥ 16 f
3
\ f = 0.2636 Wb.
! Qspcmfn!6/7
Efufsnjof!uif!gvoebnfoubm-!uijse!boe!gjgui!ibsnpojd!ejtusjcvujpo!gbdupst!jo!b!31.qpmf!291.tmpu!tzo.
dispopvt!nbdijof/
Solution
180
Number of slots per pole per phase q=
20 ¥ 3
=3
180∞
Slot angular pitch g= = 20°
180 / 20
! 6/25 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!6/8
Uif!gmvy.efotjuz!ejtusjcvujpo!pg!b!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!jt!C!>!Cn!tjo!q!,!1/5Cn!tjo!4q!,!1/4Cn!tjo!
6q/!Jg!uif!dpjm!tqbo!jt!1/:!pg!qpmf!qjudi-!efufsnjof!uif!snt!fng!joevdfe!jo!pof!uvso/!Bttvnf!uif!gmvy!
qfs!qpmf!up!cf!1/2!Xc/
Solution
1 Ê 1 Bn ˆ
The third harmonic flux f3 = ¥ 0.4 f1 = 0.133 f1 = ÁËEfm = n B f1 ˜¯
3 1
1
The fifth harmonic flux f5 = ¥ 0.3 f 1 = 0.06 f 1
5
Total flux per pole f = f1 + f2 + f3
= f 1 + 0.133 f 1 + 0.06 f 1
= 1.193 f 1
As f = 0.1 Wb
f1 = 0.0838 Wb
NNG!PG!BD!XJOEJOHT! 6/7
6/7/2!Nng!pg!Dpodfousbufe!Dpjm
A full pitch coil on the stator of a 2 pole ac machine as shown in Fig. 5.9(a) is considered. The
coil has N turns and each turn carries current i. The direction of the current in the two coil sides
is shown by V and . The magnetic flux set up by the current is shown by dotted lines. The flux
completes its path through the air gap and the iron path. As the permeability of iron is much higher
than that of air, we can assume infinite permeability for iron and hence the mmf can be considered
to be consumed in the air gap only. Also it is assumed that the flux lines cross the air gap radially.
The developed view of the coil with stator and rotor periphery laid out flat is shown in Fig. 5.9(b).
! 6/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Air gap
S N
Coil magnetic axis
Rotor
Stator
(a)
e S N
rfac
to r su
Sta
Air gap
Rotor
surface (b)
Ni
2
0° 180° q
–Ni
2
Pole pitch
Pole pitch
(c)
Gjh/!6/:! )b*!Gvmm!qjudi!dpjm!po!tubups!)c*!Efwfmpqfe!wjfx!pg!uif!tubups!dpjm!)d*!Nng!ejtusjcvujpo!bmpoh!
uif!bjs!hbq!qfsjqifsz
If H is the magnetic field intensity and lg is the uniform air gap then
1
2lg H = Ni as each flux line crosses the air gap twice \ lg H = Ni. The air gap mmf on the op-
2
posite sides of the rotor are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. The variation of the mmf
distribution along the air gap periphery is shown in Fig. 5.9(c). It is seen that at any instant the air
1
gap mmf wave is rectangular with magnitude Ni. If the coil current is dc, the magnitude of mmf
2
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/28
wave does not vary with time and space. When the coil current is ac, the magnitude of mmf varies
with time but not with space.
1
The rectangular mmf space wave of magnitude Ni can be resolved by Fourier series into a
2
fundamental component and a series of odd harmonic component. The fundamental component
from Fourier series
Ê 4 Ni ˆ
Fa1 = Á cos q ˜ where q is the electrical angle measured from the magnetic axis of the coil
Ëp 2 ¯
which coincides with the positive peak of the fundamental wave shown in Fig. 5.9(c).
Ê 4 Ni ˆ
\ Fa1 = (F1 peak cos q), where F1P = Á
Ë p 2 ˜¯
which is the peak value of the sine mmf wave for a 2 pole machine. If the machine has P number
of poles then
Ê 4 Ni ˆ
Fa1 = Á cos q ˜ …(5.7)
Ëp P ¯
6/7/3!Nng!pg!Ejtusjcvufe!Dpjm
The distributed coil of a three phase, 2 pole ac machine is shown in Fig. 5.10. The three coils
2¢ 3¢
1¢
Stator
1
3 2
Gjh/!6/21! Ejtusjcvufe!dpjm!po!tubups
belong to a single phase. The mmf variation of coil 11¢ alone is a rectangular wave of magnitude
1
Ni as discussed in the mmf study for concentrated coil. Similarly the mmf distribution of coil
2
22¢ and 33¢ are identical except the fact that they are displaced from one another by a slot angle g.
The mmf distribution of the three coils and the resultant of the three mmf distribution is shown in
Fig. 5.11. It is observed that the resultant mmf wave is stepped unlike rectangular shape of indi-
vidual coils.
! 6/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
1 2 3 1¢ 2¢ 3¢
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3
2
Ni
1
2
Ni
– 1 Ni
2
– 3 Ni (e)
2
Gjh/!6/22! Nng!xbwfgpsn!pg!ejtusjcvufe!xjoejoh!
(a) Developed view of stator coil (b) Mmf waveform due to coil 11¢
(c) Mmf waveform due to coil 22¢ (d) Mmf waveform due to coil 33¢
(e) Resultant mmf waveform
When more than three slots per pole per phase are present the steps are neglected and the mmf
waveform can be approximated to a smooth trapezoidal waveform as shown in Fig. 5.11(e). The
fundamental component of air gap mmf in distributed winding can be obtained from Fourier series
and fundamental component of mmf of phase a
4 N
Fa1 = K d K P Ph ia cos q …(5.8)
p P
where Kd and KP are distribution factor and pitch factor respectively, P is the number of poles, NPh
is the number of turns per phase and ia is the current in phase a.
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/2:
6/7/4!Nng!pg!Uisff.qibtf!Xjoejoht
When a three-phase winding, displaced in space by 120°, is supplied by a three-phase current dis-
placed in time by 120°, a magnetic flux is produced which rotates in space. This causes the rotor
to rotate.
Bobmzujdbm!Dpodfqu!pg!Uisff.qibtf!Spubujoh!Gjfme
Let us consider a machine with three identical coils placed 120° apart in space with respect to each
other, as shown in Fig. 5.12(a).
The coils are supplied with balanced three-phase voltages varying sinusoidally in time. This will
cause flow of sinusoidal current and each coil will produce an alternating flux along its own axis.
Let the instantaneous flux of the three phase be given by
f 1 = f m sin w t (5.9a)
f 2 = f m sin (w t – 120°) (5.9b)
f 3 = f m sin (w t – 240°) (5.9c)
The resultant flux produced by this system is determined by resolving the components will re-
spect to x and y axes, as shown in Fig. 5.12(b).
Axis of phase 3
f3
1
.
30°
2¢ 120° 3¢
60°
120°
Axis of phase 1 f1
. 120° . 2 60°
3
30°
1¢
f2
Axis of phase 2
(a) (b)
fp = 3 fm fv fr
2
fs = 3 f m
2
S Q
fQ = 3 f m
2 q
fR = 3 fm
2 fh
R
(c) (d)
Gjh/!6/23! Qspevdujpo!pg!spubujoh!gjfme!jo!b!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups
! 6/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3
f v = 0 – f 2 cos 30° + f 3 cos 30° = [f 3 – f 2]
2
3
= [f m sin (wt – 240°) – f m sin (wt – 120°)]
2
3 3
= ¥ f m . 2 cos wt ¥
2 2
3
= f m cos wt (5.10b)
2
\ the resultant flux is obtained as [Fig. 5.9(d)]
3
fr = (fh ) 2 + (fv ) 2 = fm sin 2 w t + cos 2 w t
2
3
= f m [∵ sin2 wt + cos2 wt = 1] (5.11)
2
f
and tan q = v cot tw = tan (90° – wt)
fh
It implies q = (90° – wt) (5.12)
The above equation shows that the resultant flux (f r) is free from time factor. It is a constant
Ê 3ˆ
magnitude flux of value equal to Á ˜ times the maximum flux per phase. However, q is dependent
Ë 2¯
on time and we can calculate q at different values of (wt); when (wt = 0), q = p/2 corresponding to
position P in Fig. 5.12(c).
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/32
FNG!HFOFSBUFE!JO!FMFDUSJDBM!NBDIJOFT! 6/8
Let the space distribution of field flux density created by distributed stator winding be taken ap-
proximately as sinusoidal, i.e.
bf = Bm sin q
d-axis
1 w
q-axis
q
1¢
Gjh/!6/24! Tubups!xjui!ejtusjcvufe!xjoejoh!boe!spups!xjui!tjohmf!dpjm!2Ð2¢
For simplicity, let a single coil 1–1¢ of N turns be placed in the rotor slots as shown in Fig. 5.10
and rotated at a speed of w. Let q be the angle measured from the quadrature axis. For an elemental
angle dq of the rotor surface, the flux linkage dy by the coil is given by
dy = N d f
= N Bm d A [∵ Flux = Flux density ¥ Area]
= N Bm sin q l (rd q)
[∵ r is the radius of the coil, r d q is the arc and l is the axial length of the armature core]
If P is the number of poles, angle d q is to be converted into equivalent mechanical degrees.
P
However, 1° mechanical = electrical degrees
2
! 6/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2
Or 1° electrical = degrees mechanical
P
2 1
\ d y = N Bm sin q l (r d q) = 2N Bm lr sin q d q
P P
Let the angular position of the rotor coil 1–1¢ at time zero be at the Q-axis, i.e. at the origin, and
after a time t, let the angular position be such that the coil makes an angle b with the Q-axis.
Since a coil span is 180°, total flux y linked by the coil is given by
p +b
1
y= Ú 2 N Bm lr
P
sin q d q
b
1 p +b
= 2 N Bm lr
P
[ - cos q ]b
1
= 4 N Bm lr cos b
P
4
= N Bm lr cos w t [∵ b = w t]
P
where w = 2p f, f being the frequency of alternation of induced voltage. We know that induced emf
is the rate of change of flux linkage. Thus, instantaneous value of induced emf is
dy d È4 ˘
E= = - Í NBm lr cos w t ˙
dt dt Î P ˚
4 d
= N Bm lr [cos w t]
P dt
4
= N Bm lr 2p f sin wt
P
8
= p f N Bm lr sin w t (5.13a)
P
We can also calculate the flux per pole as,
f = Flux density ¥ Area under a pole
p
2
= Ú Bm sin q lrd q
0
P
4
\ f= Bm lr (5.13b)
P
Substituting the value of f in Eq. (5.13), the value of included emf becomes
e = 2p f Nf sin w t
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/34
l0
V~ N1 E1 E2 N2
Gjh/!6/25! Fng!joevdfe!jo!uif!xjoejoht!evf!up!mjolbhf!pg!gmvy!qspevdfe!cz!qsjnbsz!dvssfou
! 6/35 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Em
The rms value of induced emf, E=
2
2p
\ E= f fm N = 4.44 fm f N
2
or E1 = 4.44 fm f N1
and E2 = 4.44 fm f N2
where E1 and E2 are the emfs induced in the primary and secondary windings of turns N1 and N2
respectively for the transformer shown in Fig. 5.14.
Induced emf equation for a coil rotating in a magnetic field being equal to the emf induced in the
windings of a transformer indicates that the motion of a coil under a stationary flux-density wave
produces the same voltage as for a time-varying flux-density wave linking a stationary coil.
It is noted that the voltage induced in the coil 1–1¢ in Fig. 5.13 is alternating in nature. In case of
dc machines, the alternating voltage is induced in the armature coils which is rectified by means of
brush and commutator arrangement. The commutator (a mechanical rectifier) reverses the negative
half cycle of the alternating voltage such that the output voltage will be a pulsating unidirectional
wave.
In practical dc machines, due to large number of armature coils in distributed armature slots, the
output voltage wave shape becomes more or less a dc wave.
We can calculate the average value of the fluctuating dc wave as
p
1
p Ú0 m
Edc = E sin w t d (w t )
NP
Here, f can be expressed in terms of speed N in rpm as f = where P is the number of poles. If
120
the armature of a dc machine has Z conductors and A parallel paths then the number of conductors
per parallel path is Z/A. Induced emf is the emf per parallel path.
Z
Number of turns being N = , the emf equation becomes
2A
NP Z
Edc = 4f
120 2 A
fZNP
or Edc = volts (5.17)
60 A
UPSRVF!JO!BD!NBDIJOFT! 6/9
6/9/2! Qspevdujpo!pg!Upsrvf!
The behaviour of any rotating electrical machine can be described in terms of electromechanical
torque. In the beginning, physical concept of torque production in rotating electrical machines is
discussed.
There are mainly two types of torques developed in electrical machines. One type is due to the
interaction of the magnetic fields produced by the currents in two windings which are in relative
motion with respect to each other. This type of torque is known as electromagnetic or interaction
torque. The second type is dependent on the current in one winding only and is produced due to
variations in the reluctance of the air gap in the magnetic circuit carrying the flux which links that
winding.
2/!Fmfduspnbhofujd!Upsrvf!
When stator coils and rotor coils both carry currents in an electrical machine then the flux pro-
duced by the rotor current interacts with the flux produced by the stator current and results in the
net magnetic flux. Due to the resultant magnetic flux, the rotor conductors experience a force and
this torque developed due to the interaction of the stator and rotor magnetic fields is called electro-
magnetic torque.
.
N S
.
Gjh/!6/26! Qspevdujpo!pg!fmfduspnbhofujd!upsrvf
! 6/37 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Figure 5.15 shows a current-carrying coil on the rotor. The direction of the current in the ro-
tor coil under the influence of the stator north pole is opposite to the direction of the current in
the other rotor coil which is under the influence of the south pole. The directions are indicated by
dot and cross respectively. The stator north pole repels the rotor north pole and attracts the rotor
south pole resulting in clockwise torque. Similarly, the stator south pole repels the rotor south pole
and attracts rotor north pole again resulting in clockwise torque. The developed torque is known
as electromagnetic torque. The magnitude of the electromagnetic torque developed in all rotating
machines is given by
Te μ Stator field strength ¥ Rotor field strength ¥ sin d
where d is the angle between the stator field axis and the rotor field axis.
3/!Sfmvdubodf!Upsrvf!
When a piece of magnetic material is free to move in a magnetic field, it tends to align itself with
the magnetic field to minimize the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. In other words, the piece of
magnetic material will orient itself toward the magnetic pole creating the field. The torque created
in this way on the rotor is called reluctance torque or alignment torque.
N S
Gjh/!6/27! Qspevdujpo!pg!sfmvdubodf!upsrvf
Figure 5.16 shows two salient stator poles carrying currents and producing magnetic flux. A
ferromagnetic iron bar is placed in between the two stator poles. Since the magnetic flux has a ten-
dency to follow minimum reluctance path or shorten the flux path, the rotor experiences a counter-
clockwise torque so that the rotor axis coincides with the stator magnetic axis and the reluctance
offered to the magnetic flux is minimum. This torque developed to reduce the reluctance of the
magnetic path is called reluctance torque or alignment torque. This torque is produced only when
there is a change in the reluctance offered to the magnetic flux with the change in the position of
the rotor. The reluctance torque becomes zero when the rotor axis coincides with stator polar axis.
6/9/3! Upsrvf!Frvbujpo!
Let us assume a cylindrical rotor machine as shown in Fig. 5.17. The machine can be assumed to
have two sets of windings; one on the stator and the other on the rotor, producing magnetic fields in
the air gap. The torque is produced due to the interaction of these two magnetic fields.
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/38
In deriving the torque equation, we assume that the tangential component of the magnetic field in
the air gap is negligible as compared to the radial component (i.e. the flux goes straight across the
gap). Also, the radial length of the air gap is small compared
to the radius of the rotor or stator. The flux density at the rotor
N
surface (or at the stator surface) or at any intermediate radial
distance in the air gap is thus same. The resultant air-gap field N S Fs
is then the radial field (H) or (B) whose intensity varies with
S
the angle around the periphery.
Ft
Figure 5.17 shows the axes of the stator field (Fs) and rotor
field (Fr). The angle between the two axes is (dsr). The phasor Gjh/!6/28! Dzmjoesjdbm!spups!tztufn
diagram is shown in Fig. 5.18 where Fs and Fr represent the
peak values of the stator and rotor mmf waves and the phasor Fsr represents the peak value of their
resultant.
Application of the trigonometric formula for the diagonal of a parallelogram yields
Fsr2 = Fs2 + Fr2 + 2Fs Fr cos dsr (5.18)
Also, Fs sin dsr = Fsr sin dr
and Fr sin dsr = Fsr sin ds
d sr
sin
Fs d sr Fs
90 –
ds d sr
90 – dsr dr sin
dsr Fs
Fr sin dsr
Fsr
Fr
d sr
sin
r
Fs
Gjh/!6/29! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!tipxjoh!sfmbujpotijq!pg!tubups!gjfme!Gt!spups!gjfme!Gs!boe!uifjs!sftvmubou!Gts
Now let us consider the magnetic field co-energy stored in the air gap. By definition, co-energy
is the area under the BH curve and represents the energy converted into mechanical work. The co-
energy density at the point of magnetic field intensity H, is given by
1 1
BH or mo H 2 (since B = moH)
2 2
The average value of energy density
mo
= (average value of H 2)
2
! 6/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The average value of the square of the sine wave is half its square of peak value.
Magnetic force
Since H=
Length of flux path
F
Hm = sr (neglecting reluctance of iron path)
g
2
mo H m2 mo Ê Fsr ˆ
Average co-energy density = =
2 2 4 ÁË g ˜¯
Total co-energy = Average co-energy density ¥ Volume of air gap
2
m ÊF ˆ
Wf l d = o Á sr ˜ p Dl . g
4 Ë g ¯
m p Dl 2
= o Fsr
4g
mop Dl 2
4g
(
Fsr + Fr2 + 2 Fs Fr cos d sr ) (5.19)
where D is the average diameter at the air-gap, l is axial length, g is the air-gap clearance and mo is
the permeability of air.
Equation (5.19) is the energy being converted into mechanical work. An expression for the elec-
tromagnetic torque T can now be obtained in terms of the interacting magnetic fields by taking the
partial derivatives of the field co-energy with respect to the angle.
For a two-pole machine,
∂(W fld ) mop Dl
T= = Fs Fr sin dsr (5.20)
∂d sr 2g
The torque for a P-pole machine is
P mop Dl
T= Fs Fr sin dsr (5.21)
2 2g
We know that the torque is produced by the interaction of rotor field and the resultant air-gap
field. Substituting Fs sin dsr = Fsr sin dr in Eq. (5.21), we get
P mop Dl
T= Fs Fsr sin dr (5.22)
2 2g
F
We know that Bsr = m o Hsr = m o sr
g
B g
Fsr = sr
mo
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/3:
where f is the resultant air-gap flux produced by the combined effect of the stator and rotor mmfs.
From the above equation, it is seen that torque is proportional to the interacting fields and the
sine of the electric space angle between their magnetic axis. Equation (5.23) is the generalised
torque equation. Let us now apply this equation to different types of machines and try to explain
their behaviour.
2/!Upsrvf!Frvbujpo!gps!b!ed!Nbdijof!
The essential features of a dc machine are shown in Fig. 5.19. The stator has salient poles with
excited field coils.
Fr (Q-axis)
Armature
.
.
.
.
.
.
Pole N
.
.
f (D-axis)
..
N S
.
Gjh/!6/2:! Fttfoujbm!gfbuvsft!pg!b!ed!nbdijof!tipxjoh!uif!gjfme!byjt!)E.byjt*!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!nng!
byjt!)R.byjt*
The air-gap flux distribution created by the field windings is symmetrical about the centre line
of the field poles. This axis is called the field axis or direct axis. The brushes are located so that
commutation occurs when the coil sides are in the neutral zone, midway between the field poles.
! 6/41 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The axis of the armature mmf wave then is 90° electrical from the axis of the field poles, i.e. in the
quadrature axis.
The torque can be expressed in terms of the interaction of the direct-axis air-gap flux per pole
f and the space fundamental component Fr1 of the armature mmf wave. With the brushes in the
quadrature axis the angle between these fields is 90° electrical.
Thus, referring to the generalized torque equation shown in Eq. (5.23), the torque equation for
the dc machine becomes
2
p ÈP˘
T = Í ˙ f Fr1 sin 90∞
2 Î2˚
2
p ÈP˘
= f Fr1 (5.24)
2 ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
The armature mmf of a distributed armature winding of a dc machine is triangular in shape and
is shown in Fig. 5.20.
A triangular mmf wave can be represented by fundamental sine wave and component harmonic
waves. We will consider only a fundamental wave whose maximum value is 8/p 2 of the maximum
value of the triangular wave.
If Z is the total number of conductors, A is the number of parallel paths, P is the number of poles
and i is the armature current then
Zi
F = Ampere turns/Pole =
2 PA
8
The fundamental component Fr1 = Fr
p2
8 Zi
Fr1 = 2
p 2 PA
N
B
2p
0 p
Flux Density
q Wave Shape
N S Due to Field
Poles
mmf
p 2p
0
(Armature
S mmf wave)
Gjh/!6/31! Gmvy.efotjuz! xbwf! boe! bsnbuvsf! nng! xbwf! pg! b! ejtusjcvufe! bsnbuvsf! xjoejoh! pg! b! ed!
nbdijof!
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/42
ÊNˆ
ÁË ˜¯ PZfi
T = 60
ÊNˆ
ÁË ˜¯ 2p A
60
2p NT fZNP
or = .i
60 60 A
2p NT
= ei (5.26)
60
This is the power which is transferred through the air gap to the rotor.
3/!Upsrvf!Frvbujpo!gps!b!Qpmzqibtf!Tzodispopvt!Nbdijof
A synchronous machine is one in which alternating current flows in the armature winding and
dc excitation is supplied to the field winding. The armature winding is on the stator and has a
three-phase winding. The field winding is on the rotor as shown in Fig. 5.21. The dc power required
for excitation is supplied through slip rings. While carrying balanced polyphase currents, the ar-
120 f
mature winding will produce a rotating magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed Ns = .
P
But the field produced by the dc rotor winding revolves with the rotor. For production of a steady
unidirectional torque, the rotating field of the stator and rotor must be travelling at the same speed.
A synchronous motor connected to a constant frequency voltage source, therefore, operates at a
constant steady-state speed regardless of load. The behaviour of a synchronous motor under run-
ning conditions can be explained in terms of the torque equation.
Y¢ O R
O O
B¢
DC
Y
O O
B
O R¢
Gjh/!6/32! Spubujoh!gjfme!boe!tubujpobsz!bsnbuvsf!tztufn
! 6/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2
p Ê Pˆ
T= Á ˜ f Fr sin dr
2Ë 2¯
The voltage generated by the air-gap flux wave is nearly equal to the terminal voltage Vt,
Vt = 4.44 f Nf
Vt
i.e. f = = constant, if Vt and f are constants. The rotor mmf Fr is determined by the dc field
4.44 fN
current and is also constant.
Therefore, T = K sin d r (5.27)
The variation in the torque requirements of the load on the machine is taken care of entirely by
variation of torque angle d r, as shown by the torque angle curve in Fig. 5.22 in which positive value
of torque represents motor action and the positive value of d r represents angle of lag of the rotor
mmf wave.
With a light shaft load, relatively small electromagnetic torque is required and d r is small. When
more shaft load is added, the rotor must drop back in space phase with respect to the rotating flux
wave just enough so that d assumes the value required to supply the necessary torque. The readjust-
ment process is actually a dynamic one accompanied by a temporary decrease in the instantaneous
mechanical speed of the rotor and a damped mechanical oscillation, called hunting of the rotor,
about its new position. When d r is 90°, the maximum possible torque or power, called the pull-out
torque or pull-out power, for a fixed terminal voltage and field current is reached. If the load re-
quirement exceeds this value, the motor slows down under the influence of the excess shaft torque
and synchronous motor action is lost because the rotor and stator fields are no longer stationary
with respect to each other. This phenomenon is known as pulling out of step or losing synchronism.
T Motor
Pullout Torque
Torque Angle, dr
Generator
Gjh/!6/33! Upsrvf.bohmf!dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!b!tzodispopvt!nbdijof
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/44
4/!Upsrvf!Frvbujpo!gps!Qpmzqibtf!Joevdujpo!Nbdijoft
Like a synchronous motor, a polyphase induction motor is supplied with three-phase supply to its
three-phase stator windings. The rotor is a closed winding and gets its excitation through electro-
magnetic induction. When a three-phase supply is supplied across the three phase windings of the
stator, a rotating magnetic field fsr is produced whose magnitude remains constant if the supply
and frequency remain constant. The rotor mmf Fr is proportional to the rotor current Ir. Thus, the
original equation
2
p Ê Pˆ
T = Á ˜ fsr Fr sin dr gets reduced to T = kIr sin d r (5.28)
2Ë 2¯
The motor rotates at a speed N, somewhat less than the speed of the rotating magnetic field, Ns,
because at synchronous speed of the rotor, there will be no induced current in the rotor as there will
be no relative speed between the rotating field and the rotor. The difference of Ns and Nr expressed
as percentage of Ns is called slip S.
Ns - Nr
S= ¥ 100 (5.29)
Ns
Slip is about 3 to 5 percent.
Various types of machines mentioned so far will be dealt with in detail separately.
TMPU!PS!UPPUI!IBSNPOJDT! 6/:
The use of distributed windings creates an additional problem in ac machines. The reluctance of
the flux path through teeth is lesser as compared to that through slots. This causes conversion and
fringing of flux at the tooth tips as shown in Fig. 5.23 and consequent ripples in the flux wave. The
effect is similar to an additional flux fs (which pulsates at the frequency with which the teeth pass
the pole tips) superimposed on the main flux. A complete cycle of this tooth frequency takes place
in the time required for the pole to move through an angle equivalent to one tooth pitch (or slot
pitch). If a three-phase machine has q slots per pole per phase, there will be 2(3 ¥ q) cycles of tooth
frequency for each cycle of fundamental frequency f.
Gjh/!6/34! Uvgujoh!pg!gmvy!bu!uppui!ujqt
! 6/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
If fs is the tooth or slot frequency and S is the total number of slots then
fs = f (Number of slots per pole pair) = f (2S/P) (5.30)
If the field flux per pole is f and additional flux due to slot harmonics is fs then
ftotal = (f + fs sin 2p fs t) cos 2 p f t (5.31)
The emf thus contains a component corresponding to fundamental frequency and two other
components due to tooth ripples. The frequencies of these components are ( fs – f ) and ( fs + f ) or
f (2S/P + 1). For a two-pole machine having 3 slots per pole per phase, the order of these harmonics
will be 11th and 13th, corresponding to 550 and 650 Hz.
Slot harmonics may cause many problems, such as the following:
1. When the generated voltage of synchronous machines contain these harmonics, it causes
interference in telecommunication lines.
2. They introduce vibration and noise in the machine.
3. The interaction of stator and rotor slot harmonics produces parasitic torques in induction
motor which may have a serious effect on the torque speed curve of the machine.
4. An increase in core losses by introduction of high-frequency components of voltages and
currents into the teeth of the stator.
The use of fractional slot winding and skewed rotor conductors reduces slot harmonics. In a
fractional slot winding, the space relation between teeth and slot opposite to the given pole face
is not the same as in the next and succeeding poles. Therefore, the emfs of slot ripple frequencies
(i.e. fs + f ) in different armature coils are out of phase and tend to cancel out. The skewed rotor
conductors are used in induction motors.
It is important to note that since the slot harmonics are set by the spacing between adjacent coil
slots, variation in coil pitch and distribution cannot reduce these harmonics.
! Qspcmfn!6/9
Efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!nbhofujd!gjfme!qspevdfe!jo!b!4.qibtf!xjoejoh!ejtqmbdfe!jo!tqbdf!cz!231¡!
xifo!tvqqmjfe!gspn!b!4.qibtf!61!I{!cbmbodfe!bd!tvqqmz/!Bttvnf!uif!ovncfs!pg!qpmft!up!cf!9/
Solution
The speed of the rotating magnetic field
120 f
= Synchronous speed = , where f = 50 Hz and P = 8
P
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/46
! Qspcmfn!6/:
Jg!uif!spups!pg!b!7.qpmf!4.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!svot!bu!b!tqffe!pg!:71!sqn-!efufsnjof!uif!tmjq!dpo.
tjefsjoh!uif!tvqqmz!gsfrvfodz!up!cf!61!I{/
Solution
P=6
f = 50
120 f 120 ¥ 50
\ synchronous speed Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
Speed of the rotor Nr = 960 rpm
Ns - Nr 1000 - 960
\ slip = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100%
Ns 1000
= 4%.
! Qspcmfn!6/21
Jo!b!5.qpmf!tzodispopvt!nbdijof-!uif!spups!tqffe!jt!2611!sqn/!Uif!nbdijof!ibt!71!tmput!xjui!9!
dpoevdupst!qfs!tmpu/!Jg!uif!upubm!gmvy!jt!1/15!Xc!boe!uif!xjoejoh!gbdups!jt!1/:6-!gjoe!uif!hfofsbufe!
fng!qfs!qibtf/
Solution
P=4
Synchronous speed Ns = 1500 rpm
If the frequency be f then
120 f
= 1500
4
or f = 50 Hz
! Qspcmfn!6/22
Efufsnjof!uif!ovncfs!pg!qpmft!pg!b!61!I{!4.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!xijdi!svot!bu!b!tqffe!pg!831!
sqn/!
Solution
f = 50
Nr = 720 rpm
Considering Nr to be equal to synchronous speed,
120 ¥ 50
Nr = 720 = , where P is the number of poles
P
120 ¥ 50 1
\ P= =8
720 3
Since the number of poles is an even and whole number, it may be 8 or 10.
If P = 8 then
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 750 rpm which is greater than the speed of the induction motor.
8
If P = 10 then
Ns = 600 rpm which is not possible as in an induction motor, the rotor speed is always less than
the synchronous speed.
\ number of poles is 8.
! Qspcmfn!6/23
B!4.qibtf!npups!jt!esjwjoh!b!qvnq/!Uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!voefs!mpbefe!dpoejujpo!jt!859!sfw0njo!
boe!voefs!vompbefe!dpoejujpo!jt!831!sfw0njo/!Tubuf!xifuifs!uif!npups!jt!b!tzodispopvt!npups!ps!
joevdujpo!npups!boe!gjoe!pvu!uif!ovncfs!pg!qpmft!jo!uif!npups/
Solution
If 748 rpm is the synchronous speed then
120 f
748 = , where f = 50 Hz. and P is the number of poles.
P
120 ¥ 50
\ P= = 8.02
748
As the number of poles cannot be a fraction, hence it is not a synchronous motor, it is an induc-
tion motor.
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/48
For P=8
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed = = 750 rpm
8
Under both loaded and unloaded condition, the motor is running below synchronous speed. The
Ê 748 ˆ Ê 720 ˆ
slip varies from 0.0027 Á = 1 - ˜ to 0.04 ÁË = 1 - ˜.
Ë 740 ¯ 750 ¯
! Qspcmfn!6/24
B!4.qibtf-!3.qpmf!nbdijof!jt!fydjufe!cz!b!cbmbodfe!4.qibtf!61!I{!wpmubhf/!Uif!nng!efwfmpqfe!jo!
uif!b!qibtf!xjoejoh!jt!bt!gpmmpxt;
Gb!>!jb!)L2!dpt!qb!,!L4!dpt!4qb!,!L6!dpt!6qb*
Tjnjmbs!fyqsfttjpot!dbo!cf!xsjuufo!gps!qibtft!c!boe!d/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!uisff.qibtf!nng/
Solution
Fa = ia [K1 cos qa + K3 cos 3qa + K5 cos 5 qa]
= Ia cos wt [K1 cos qa + K3 cos 3 qa + K5 cos 5 qa]
Fb = ib [K1 cos (qa – 120°) + K3 cos 3 (qa – 120°) + K5 cos 5 (qa – 120°)]
= Ia cos (wt – 120°) [K1 cos (qa – 120°) + K3 cos 3 (qa – 120°) + K5 cos 5 (qa – 120°)]
Fc = ic [K1 cos (qa – 240°) + K3 cos 3 (qa – 240°) + K5 – cos 5 (qa – 240°)]
= Ia cos (wt – 240°) [K1 cos (qa – 240°) + K3 cos 3 (qa – 240°) + K5 cos 5 (qa – 240)]
Total mmf = Fa + Fb + Fc
= Ia cos wt [K1 cos qa + K3 cos 3 qa + K5 cos 5 qa]
+ Ia cos (wt – 120°) [K1 cos (qa – 120°) + K3 cos 3 qa + K5 cos 5 (qa – 120°)]
+ Ia cos (wt + 120°) [K1 cos (qa + 120°) + K3 cos 3 qa + K5 cos 5 (qa + 120°]
= Ia cos wt [K1 cos qa + K5 cos 5 qa] + Ia cos (wt – 120°)
[K1 cos (qa – 120°) + K5 cos 5 (qa – 120°)]
+ Ia cos (wt + 120°) [K1 cos (qa + 120°) + K5 cos 5 (qa + 120°)]
+ K3 Ia cos 3qa [cos wt + cos (wt – 120°) + cos (wt + 120°)]
Now cos wt + cos (wt – 120°) + cos (wt + 120°) = 0
\ total mmf
3
= Ia [K1 cos (qa – wt) + K5 cos (5 qa + wt)]
2
3 È Ê wt ˆ ˘
= Ia Í K1 cos (q a - w t ) + K5 cos 5 Á q a + ˜ ˙ .
2 Î Ë 5 ¯˚
! 6/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!6/25
B!ed!nbdijof!qspevdft!35!W!xifo!pqfsbufe!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2311!sqn/!Cz!xibu!gbdups!tipvme!uif!ovn.
cfs!pg!bsnbuvsf!uvsot!cf!dibohfe!tvdi!uibu!gps!uif!tbnf!gjfme!gmvy!qfs!qpmf-!uif!hfofsbups!pvuqvu!
wpmubhf!xjmm!cf!29!W!bu!2611!sqn!tqffe@
Solution
From Eq. (5.17), the voltage output of a dc machine is
Pf ZN
V=
60 A
The number of armature turns is proportional to the number of conductors Z.
\ V = KTN where T is the number of turns and K is a constant.
Now, V1 = 24 V N1 = 1200 rpm
V2 = 18 V N2 = 1500 rpm
V1 24 V 18
\ T1 = = and T2 = 2 =
KN1 1200 K KN 2 1500 K
18 1200 3
\ T2 = ¥ T2 = T2
24 1500 5
3
Hence, the armature turns should be changed by a factor of .
5
! Qspcmfn!6/26
Uif!upubm!ovncfs!pg!bsnbuvsf!dpoevdupst!pg!b!3.qpmf!ed!hfofsbups!jt!431/!Uif!pqfo.djsdvju!wpmubhf!
hfofsbufe!jt!351!W!xifo!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!jt!2911!sqn/!Efufsnjof!uif!bjs.hbq!gmvy!qfs!
qpmf/
Solution
Generated voltage in a dc machine
Pf ZN
E= where f is the flux per pole
60 A
As P = 2, A = 2 for either lap-connected or wave-connected machine.
2f ¥ 320 ¥ 1800
\ 240 =
60 ¥ 2
240 ¥ 60 ¥ 2
\ f= = 0.025 Wb = 25 mWb.
2 ¥ 320 ¥ 1800
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/4:
! Qspcmfn!6/27
B!7.qpmf!61!I{!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!ibt!b!spups!mfohui!pg!2/:8!n!boe!b!spups!sbejvt!pg!69!dn/!
Efufsnjof!uif!sbufe!pqfsbujoh!tqffe!pg!uif!nbdijof/!Bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jg!uif!gvoeb.
nfoubm!bjs.hbq!gmvy!efotjuz!jt!2/34!Xc0n3/
Solution
Rated operating speed of the machine
= Synchronous speed
120 ¥ 50
= = 1000 rpm
6
From Eq. 5.13(a),
4
Flux per pole f= Bm lr
P
where P = 6, Bm = 1.23 Wb/m2, l = 1.97 m, r = 0.58 m
! Qspcmfn!6/28
Bttvnf!uibu!uif!dpjmt!jo!uif!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!pg!Qspcmfn!6/27!bsf!gvmm.qjudi-!22.uvso!dpjm!qfs!
qpmf!qbjs!xjui!uif!dpjmt!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!hfofsbufe!wpmubhf!qfs!qibtf/
Solution
There are 6 poles in the machine, i.e. 3 pole pairs.
\ total number of turns N = 11 ¥ 3 = 33
f = 0.937 Wb
f = 50 Hz
From Eq. (5.14),
Generated voltage per phase
E = 4.44 f f N = 4.44 ¥ 0.937 ¥ 50 ¥ 33
= 6864 V = 6.864 kV.
! Qspcmfn!6/29
Uif!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!pg!Qspcmfn!6/27!ibt!uisff!qibtf!xjoejoh!xjui!56!tfsjft!uvsot!qfs!qibtf!
boe!xjoejoh!gbdups!Lw!>!1/:39/!Gps!uif!tbnf!gmvy!dpoejujpo!boe!sbufe!tqffe!pg!Qspcmfn!6/27-!efufs.
njof!uif!snt!wpmubhf!qfs!qibtf/
! 6/51 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
From Eq. (5.15a) generated emf,
E = 4.44 f f N Kw
Here, Kw = 0.928, f = 50, N = 33, f = 0.937 Wb
\ E = 4.44 ¥ 0.937 ¥ 50 ¥ 33 ¥ 0.928
= 6370 V = 6.37 kV.
! Qspcmfn!6/2:
Uif!4.qibtf!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!pg!Qspcmfn!6/27!jt!opx!pqfsbufe!gspn!71!I{!tvqqmz/!Ju!jt!hjwfo!
uibu!gps!uif!pqfsbujoh!dpoejujpo!dpotjefsfe!jo!Qspcmfn!6/27!uif!snt!hfofsbufe!wpmubhf!jt!frvbm!up!
24!lW!mjof!up!mjof/!Ifodf-!uif!nbdijof!bsnbuvsf!nvtu!cf!sfxpvoe!xjui!b!ejggfsfou!ovncfs!pg!uvsot/!
Dpotjefsjoh!xjoejoh!gbdups!pg!Lw!>!1/:39-!efufsnjof!uif!sfrvjsfe!ovncfs!pg!tfsjft!uvsot!qfs!qibtf/
Solution
13, 000
The rms phase voltage E= V = 7505.77 V
3
F = 60 Hz
Kw = 0.928
f = 0.937 Wb
\ E = 4.44 f f N Kw
7505.77
or, N= = 144
0.937 ¥ 60 ¥ 0.928
\ number of series turns per phase is 144.
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot
1. Define distribution factor and pitch factor. Derive the expression for these two factors.
2. What is the difference between (i) single-layer and double-layer winding, and (ii) integral slot
and fractional slot winding?
3. Derive an expression for the emf generated in an N-turn full-pitch coil when the coil is rotated
in a magnetic field of sinusoidally distributed flux density.
4. Explain how a rotating magnetic field is produced when a Three-phase winding is supplied
from a three-phase balanced voltage.
5. Derive the relation between electrical and mechanical degree.
6. What are the advantages of distributed winding and fractional-pitch winding?
7. Explain electromagnetic torque and reluctance torque with suitable diagrams.
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/52
8. Show that the variation of torque in a synchronous machine is entirely dependent on the
variation of the torque angle.
9. What are slot harmonics? What are the problems caused by slot harmonics? How can they be
reduced?
Qspcmfnt
1. A 3-phase 50 Hz, 4-pole star-connected synchronous machine has a single-layer winding in
36 slots with 30 conductors per slot. Determine the line voltage and the synchronous speed if
the winding is full pitched and flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. [3322 V, 1500 rpm]
2. A 4-pole ac machine has a 3-phase winding wound in 60 slots. The coils are short pitched
in such a way that if one coil side lies in slot 1, the other side of the same coil lies in slot 13.
Determine the winding factor for the fundamental and third harmonics. [0.91 and 0.38]
3. A 16-pole, 3-phase synchronous machine has an air-gap flux of 0.06 Wb per pole. The stator
has 2 slots per pole per phase and 4 conductors per slot are accommodated in two layers. The
coil span is 150° electrical. Determine the phase voltage generated in the machine when the
machine runs at 375 rpm. [795.3 V]
4. A 6-pole synchronous machine rotating at 1000 rpm has a single-phase winding housed in
3 slots per pole, the slots in groups of three being 20° apart. If each slot contains 10 conductors
and the flux per pole is 20 mWb, determine the voltage generated in the machine. [383.5 V]
5. A 3-phase 10 pole synchronous machine with full-pitch coils has 16 slots per pole. Each
coil has 20 turns and the machine has a single-layer winding. The current per conductor is
75 A and the flux per pole is 25 mWb. Determine the kVA output of the stator winding if the
machine runs at 600 rpm. [636.5 kVA]
6. The line voltage of a star-connected three-phase machine is 400 V. Due to the presence of
third harmonic voltage, the phase voltage is 244 V. Determine the value of the third harmonic
voltage in the machine. [78.73 V]
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. Distributed winding and short chording winding employed in ac machines will result in
(a) increase in emf and reduction in harmonics
(b) reduction in emf and increase in harmonics
(c) increase in both emf and harmonics
(d) reduction in both emf and harmonics [GATE 2009]
2. It is desirable to eliminate 5th harmonic voltage from the phase voltage of an alternator. The
coils should be short pitched by an electrical angle of
(a) 30° (b) 36°
(c) 72° (d) 18° [GATE 2001]
! 6/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
[Hints: In order to eliminate any harmonic the pitch factor corresponding to that harmonic
should be 0.
5a
\ pitch factor corresponding to 5th harmonic KP = cos = 0 = cos 90°
2
2
\ a = 90° ¥ = 36°]
5
3. A rotating electrical machine having its self inductances of both the stator and the rotor
windings, independent of the rotor position will definitely not develop
(a) starting torque (b) synchronizing torque
(c) hysteresis torque (d) reluctance torque [GATE 2004]
4. An electric motor with ‘constant output power’ will have a torque-speed characteristic in the
form of a
(a) straight line through the origin
(b) straight line parallel to the speed axis
(c) circle about the origin
(d) rectangular hyperbola [GATE 2001]
[Hints: P = Eb Ia = Tw = constant. Hence TN = constant]
5. Following are some of the properties of rotating electrical machines:
P. Stator winding current is dc, rotor winding current is ac
Q. Stator winding current is ac, rotor winding current is dc
R. Stator winding current is ac, rotor winding current is ac
S. Stator has salient poles and rotor has commutator
T. Rotor has salient poles and slip rings, and stator is cylindrical
m. Both stator and rotor have polyphase windings.
Synchronous machines, dc machines and induction machines exhibit some of the above
properties as given in the following table. Indicate the correct combination from this table.
DC machines Synchronous machines Induction machines
(a) P–S Q–T R–U
(b) Q–U P–T R–S
(c) P–S R–U Q–T
(d) R–S Q–U P–T
[Hints: In dc machine armature or rotor winding current is ac and stator or field winding
current is dc. The rotor has commutator and stator has salient poles.
In synchronous machines field is the rotor part which carries dc current and stator or armature
carries ac current. Stator is cylindrical and rotor has salient poles and slip rings.
In induction machine both stator and rotor current is ac and both have three phase ac winding]
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/54
500 ¥ 106
[Hints: IL = = 15796 A = 15.79 kA]
3 ¥ 21.5 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.85
8. Match the following List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists
List I List II
P. Armature emf (E) 1. Flux (f), speed (w) and armature current (Ia)
Q. Developed torque (T) 2. f and w
R. Developed power (P) 3. f and Ia
4. Ia and w
5. Ia only
P Q R
(a) 3 3 1
(b) 2 5 4
(c) 3 5 4
(d) 2 3 1 [GATE 2005]
! 6/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Pf ZN Pf Zw
[Hints: E= = = Kfw
60 A 2p A
Eb I a K fw I a
T= = = K¢f Ia
w w
P = Eb Ia = Kfw Ia]
9. When stator and rotor windings of a 2-pole rotating electrical machine are excited, each would
produce a sinusoidal mmf distribution in the air gap with peak values F1 and F2 respectively.
The rotor mmf lags stator mmf by a space angle d at any instant as shown in figure. Thus, half
of stator and rotor surfaces will form one pole with the other half forming the second pole.
Further, the direction of torque acting on the rotor can be clockwise or counter-clockwise.
The table given below gives four sets of statements as regards to poles and torque. Select the
correct set corresponding to the mmf axes as shown in the figure.
Stator
C Air gap
c Rotor
B D F2
b Stator mmf axis
d
a d F1
Rotor mmf axis
A
180∞ 180∞
y= = = 15°
Slots/pole 48/ 4
q/ y 4 ¥ 15∞
sin sin
Kd = 2 = 2 = 0.9576
y 15∞
q sin 4 sin
2 2
36∞
KP = cos = 0.95
2
In double-layer winding, the number of coils is equal to number of slots
10 ¥ 48
\ N= = 160
3
EPh = 4.44 Kd KP f f N = 4.44 ¥ 0.9576 ¥ 0.95 ¥ 0.025 ¥ 50 ¥ 160
= 807.83 V
\ EL = 3EPh = 1400 V]
11. The fifth harmonic component of phase emf (in volt) for a three-phase star connection is
(a) Zero (b) 269
(c) 281 (d) 808
È na 5 ¥ 36∞ ˘
Í Hints: cos 2 = cos 2 = cos 90∞ = 0 ˙
Î ˚
12. In synchronous machines, the phase spread is
(a) 360° (b) 120°
(c) 60° (d) 30°
13. The distribution factor for a three-phase ac winding is about
(a) 0.85 (b) 0.75
(c) 0.95 (c) 0.5
14. The full-pitch coil in a synchronous machine, has a span of 18 slots. To eliminate third
harmonic, the coil span should be
(a) 18 slots (b) 15 slots
(c) 12 slots (d) 9 slots
180∞
[Hints: a= = 10° for full pitch coil
18
1
To eliminate third harmonic, chording angle is ¥ 180° = 60°
3
60∞
\ coil span should be reduced by or 6 slots
10∞
\ coil span is 18 – 6 = 12 slots]
! 6/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
15. An ac winding has 2 slots per pole per phase. The slot harmonics will be
(a) 17th and 19th (b) 5th and 7th
(c) 11th and 13th (d) none of the above
S
[Hints: =2¥3=6
P
2S
Slot harmonics = ± 1 = (2 ¥ 6) ± 1 = 12 ± 1 i.e. 11 or 13]
P
16. For a P pole machine, the relation between electrical and mechanical degrees is given by
2 4
(a) qelec = qmech (b) qelec = qmech
P P
P P
(c) qmech = qelec (d) qelec = qmech
2 2
17. For eliminating nth harmonic from the emf generated in the phase of a 3 phase alternator, the
chording angle should be
2
(a) n ¥ full pitch (b) ¥ full pitch
n
3 1
(c) ¥ full pitch (c) ¥ full pitch
n n
th
18. For eliminating 5 harmonic from the phase emf generated in an alternator, the coil span in
terms of full pitch (or pitch fraction) would be
4 5
(a) (b)
5 4
5 6
(c) (d)
6 5
5a
[Hints: cos = 0 = cos 90° or, a = 36°
2
\ Coil span = 180° – 36° = 144°
144∞ 4 ˘
or coil span = =
180∞ 5 ˙˚
19. A uniformly distributed winding on the stator has three full pitched coils, each coil having N
turns and each turn carrying a current i. The mmf produced by this winding is
(a) sinusoidal in waveform with an amplitude 3Ni/2
(b) sinusoidal in waveform with an amplitude 3Ni
(c) trapezoidal in waveform with an amplitude 3Ni/2
(d) trapezoidal in wave form with an amplitude 3Ni
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!BD!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft 6/58
Botxfst
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d)
9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (c)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (d)
17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (b)
7
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups
JOUSPEVDUJPO! 7/2
A synchronous generator, commonly known as alternator, is the most commonly used machine for
the generation of electrical power throughout the world. It generates alternating voltage which is
stepped up and transmitted.
Like other electrical rotating machines, a synchronous generator has two main components, viz.
stator and rotor. The armature winding is placed on the stator and the field poles are placed on the
rotor which are excited from a dc source. When the rotor is supplied with mechanical energy by
coupling it to a prime mover engine or turbine, it generates electrical energy in the stator.
A synchronous generator rotates at a speed fixed by the supply frequency and the number of
poles, which is known as the synchronous speed. It is also called doubly excited ac machine because
its field winding is always energized from a dc source in addition to the mechanical energy input
to the rotor.
QSJODJQMF!PG!PQFSBUJPO! 7/3
A synchronous generator has dc winding on its rotor. Pairs of poles are formed on the rotor as
shown in Fig. 6.1(a). Hence, there may be 2, 4, 6, etc. pole machines. They have three-phase wind-
ings A, B and C placed on the stator slots. These identical coils are with their axis at 120° to each
other. During rotation of the rotor, its north and south pole pass by the stator windings A, B, C alter-
nately. This gives the effect of a rotating magnetic field cutting the stator conductors. This induces
a single-phase alternating voltage in each winding. These three alternating voltages induced have
a time pattern as shown in Fig. 6.1(b). They are displaced from each other in time by one-third of
the time in which one pole pair passes through one winding. When N pole is crossing a winding,
! 7/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
one polarity of emf is induced, and when S pole is crossing, the opposite polarity of emf is induced.
Since one cycle time is represented by 360°, hence one-third of it is 120°. So the voltages in the
three windings A, B and C are each shifted by 120°. A pole pair crosses the winding B 120° after it
has crossed A and crosses C after 120° after B. This is known as the phase difference between volt-
ages of the windings as depicted in Fig. 6.1(c).
120°
VA B VB
VC
N
V VA VB VC
A S 120°
C
0°
120°
12
12
VA
0°
t
120°
VC 120° VB
Gjh/!7/2! Qsjodjqmft!pg!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups
Since crossing of one rotor pole pair across one stator phase produces one cycle of emf in that
P
phase, if there are P poles in a rotor then cycles of emf are induced in each phase per rotation
2
of the rotor. If rotor speed is Ns rpm or ns rps then the number of emf cycles induced per second in
each phase
P N P N P
f = ns ¥ = s ¥ = s …(6.1)
2 60 2 120
120 f
or, Ns =
P
where f is supply frequency and Ns is the speed of synchronous machine in revolutions per minute.
A low-speed machine has a large number of poles while a high-speed machine has less number of
poles.
DPOTUSVDUJPO! 7/4
A synchronous machine has basically the following parts.
7/4/2! Gsbnf!
Frame is the protective covering for the whole machine. It is usually built from cast iron or steel to
which the stator core is damped. The frame is designed not to carry the flux but to provide mechani-
cal support to the generator.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/4
7/4/3! Tubups!Dpsf!
The stator core is made up of thin laminations of highly permeable steel in order to reduce iron
losses. It carries the alternating flux and houses the stator windings. The axial length of the stator
core is comparitively short for slow-speed, large-diameter generators. The generators have many
poles and are left open on both ends for self-cooling. The axial length of high-speed generators
having 2 or 4 poles can be many times its diameter. These generators require forced air circulation
for cooling and are totally enclosed.
Tubups!Xjoejoh!
The stators of synchronous generators are wound with three distinct and independent windings
to generate three-phase power. Usually, the stator winding material is made of high-conductivity
copper. The three stator windings are exactly alike in shape but are displaced from each other by
exactly 120° electrical so that the induced emfs in the windings are exactly 120° in time phase. The
three-phase windings are either connected in star or delta. In star connection, the neutral point is
brought out so that it can be properly grounded.
The double-layer winding is often used to wind the armature of a synchronous generator. Howev-
er, full pitch coils are rarely used and generators are wound with fractional pitch coils. The winding
is distributed in nature. If Nph is the total number of series turns per phase of the polyphase stator
winding then the emf generated in any one phase is 2p Kw f Nph f where Kw is the winding factor,
f is the supply frequency and f is the flux.
7/4/4! Spups
Stator
Depending upon the type of rotor, synchronous
machines can be of two types—cylindrical rotor ma-
Rotor
chine and the salient-pole machine.
A cylindrical rotor or non-salient type rotor
consists of a smooth solid forged steel cylinder having N
a number of slots for accomodating field coils. These
rotors are used in high-speed turbogenerators and have
Motion
If the low power field winding is placed on the rotor, only two slips capable of handing lower
current is required. Also each slip ring should be insulated from the shaft of low-voltage. It is
easier to insulate low-voltage dc field winding on rotor than a high-voltage ac winding.
(b) It is easier to collect large armature current if the armature is stationary. The collection of
large currents through slip rings is difficult.
(c) With field winding on the rotor, only two slip rings are required instead of three slip rings.
Hence, slip-ring losses are reduced which results in better efficiency.
(d) Stationary armature can be cooled more efficiency resulting in use of high-power synchronous
machines.
(e) As the rotor has low-voltage field winding, it requires less amount of copper and insulation.
Hence, the overall weight and inertia of the rotor is reduced. Due to less weight, it requires
cheaper bearings and efficient high-speed operation is possible. Due to reduced inertia, the
machine gains full speed from rest within a very short time.
(f) Due to light and robust construction of the rotor, higher rotor speeds are permissible and this
results in increased output of the synchronous machine.
(g) The high-voltage and high-current armature winding of synchronous machine is very
complex and requires many connections and end connections. This winding remains more
secure when housed on the stator.
EJGGFSFOU!UZQFT!PG!FYDJUBUJPO!TZTUFNT! 7/5
The excitation system in a synchronous machine provides dc excitation to the field winding which
is placed on the rotor. The excitation systems may be classified as dc excitation system, ac excita-
tion system and static excitation system.
7/5/2! ed!Fydjubujpo!Tztufn
The dc excitation systems were used in earlier days. They have been replaced by ac or static excita-
tion systems. This excitation system utilizes a dc generator as the source of excitation power. It pro-
vides current to the synchronous machine rotor through slip rings. The dc generator may be driven
by a motor or the shaft of the main generator. The exciter generator may be either self-excited or
separately excited. For a separately excited generator, the exciter field is supplied by a pilot exciter
comprising a permanent magnet generator. Figure 6.4 shows a typical dc excitation system with
amplidyne as voltage regulator.
! 7/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
CT
PT
Exc. field
rheostat
Voltage
regulator
Gjh/!7/5! ed!fydjubujpo!tztufn
7/5/3! bd!Fydjubujpo!Tztufn
In this type of excitation system, the source of excitation power to the main generator is another
alternator which is on the same shaft as that of the main generator. The ac output of the exciter is
rectified to produce direct current for the main generator field. Depending upon the type of rectifiers
used, this type of excitation system is classified as stationary rectifier system and rotating rectifier
system.
2/!Tubujpobsz!Sfdujgjfs!Tztufn
In this excitation system, stationary rectifiers are used which supply dc power to the field wind-
ing of the main generator through slip rings. Figure 6.5 shows the schematic diagram of a field-
controlled alternator rectifier excitation system. The exciter which is an alternator, is driven by the
main generator rotor. The exciter field is supplied through thyristor rectifiers and it is self-excited.
In this system, an ac regulator is provided to automatically maintain the main generator stator ter-
minal voltage at the desired value corresponding to the ac reference. The dc regulator is provided to
maintain a constant generator field voltage as determined by the dc reference. The input signals to
the ac regulator include auxiliary inputs which provide additional control and protective functions.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/8
Slip ring
CT PT
dc
dc ref.
Controlled regulator
rectifier
ac
ref.
ac
regulator
Aux. inputs
Gjh/!7/6! Gjfme.dpouspmmfe!fydjubujpo!tztufn
3/!Spubujoh!Sfdujgjfs!Tztufn
This system is a brushless excitation system as rotating rectifiers are used to feed the dc output
directly to the main generator field. This system has been developed to avoid problems with the
use of brushes for supplying high field currents to large generators. Figure 6.6 shows the schematic
diagram of this type of excitation system. The armature of the ac exciter and diode rectifiers rotate
with the main generator field. A small pilot exciter with a permanent magnet rotor (shown as NS in
Fig. 6.6) rotates with the exciter armature and diode rectifiers. The stationary field of the ac exciter
is energized from the rectified output of the pilot exciter stator. The voltage regulator controls the
ac exciter field which in turn controls the field of the main generator.
Pilot exciter Rotating structure Main generator
Three- Field
phase ac
Gjh/!7/7! Spubujoh.sfdujgjfs!fydjubujpo!tztufn!
! 7/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
7/5/4! Tubujd!Fydjubujpo!Tztufn
As the name suggests, all components in this system are stationary. Stationary rectifiers supply
excitation current directly to the field of the main synchronous generator through slip rings. The
rectifiers are supplied from the main generator through a transformer which steps down the voltage
to a suitable level. This type of excitation system can be classified as potential-source-controlled
rectifier system and compound-source rectifier system.
2/!Qpufoujbm.Tpvsdf.Dpouspmmfe!Sfdujgjfs!Tztufn
In this system, the excitation power is supplied through a transformer from the generator terminals
and is regulated by a controlled rectifier. The maximum exciter output voltage is dependent on the
input ac voltage. But this system is inexpensive and is easy to maintain. This excitation system
operates satisfactorily for generators connected to large power systems. Figure 6.7 shows the sche-
matic diagram of this type of excitation system.
Main generator
Exciter
transformer Controlled rectifier Field Armature
Slip ring
Three-
CT PT
phase ac
Field
dc ref.
dc
regulator
ac ref.
ac
regulator
Aux. inputs
Gjh/!7/8! Qpufoujbm.tpvsdf.dpouspmmfe!sfdujgjfs!fydjubujpo!tztufn
3/!Dpnqpvoe.Tpvsdf!Sfdujgjfs!Tztufn!
The power in this excitation system is fed both from current and voltage of the main generator. A
power potential transformer and a saturable current transformer are used to fed power. The regulator
controls the exciter output through controlled saturation of the excitation transformer. Under no-
load condition, the generator armature current is zero and the potential source suppliers the entire
excitation power. Under loaded condition, part of the excitation power is supplied by the generator
current. Figure 6.8 shows the schematic diagram of a compound-source rectifier system.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/:
Main generator
Saturable Armature
current transformer
CT
PT
To neutral Field
grounding Power rectifier
Slip Power
rings potential
transformer
Current
source Voltage source
Linear reactor
Regulator
Aux. inputs
Gjh/!7/9! Dpnqpvoe.tpvsdf!sfdujgjfs!fydjubujpo!tztufn
DPPMJOH! 7/6
The cooling medium in case of a synchronous machine is either air or hydrogen. The slotted part
of the stator core which carries the armature conductors can only be reached through the air gap.
Circulating cooling air through the air gap of nonsalient-pole-type machine is a major issue as it
has long stator core length. In such cases, radial ducts are provided by placing stator core plates in
packets so as to have open spaces in between. Axial ducts are also provided for air cooling which
are parallel to the shaft axis. These ducts are formed by aligning the circular punching of core lami-
nations to form tubular ducts.
For cooling synchronous machines, either natural or forced air circulation is used. As salient-
pole machines have large diameter, they can be cooled by natural circulation of air through the
ducts. But the nonsalient-type-machines require forced cooling which require total enclosed stator
and fans to circulate the air with high velocity. Hydrogen as a cooling medium has certain advan-
tages over air. It requires less volume as its specific heat is much greater than that of air. The thermal
conductivity of hydrogen is also much larger than air. Hence, hydrogen cooling results in more ef-
ficient and less noisy system.
The main disadvantage of using hydrogen as the cooling medium (hydrogen cobled generators)
is that it is combustible when air-hydrogen ratio is less than 3. Hence, there is potential for fire
hazard. This is minimized by giving a pressure gradient from the machine towards the atomsphere
so that leakage is outwards, if any. Moreover, a number of auxiliary equipment is required for a
hydrogen-cooled unit. While filling the generator casing with hydrogen, it is necessary to replace
air by carbon dioxide, otherwise hydrogen-air mixture may be combustible. Hence, carbon dioxide
cylinders, piping, valves, regulators, pressure monitors, etc. are required. Also, oil film gas seals
become necessary and to avoid water vapour entering through seals, gas dryers are necessary.
! 7/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
For deciding the actual cooling type to be used for synchronous machines, the parameters such
as the rate of heat dissipation, cooling surface area, volume of air required, temperature difference
between the cooling air and the part to be cooled, humidity, temperature, pressure of cooling air,
etc. should be considered.
FNG!FRVBUJPO!JO!B!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS! 7/7
Figure 6.9 shows the cross-sectional view of a Field winding
synchronous generator. The stator has a two-pole, a axis
ered with two coil sides a, a¢ of one coil located di- N c¢ q = wrt
ws
ametrically opposite to each other. A salient-pole-
type rotor is shown rotating in clockwise direction.
The time origin is chosen at the instant when Stator coil axis
c
the stator-coil axis coincides with the field-wind- S
ing axis. ws is the angular velocity of the rotor in b
dy df
e=– = N f ws sin wrt – N cos ws t …(6.3)
dt dt
df
In Eq. (6.3), N f ws sin wr t is the speed voltage term and N cos wst is the transformer volt-
df dt
age term. If field flux is time invariant then N cos wst is zero. Hence, the emf equation becomes
dt
e = N f ws sin wr t …(6.4)
The maximum value of generated emf per phase
Emax = N f ws = 2p f N f …(6.5)
where f is the supply frequency.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/22
Êp ˆ Ê pˆ
e = N f ws cos Á - w s t ˜ = N f ws sin Á w s t - ˜ …(6.8)
Ë2 ¯ Ë 2¯
Hence, from Eq. (6.2) and Eq. (6.8), we can conclude that generated emf lags 90° behind the flux
that generates it.
! Qspcmfn!7/2
B!uvscp!hfofsbups!ibt!5!qpmft/!Efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!tufbn!uvscjof!esjwjoh!ju!up!pcubjo!b!gsf.
rvfodz!pg!61!I{/
Solution
Number of poles P = 4
Frequency f = 50 Hz
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Hence, speed Ns = = = 1500 rpm.
P 4
! Qspcmfn!7/3
B!xbufs!uvscjof!jt!dpvqmfe!up!b!261!NX!bmufsobups!jo!b!izefm!qpxfs!tubujpo!xijdi!hfofsbuft!qpxfs!
bu!b!gsfrvfodz!pg!71!I{/!Xibu!tipvme!cf!uif!ovncfs!pg!qpmft!jg!uif!bmufsobups!tqffe!jt!:11!sqn@
Solution
f = 60 Hz
Ns = 900 rpm
120 f
Hence, 900 = where P is the number of poles.
P
120 ¥ 60
\P= = 8.
900
! 7/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!7/4
B!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!dpoofdufe!up!b!61!I{!jogjojuf!cvt!jt!dpvqmfe!up!b!tzodispopvt!npups!xijdi!
jt! tvqqmjfe! gspn! 36! I{! nbjot/! Xibu! tipvme! cf! uif! njojnvn! ovncfs! pg! qpmft! gps! uif! npups! boe!
hfofsbups!boe!xibu!jt!uif!dpnnpo!tqffe@
Solution
As the speeds of both the machines are equal,
120 ¥ 25 120 ¥ 25
=
Pm Pg
where Pm and Pg are the number of poles of the motor and generator respectively.
Pg 50
Hence, = =2
Pm 25
The number of poles of the generator is double the number of poles of the motor.
As the minimum number of poles can be 2, if Pm = 2; then Pg = 4
Therefore, the minimum number of poles of the motor is 2 and that of the generator is 4.
120 ¥ 25 120 ¥ 50
The common speed Ns = =
2 4
= 1500 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!7/5
B!tzodispopvt!dmpdl!xjui!opnjobm!gsfrvfodz!pg!61!I{!tipxt!dpssfdu!ujnf!bu!21!b/n/!Xibu!jt!uif!
ujnf!joejdbufe!cz!uif!dmpdl!bu!4!q/n/!jg!evsjoh!uijt!qfsjpe!uif!bwfsbhf!gsfrvfodz!jt!5:/6!I{@
Solution
Actual time between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. is 5 hours, or 5 ¥ 3600 s
At 50 Hz frequency in 1 s, the number of cycles completed is 50.
Hence, in 5 ¥ 3600 s, the number of cycles = 50 ¥ 5 ¥ 3600
Now at 49.5 Hz frequency, 49.5 cycles are completed in 1 s.
50 ¥ 5 ¥ 3600
Hence, 50 ¥ 5 ¥ 3600 cycles are completed in s
49.5
= 18182 s
= 5 h 3 min 2 s
Hence, the clock will indicate
(10 a.m. + 5 h 3 min 2 s) or 3 p.m. 3 min 2 s.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/24
! Qspcmfn!7/6
B!4.qibtf-!61!I{!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!311!dpoevdupst!qfs!qibtf/!Uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jt!41!nXc!
boe!uif!xjoejoh!gbdups!jt!1/:7/!Xibu!jt!uif!wbmvf!pg!uif!mjof!wpmubhf!jg!uif!tubups!xjoejoh!jt!dpoofdufe!
jo!)b*!efmub-!boe!)c*!tubs@
Solution
From Eq. (6.7),
Eph = 4.44 Kw f N f
Here, f = 50 Hz
200
N= = 100 (E 1 turn = 2 conductors)
2
f = 30 ¥ 10–3 Wb
Kw = 0.96
\ Eph = 4.44 ¥ 0.96 ¥ 50 ¥ 100 ¥ 30 ¥ 10–3
= 639.36 V
(a) In delta connection, the line voltage is equal to phase voltage.
\ Line voltage VL = 639.36 V
(b) In star connection, the line voltage is equal to times the phase voltage.
\ Line voltage VL = ¥ 639.36 V
= 1107.4 V.
! Qspcmfn!7/7!
B!5.qpmf-!61!I{!tubs.dpoofdufe!bmufsobups!ibt!7!tmput!qfs!qpmf!qfs!qibtf!boe!b!uxp.mbzfs!xjoejoh!
xjui!5!dpoevdupst!qfs!tmpu/!Jg!uif!dpjm!tqbo!jt!261°-!gjoe!uif!op.mpbe!ufsnjobm!fng!jg!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!
jt!411!nXc/
Solution
Total number of slots S = 6 ¥ 4 ¥ 3 = 72
\ Total number of conductors Z = 4 ¥ 6 ¥ 4 ¥ 3
= 288
Coil span = 150°
180∞ - 150∞
Hence, pitch factor Kp = cos = 0.966
2
x
sin q
Distribution factor Kd = 2
x
q sin
2
180∞ 180∞ 180∞
where a= = = = 10°
slots per pole 72 18
4
6 ¥ 10∞
sin
Hence, Kd = 2 = 0.956
10∞
6 sin
2
\ Winding factor Kw = Kp Kd = 0.966 ¥ 0.956
= 0.9235
\ no-load terminal emf per phase
E = 4.44 Kw f Nf
= 4.44 ¥ 0.9235 ¥ 50 ¥ 48 ¥ 300 ¥ 10–3
= 2952.24 V
The terminal voltage VL = ¥ 2952.24 V
= 5.113 kV.
! Qspcmfn!7/8
B!efmub.dpoofdufe!uisff.qibtf!26!lW-!711!sqn-!61!I{-!5.qpmf!hfofsbups!ibt!5!tmput!qfs!qpmf!qfs!
qibtf/!Uif!dpjm!tqbo!jt!21!tmput!boe!uifsf!bsf!31!uvsot!qfs!dpjm/!Efufsnjof!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jg!uif!
hfofsbups!ibt!epvcmf.mbzfs!xjoejoh/
Solution
Number of slots per pole = 4 ¥ 3 = 12
180∞
Slot angle = = 15°
12
Coil span is 10 slots
Hence, the short pitch angle g = 15° ¥ (12 – 10)
= 15° ¥ 2 = 30°
g
\ pitch factor Kp = cos = cos 15° = 0.9659
a 4 ¥ 15∞
sin sin
\ distribution factor Kd = 2 = 2
a 15∞
sin 4 ¥ sin
2 2
= 0.957
\ winding factor Kw = 0.9659 ¥ 0.957
In double-layer winding, number of coils = number of slots = 4 ¥ 4 ¥ 3 = 48
20 ¥ 48
\ Number of turns per phase N =
3
Hence, E = 15 ¥ 103 = 4.44 Kw fN f
20 ¥ 48
= 4.44 ¥ 0.9659 ¥ 0.957 ¥ 50 ¥ ¥f
3
15 ¥ 103
\ f=
20 ¥ 48
4.44 ¥ 0.9659 ¥ 0.957 ¥ 50 ¥
3
= 0.2284 Wb.
! Qspcmfn!7/9
Uif!usbqf{pjebm!ejtusjcvujpo!pg!joevdfe!fng!jo!b!gvmm!qjudife!dpjm!jt!tipxo!jo!Gjh/!7/21/!Jg!uif!ovncfs!
pg!uvsot!qfs!qibtf!jt!71-!efufsnjof!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf/
emf
E = 200 V
0 3 9 12 15 21 24 t(ms)
–E
Gjh/!7/21! Uif!fng!ejtusjcvujpo!pg!Qspc/!7/9
Solution
1 È ÊE ˆ
3 2 9 12
ÊE ˆ
2 ˘
From Fig. 6.10, the rms value of induced emf = Í Ú Á t ˜ dt + Ú E 2 dt + Ú Á t ˜ dt ˙
12 ÍÎ 0 Ë 3 ¯ 3 9
Ë3 ¯
˚˙
! 7/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3 12 ˘
1 ÈÍ 1 È t 3 ˘
3
9 1 Èt ˘ ˙
=E Í ˙ + [t3
] + Í ˙
12 ÍÎ 9 Î 3 ˚0 9 Î 3 ˚9 ˙˚
1 È 27 999 ˘
= Í +6+
12 Î 9 ¥ 3 9 ¥ 3 ˙˚
1
=
12
[1 + 6 + 37] = 1.915 E
= 1.915 ¥ 200 V
= 383 V
If f be the flux per pole then
383 = 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 60 ¥ f
or f = 0.029 Wb.
! Qspcmfn!7/:
Uif!dpsf!mfohui!pg!b!uisff.qibtf!7.qpmf-!61!I{!bmufsobups!jt!frvbm!up!uif!qpmf!qjudi/!Uif!tmpu!qjudi!jt!
4!dn-!tmput!qfs!qpmf!qfs!qibtf!jt!7!boe!uif!ovncfs!pg!uvsot!qfs!dpjm!jo!uif!epvcmf.mbzfs!xjoejoh!jt!6/!
)b*!Efufsnjof!uif!upubm!ovncfs!pg!tmput-!dpsf!ejbnfufs!boe!dpsf!mfohui/!)c*!Xibu!jt!uif!fng!hfofs.
bufe!jg!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf!jt!1/14!Xc@
Solution
pD
Slot pitch tp = where D is the core diameter and S is the number of slots.
S
p p
tp = 3 = =
6 ¥ 6 ¥ 3 108
108 ¥ 3
\ D= = 103.185 cm
p
(a) If core length is L then
L = pole pitch
p D p ¥ 103.185
Now, pole pitch = = = 54
P 6
\ L = 54 cm
(b) E = 4.44 f N f
In double-layer winding, number of coils = number of slots
= 6 ¥ 6 ¥ 3 = 108
\ N = 5 ¥ 108
Hence, E = 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 5 ¥ 108 ¥ 0.03 = 3596 V.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/28
GMVY!BOE!NNG!EJBHSBN!PG!DZMJOESJDBM.SPUPS! 7/8
!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS!!!
For developing the phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor alternator, first the no-load operation of the
machine is considered. Then the armature reaction is considered and finally the effect of armature
resistance and leakage reactance is considered.
f
7/8/2! Op.Mpbe!Pqfsbujpo!
F
When the synchronous generator is operating at no-load condi-
tion with the field winding excited from the dc source, the field
flux f and find mmf F is set up. The per phase generated emf E is
given by Eq. (6.7). It has already been discussed in Article 6.6 that
E lags behind f by 90°. The field mmf F, which is the product of 90°
field current and the number of turns in the field winding and the E
field f are in phase as shown in Fig. 6.11.
Gjh/!7/22! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!
! ! ! ! ! !voefs!op!mpbe
7/8/3! Fggfdu!pg!Bsnbuvsf!Sfbdujpo!
When a balanced three-phase load is connected to
the synchronous generator, an armature current Ia fr
f
flows in each phase of the armature winding. The
three-phase currents produce a rotating magnetic
field Fa which rotates at synchronous speed. As the F Fr
rotor also rotates at synchronous speed, the field
mmf F and armature mmf Fa are stationary with
respect to each other. Let us assume that armature
current Ia is in phase with E or the alternator is op-
erating under unity power factor load. Hence, Fa
is perpendicular to F and is in phase with Ia. The
phasor sum of F and Fa gives the resultant air gap Fa fa Ia E
mmf Fr. The phasor diagram under unity power
factor load is shown in Fig. 6.12. The effect of ar- Gjh/! 7/23! Qibtps! ejbhsbn! voefs! vojuz!
qpxfs! gbdups! mpbe! tipxjoh!
mature reaction under unity power factor load is fggfdu!pg!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo
cross magnetizing as Fa acts at 90° to the direction
of field mmf F. Also the direction of armature flux fa, created by Fa, is along the direction of Fa.
In a cylindrical rotor machine, as the air gap is uniform, the reluctance is uniform
\ Fa + F = Fr …(6.9)
! 7/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Fa F Fr
or, + = …(6.10)
Reluctance Reluctance Reluctance
or, f +f = f …(6.11)
f
\ the resultant fr is the vector sum of f and fa and is shown
in Fig. 6.12. F
fr
Now the operation of a synchronous generator under lag-
ging power factor load is examined. Let us consider the ar- Fr
mature current Ia is lagging the excitation voltage E by an
angle q. Hence, Fa will be lagging with respect to F by an
angle of 90° + q. The resultant mmf Fr under this condition
is shown in Fig. 6.13.
The armature reaction flux is constant in magnitude and q
E
7/8/4! Fggfdu!pg!Bsnbuvsf!Sftjtubodf!boe!Mfblbhf!Sfbdubodf!
When the armature of the synchronous generator is load- F
Ia
Gjh/!7/25! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!dzmjoesjdbm.
spups!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/2:
DPODFQU!PG!TZODISPOPVT!JNQFEBODF! 7/9
The terminal voltage of a synchronous generator under F
xa
may be considered to produce the emf Ea.
a
–I
=
Ea
ar
E
Hence, E + Ear = Ea …(6.12) Vt
Fa
and Ear = – j Ia xa …(6.13) Iaxl
Iara
Figure 6.16 shows the equivalent circuit of a synchro- Ia
nous generator. Gjh/! 7/26! Qibtps! ejbhsbn! tipxjoh!
bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo!fng
xa Ia ra xe
Ea Vt
E
Gjh/!7/27! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups
The synchronous impedance Zs is a fictitious impedance considered to account for the voltage ef-
fects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature resistance, armature leakage reactance
and the change in air-gap flux caused by armature reaction.
WPMUBHF!SFHVMBUJPO! 7/:
Voltage regulation of a generator is defined as the percentage rise of voltage from full load to no
load when the excitation field and the speed remain constant.
E - V fl
Voltage regulation = …(6.16)
V fl
Vf l is the full load voltage and E is the no-load excitation voltage. For lagging power factor load,
E is always greater than Vfl, hence voltage regulation is always positive. For leading power factor
load, E may be greater or less than Vfl. Hence, the voltage regulation may be positive or negative.
The terminal voltage of a synchronous generator changes with the application of load across its
output terminals. The change is due to voltage drops in the windings and the effect of armature re-
action. Figure 6.17 shows the variation of terminal voltage with armature current at different power
factors.
Leading pf
P
A
Unit
y pf
Vt
La
gg
R ing
pf
O B Ia
Gjh/!7/28! Wbsjbujpo!pg!Wu!xjui!Jb!bu!ejggfsfou!qpxfs!gbdups!mpbet
Here, OB is the rated load current of the generator at which the terminal voltage is OA. If this
load at unity power factor is removed, keeping the speed and excitation of the alternator constant,
the terminal voltage will rise to OP. If the load at lagging power factor is removed, the terminal
voltage rises to OQ, whereas when the load at leading power factor is removed, the terminal voltage
drops to OR. The change of terminal voltage from full load to no load is more in case of lagging
and leading power factor as compared to unity power-factor load.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/32
In synchronous generators, a constant output voltage at different power factor loads is main-
tained by using an automatic voltage regulator which automatically increases or decreases the field
excitation, depending upon, the magnitude of the load power factor. To determine the expression
for voltage regulation, the phasor diagram of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator operating
at lagging, leading and unity power factor are shown in Fig. 6.18(a), Fig. 6.18(b) and Fig. 6.18(c)
respectively.
E A
I az s
Iaxs
d
Ia ra
O q Vt
Ia B
(a)
Ia
E
Iaxs
Iazs
d
q
Iara
Vt
(b)
Iaxs
E
Iazs
d
Ia Vt Iara
(c)
Gjh/! 7/29! Qibtps! ejbhsbn! pg! dzmjoesjdbm.spups! tzodispopvt! hfofsbups! bu! )b*! mbhhjoh! qpxfs.gbdups!
mpbe-!)c*!mfbejoh!qpxfs.gbdups!mpbe-!boe!)d*!vojuz!qpxfs.gbdups!mpbe!sftqfdujwfmz
The no-load voltage E at any load Ia and any power factor cos q can be calculated if the terminal
voltage Vt, armature resistance ra and synchronous reactance xs is known. Hence, voltage regulation
can be calculated.
From Fig. 6.18(b), at leading power factor,
E = (Vt + I a ra )2 + ( I a xs )2 …(6.19)
The voltage regulation in small machines can be obtained by directly loading the machine. But in
large machines, indirect methods are used to determine the voltage regulation since direct loading
of these machines require large input and due to the cost of dissipating the huge output. For large
cylindrical-rotor synchronous generators, three indirect methods are used to determine the voltage
regulation.
They are
1. Synchronous impedance method or emf method
2. Ampere-turn method or mmf method
3. Zero power-factor method or Potier method
7/:/2! Tzodispopvt!Jnqfebodf!Nfuipe-!ps!fng!Nfuipe!
It has been mentioned earlier that voltage regulation can be calculated if ra and xs is known. The
following tests are performed to determine ra and xs or synchronous impedance Zs.
1. dc resistance test
2. Open-circuit test
3. Short-circuit test
In dc resistance test, the armature resistance ra is measured by voltmeter-ammeter method us-
ing a battery, a dc voltmeter and a dc ammeter. The value of the resistance obtained is multiplied
by a suitable factor to take into account the rise of resistance due to skin effect. For example, if
the armature is star connected with dc field winding open, the dc resistance between each pair of
terminals is measured. This resistance is divided by 2 to obtained the dc resistance per phase. Then
it is multiplied by a factor 1.2 to 1.7 depending upon the size of the machine to consider the skin
effect, and the armature resistance ra is obtained. If the armature winding is delta connected, the dc
3
armature resistance is ¥ dc resistance between each pair of terminals. Then it is multiplied by the
2
skin factor to obtain the actual ra.
In open-circuit test, the loads in the synchronous generator are disconnected and the field current
is made zero. The alternator is then run at rated synchronous speed. The field current is gradually
increased in steps and the corresponding terminal voltage is measured. The field current may be in-
creased to get the terminal voltage 25% more than the rated voltage. The open-circuit characteristic
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/34
(Fig. 6.19) shows the relation between open-circuit voltage per phase and the field current. For low
values of field current, the Open-Circuit Characteristic (OCC) is a straight line. For high values of
field current, the characteristic departs from the straight line due to saturation.
C
OC
Short-circuit armature
Open-circuit voltage
current Ia sc
P
C
SC
E
R
O
Field current If
Gjh/!7/2:! Pqfo.djsdvju!boe!tipsu.djsdvju!dibsbdufsjtujd
In short-circuit test, the armature terminals are shorted and three ammeters are connected to
measure the short-circuit current. The field current is reduced to zero and the synchronous machine
is run at synchronous speed. The field current is gradually increased and the short-circuit armature
current is measured. The field current may be increased to get armature current of 50% more than
the rated value. The average of the three armature currents is considered and a graph is plotted
between this current and field current. This characteristic of short-circuit armature current Iasc and
field current If is known as short-circuit characteristic as shown in Fig. 6.19.
From Fig. 6.19, the field current OR produces the rated open-circuit voltage of PR and the same
field current OR produces the short-circuit armature current of QR. The synchronous impedance Zs
may be calculated as follows:
Rated open-circuit phase voltage per phase
Zs = for the same value of field current
Short-circuit armaature current
PR (in volts)
= …(6.20)
QR (in amperes)
Hence, synchronous impedance Zs is the ratio of the open-circuit phase voltage for a certain
excitation to the short-circuit armature current for the same excitation.
The synchronous reactance xs is obtained as
xs = Z s - ra …(6.21)
! 7/35 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
7/:/3! Bnqfsf.uvso!Nfuipe-!ps!nng!Nfuipe!
The ampere-turn method, or mmf method, is based on the concept of replacing the effect of
armature leakage reactance by an equivalent additional armature reaction mmf. The open-
circuit characteristic and short-circuit characteristic along with stator resistance Ra should be
available for finding the voltage regulation using If
mmf method. The armature terminal voltage V t
is considered as reference, and armature current
Ia is drawn lagging Vt by an angle q for which If2 If1
regulation is to be calculated as shown in Fig. 6.20.
The armature resistance drop Ia ra is drawn parallel
to Ia and the resultant of Vt and Ia ra is represented
Vt
by E 1. From the open-circuit characteristic of q Iara
Fig. 6.19, the field current If1 corresponding to E1 is
noted. This current If1 is drawn leading E1 by 90°. E1
7/:/4! [fsp!Qpxfs.Gbdups!Nfuipe-!ps!Qpujfs!Nfuipe!
Zero power-factor characteristic shows the variation of armature terminal voltage with field current
when the alternator is delivering full rated current to zero power-factor load. For obtaining zero
power-factor characteristic the synchronous machine is run at rated synchronous speed after con-
necting a purely inductive load across the armature terminals. The field current is increased till full
load current flows across the armature winding. The armature terminal voltage is recorded at each
step corresponding to the field current to obtain the zero power-factor characteristic.
Figure 6.22 shows the phasor diagram corresponding to zero power-factor lagging load where
the armature current Ia lags the terminal voltage Vt by 90°. The armature reaction mmf Fa, field
mmf F and resultant mmf Fr is also shown. If the armature resistance ra is neglected then the cor-
responding phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 6.22.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/36
F
Fa Fa
Fr
Fr
Vt Vt
E
Iaxl
E
Fa Iara Iaxl
Fa
Ia ! ! ! ! Ia
y
E
Iaxal
Vt x
p z
y¢
E¢
V¢t x¢
z¢
y≤
x≤
z≤ b
O I
Ir a
Iar
If
Gjh/!7/34! Qpujfs!usjbohmf!
! 7/37 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Let us consider a point x on the zero power-factor characteristic curve corresponding to the rated
terminal voltage Vt. The corresponding field current is If where If = oa. On the open-circuit char-
acteristic, consider the point y corresponding to the generated emf E. As E = Vt + Ia xal, consider a
point z such that yz = Ia xal = E – Vt.
The triangle formed by the vertices x, y, z is called the Potier triangle. Now let us consider the
zero power-factor operation of the synchronous generator at any other terminal voltage Vt¢ with
rated armature current. Hence, the leakage reactance voltage drop will have the same value as that
when the machine operates at terminal voltage Vt. Hence, if the Potier triangle xyz is shifted down-
ward so that xz is kept horizontal and point x lies on the zero power-factor characteristic curve, the
new Potier triangle at terminal voltage V¢t is triangle x¢, y¢, z¢. The point y¢ on the OCC will deter-
mine the generated voltage E ¢. Now if the triangle is still shifted downwards such that the terminal
voltage Vt is zero, the Potier triangle is represented by triangle x≤, y≤, z≤. This triangle represents
the limiting position which corresponds to the short-circuit condition. As the initial part of OCC is
almost linear, another triangle y≤x≤ is formed when terminal voltage is zero. A similar triangle xyp
can be formed from the Potier triangle at any terminal voltage by drawing the line py parallel to oy≤
from the vertex y of the Potier triangle such that px = ox≤.
To determine the voltage regulation by zero power factor method at the terminal voltage Vt at
lagging power factor of cos q, the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 6.24 is constructed considering
Vt as reference. Ia is drawn making an angle q with Vt. Ia ra is drawn parallel to Ia and the line BC
perpendicular to Iara represents Ia xl. OC is joined which represents the generated emf E. From the
OCC, the field excitation current Ir corresponding to generated emf E is determined. OD is drawn
equal to Ir perpendicular to OC. GD is drawn equal in magnitude to Ia and parallel to Ia. OG is
joined to get the total field current If.
G
Ia Ef H
If
D
Iaxa
Ir
E
C
A Iaxl
O Vt
Iara
B
Ia
Gjh/!7/35! Wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!gspn!{fsp!qpxfs.gbdups!nfuipe!
Now corresponding to the field current If (= OG), the emf Ef is determined from the open-circuit
characteristic. Ef is represented by OH which is drawn perpendicular to OG and lagging by 90°. CH
represents the voltage drop due to armature reaction.
E f - Vt
Hence, voltage regulation = ¥ 100%
Vt
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/38
TIPSU.DJSDVJU!SBUJP! 7/21
Short-circuit ratio of a synchronous generator is defined as the ratio of the field current required
to produce rated voltage on open circuit to the field current required to produce rated current on
three-phase short circuit. The short-circuit ratio is the reciprocal of the per unit value of saturated
synchronous reactance. The short-circuit ratio determines the current through the armature during
fault. Modern synchronous machines are built with short-circuit ratios between 0.5 and 1.5.
! Qspcmfn!7/21
B!211!lWB-!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!bmufsobups!ibt!b!sbufe!mjof!up!mjof!wpmubhf!pg!2211!W/!Uif!
sftjtubodf!boe!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!qfs!qibtf!bsf!1/6!W!boe!7!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!wpmu.
bhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm!mpbe!boe!1/96!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/
Solution
100 ¥ 103
Line current IL = A = 52.486 A
3 ¥ 1100
Since the machine is star connected, armature current
Ia = 52.486 A
From Eq. (6.17), the no-load voltage
1100
Vt = V = 635.1 V
3
cos q = 0.85, sin q = sin (cos–1 0.85) = 0.5268
ra = 0.5 W
xs = 6 W
\ E = (635.1 ¥ 0.85 + 52.486 ¥ 0.5)2 + (635.1 ¥ 0.5268 + 52.486 ¥ 6)2
= 320444.3 + 421832.95 = 861.55 V
From Eq. (6.16), voltage regulation is
E - Vt 861.55 - 635.1
¥ 100% = ¥ 100%
Vt 635.1
= 35.66%.
! Qspcmfn!7/22
B!gjfme!fydjubujpo!pg!9!B!jo!b!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!qspevdft!b!dvssfou!pg!211!B!po!tipsu!djsdvju!
boe!b!ufsnjobm!qibtf!wpmubhf!pg!811!W!po!pqfo!djsdvju/!Efufsnjof!uif!joufsobm!wpmubhf!espq!xjui!b!
mpbe!dvssfou!pg!61!B/
! 7/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
From Eq. (6.20), synchronous impedance
Open-circuit voltage 700
Zs = = W=7W
Short-circuit curent 100
Hence, the internal voltage drop at a load current of 50 A is 50 ¥ Zs or 50 ¥ 7 V or 350 V.
! Qspcmfn!7/23
Jo!b!2611!lWB-!4411!W-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups-!b!gjfme!dvssfou!
pg!61!B!qspevdft!b!tipsu.djsdvju!dvssfou!pg!361!B!boe!bo!pqfo.djsdvju!wpmubhf!pg!2211!W!mjof!up!mjof/
Efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm!mpbe!boe!)b*!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh-!boe!)c*!1/9!qpxfs!
gbdups!mfbejoh/!Dpotjefs!uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!up!cf!1/4!W/
Solution
1500 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 262.43 A
3 ¥ 3300
3300
Vt = V = 1905.25 V
3
1100
Zs = 3 W = 2.54 W
250
ra = 0.3 W
\ xs = (2.54)2 - (0.3)2 = 2.52 W
(a) From Eq. (6.17), no-load emf for lagging load
1673.78 - 1905.25
\ Voltage regulation = ¥ 100%
1905.25
= –12.15%.
! Qspcmfn!7/24
B!22111!lWB-!7711!W-!4.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!bmufsobups!xjui!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W!boe
6!W!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!qfs!qibtf!efmjwfst!gvmm!mpbe!dvssfou!bu!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh!bu!sbufe!
wpmubhf/!Efufsnjof!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bu!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mfbejoh!mpbe!dvssfou!gps!uif!tbnf!fy.
djubujpo/
Solution
11000 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 962.25 A
3 ¥ 6600
6600
Vt = V = 3810.5 V
3
The no-load voltage at 0.8 power factor lagging load
= 11136069.56 + 50375216
= 7842.9 V
At constant excitation, E remains constant
If V ¢t be the terminal voltage at 0.8 power factor leading current then
! Qspcmfn!7/25
B!551!W-!31!lWB-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!bmufsobups!ibt!tubups!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W/!B!gjfme!dvs.
sfou!pg!2/6!B!djsdvmbuft!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!26!B!evsjoh!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu/!Po!pqfo!djsdvju-!uif!
nbdijoft!hjwf!261!W!gps!uif!tbnf!gjfme!dvssfou/!Efufsnjof!uif!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf/!Jg!uif!bmufs.
obups!jt!tvqqmzjoh!b!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!36!B!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups-!gjoe!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!
mpbe!jt!tveefomz!uispxo!pgg/!Xibu!jt!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo@
Solution
ra = 0.3 W
150
Zs = W = 10 W
15
= 9.995 W
440
Terminal voltage per phase Vt = V = 254 V
3
Load current Ia = 25 A
At unity power factor, the no-load emf
298.83 - 254
\ Voltage regulation = ¥ 100% = 17.65%.
254
! Qspcmfn!7/26
B!22-111!lWB-!44!lW-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!djsdvmbuft!gvmm.mpbe!tipsu!djsdvju!dvs.
sfou!gps!b!gjfme!dvssfou!pg!31!B/!Xjui!uif!tbnf!gjfme!dvssfou-!uif!pqfo.djsdvju!wpmubhf!jt!2/6!lW/!Uif!
bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!nfbtvsfe!cz!b!wpmunfufs!boe!bo!bnnfufs!xijdi!hjwf!sfbejoht!pg!26!W!cf.
uxffo!mjoft!boe!41!B/!Efufsnjof!uif!bsnbuvsf!fggfdujwf!sftjtubodf!boe!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!qfs!
qibtf/
Solution
As the voltage is measured between lines and the armature winding is star connected, the dc
armature resistance
1 Ê V ˆ 1 15
radc = Á ˜= ¥ = 0.25 W
2 Ë I ¯ 2 30
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/42
! Qspcmfn!7/27
Jo!Qspcmfn!7/26-!dpotjefs!uibu!uif!bmufsobups!jt!dpoofdufe!jo!efmub/!Uif!sfbejoht!pcubjofe!bsf!tbnf/!
Gjoe!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
The resistance measured by voltmeter and ammeter
ra (ra + ra ) 15
=
ra + ra + ra 30
2 ra 15
or, =
3 30
15 3
or, ra = ¥ = 0.75 W
30 2
11000
Full-load line current IL = = 192.45 A
3 ¥ 33
192.45
\ Full-load phase current = A = 111.11 A
3
1.5 ¥ 103
\ Zs = W = 13.5 W
111.11
33117 - 33000
= ¥ 100% = 0.35%.
33000
! 7/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!7/28
B!4.qibtf-!2311!lWB-!3411!W-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!sftjtubodf!cfuxffo!fbdi!
qbjs!pg!ufsnjobmt!bt!1/29!W!xifo!nfbtvsfe!cz!bqqmzjoh!ed!wpmubhf/!Dpotjefs!uif!fggfdujwf!sftjtubodf!
up!cf!2/3!ujnft!uif!ed!sftjtubodf/!B!gjfme!dvssfou!pg!61!B!djsdvmbuft!tipsu.djsdvju!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!
frvbm!up!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!pg!411!B/!Uif!tbnf!gjfme!dvssfou!pg!61!B!qspevdft!bo!fng!pg!711!W!po!pqfo!
djsdvju/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!uif!nbdijof!boe!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm!mpbe!
boe!1/96!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/!
Solution
600
Open-circuit voltage per phase = V
3
\ synchronous impedance
600
Open-circuit voltage per phase
Zs = = 3 W
Short-circuit armature current 300
= 1.1547 W
Armature resistance per phase
0.18
ra = 1.2 ¥ W = 0.108 W
2
\ Synchronous reactance xs = (1.1547)2 - (0.108)2 W
= 1.1496 W
Now Zs = ra + jxs = 0.108 + j1.1496
= 1.1547 84.63∞ W
Armature current Ia = 300 - cos - 1 0.85 A
= 300 -31.79∞ A
\ generated voltage
2500
E = Vt + Ia Zs = 0∞ + 300 -31.79∞ ¥ 1.1547 84.63∞
3
= 1443.37 + 346.41 52.84∞
or, E = 1652.616 + j 276 = 1675.5 9.48∞ V
E - Vt
Hence, voltage regulation = ¥ 100%
Vt
1675.5 - 1443.37
= ¥ 100%
1443.37
= 16.08%.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/44
! Qspcmfn!7/29
B!23!lWB-!551!W-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!tvqqmjft!sbufe!mpbe!bu!1/9!qpxfs!
gbdups!mbhhjoh/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!boe!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!bsf!1/4!W!boe!9!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!
Efufsnjof!uif!upsrvf!bohmf!boe!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo/
Solution
12 ¥ 103
Armature current Ia = A = 15.746 A
3 ¥ 440
440
Terminal voltage per phase Vt = V
3
ra = 0.3 W
xs = 8 W
\ E = Vt + Ia (ra + jxs)
440
= + 15.746 - cos -1 0.8 (0.3 + j8)
3
= 254 + 126.05 87.85∞ - 36.87∞
= 254 + 126.05 50.98∞
or, E = 333.36 + j 97.93 = 347.44 16.37∞ V
Hence, torque angle is 16.37°.
347.44 - 254
Voltage regulation = ¥ 100% = 36.78%.
254
! Qspcmfn!7/2:
B!4.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!bmufsobups!ibt!bo!pqfo.djsdvju!mjof!wpmubhf!pg!7/7!lW/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjt.
ubodf!boe!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!bsf!1/4!W!boe!6!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf-!
wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!boe!upsrvf!bohmf!jg!uif!mpbe!dvssfou!jt!311!B!bu!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbh/
Solution
Armature current Ia = 200 -36.87∞ A
Let the torque angle be d.
6.6 ¥ 103
\ E = d = 3810.5 d V
3
Again, E = Vt + Ia (ra + jxs)
\ 3810.5 (cos d + j sin d) = Vt 0∞ + 200 -36.87∞ (0.3 + j5)
or, 3810.5 cos d + j 3810.5 sin d = Vt + 1001.8 49.696∞
= (Vt + 648) + j 764
! 7/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!7/31
B!551!W-!26!lWB-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!bsnbuvsf!sfbdujpo!uxjdf!uif!
fggfdu!pg!bsnbuvsf!sfbdubodf!xifo!ju!jt!tvqqmzjoh!sbufe!dvssfou!bu!1/7!q/g/!mbhhjoh/!Jg!uif!bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!bsf!1/4!W!boe!1/9!W!efufsnjof!)b*!uif!op.mpbe!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!mpbe!jt!
ejtdpoofdufe-!boe!)c*!uif!op.mpbe!wpmubhf!offefe!up!qspevdf!sbufe!dvssfou!jo!uif!bsnbuvsf!xifo!uif!
bmufsobups!ufsnjobmt!bsf!tipsu!djsdvjufe/!
Solution
ra = 0.3 W
xe = 0.8 W
440
Vt =
V = 254 V
3
As armature reaction has twice the effect of armature reactance,
xa = 2xl = 2 ¥ 0.8 = 1.6 W
\ xs = xa + xl = 2.4 W
15 ¥ 103
(a) Ia = A = 19.68 A
3 ¥ 440
cos q = 0.6; sin q = 0.8
No-load phase voltage
E = (Vt cos q + I a ra )2 + (Vt sin q + I a xs )2
= (254 ¥ 0.6 + 19.68 ¥ 0.3)2 + (254 ¥ 0.8 + 19.68 ¥ 2.4)2
= 25060 + 62716
= 296.27 V
Line voltage when load is disconnected is
¥ 296.27 V or 513.15 V
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/46
! Qspcmfn!7/32
Bo! 9111! lWB-! 7/7! lW-! 4.qibtf-! tubs.dpoofdufe! tzodispopvt! hfofsbups! ibt! b! sftjtubodf! pg! 1/5! W!
qfs!qibtf/!Efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!cz!{fsp!qpxfs.gbdups!nfuipe!bu!411!B!mpbe!dvssfou!bu!
qpxfs!gbdups!)b*!vojuz-!)c*!1/9!mbhhjoh-!boe!)d*!1/9!mfbejoh!gspn!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub/
Gjfme!Dvssfou!)B* Pqfo.djsdvju!Wpmubhf!)W* [fsp!Qpxfs.gbdups!Wpmubhf!)W*
31 3111 1
51 5111 3211
71 6811 5361
91 7511 6511
216 8461 7411
231 8911 7:11
Solution
The open-circuit characteristic and zero power-factor characteristic are plotted as shown in Fig. 6.25.
c
8000 risti
cte
hara
it c
ircu
enc c
7000 Op
b d a
f r tic
we ris
6000 po cte
ro ra
Terminal voltage (V)
Ze cha
r
cto
fa
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
Gjh/!7/36! Pqfo.djsdvju!boe!{fsp!qpxfs.gbdups!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!Qspc/!7/32
! 7/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A horizontal line is drawn at rated voltage of 6.6 kV which meets the zero power-factor curve at
a. On this line, a point b is taken so that ab = 20 A. From b, a line bc is drawn parallel to the line of
which is the initial slope of the open-circuit characteristic. From c, a line cd is drawn perpendicular
to ab.
Here, adc is the Potier triangle and ad is the field current required to overcome armature reaction
on no load which is 16 A or Iar = 16 A. Now dc measures 400 V.
Hence, leakage impedance voltage drop per phase
400
Iaxl = V
3
Now, Ia = 300 A
400
\ xl = W = 0.77 W
3 ¥ 300
From the open circuit characteristic, corresponding to 87.4 A current, the line value of voltage
E = 6900 V
6900 - 6600
\ Voltage regulation = ¥ 100%
6600
= 4.5%
(b) cos q = 0.8 lag = cos 36.87°
6600
If Ia is reference then Ia = 300 ∞ A and Vt = 36.87∞ V
3
6600
\ E= 36.87∞ + 300 (0.4 + j0.77)
3
= 3168.41 + j2517.3
= 4046.68 38.47∞ V per phase
or, E= ¥ 4046.68 V = 7009 V(line)
From open-circuit characteristic, the field current corresponding to 7009 V is 92 A.
\ Ir = 92 90∞ + 38.47∞ A = 92 128.47∞ A
\ If = Ir – Iar = 92 128.47∞ - 16 0∞
= –73.23 + j72.03
= 102.72 135.47∞ A
From open-circuit characteristic, the open circuit voltage corresponding to 102.72 A.
E = 7300 V
7300 - 6600
Hence, voltage regulation = ¥ 100%
6600
= 10.6%
(c) cos q = 0.8 lead = cos 36.87°
6600
\ Vt = -36.87∞ V
3
6600
\ E= -36.87∞ + 300(0.4 + j 0.77)
3
= 3168.41 – j 2055.3
= 3776.65 -32.97∞ V per phase
\ E= ¥ 3776.65 V = 6541.35 V (line)
From open-circuit characteristic, the field current corresponding to 6541.35 V is 82 A.
! 7/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!7/33
Uif!sftvmut!pg!pqfo.djsdvju!uftu!boe!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu!po!b!7.qpmf-!571!W-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!
hfofsbups!bsf!hjwfo!jo!uif!ubcmf!cfmpx/!Uif!{fsp!qpxfs.gbdups!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!jt!bmtp!hjwfo!jo!uif!
tbnf!ubcmf/!Uif!fggfdujwf!pinjd!sftjtubodf!cfuxffo!boz!uxp!ufsnjobmt!pg!uif!bsnbuvsf!jt!1/5/!Efufs.
njof!uif!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!44!B!bu!1/96!mbhhjoh!vtjoh!
! )b*! tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!nfuipe!
! )c*! nng!nfuipe!
! )d*! Qpujfs!usjbohmf!nfuipe
Gjfme!dvssfou!)B* 2 4 5 6 7 9 21 22 24 25
Pqfo.djsdvju!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!)W* 211 421 491 571 621 691 756 771 Ð Ð
Tipsu.djsdvju!dvssfou!)B* 7 31 37 44 49 62 75 83
[fsp!qpxfs.gbdups!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!)W* Ð Ð 1 221 326 471 571 611 666 676
Solution
The armature resistance per phase
1
ra = ¥ 0.4 W = 0.2 W
2
Terminal voltage per phase
460
Vt = V = 265.58 V
3
The open-circuit characteristic, short-circuit characteristic and zero power-factor characteristic
is shown in Fig. 6.26.
(a) The open-circuit voltage of 460 V (line) or 265.58 V (phase) is produced by the field current
of 5 A. The same field current of 5 A produces a current of 33 A under short circuit condition.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/4:
700
600
f
c
Open-circuit terminal voltage
500
100
b d a
90
400
80
Short-circuit current
70
300 60
50
200 40
30
100 20
10
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Gjh/!7/37! Pqfo.djsdvju-!tipsu.djsdvju!boe!{fsp!qpxfs.gbdups!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!Qspc/!7/33
\ E = Vt + IaZs
= 265.58 + 33 -31.79∞ ¥ (0.2 + j8.047)
= 265.58 + 265.65 56.78∞
= 411.12 + j 222.23
= 467.34 28.39∞ V
467.34 - 460
\ voltage regulation = ¥ 100%
460
= 1.595%
! 7/51 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(b) The field current which produces rated voltage of 460 V is 5 A. This current I f1 leads E by
90°.
\ I f1 = 5 90∞ + 28.39∞ A = 5 118.39∞ A
From Fig. 6.20, I f 2 is in phase opposition to Ia
\ I f2 = 5 180∞ - 31.79∞ = 5 148.21∞ A
Now If = I f1 + I f2 = 5(–1.325 + j1.4)
= 9.64 133.42∞ A
From the open-circuit characteristic, the phase voltage corresponding to 9.64 A is 470 V.
470 - 460
\ voltage regulation = ¥ 100%
460
= 2.17%
(c) From the rated voltage of 460 V, a horizontal line is drawn which meets the zero power factor
curve at a. On this line, a point b is taken such that ab = 4 A. From b, a line bc is drawn
parallel to the line of, which is the initial slope of the open circuit characteristic. From c, a line
cd is drawn perpendicular on ab. Triangle adc is the Potier triangle and ad is the field current
required to overcome armature reaction.
\ ad = Iar = 3.3 A
Now, dc = 75 V
75
\ I a XL = V
3
Now, Ia = 33 A
75
\ XL = W = 1.31 W
3 ¥ 33
Considering Ia as reference,
E = Vt + Ia (ra + jXL)
460
= 31.79∞ + 33 (0.2 + j1.31)
3
= 265.58 31.79∞ + 43.73 81.32∞
= 232.34 + j183.14
= 295.84 38.25∞ V (phase)
\ E= ¥ 295.84 V = 512.34 V (line)
From open-circuit characteristic, the field current corresponding to this voltage is 6.1 which
leads E by 90°.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/52
! Qspcmfn!7/34
B!2611!lWB-!22!lW-!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!bmufsobups!ibt!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!pg![t!>!)1/6!
,!k9*!W!qfs!qibtf/!Bu!sbufe!wpmubhf-!ju!efmjwfst!gvmm!mpbe!dvssfou!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/:!mbhhjoh/!
Efufsnjof!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!gps!uif!tbnf!fydjubujpo!boe!dvssfou!bu!1/:!q/g/!mfbejoh/
Solution
11000
Vt = V
3
1500
Ia = - cos -1 0.9 A
3 ¥ 11
ra = 0.5 W
xs = 8 W
\ E = Vt + Ia (ra + jxs)
11000 1500
= + -25.84∞ (0.5 + j8)
3 3 ¥ 11
= 6350.85 + 78.73 -25.84∞ ¥ 8.016 86.42∞
= 6350.85 + 631.1 60.58∞
= 6660.85 + j549.7 = 6683.49 4.72∞ V
! 7/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Now, with E = 6683.49 V and p.f. 0.9 leading, if the terminal voltage is V¢t then
1500
= Vt¢ + 25.84∞ (0.5 + j8)
3 ¥ 11
= V¢t + 631.1 112.26∞
\ E = (Vt¢ + 631.1 cos 112.26°)2 + (631.1 sin 112.26°)2
2
! Qspcmfn!7/35
B!56!NWB-!22!lW-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!xjui!{t!>!1/12!,!k!1/9!q/v/!jt!efmjwfs.
joh!sbufe!dvssfou!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf!xjui!fydjubujpo!fng!pg!2/4!q/v/!Efufsnjof!uif!mpbe!bohmf!boe!uif!
qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
Vt = 1 p.u., Ia = 1 p.u., ra = 0.01 p.u.
xs = 0.8 p.u. E = 1.3 p.u.
As = Vt + I a Z s, considering Ia as reference
\ E2 = (Vt cos q + Iara)2 + (V sin q + Iaxs)2
\ (1.3)2 = Vt2 + 2Vt Ia (ra cos q + xs sin q)
or, 1.69 = 1 + 2 (0.01 cos q + 0.8 sin q)
or, 0.01 cos q + 0.8 sin q = 0.345
Ê 0.01ˆ
or, (0.01)2 + (0.8) 2 sin Á q + tan -1 ˜ = 0.345
Ë 0.8 ¯
or, sin (q + 0.716°) = 0.4312 = sin 25.54°
or, q = 24.83°
\ Power factor = cos 24.83° lagging
or, 0.91 lagging
Also, from Fig. 6.18(a), E + Vt – 2 EVt cos d = (Iazs)2
2 2
! Qspcmfn!7/36
B! 6! NWB-! 22! lW-! 4.qibtf-! tubs.dpoofdufe! tzodispopvt! hfofsbups! ibwjoh! bsnbuvsf! sftjtubodf! pg!
1/6!W!qfs!qibtf-!tvqqmjft!:1!B!bu!{fsp!qpxfs.gbdups!mfbejoh!boe!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!pg!23/6!lW/!Xifo!
uif!mpbe!jt!sfnpwfe-!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!gbmmt!up!22!lW/!Efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!xifo!uif!
bmufsobups!pqfsbuft!bu!gvmm!mpbe!boe!1/9!q/g/!mbh/
Solution
11000
E= V = 6351 V
3
12500
Vt = = 7217 V
3
5 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 262.43 A
3 ¥ 11
Taking Ia as reference,
= Vt -90∞ + Ia (0.5 + jxs)
= 0.5 Ia – jVt + jIaxs
\ E = (0.5 ¥ 262.43)2 + (Vt – 262.43 xs)2
2
! Qspcmfn!7/37
B! uisff.qibtf-! 22! lW-! tubs.dpoofdufe-! 61! I{! tzodispopvt! hfofsbups! jt! efmjwfsjoh! 31! NX! up! bo!
jogjojuf!cvt!pg!22!lW/!Jg!uif!fydjubujpo!fng!jt!231&!pg!uif!sbufe!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf-!uif!hfofsbups!jt!
pqfsbujoh!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/9!mbhhjoh/!Efufsnjof!uif!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!uif!nbdijof/!
Ofhmfdu!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf/
! 7/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
11, 000
Vt = V = 6351 V
3
P = 20 ¥ 106 W
cos q = 0.8 lag
20 ¥ 103
\ Ia = A = 1312.16 A
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 0.8
E = 1.2 ¥ 6351 V = 7621.2 V
\ E2 = (Vt cos q)2 + (Vt sin q + Iaxs)2
or, (7621.2)2 = (6351)2 + (1312.16)2 xs2 + 2 ¥ 1312.16 ¥ 6351 ¥ 0.6 xs
or, xs2 + 5.81 xs = 10.3077
or, xs = 1.42 W
! Qspcmfn!7/38
Bo!bmufsobups!xijdi!jt!pqfsbujoh!jo!qbsbmmfm!xjui!puifs!bmufsobupst!bu!sbufe!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!ibt!
bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!2/6&!boe!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!46&/!Ju!efmjwfst!b!qpxfs!pvuqvu!jo!lX!frvbm!
up!91&!pg!jut!sbufe!lWB!boe!uif!fng!jt!frvbm!up!2/26!ujnft!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf/!Efufsnjof!uif!qpxfs!
gbdups!bu!xijdi!uif!nbdijof!jt!pqfsbujoh/
Solution
Considering Ia as reference for lagging power factor,
= Vt q + Ia (ra + jxs) = Vt cos q + j Vt sin q + Iara + jIaxs
\ E = (Vt cos q + Ia ra)2 + (Vt sin q + Ia xs)2
2
I r I x
Now E = 1.3 Vt, a a = 0.015, a s = 0.35, Ia = 0.8/Irated
Vt Vt
\ (1.15 Vt) = (Vt cos q + 0.015 Vt ¥ 0.8)2 + (Vt sin q + 0.35 Vt ¥ 0.8)2
2
FYUFSOBM!DIBSBDUFSJTUJD!PG! 7/22!
B!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS
The external characteristic of a synchronous generator shows the variation of the terminal voltage
with load current. The terminal voltage varies with the load current. If the excitation current is held
constant, the generated emf per phase is constant. Neglecting the armature resistance,
Vt = E – j Ia xs …(6.25)
Since E and xs are constant, the terminal voltage Vt depends upon the magnitude of the load cur-
rent and power factor. Though the magnitude of E is constant, its phase (the power angle) is free to
change. Hence, the locus of E must be a circle. Let us now find the changes in Vt as a function of
load with unity, lagging and leading power factor.
Figure 6.27 shows the external characteristic for lagging, unity and leading power factor.
cos q2 lead
Vt
q1 < q2
cos q1 lead
cos q = 1
cos q1 lag
q1 < q2
cos q2 lag
Ia
Gjh/!7/38! Fyufsobm!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!voefs!ejggfsfou!mpbe!dpoejujpot
For unity and lagging power factor, Vt decreases as Ia increases. However, the decrease in Vt is
more in case of lagging power factor. For leading power factor, Vt increases as Ia increases.
When the power factor is lagging Vt decreases further with the decrease in power factor or
increase in power factor angle. For leading power factor the terminal voltage decreases with the
increase in power factor.
7/22/2! Vojuz!Qpxfs.gbdups!Mpbe
When the load is purely resistive, Vt and Ia are in phase. If the load current increases, the voltage
drop across the synchronous reactance increases, power angle increases and the terminal voltage
decreases. This is illustrated in Fig. 6.28.
! 7/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
j Iaxs
E j Iaxs E
d d
Ia Vt
Vt Ia
(a) (b)
Gjh/! 7/39! Fggfdu! pg! mpbe! dvssfou! dibohf! po! ufsnjobm! wpmubhf! bu! vojuz! qpxfs! gbdups;! )b*! Jb! tnbmm
)c*!Jb!mbshf
7/22/3! Mbhhjoh!Qpxfs.gbdups!Mpbe
For inductive load, Ia lags Vt by an angle q. When Ia increases, Vt decreases as shown in Fig. 6.29.
If the power factor is decreased, keeping magnitude of Ia constant then also Vt decreases as shown
in Fig. 6.30.
E j Ia x s
E j Ia x s
d d
q Vt Vt
q
Ia
Ia
(a) (b)
Gjh/!7/3:! Fggfdu!pg!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!po!Wu!voefs!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups;!)b*!Jb!tnbmm!)c*!Jb!mbshf!
E j Iaxs
E j Iaxs
d d
q
q
Ia
Ia
(a) (b)
Gjh/!7/41! Fggfdu!pg!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups!po!Wu;!)b*!dpt!q!ijhi!)c*!dpt!q!mpx
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/58
7/22/4! Mfbejoh!Qpxfs.gbdups!Mpbe!
For leading power-factor load, or for capacitive load, the load current Ia leads the terminal voltage
Vt. The terminal voltage Vt increase with the increase in Ia as shown in Fig. 6.31.
Ia
E j Iaxs
Ia j Iaxs
E
q d
d q
Vt Vt
(a) (b)
Gjh/!7/42! Fggfdu!pg!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!po!Wu!voefs!mfbejoh!qpxfs!gbdups;!)b*!Jb!tnbmm!)c*!Jb!mbshf!
For leading power factor, the terminal voltage increases with decrease in power factor as shown
in Fig. 6.32.
Ia
Ia j Iaxs
q E q E j I ax s
d d
Vt Vt
(a) (b)
Gjh/!7/43! Fggfdu!pg!mfbejoh!qpxfs!gbdups!po!Wu!;!)b*!dpt!q!ijhi!)c*!dpt!q!mpx
QPXFS.BOHMF!DIBSBDUFSJTUJD!PG!DZMJOESJDBM.! 7/23!
SPUPS!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS
The three-phase complex power delivered by a synchronous generator is
S = P + jQ = 3 Vt Ia* …(6.26)
where Vt is the terminal voltage per phase and Ia the armature current per phase.
! 7/59 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
E d - Vt 0∞ E V
Ia = = d - f s - t -f s …(6.27)
Z s fs Zs Zs
ÈE V ˘
Hence S = 3Vt Í f s - d - t f s ˙ …(6.28)
Î Zs Zs ˚
Vt
or, S= [E cos (fs – d) + j E sin (fs – d) – Vt cos fs – j Vt cos fs] …(6.29)
Zs
Equating the real and imaginary terms, real power
3Vt E 3V 2
P= cos (f s - d ) - t cos f s …(6.30)
Zs Zs
and reactive power
3Vt E 3V 2
Q= sin (f s - d ) - t cos f s …(6.31)
Zs Zs
xs
Here, fs = tan -1
ra
As armature resistance is very small compared to the synchronous reactance, if we neglect ar-
mature resistance then
VE
P = t sin d (\ fs = 90°) …(6.32)
Zs
Vt E 3V 2
and Q= cos d – t …(6.33)
Zs Zs
Vt E
or, P= sin d …(6.34)
xs
Vt E 3V 2
and Q= cos d – t …(6.35)
xs xs
As xs is constant in a synchronous generator, if E and Vt are held constant then the real power
varies as sin d. Hence, d is known as the power angle or load angle. The graph of P vs. d is shown
in Fig. 6.33 and this curve is known as the power-angle curve. The negative values of P indicate the
operation of the machine as motor.
The maximum power is transferred when d = 90°. This maximum power is known as steady-state
stability limit. When the machine delivers this maximum power, the armature current becomes
many times the rated current and under this condition, any disturbance may lead to loss of synchro-
nism. Hence, in practice, d is kept well below 90°.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/5:
Pmax
Generator
–Pmax
Gjh/!7/44! Qpxfs.bohmf!dvswf!pg!dzmjoesjdbm.spups!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!
Ê E d - Vt ∞ ˆ *
input = 3 E Ia* = 3E d Á ˜
Ë Z s fs ¯
! 7/61 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3E d 3E
or, input =
Zs
(
E f s - d - Vt f s =
Zs
) (
E f s - Vt f s + d )
Hence, the three-phase real input power
E
Pinput = [E cos q – Vt cos (fs + d)] …(6.41)
Zs
The three-phase reactive power input
E
Qinput = [E sin fs – Vt sin (fs + d)] …(6.42)
Zs
The input real power is maximum when
d Pinput EVt
= sin (fs + d) = 0
dd Zs
or, fs + d = 0 or 180°
Hence, d = – fs or d = 180° – fs …(6.43)
Putting d = 180° – fs
3E 2 3EVt
Pinput max = cosf s + …(6.44)
Zs Zs
Neglecting armature resistance,
EVt
Pinput max = . …(6.45)
xs
! Qspcmfn!7/39
B!uisff.qibtf!221!NWB-!22!lW-!61!I{!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!2/6!q/v/!
Efufsnjof!uif!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!jg!uif!joufsobm!wpmubhf!pg!uif!hfofsbups!jt!lfqu!dpotubou!bu!
2/7!q/v/!Efufsnjof!uif!qpxfs!bohmf!xifo!uif!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!tvqqmjft!81!NX/
Solution
Maximum power developed from Eq. (6.45) is
EVt 1.6 ¥ 1
Pmax = = (E Vt = 1 p.u.)
xs 1.5
= 1.06 p.u.
= 1.06 ¥ 110 MW = 116.6 MW
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/62
When the generator supplies 70 MW power or 70 p.u. or 0.636 p.u. power then
110
1.6 ¥ 1
0.636 = sin d
1.5
or, sin d = 0.596 or d = 36.58°.
! Qspcmfn!7/3:
B!411!NWB-!22!lW-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!djsdvmbuft!b!tipsu.djsdvju!dvssfou!
pg!811!B!jo!uif!bsnbuvsf!xjui!gjfme!dvssfou!pg!26!B/!Uif!pqfo.djsdvju!wpmubhf!jt!2311!W!xjui!uif!
tbnf!gjfme!dvssfou/!Jg!uif!hfofsbups!tvqqmjft!b!mpbe!pg!4/6!lB!bu!1/9!qpxfs.gbdups!mbhhjoh-!efufsnjof!
)b*!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!cz!uif!hfofsbups-!)c*!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!uibu!dbo!cf!efwfmpqfe-!boe!)d*!uif!qpxfs!
bohmf!jg!uif!hfofsbups!efwfmpqt!261!NX!gps!uif!tbnf!dpoejujpo/
Solution
Neglecting armature resistance,
1200
xs = Zs = W = 0.99 W
3 ¥ 700
At 0.8 lagging power factor,
2 2
Ê 11 ˆ Ê 11 ˆ
E= ÁË ¥ 0.8˜ + Á ¥ 0.6 + 3.5 ¥ 0.99˜ kV
3 ¯ Ë 3 ¯
= 8.87 kV
(a) Power developed
= ¥ 11 ¥ 3.5 ¥ 0.8 MW = 53.35 MW
(b) Maximum power that can be developed
11
3 ¥ 8.87 ¥
EVt 3 MW
=3¥ =
xs 0.99
= 170.7 MW
(c) If the power angle is d then
11
3 ¥ 8.87 ¥
3
150 = sin d
0.99
or sin d = 0.8787
\ d = 61.49°.
! Qspcmfn!7/41
Bo!22!lW!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!2!W!qfs!
qibtf!boe!uif!pvuqvu!qpxfs!jt!261!NX!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/!Jg!uif!hfofsbups!fydjubujpo!jt!jodsfbtfe!
! 7/63 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
cz!26&!xjui!uif!pvuqvu!sfnbjojoh!dpotubou-!efufsnjof!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups/!Xjui!
uijt!fydjubujpo-!jg!uif!uvscjof!pvuqvu!jt!jodsfbtfe!up!311!NX-!efufsnjof!uif!hfofsbups!dvssfou!boe!
qpxfs!gbdups/!Ofhmfdu!mpttft/
Solution
xs = 1 W
The armature current at 150 MW output
150 ¥ 106
Ia = A = 7872.96 A
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
The terminal voltage per phase
11 ¥ 103
Vt = V = 6350.85 V
3
The no-load emf
E = Vt + ( I a xs ) (neglecting ra)
Hence,
200 11.63 ¥ 6.35
= sin d
3 1
or, sin d = 0.903
or, d = 64.55°
The new armature current
11.63 64.55∞ - 6.35
= kA
1
= (10.5 + j1.35)kA = 10.586 7.33∞ kA
\ Power factor = cos 7.33° lead or 0.99 lead.
! Qspcmfn!7/42
B!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibwjoh!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!1/8!q/v/!jt!dpoofdufe!up!bo!jogjojuf!cvt!
bu! sbufe! wpmubhf/! Uif! nbdijof! efmjwfst! bo! pvuqvu! pg! 1/9! q/v/! xifo! uif! fydjubujpo! fng! jt! 2/2! q/v/!
Ofhmfdujoh!bmm!mpttft-!efufsnjof!uif!mpbe!bohmf-!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jo!qfs!voju!boe!uif!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
xs = 0.7 p.u., Po = 0.8 p.u., E = 1.1 p.u. and Vt = 1 p.u.
From Eq. (6.32),
EVt
sin d = Po where d is the load angle and Po is per phase power
xs
1.1 ¥ 1
\ sin d = 0.8
0.7
or, sin d = 0.51
or, d = 30.6°
From the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 6.18, neglecting ra,
(Ia xs)2 = E 2 + Vt2 – 2 E Vt cos d
! Qspcmfn!7/43
Bo!22!lW-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!xjui!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!pg!)1/6!,!k5*!W!qfs!
qibtf!jt!dpoofdufe!up!bo!jogjojuf!cvt!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf/!Uif!nbdijof!efmjwfst!91!B!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbd.
ups/!Jg!uif!hfofsbups!fydjubujpo!jt!jodsfbtfe!cz!31&-!xjui!uif!pvuqvu!sfnbjojoh!dpotubou-!efufsnjof!
uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou-!mpbe!bohmf!boe!qpxfs!gbdups/!Xjui!uif!jodsfbtfe!wbmvf!pg!fydjubujpo-!jg!uif!
hfofsbups!jt!nbef!up!pqfsbuf!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups-!gjoe!uif!ofx!wbmvft!pg!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou-!mpbe!
bohmf!boe!qpxfs!efmjwfsfe!up!uif!jogjojuf!cvt/
Solution
11, 000
Vt = V, Ia = 80 A, ra = 0.5 W, xs = 4 W, Zs = 4.03 82.87∞ W
3
At unity power factor from Eq. (6.19),
E2 = (Vt + Ia ra)2 + (Ia xs)2
2
Ê 11, 000 ˆ
\ E= ÁË + 80 ¥ 0.5˜ + (80 ¥ 4) 2 = 6398.8 V
3 ¯
From Fig. 6.18(c),
I a xs 80 ¥ 4
tan d = = = 0.05
Vt + I a ra 11000
+ 80 ¥ 0.5
3
or, d = 2.86°
From Eq. (6.30), power output per phase
11000 6398.8 (11000)2 cos 82.87∞
P= ¥ cos (82.87∞ - 2.86∞) -
3 4.03 3 ¥ 4.03
= 1749305.58 – 1242237.08
= 507068.5 W
Now generator excitation
E1 = 1.2 ¥ 6398.8 V = 7678.56 V
If d1 be the new value of the load angle then
11000 7678.56 (11000)2 cos 82.87∞
507068.5 = ¥ cos(82.87∞ - d1 ) -
3 4.03 3 ¥ 4.03
or, cos (82.87° – d1) = 0.14456 = cos 81.688°
\ d1 = 1.18°
Now, E12 + Vt2 – 2E1 Vt cos d1 = (Ia Zs)2
1
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/66
(11000) 2 11000
(7678.56) 2 + - 2 ¥ 7678.56 ¥ cos1.18∞
3 3
\ Ia1 =
4.03
= 331.38 A
Again P = Vt Ia1 cos q1
507068.5
\ Power factor cos q1 =
11000
¥ 331.38
3
= 0.241 lagging
Now power factor cos q2 = 1
E2 = E1 = 7678.56 V
\ E22 = (Vt cos q2 + Ia2 ra)2 + (Vt sin q2 + Ia2 xs)2
2
2Ê 11000 ˆ
or, (7678.56) = Á + I a 2 ¥ 0.5˜ + (0 + Ia2 ¥ 4)2
Ë 3 ¯
or, 16Ia22 + 0.25 Ia2 + 6351 Ia2 – 18625082 = 0
or, Ia22 + 391Ia2 – 1146159 = 0
\ Ia2 = 892.8 A
Power delivered to the infinite bus per phase
11000
= Vt Ia2 cos q2 = ¥ 892.8 ¥ 1 = 5670041 W
3
= 5670 kW
\ total power delivered = 3 ¥ 5670 kW = 17010 kW
Again, from Eq. (6.30),
11000 7678.56 (11000)2
5670041 = ¥ cos (82.87∞ - d 2 ) - cos 82.87∞
3 4.03 3
\ d2 = 54.51°.
! Qspcmfn!7/44
B!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!jt!dpoofdufe!up!bo!jogjojuf!cvt!cbs!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf/!Uif!joqvu!up!uif!hfo.
fsbups!jt!jodsfbtfe!ujmm!uif!nbdijof!pqfsbuft!bu!sbufe!lWB/!Efufsnjof!uif!pqfsbujoh!qpxfs!gbdups!
pg!uif!nbdijof!boe!jut!mpbe!bohmf!jg!uif!nbdijof!ibt!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!pg!)1/14!,!k1/:*!q/v/
Solution
Let cos q be the lagging power factor at which the machine operates.
! 7/67 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
1¥1 1 ¥ 0.033
\ cos (88.09∞ - d ) - = 1 ¥ 1 cos 88.09°
0.9005 0.9005
\ cos (88.09° – d) = 0.063 = cos 86.388°
or, d = 1.702°
\ load angle is 1.702°.
! Qspcmfn!7/45
B!26!NWB-!4.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!6!W!boe!
sftjtubodf!pg!1/9!W/!Ju!jt!dpoofdufe!xjui!bo!22!lW!jogjojuf!cvt!cbs/!Jg!uif!fydjubujpo!wpmubhf!jt!22/9!lW-!
efufsnjof!uif!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!pvuqvu!pg!uif!hfofsbups!boe!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!voefs!nbyjnvn!
qpxfs!dpoejujpo/
Solution
11000 11800
Vt = ,E= , Zs = 52 + 0.82 80.9∞ W = 5.06 80.9∞ W
3 3
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/68
! Qspcmfn!7/46
B!uisff.qibtf!551!W-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!jt!svoojoh!pwfs.fydjufe!xjui!fydjubujpo!
wpmubhf!pg!2/4!q/v/!Uif!nbdijof!jt!efmjwfsjoh!1/7!q/v/!qpxfs!up!bo!jogjojuf!cvt!boe!uif!tzodispopvt!
sfbdubodf!jt!2/2!q/v/!Jg!uif!joqvu!upsrvf!jt!jodsfbtfe!cz!3&-!efufsnjof!uif!dibohf!jo!uif!sfbm!qpxfs!
boe!sfbdujwf!qpxfs/
Solution
EVt
P= sin d …(i)
xs
1.3 ¥ 1
\ 0.6 = sin d
1
\ d = 30.5°
As the torque is increased by 2%, the real power is increased by 2%.
\ change in real power
dP = 0.02 ¥ 0.6 = 0.012
Vt E V2
Now Q = cosd - t
xs xs
dQ VE
\ = – t sin d …(ii)
dd xs
From Eq. (i),
dP EV
= t cos d
dd xs
! 7/69 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
dQ V E sin d
\ =– t = – tan d = – tan 30.5°
dP EVt E cos d
dQ
or, = – 0.589
dP
\ dQ = – 0.589 ¥ 0.02 = – 0.01178 or, –1.178%
Hence, the reactive power is decreased by 1.178% while the real power is increased by 2%.
QBSBMMFM!PQFSBUJPO!PG!UXP! 7/24!
TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPST!
When a single synchronous generator is supplying a load, problems may arise due to the following
reasons:
1. If the generator is delivering full load and it becomes necessary to supply a larger load.
2. A fault develops in the generator supplying load which needs to be shut down causing
discontinuity of power to the load.
3. The generator needs to be disconnected for maintenance purpose.
4. The load on the generator reduces from full load value, reducing the efficiency of the
generator.
To overcome the above difficulties, at least one more generator is connected in parallel with the
existing generator. The parallel operation of generators provide the following advantages:
1. Can meet the additional load demand
2. Maintains continuity of service, i.e. load receives uninterrupted power supply
3. Can supply power to the load at higher efficiency.
The basic idea of the parallel operation of generators is to make the generators meet the load
collectively and there should be no flow of current and power between the generators themselves,
i.e. when the two generators are connected in parallel and the external load is zero, there should be
no current in the generators. Actually, the generator voltages are in phase opposition with respect
to the local circuit but in phase agreement with respect to the external circuit. Hence, when load is
connected, both the generators supply the load.
7/24/2! Dpoejujpot!gps!Qbsbmmfm!Pqfsbujpo!
Let us consider that one generator is running under no-load condition and the other generator is to
be connected in parallel with it. As the connection of equipotential points does not result in flow
of current, hence, when two generators are connected in parallel, the actual terminals to be con-
nected should have equal potentials so that there is no circulating current between the generators.
As the voltage of the synchronous generator is alternating, the potentials of the terminals keep
changing every instant with regular periodicity. Therefore, to connect another generator, which is
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/6:
usually referred as the incoming generator, in parallel with a running generator, the essential re-
quirement is that the instantaneous potential variation of the terminals of the incoming generator
should be exactly same as that of the respective terminals of the running generator with which they
are to be connected in parallel. During the process of putting an incoming alternator with a running
generator, the terminals of the two machines are connected to an indicator which senses the differ-
ence in voltages across the pairs of terminals to be connected together. When voltages of the two
generators have the same waveform, frequency, magnitude and phase sequence then the indicator
reads zero, suggesting that the incoming alternator may be connected in parallel. Some allowance
can be given in the case of frequencies being exactly identical. If the incoming generator is driven
at a slightly higher or lower speed than required, there is an in-built mechanism which makes the
incoming generator attain the same speed as that of the running generator. This phenomenon is due
to the development of synchronizing power which slows down the slightly faster generator and ac-
celerates the slightly slower generator. The process of connecting an incoming generator in parallel
with a running generator is called synchronizing of generators. In earlier days, before the advent of
modern electronic indicators, methods called dark-lamp method and bright-lamp method were used
to identify the instant of synchronization.
Hence, the conditions that must be fulfilled for parallel operation of two generators are the fol-
lowing:
1. The terminal voltage of the incoming generator must be same as that of the running generator.
2. The frequency of the incoming generator must be same as that of the running generator.
3. The phase of the voltage of the incoming generator must be identical to the phase of the
running generator, with respect to the external circuit, i.e. opposite in phase with respect to
the local circuit.
4. The phase sequence of the voltage of the incoming alternator must be the same as that of the
running generator.
7/24/3! Tibsjoh!pg!Mpbe!Dvssfout!
Let us consider that E1 and E2 be the induced emfs per phase, Zs1 and Zs2 be the synchronous im-
pedances per phase of the two generators, Z be the load impedance and Vt be the voltage across the
load or the terminal voltage.
Hence, E1 = I1Zs1 + (I1 + I2) Z …(6.46a)
and E2 = I2 Zs2 + (I1 + I2) Z …(6.46b)
Solving equations (6.46a) and (6.46b),
E1Z s2 + ( E1 - E2 ) Z
I1 = …(6.47a)
Z s1 Z s2 + ( Z s2 + Z s2 ) Z
E2 Z s1 + ( E2 - E1 ) Z
and I2 = …(6.47b)
Z s1 Z s2 + ( Z s1 + Z s2 ) Z
! 7/71 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
E2 Z s2 + E2 Z s1
The load current I = I1 + I2 = …(6.48)
Z s1 Z s2 + ( Z s1 + Z s2 ) Z
E2 Z s2 + E2 Z s1
Hence, V = IZ =
Z s1 Z s2
+ Z s1 + Z s2
Z
Dividing both numerator and denominator of Eq. (6.51) by Zs1, Zs2,
E1 E
+ 2
Z s1 Z s2
V= …(6.49)
1 1 1
+ +
Z Z s1 Z s2
If more than two generators are operated in parallel then
E1 E
+ 2 +º
Z s1 Z s2
V= …(6.50)
1 1 1
+ + +º
Z Z s1 Z s2
7/24/4! Tibsjoh!pg!Qpxfs!
Let us consider two machines with full load power rating of W1 and W2 operating in parallel. Let
P1 and P2 be the power shared by the two machines when the total power is P. If the no-load and
full-load frequency of the machines are f o1 and fl1 respectively then
Drop of frequency from no-load to full load = fo1 – fl1
f o - fl
Drop of frequency per unit rating =
W
f o - fl
Hence, drop of frequency for a load of P1 is P1
W
Operating frequency of Machine 1 = (no load frequency) – (drop in frequency)
f o - fl
f = fo1 – P1 …(6.51)
W
Similarly, for Machine 2,
f o - fl
f = fo2 – P2 …(6.52)
W
where fo2 and f l2 are the no-load and full-load frequencies of Machine 2.
f o - fl f - fl
\ f = fo1 – P1 = f o2 – o P2 …(6.53)
W W
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/72
7/24/5! Tzodispoj{joh!Qpxfs!Evsjoh!Qbsbmmfm!Pqfsbujpo!
The power that comes into play at the instant of synchronizing two generators is called synchroniz-
ing power. It provides a corrective action for slight imbalances in the machine frequencies ensuring
the running of the generators in synchronism.
Zs1 Zs2
K
ZL
E1 E2
G1 G2
Gjh/!7/45! Jmmvtusbujpo!pg!tzodispoj{joh!qpxfs!evsjoh!qbsbmmfm!pqfsbujpo!
Figure 6.34 shows two synchronous generators G1 and G2 connected in parallel. Let E1 = E2 = E
be the internal emfs of the two generators and Zs1 = Zs2 = Zs be the synchronous impedances. Initially,
the load switch K is open. Let G1 is running at a speed slightly higher than the synchronous speed.
Hence, the frequency of G1 is slightly higher than that of G2. Figure 6.35 shows the phasor diagram
under this condition. E1 which is supposed to be in exact phase opposition to E2 is now ahead of
its position of exact phase opposition. The resultant Er E1
of the voltages E1 and E2 is Er which circulates the
Ir
current Ir in the local circuit consisting of Zs1 and Zs2
in series. As Zs1 and Zs2 are predominantly inductive, E2
Ir lags Er by almost 90°. Ir has two components, one
Gjh/!7/46! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!xifo!gsfrvfodz!
in phase with E1 and another in phase opposition to pg!H2!jt!tmjhiumz!hsfbufs!uibo!H3
E2. Hence, G1 acts as a generator supplying power to
G2 which acts as a motor as it receives power from G1. Hence, G1 develops electromagnetic torque
opposing the driving primer torque, retarding G2. G2 develops an electromagnetic torque, motoring
in nature, which accelerates G2. Thus, G1 and G2 attain same speed. The power due to current Ir is
called synchronizing power. The synchronizing power
E Er Er I sc Ê Er ˆ
Ps = EIr = = ÁËE I r = 2 Z ˜¯ …(6.54)
2 Zs 2 s
E
where Isc = is the short-circuit armature current.
Zs
Let the two generators with synchronous impedances Zs1 and Zs2 deliver a load current of I
to a load impedance ZL and terminal voltage Vt. The currents shared by G1 and G2 are I1 and I2
respectively.
! 7/73 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
E1 = V + I1 Zs1 = I ZL + I1 Zs1
E - I ZL
Hence, I1 =
Zs
V
or, I = Isc1 – …(6.55)
Zs
V V V
= Isc1 – + I sc2 -
ZL Z s1 Z s2
Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
or, V + + = Isc1 + Isc2
ÁË Z Z s1 Z s2 ˜¯
L
Ê 1 ˆ
or, V = (Isc1 + Isc2) …(6.57)
Á 1 1 1 ˜
Á + + ˜
Ë Z L Z s1 Z s2 ¯
I sc1 + I sc2
E1 -
1 1 1
+ +
Z L Z s1 Z s2
Hence, I1 = …(6.58)
Z s1
I sc1 + I sc2
E2 -
1 1 1
+ +
Z L Z s1 Z s2
and I2 = …(6.59)
Z s2
7/24/6! Fggfdu!pg!Dibohf!pg!Fydjubujpo!
Let us consider two identical generators operating in parallel and sharing a given load current IL
I
equally. Let internal emfs E1 = E2 = E and currents supplied by generators I1 = I2 = L at the termi-
nal voltage of Vt. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 6.36(a). E1 and E2 are in the same phase with
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/74
respect to the external circuit. Let E1 be increased. The difference voltage E ¢ = E1 – E2 circulates a
current I ¢ in the local circuit such that
E¢
I¢ =
Zs
I ¢ lags E ¢ by an angle q which is nearly 90°. I ¢ gets added to I1 to make the current of G1 as I1¢
and I 1¢ gets subtracted from I2 to make the current of G2 as I¢2. Hence, the magnitude of the total
current of G1 increases with the decrease in its power factor, whereas the magnitude of the current
of G2 decreases with the increase in its power factor. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 6.36(b).
As q is nearly 90°, the contribution of I¢ to the active components of generator currents is negligibly
small. The reactive component of I¢ changes the reactive components of generator currents causing
the change in the power factors.
E¢
E1
E1 q E2
q2
E2
q1 I¢2
q –I¢
I¢
I1, I 2
V
I1, I2
I¢
I¢1
(a) (b)
Gjh/!7/47! Fggfdu!pg!dibohf!pg!fydjubujpo!po!qpxfs!gbdupst!pg!hfofsbupst
7/24/7! Fggfdu!pg!Dibohf!jo!Qsjnf.npwfs!Pvuqvu!
Consider two generators with internal emfs E1 = E2 = E operating in parallel and sharing load
equally. Consider the external circuit E1 and E2 are in phase and shown in Fig. 6.37(a). The currents
shared by each generator I1 = I2 = I. Let the mechanical input to G1 be increased without changing
load. For steady conditions, the generators continue to run in synchronism at a common frequency.
But due to increase of mechanical input, G1 shifts its rotor position with respect to G2, ahead of its
previous position by an angle a.
E1
E¢
E¢
I¢
E1 a
E2
E2
I¢1
I¢
I
I –I¢
I¢2
(a) (b)
Gjh/!7/48! Fggfdu!pg!dibohf!jo!qsjnf.npwfs!pvuqvu
! 7/75 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!7/47
Uxp!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbupst!bsf!pqfsbujoh!jo!qbsbmmfm/!Uif!sbujoht!pg!uif!nbdijoft!bsf!
211!lX!boe!261!lX/!Cpui!uif!nbdijoft!bsf!gjuufe!xjui!hpwfsopst!ibwjoh!b!esppq!pg!6&/!Efufsnjof!
ipx!uif!nbdijoft!xjmm!tibsf!b!mpbe!pg!311!lX@
Solution
Let the original frequency be f and P1 and P2 are the loads shared by Machine 1 and Machine 2
respectively when total load is 200 kW.
For a load of 100 kW, the drop in frequency = 0.05 f
0.05
For a load of P1 kW, the drop in frequency = f P1
100
0.05
Operating frequency of the first machine = f – f P1
100
0.05
Similarly, for Machine 2, the operating frequency = f – f P2
150
0.05 0.05
\ f– f P1 = f – f P2
100 150
2
P1 = P2
3
Again, P1 + P2 = 200 kW
3
\ P1 = 200 ¥ = 120 kW and P2 = 200 – 120 = 80 W.
5
! Qspcmfn!7/48
Uxp!tjnjmbs!6111!lWB!tzodispopvt!hfofsbupst!bsf!pqfsbujoh!jo!qbsbmmfm/!Jo!uif!gjstu!hfofsbups-!uif!
gsfrvfodz!espqt!gspn!61!I{!up!59/6!I{!boe!jo!uif!tfdpoe!pof-!uif!gsfrvfodz!espqt!gspn!61!I{!up!
58/6!I{/!Efufsnjof!uif!mpbe!tibsfe!cz!fbdi!xifo!uif!upubm!mpbe!jt!8111!lX/!
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/76
Solution
If the load shared by the first machine is P1, the load shared by the second one is (7000 – P1) kW
From Eq. (6.53),
50 - 48.5 50 - 47.5
50 – P1 = 50 – (7000 – P1)
5000 5000
or, 1.5 P1 = 2.5 (7000 – P1)
\ P1 = 5000 kW
\ P2 = 7000 – 5000 = 2000 kW.
! Qspcmfn!7/49
Uxp!2611!lWB-!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbupst!bsf!pqfsbujoh!jo!qbsbmmfm!boe!tvqqmz!b!mpbe!pg!
3111!lWB!bu!1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/!Pof!nbdijof!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!1/8!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups!boe!
tvqqmzjoh!2311!lWB/!Efufsnjof!uif!qpxfs!pvuqvu!pg!uif!tfdpoe!nbdijof!boe!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!
xijdi!ju!jt!pqfsbujoh/
Solution
Total load S = 2000 - cos -1 0.8 kVA
= 1600 – j 1200 kVA
Load supplied by the first machine
S1 = 1200 - cos -1 0.7 = 840 – j 856.97 kVA
Now S = S1 + S2 where S2 is the load supplied by second machine
\ S2 = 1600 – j 1200 – 840 + j 856.9
= 760 – j 343.1 = 833.86 -24.3∞ kVA
Hence, power output of the second machine is 833.86 kVA and power factor is cos 24.3° lagging
or, 0.91 lagging.
! Qspcmfn!7/4:
Uxp!jefoujdbm!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbupst!pqfsbujoh!jo!qbsbmmfm!tibsf!frvbm!mpbet!pg!3111!
lX!bu!22!lW!boe!1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!uif!gjstu!hfofsbups!jt!211!B!bu!
mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/!Efufsnjof!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!uif!tfdpoe!hfofsbups!boe!uif!qpxfs!gbd.
ups!bu!xijdi!fbdi!nbdijof!pqfsbuft/
Solution
2000
P1 = P2 = = 1000 kW
2
¥ 11 ¥ Ia1 cos q1 = 1000
! 7/77 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
1000
\ Ia1 cos q1 = A
3 ¥ 11
! Qspcmfn!7/51
Uxp!22!lW-!4.qibtf-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbupst!tvqqmz!b!mpbe!pg!6111!lX!bu!
1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/!Uif!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!pg!uif!uxp!nbdijoft!bsf!1/9!,!k!23!W!boe!
1/6!,!k!21!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!uxp!nbdijoft!tibsf!frvbm!mpbet!boe!uif!gjstu!nbdijof!efmjwfst!361!!B!
bu!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/!Efufsnjof!uif!dvssfou-!qpxfs!gbdups-!joevdfe!fng!boe!mpbe!bohmf!pg!fbdi!
nbdijof/
Solution
Ia1 = 250 A
5000
\ ¥ 11 ¥ 250 cos q1 =
2
or, cos q1 = 0.525 = cos 58.33 lagging
\ Ia1 = 250 -58.33∞ A
5000
Total current I = A = 328.04 A
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 0.8
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/78
11000
E1 = Vt + Ia1 Z1 = + 250 -58.33∞ ¥ (0.8 + j12)
3
TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS!DPOOFDUFE! 7/25
UP!JOGJOJUF!CVT
7/25/2! Fggfdu!pg!Dibohf!pg!Fydjubujpo!bu!Dpotubou!Pvuqvu!
Let a synchronous generator with constant synchronous impedance Zs and delivering current Ig is
connected to an infinite bus having voltage V. The internal impedance E = V + Zs Ig and Ig = Ia + jIr
where Ia = Ig cos f and Ir = Ig sin f, f being the angle of Ig with respect to V.
E = V + Zs Ia + j Zs Ir = V + Ia (ra + j xs) + j Ir (ra + j xs)
or, E = V + Ia ra + j Ia xs + j Ir ra – Ir xs …(6.60)
! 7/79 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2/!Pwfs.fydjubujpo!
When the synchronous generator is over-excited, the additional field ampere turns provided has to
be balanced by a lagging reactive component of armature current, since a lagging reactive armature
current directly demagnetizes the main field. Hence, armature current Ig = Ia – j Ir
Therefore,
E = E1 – j Ir ra + Ir xs
= V + Ia ra + j Ia xs – j Ir ra + Ir xs
Ov
ex er
Ir z cit
s
ati
o n
s
Irra
Ia z
E C
jIrxs on
Centre of sta
nt
constant s po
excitation I gz w er
f line
circle jIaxs
d V q Constant
f Ia Iara current
Centre of
Constant circle
constant
current excitation
Ir circle circle
Ig
Gjh/!7/4:! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!gps!pwfs.fydjufe!dpoejujpo
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/7:
ÊZ ˆ Z
Now Zs Ia = Á s ˜ V Ia = Po VIa where Po is the real power output of the generator and s is constant.
ËV ¯ V
Hence, Zs Ia • Po and
Zs Ir I
f = tan–1 = tan–1 r …(6.65)
Zs Ia Ia
Hence, a reference line, marked as ‘Normal Excitation’, can be drawn from the tip of the refer-
ence phasor V at an angle q, which is the phasor angle of Zs as shown in Fig. 6.39.
With respect to the ‘Normal Excitation’ line, the following observations can be made:
1. The distance of a point on the reference line from the tip of the reference phasor V represents
ÊV ˆ
the real power output of the generator to a suitable scale Á times the voltage scale˜ .
Ë Zs ¯
2. The angle of the synchronous impedance voltage drop Ig Zs with respect to the reference line
gives the lagging power-factor angle.
3. The magnitude of Ig Zs represents the total armature current to a suitable scale
Ê 1 ˆ
ÁË Z times the voltage scale˜¯ .
s
The locus traced by the tip of the phasor E for increasing over-excitation is a straight line which
is indicated as ‘Constant Power Line’, because for all points on this locus, the power output is con-
stant at the value determined by Ia.
If the armature current has constant magnitude but varying phase angle, then the magnitude of
Ig Zs is constant but has different phase angle. Hence, the locus traced by the tip of Ig Zs phasor at
constant magnitude of armature current and variable over-excitation is a circle with the tip of V
taken as its centre and radius equal to Ig Zs which is indicated as ‘Constant Current Circle’.
When the excitation is held constant and the power output is varied, the tip of E follows a ‘Con-
stant Excitation Circle’ as shown in Fig. 6.39. Constant Power Line, Constant Current Circle and
Constant Excitation Circle are unique to the operation of synchronous generator connected to in-
finite bus.
3/!Voefs.Fydjubujpo!
When the generator is under-excited, the reduction of field-ampere turns is balanced by a leading
reactive component of the armature current. The leading reactive armature current causes magne-
tizing armature reaction in the direction of the main field.
! 7/81 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Hence, E = E1 + j ra Ir – xs Ir = V + ra Ia + j xs Ia + j ra Ir – xs Ir
| E | = (V + ra I a - xs I r )2 + ( xs I a - ra I r )
2
or, …(6.66)
I a xs + I r ra
d = tan–1 …(6.67)
V + I a ra - I r xs
The phasor diagram for under-excited condition is shown in Fig. 6.40. If under-excitation be-
comes more pronounced, E decreases and d increases.
Constant excitation circle
U
exc nder
Co itat
cita l
n
ion
ex orma
nst
tio
an
n
tp
tio
ow
N
er
cita
line
E jIrxs
ex
er-
Irra ex Over
nd
Ir z cita
fu
s tio
n
it o
Igzs
Lim
s
Ia z
Centre of jIaxs
Centre of Ir Ig
constant constant f
Constant
excitation current current
q circle
circle f d q circle
Ia V I ara
Gjh/!7/51! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!gps!voefs.fydjufe!dpoejujpo
The tip of the phasor E traces a constant power line for more pronounced under-excitation at
constant power output. Zs Ig represents armature current for leading power factor angle with respect
to the reference line corresponding to normal excitation. In this case also, we have Constant Current
Circle and Constant Excitation Circle.
In both Fig. 6.39 and Fig. 6.40, the constant power line is the locus of synchronous impedance
drop phasor due to reactive component of armature current. It is perpendicular to the locus of syn-
chronous impedance drop phasor due to reactive component of armature current. The part of the
locus to the right of the reference line of “Normal Excitation” corresponds to lagging power factor
and the part to the left corresponds to leading power factor. The combined figure of Fig. 6.39 and
Fig. 6.40 is shown in Fig. 6.41.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/82
U
Le exc nder-
l
(UP ation
ad
Ex orma
Co ing itat
ion
ion
nst
F)
an po
cit
tp we
N
itat
ow r fa
er cto
exc
line r
er-
O
nd ex ver
cita -
fu
E Lagg tio
n
it o
ing
Lim
po
we
r fa
s
lg Z
f cto
r
q
d q
f V
lg
Gjh/!7/52! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!tipxjoh!dpncjobujpo!pg!Gjh/!7/4:!boe!Gjh/!7/51
7/25/3! Fggfdu!pg!Dibohf!pg!Fydjubujpo!po!Op.Mpbe!
As the output of the generator is zero in this case, the active component of the current is zero. The
constant-zero power line passes through the tip of the voltage phasor V. The normal excitation in
this case corresponds to an excitation which produces an internal emf equal to the voltage of the
infinite bus. The phasor diagram at normal excitation under no-load condition is shown in Fig. 6.42.
U
Le ex nder
ad cita -
ion
ing tio
po n
tat
Ze we
r fa
i
l
(UP ation
exc
ro
exc orma
pow cto
r
F)
er
er-
line
it
N
nd
fu
Ov
it o
ex
cita er-
Lim
La tio
q gg n
q ing
po
V=E we
r fac
tor
Gjh/!7/53! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!gps!opsnbm!fydjubujpo!bu!op.mpbe!
During over-excited condition, the generator delivers lagging current I ro. The demagnetizing ef-
fect of Iro maintains the net excitation same as normal excitation. As the synchronous impedance
takes into account the effect of armature reaction, the increased value of E due to increased excita-
tion, provides terminal voltage equal to the infinite bus voltage and overcomes the synchronous
impedance drop due to lagging wattless armature current. The phasor diagram during over-excited
condition at no load is shown in Fig. 6.43.
! 7/83 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
U
Le exc nder
ad itat -
tion
ing ion
po
cita
Ze we
r
cita l
(U tion
ro
ex orma
fac
-ex
po tor
we
)
PF
r lin
der
N
e
f un
O
exc ver-
it o
itat
Lim
q La ion
V q gg
ing
d jlro po
lrora zs we
r fa
E cto
r
lro jlroxs
Gjh/!7/54! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!gps!pwfs.fydjubujpo!bu!op.mpbe
During under-excited condition, the generator delivers leading reactive current Iro. The mag-
netizing effect of Iro maintains net excitation same as normal. The decreased value of E due to
decreased excitation provides terminal voltage equal to infinite bus voltage and overcomes syn-
chronous impedance drop due to leading wattless armature current. The locus of the tip of E is the
constant power line for zero output power as shown in Fig. 6.44.
ion
itat
U
Le ex nder
exc
ad cita -
ing tio
er-
po n
Ze we
nd
ro r fa
l
(UP ation
exc orma
cto
fu
po
we r
F)
it o
r lin
it
N
e
Lim
lro O
jlroxs ex ver-
cita
E lro lrora La tio
q z q gg n
d s ing
po
V we
r fa
cto
r
Gjh/!7/55! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!gps!voefs.fydjubujpo!bu!op.mpbe
W!DVSWFT! 7/26!
The plot of the magnitude of armature current versus main field current at constant output power
is known as V curve. As the excitation is increased from zero, the armature current reduces from
a large value, reaches a minimum value at a particular excitation and again increases with the in-
crease of excitation. V curves can be obtained from Fig. 6.39 and Fig. 6.40. Figure 6.45 shows the
combined constant power lines of Fig. 6.39 and Fig. 6.40 for lagging and leading power factors. In
Fig. 6.45, four constant power output lines, viz. h1g1, h2 g2, h3 g3 and h4 g4 are shown for constant
output powers Po1, Po2, Po3 and Po4 respectively such that Po4 > Po3 > Po2 > Po1. kf is the locus of
synchronous impedance drop due to active component of armature current and is the reference line
for armature current. The distance to a point on the constant power line from k is proportional to the
total armature current at that point. The excitation is proportional to the distance from o to a point
on the constant power line.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/84
Let us consider the constant power line h1 g1. h1 corresponding to the operating point when
the power angle is equal to the angle of synchronous impedance. Z1 corresponds to the operating
point at which the power angle is zero, n1 is the operating point which corresponds to the normal
excitation where there is no reactive component of armature current; n1 h1 is the region of under-
excitation and n1 g1 is the region of over-excitation. At operating point h1, the excitation is oh1,
the armature current is kh1 and the power-factor angle is f h1 leading with the increase of excita-
tion from the operating point h1. The operating point moves towards z1 on the constant power line
through a1, x1, b1 and g1. Figure 6.46 shows the plot of armature current versus field current at
different output power condition. It is observed that as the operating point moves from h1 towards
z1, the excitation increases, armature current reduces to a minimum value of kn1 at operating point
n1 and again increases. The power-factor angle is initially leading, decreases to zero at n1 and again
increases and becomes lagging. The V curves, as shown in Fig. 6.46 for increasing powers, line one
above the other without intersecting each other.
h4 Inc
rea
h3 Po sin
4 g P Le U.P
h2 Po o ad .F.
3
Po f
h1 2
Po
1
n4 La
g
a1 n3
g4
n2
g3
n1 to z4 on x-axis
g2
fh1 b1 to z3 on x-axis
g1
dmax = q q z1 to z2 on x-axis
O k
Gjh/!7/56! Dpotubou!qpxfs!mjoft!
h4
h3
|Ig| kh1 h2
h1
Locus of
V4 minimum
current
ka1 V3 n4
a1
z1
kz1
V2 n3
g1
kg1
V1
n2
kb1
b1
kn1 n1
Gjh/!7/57! W!dvswft!pg!b!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!
! 7/85 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
JOWFSUFE!W!DVSWFT! 7/27!
The plot of power factor of the armature current versus the main field current at constant output
power is known as inverted V curve. It is known that at constant voltage, for constant output power,
the product of current and its power factor is constant. Hence, the variation of power factor with
main field excitation is inverse to the variation of armature current with main field excitation.
Therefore the variation of power factor follows the inverse V curve. Figure 6.47 shows typical in-
verted V curves.
Power factor
n1 n2 n3 n4
1.0
U1
U3 U4
U2
h3 h4
cos q
z1 z2 z3 z4
h2
cos fh1
h1
O h1 n1 z1 If
Gjh/!7/58! Jowfsufe!W!dvswft!gps!b!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!
The maximum power factor for all the power is unity and they occur at successively higher
excitations for higher power factors. Let us consider the curve 1 on the inverted V curve in
Fig. 6.47. The operating point h1 on this curve corresponds to the lowest possible excitation oh1 for
which power factor cos f h1 is lowest. As the operating point moves from h1 to z1, the power factor
increases with the increase in excitation, reaches 1 at n1 and decreases with lagging phase angle.
At z1, the power angle is same as the synchronous impedance angle q. With the increase in output
power, the minimum excitation increases and corresponding power factor increases. The locus of
minimum power factor (leading) moves along h1, h2, h3 and h4 in Fig. 6.47. The locus of the lagging
power factor cos f moves horizontally along z1, z2, z3 and z4. The unity power factor points on the
inverted V curves are also shifted horizontally along n1, n2, n3 and n4. Hence, inverted V curves are
a set of intersecting curves shifted horizontally for increasing output power.
PQFSBUJPOBM!BTQFDUT! 7/28
If the prime-mover input to the generator is increased, keeping the excitation constant, the operation
can be treated equivalent to operating the generator in parallel with another. The other generator
in this case is considered the constant voltage and constant frequency infinite bus bar. The change
in prime-mover input does not affect the infinite bus bar but results in change in the output of the
generator. But for constant excitation, the internal emf and terminal voltage of the generator is
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/86
constant. Hence, the power-angle characteristic of the generator changes. Due to change in output
power, the active component of armature current changes resulting in the change in power factor
also.
Figure 6.48 illustrates the effect of change in output power at constant excitation. A set of con-
stant power lines Po1 to Po6 is shown in this figure. At constant output power Po1, g1 is the initial op-
erating point, d 1 is the power angle, E1 is the internal emf and Ig1 is the armature current at a power
factor of cos f1 lagging. If the excitation is held constant and the prime-mover input is increased
gradually, the operating point moves from g1 over an arc of the circle with o as centre and og1 as
radius. Hence, the operating points become g2, g3, g4, g5 and g6 at output powers of Po2, Po3, Po4, Po5
and Po6 respectively. The circular locus of three operating points is known as Constant Excitation
Circle.
g6
Po Le U.P
6 ad .F
f
Po
5
Ex1 La
g
g5
Po Ex2
4
Po
3
Po
2
Po
1
P g4
o0 =0 g3
E2 g2
f2 E g ZsIg2
1 1
dmax = q
d2
O f1 ZsIg1
d1 k
g0
Gjh/!7/59! Fggfdu!pg!dibohf!jo!pvuqvu!qpxfs!bu!dpotubou!fydjubujpo!
Figure 6.48 shows the constant excitation circle. Ex1 intersects several constant power lines. At the
operating point g2, the power angle increases to d 2, armature current is Ig2 at cos f2 power factor
lagging and internal emf is E2 where E2 = E1. Similarly, at the operating point g3, the power angle
is d 3 and armature current is Ig3 at cos f3 power factor lagging. Here, emf E3 = E1. At the operating
point g4, the power factor is 1. For powers higher than Po4, the power factor is leading and starts
reducing in magnitude. Power angle and magnitude of armature current keep increasing further
but the internal emf is constant at each operating point. g6 is the limiting operating point at output
power Po6, at which the power line is tangent to the excitation circle. At this point, the power angle
is equal to the angle of the synchronous impedance. The other extreme limiting operating point is
g 0 at which the output power is zero. The power factor here is zero lagging.
! 7/87 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
When the excitation is kept constant at the value equal to the voltage of infinite bus bar, the
excitation circle is Ex 2 as shown in Fig. 6.48. In this case, with increase in prime-mover input, the
armature current increases but with only leading power factors. At the instant of synchronizing the
generator with infinite bus, the internal emf of the generator is made equal to the infinite bus-bar
voltage. If the generator is made to deliver power to the infinite bus soon after synchronizing, keep-
ing the excitation constant at the value just before synchronizing, the armature current operates
only at leading power factors.
A family of constant power lines, excitation circles and constant current circles drawn together
is called an electrical load diagram. Knowing the limiting operating conditions of the generator, a
boundary can be identified, the area within which is the permissible operating region of the gen-
erator. Such a boundary is known as the operating chart. In the electrical load diagram, the output
power, excitation and armature currents are expressed in per unit. Figure 6.49 shows a typical elec-
trical load diagram of a synchronous generator and the permissible operating area when excitation
emf Ex should not exceed 1.5 p.u. and fall below 0.6 p.u., armature current should not exceed 1 p.u.,
active power should not exceed 1 p.u. and maximum lagging power-factor angle should not exceed
synchronous impedance angle. The boundary line is the thick line a1 – a2 – a3 – a4 – a5 – a6 inside
which none of the given specifications is exceeded.
Ex =
1.5
0p
.u.
Ex =
1.2
5 p.u
.
Ex =
1p f
.u.
Po
Po =1
=1 .25
.0 p p.u
.u. .
Po
=0
.75
p.u
.
Ex = a4
0 .6 p
.u.
Po
=0 a3
.25 Po
p.u =0 Ig =
. .5 p 0.7
Po .u. 5 p.u
=P Ig = .
o0 =0 0.5
a5 p .u.
a2
a6 Ig =
0.2 Ig = 1.0 p.u.
5p
dmax = q .u.
q
k a1
Gjh/!7/5:! Fmfdusjdbm!mpbe!ejbhsbn!pg!b!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/88
TBMJFOU.QPMF!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS! 7/29!
As discussed earlier, the rotor of a cylindrical pole ma- q-axis
chine has uniform air gap whereas in a salient pole ma-
chine, the air gap is non-uniform. Figure 6.50 shows a
two-pole salient-pole synchronous generator. From the
figure, it is clear that there are two axes of symmetry
here. The axis of the rotor pole is called the direct or d
axis and the axis perpendicular to the rotor pole is called d-axis
the quadrature or q axis. The direct-axis flux path in-
cludes two small air gaps under pole faces only whereas
quadrature axis flux path has two larger air gaps in the
interpolar region. Hence, the direct-axis flux path has
minimum reluctance and quadrature-axis flux path has
maximum reluctance. The effect of armature reaction is
less pronounced along the quadrature axis than along Gjh/!7/61! Uxp.qpmf!tbmjfou.qpmf!nbdijof
the direct axis. Since the armature reaction reactance,
which represents the effect of armature reaction, is a major component of synchronous reactance,
a salient-pole machine may be considered to have two different armature reaction reactances, one
representing the effect of armature reaction along the direct axis and the other along the quadrature
axis.
Consider xad and xaq as the armature reaction reactance along the direct axis and quadrature axis
respectively. As inductance is flux linkage per unit ampere, xad > xaq. However, the leakage flux xl
is unaffected by the difference in the air-gap length along the two axes. The net direct axis and net
quadrature axis reactance are Xd = xad + xl and Xq = xaq + xl respectively. Hence, Xd > Xq. The typi-
Xq
cal ratio = 0.6.
Xd
UXP.SFBDUJPO!UIFPSZ!BOE!QIBTPS!EJBHSBN!PG! 7/2:
B!TBMJFOU.QPMF!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS!
The performance of a salient-pole synchronous generator can be explained by the two-reaction
theory. According to the two reaction theory, the armature mmf Fa produced by armature current
Ia is resolved into two components, one along the direct or d-axis and another along quadrature
or q-axis. The d-axis component of Fa is Fad and the q-axis component is Faq. The effect of Fad is
either magnetizing or demagnetizing (depending on whether p.f. is leading or lagging), whereas
the effect of Faq is entirely cross magnetizing. Similarly, the flux fa produced by Ia is resolved into
two components fad and faq. fad induces direct-axis armature reaction voltage Ead and faq induces
quadrature-axis armature reaction voltage Eaq. If Id and Iq be the two components of Ia along direct
and quadrature axis respectively then
! 7/89 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Ia xl = Id xl + Iq xl …(6.72)
Again Id (xad + xl) = Id Xd …(6.73)
and Iq (xaq + xl) = Iq Xq …(6.74)
where Xd and Xq are direct-axis and quadrature-axis synchronous reactance.
The simplified phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 6.52.
E
Let E1 be a part of E such that jIqxq
E1 = Vt + ra Id + ra Iq + jXq Id + jXq Iq
= Vt + ra (Id + Iq) + jXq (Id + Iq) jIdxd
Iq
= Vt + (ra + jXq) Ia d
Vt
= Vt + Zsq Ia …(6.75)
q
Iara
where Z sq is the quadrature-axis synchronous
Ia Idra Iqra
impedance. Figure 6.53 shows the phasor diagram of
a salient-pole synchronous machine with the inclusion Id
of E1 and Zsq Ia. Gjh/! 7/63! Tjnqmjgjfe! qibtps! ejbhsbn!
pg! tbmjfou.qpmf! tzodispopvt!
hfofsbups
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/8:
E
E1 q
jI qX
sd
V t co jIaXq )
Iq sq – Xq
I aZ Xd
jI d(
d Vt Ia r Xq
q a jI d
I dr a
Iqra
Ia
Id
Gjh/!7/64! Npejgjfe!qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!b!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!
X q I a cos q - ra I a sin q
and d = tan–1 …(6.78)
Vt + ra I a cos q - X q I a sin q
X q I a cos q + ra I a sin q
d = tan–1 …(6.80)
Vt + ra I a cos q - X q I a sin q
NFUIPET!PG!EFUFSNJOJOH!Ye!BOE!Yr! 7/31
Xd and Xq are the two reactances which exist due
q
to different effects of armature mmf when acting Core
along the direct axis and along the quadrature axis.
The main problem in determining Xd and Xq is that
x
during normal operation, the air-gap flux is due to N
Turns Rotor
the resultant of main field and armature field mmfs
whereas it is required to evaluate the effect due to
armature mmf alone. To understant the basic concept
of slip test, a magnetic circuit, as shown in Fig. 6.54,
is considered. Gjh/!7/65! Djsdvju!gps!fyqmbobujpo!pg!tmjq!uftu!
! 7/91 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Here, the magnetic core is wound with N turns of a coil. The rotor rotates freely about a hori-
Nf
zontal axis X. The inductance of the winding is the flux linkage per unit ampere, where f is the
I
flux produced by the winding when it carries a current I. The flux produced by the current I through
the coil depends on the reluctance offered by the magnetic circuit to the mmf NI produced by the
winding. In Fig. 6.54, when q = 0°, the length of the air gap is minimum and, therefore, the reluc-
tance is minimum. The flux is maximum and let in this position the winding inductance be L1. If the
rotor is rotated by 90°, i.e. when q = 90°, the air gap is maximum and the reluctance is maximum.
Assuming that the voltage source drives the same current as before, the flux produced is minimum
and let in this condition the inductance be L2. Hence, for frequency f, the maximum and minimum
reactances are Xmax = 2pfL1 and Xmin = 2pfL2. On the other hand, for a constant voltage source, the
current through the winding is minimum corresponding to the position of maximum flux and vice
versa. Therefore, by noting the minimum and maximum currents due to shift of the position of ro-
tor, the maximum and minimum values of reactances can be evaluated. The maximum reactance is
the ratio of the applied voltage to the minimum current and minimum reactance is the ratio of the
applied voltage to the maximum current. The method for evaluation of Xd and Xq is based on this
principle.
The circuit diagram shown in Fig. 6.54 is used for conducting test to measure Xd and Xq. The ar-
mature windings of the synchronous machine are supplied with balanced three-phase supply from a
variac with the field windings kept open. A voltmeter measures the voltage across the field winding.
Oscillograms of armature current, armature voltage and voltage across field winding may also be
obtained by connecting suitable instruments.
While conducting test on the synchronous machine, a balanced three-phase voltage is applied
across armature winding in such a way that rated armature current is not exceeded. The three-
phase armature currents produce a magnetic field in the air gap rotating at synchronous speed. At
stationary condition due to relative speed between the armature field and the field winding, a volt-
age is induced in the field winding at normal frequency. Now the rotor is rotated by an adjustable
prime mover in the direction of armature field. Whether the rotor is rotating in the direction of the
magnetic field or in the opposite direction can be determined from the reading of the voltmeter
connected across the field winding. A decrease in voltage in the voltmeter indicates that the speed
between the armature field and rotor is decreasing, which indicates that the direction of rotation
of the rotor is same as that of the armature field. The voltage across the voltmeter increases if the
speed of rotation of the rotor is opposite to that of the magnetic field. If the rotor is rotated at syn-
chronous speed, there will be no voltage induced in the field winding since at this condition, the
magnetic field is stationary with respect to the rotor. If the rotor is driven at a speed slightly less or
slightly more than the synchronous speed in the direction of armature magnetic field, the armature
field slips past the rotor at slip speed inducing slip-frequency voltage in the field winding. As the
armature field is running at a speed slightly different than that of the rotor, the armature flux acts
along the direct axis and quadrature axis of the rotor at equal intervals of time which is determined
by the slip speed. If the slip is large, the time interval is small and vice versa. For example, a 6-pole,
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/92
50 Hz generator has a synchronous speed of 1200 rpm. when driven at 1194 rpm, the slip is 0.5%.
The slip speed is (1200 – 1194) rpm, i.e. 6 rpm. The time taken for one revolution of the armature
field with respect to rotor is 10 s. As the rotor has 6 poles, the armature field acts along the direct
10
axis and quadrature axis at intervals of s or 1.67 s. When the armature field acts along the direct
6
axis, the situation is same for q = 0° in Fig. 6.54. The armature reactance is maximum and this is
the direct-axis synchronous reactance Xd. After 1.67 s, the armature field acts along the quadrature
axis and the armature reactance is minimum, i.e. Xq. Hence, for a constant voltage applied to the
armature winding, the armature current swings from a maximum value corresponding to Xq to a
maximum value corresponding to Xd. The time interval between the instant of maximum and mini-
mum current is 1.67 s in this example. The record of maximum and minimum current will be better
if the slip frequency is lower. Now at constant supply voltage,
Applied armature voltage per phase
Xd = …(6.82a)
Minimum armature current per phase
Sometimes the voltage applied to the armature may not be constant but varies from a maximum
value when the armature current is minimum to a minimum when the armature current is maxi-
mum. In this case,
Maximum value of applied voltage per phase
Xd = …(6.83)
Minimum value of armature current per phase
Field
voltage
t1 t2
t
Armature
current
Armature
voltage
Gjh/!7/66! Ptdjmmphsbn!qfsubjojoh!up!tmjq!uftu!
QPXFS.BOHMF!DIBSBDUFSJTUJD!PG!TBMJFOU.! 7/32
QPMF!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS!
The armature resistance ra has negligible effect on the re- E C
Vt sin d
\ Iq = …(6.86)
Xq
Id Xd = OC – OB = E – Vt cos d
E - Vt cosd
\ Id = …(6.87)
Xd
Substituting the value of Iq and Id in Eq. (6.85),
Ê V sin d E - Vt cos d ˆ
S = (Vt cos d – jVt sin d) Á t + j
Ë Xq Xd ˜¯
ÊV2 VE V2 ˆ ÊV E V2 V2 ˆ
= Á t sin d cos d + t sin d - t sin d cos d ˜ + j Á t cos d - t cos 2 d - t sin 2 d ˜ …(6.88)
Ë Xq Xd Xq ¯ Ë Xd Xd Xq ¯
ÏV E V2 Ê 1 1 ˆ Ô¸ ÏÔV E V2 V2 Ô¸
= ÔÌ t sin d + - sin 2d ˝ + j Ì t cos d - t (1 + cos 2d ) - t (1 - cos 2d ) ˝
X Á ˜
2 Ë Xq Xd ¯ ÔÓ X d 2Xd 2Xq
ÓÔ d ˛Ô ˛Ô
ÏÔV E V2 Ê 1 1 ˆ ¸Ô ÏÔV E Vt 2 ¸Ô
= Ì t sin d + t - sin 2d ˝ + j Ì t cos d - ÈÎ( X d + X q ) - ( X d - X q ) cos 2d ˘˚ ˝
X 2 ÁË X q X d ˜¯ ÓÔ X d Xd Xq
2X ˛Ô
ÓÔ d ˛Ô
…(6.89)
\ real power output per phase
Vt E V2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
P= sin d + t - sin 2d …(6.90)
Xd 2 Ë X q X d ˜¯
Á
Reactive power output per phase
Vt E Vt 2
Q= cos d - È( X d + X q ) - ( X d - X q ) cos 2d ˘˚ …(6.91)
Xd 2Xd Xq Î
From an infinite bus system, Vt is constant and E can be made constant by keeping the excitation
constant. Hence, real power P is a function of d only. The first term on the right-hand side of Eq.
(6.90) is called excitation power and the second term is the reluctance power. Hence,
Vt E
Excitation power = sin d …(6.92)
Xd
Vt 2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
Reluctance power = - sin 2d …(6.93)
2 ÁË X q X d ˜¯
Ê ˆ
The reluctance power depends on the saliency defined by the quantity - . For cylin-
ÁË X q X d ˜¯
drical rotor machine, Xd = Xq and hence, the reluctance power becomes zero for cylindrical rotor
! 7/95 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
machine. The excitation power becomes zero if there is no field excitation. But the reluctance power
exists in a salient-pole machine even when there is no field excitation. Hence, the machine has the
same real power generator capability even in the absence of field excitation. But it is impractical
to operate synchronous generator without field excitation because it would supply only about 25%
or less of its real power rating. Also, it would absorb an excessive amount of reactive power. The
reluctance power is 10 to 20 percent of the excitation power.
Equation (6.92) shows that the excitation power is proportional to sin d and Eq. (6.93) shows
that the reluctance power is proportional to sin 2d. The power-angle curve for salient-pole machine
is shown in Fig. 6.57.
Motor Generator
P = wst
Pmax
PT
3 2È 1 1 ˘
V Í - ˙ 3VEf
2 ÍÎ X q X d ˙˚ Xd PE
Pr
–dmax 90°
d
–180° –90° O dmax 180°
Reluctance power
PT = Total power
PE = Excitation power
–Pmax Pr = Reluctance power
Gjh/!7/68! Qpxfs.bohmf!dvswf!gps!tbmjfou.qpmf!hfofsbups!
TZODISPOJ[JOH!QPXFS!BOE! 7/33
TZODISPOJ[JOH!UPSRVF!
For a cylindrical rotor synchronous generator,
VE
P= sin d
xs
If the load angle is increased by a, the increased power,
VE
P¢ = sin (d + a) …(6.94)
xs
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/96
! Qspcmfn!7/52
Jo!b!tmjq!uftu!pg!b!551!W-!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!nbdijof-!uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmut!
bsf!pcubjofe;
Wpmunfufs!sfbejoh!)Wpmubhf0qibtf*;!281!W-!261!W-!271!W!boe!251!W
Bnnfufs!sfbejoh;! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 26!B-!27!B-!26!B-!28/6!B!
Efufsnjof!uif!wbmvft!pg!Ye!boe!Yr/
Solution
Maximum voltmeter reading
Xd =
Minimum ammeter reading
170
= W = 11.33 W
15
Minimum voltmeter reading
Xq =
Maximum ammeter reading
140
= W = 8 W.
17.5
! Qspcmfn!7/53
B! 26! NWB-! 22! lW-! 61! I{-! uisff.qibtf! tubs.dpoofdufe! tzodispopvt! hfofsbups! pqfsbujoh! bu! vojuz!
qpxfs!gbdups!hjwft!uif!gpmmpxjoh!wpmunfufs!boe!bnnfufs!sfbejoht!jo!uif!tmjq!uftu;!46!W-!36!W-!26!B!
boe!9!B/!Efufsnjof!uif!fydjubujpo!wpmubhf!boe!sfmvdubodf!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!cz!uif!nbdijof/
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/98
Solution
From Eq. (6.83),
35
Xd = W = 4.375 W
8
From Eq. (6.84),
25
Xq = W = 1.67 W
15
Full-load armature current
15 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 787.3 A
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 1
1100
Vt = V = 6351 V
3
From Eq. (6.75),
E1 = Vt + Ia (ra + j X q)
Neglecting ra
E1 = 6351 + j 787.3 ¥ 1.67 = 6351 + j 1314.79
= 6485.67 11.69∞
\ d = 11.69°
\ Id = Ia sin d = 787.3 sin 11.69° = 159.52 A
Per phase excitation emf per phase from Eq. (6.79),
E = 6485.67 + (4.375 – 1.67) ¥ 159.52
= 6917.17 V
\ line value of excitation voltage
E= ¥ 6917.17 = 11980.9 V = 11.98 kV
Vt 2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
From Eq. (6.93), reluctance power is - sin 2d
Á
2 Ë X q X d ˜¯
(6351) 2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
= ÁË - ˜ sin (2 ¥ 11.69°)
2 1.67 4.375 ¯
= 8003058.682 (0.5988 – 0.22857)
= 2962972 W = 2962 kW per phase
Total reluctance power = 2962 ¥ 3 kW
= 8.886 MW.
! 7/99 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!7/54
A three-phase star-connected synchronous generator is delivering a power of 0.8 p.u. to an infinite
bus at rated voltage and at 0.9 power factor lagging. Determine the load angle and the excitation
voltage if Xd = 0.85 p.u. and Xq = 0.5 p.u.
Solution
P = Vt Ia cos q
\ 0.8 = 1 ¥ Ia ¥ 0.9
or, Ia = 0.89 p.u.
cos q = 0.9, sin q = 0.436
From Eq. (6.78),
X q I a cos q
d = tan–1 (neglecting ra)
Vt + X q I a sin q
! Qspcmfn!7/55
B!3111!lWB-!tubs.dpoofdufe-!3611!W-!uisff.qibtf!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!Ye!>!3!W!
boe!Yr!>!2/3!W!qfs!qibtf/!Ofhmfdujoh!mpttft-!efufsnjof!uif!fydjubujpo!wpmubhf!pg!sbufe!LWB!pqfsbujpo!
boe!bu!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/
Solution
2500
Vt = V = 1443.37 V
3
2000 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 462 A at 0.8 p.f. lag
3 ¥ 2500
\ Ia = 462 - 36.87∞ A
From Eq. (6.75), neglecting ra
E1 = Vt + j Ia Xq = 1443.37 + j 462 - 36.87∞ ¥ 1.2
= 1443.37 + 554.4 53.13∞
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/9:
= 1776 + j 443.52
= 1830.54 14∞ V
From Fig. (6.56),
Id = Ia sin (q + d) = 462 sin (36.87° + 14°)
= 358.38 A
From Eq. (6.79),
E = 1830.54 + (2 – 1.2) 358.38
= 2117.24 V.
! Qspcmfn!7/56
B!551!W-!61!I{!efmub.dpoofdufe!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!Ye!>!1/6!W!boe!Yr!>!1/2!W!
qfs!qibtf/!Uif!hfofsbups!jt!efmjwfsjoh!911!B!bu!1/9!mbhhjoh!qpxfs!gbdups/!Efufsnjof!uif!fydjubujpo!
fng!ofhmfdujoh!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf/!
Solution
Vt = 440 V
Xd = 0.5 W
Xq = 0.1 W
800
Ia = -36.87∞ A
3
From Eq. (6.78), neglecting ra
800
0.1 ¥ ¥ 0.8
3
d = tan–1 = tan–1 0.079
800
440 + 0.1 ¥ ¥ 0.6
3
= 4.520
From Fig. 6.56,
800
Id = Ia sin (q + d) = sin (36.87° + 4.52°) = 305.39 A
3
and E = Id Xd + Vt cos d
\ E = 305.39 ¥ 0.5 + 440 cos 4.52°
= 591.33 V.
! Qspcmfn!7/57
B!3111!lWB-!4.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!22!lW-!5.qpmf-!61!I{!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!tzodispopvt!
sfbdubodf!pg!26&!boe!jt!dpoofdufe!up!bo!jogjojuf!cvt/!Efufsnjof!uif!tzodispoj{joh!qpxfs!boe!uif!
tzodispoj{joh!upsrvf!qfs!nfdibojdbm!efhsff!pg!qibtf!ejtqmbdfnfou!)j*!bu!op!mpbe-!boe!)jj*!bu!gvmm!mpbe!
1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/
! 7/:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
11, 000
Vt = V = 3651 V
3
2000
Ia = = 104.97 A
3 ¥ 11
(kV) 2 (11)2
xs = 0.15 ¥ = 0.15 ¥ W
MVA 2
= 9.075 W
(i) At no load, d = 0 and E = Vt = 11 kV
\ synchronizing power per phase
Vt E pP
Ps = cosq W/mechanical degree
xs 360
(3651) 2 p ¥ 4
= ¥ W = 51.246 kW
9.075 360
\ synchronizing torque per mechanical degree
Ts = ¥ 51.246 ¥ 103 Nm
w
1
= ¥ 51.246 ¥ 103 Nm
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
4
= 326.41 Nm/per phase
(ii) At full-load,
E = 3651 + 104.97 -36.87∞ ¥ j 9.05
= 3651 + 949.98 53.13∞
= 4221 + j 760
= 4289 10.21∞ V
Hence, synchronizing power per mechanical degree
3651 ¥ 4289 p ¥ 4
Ps = ¥ cos 10.21°
9.05 360
= 59412 W/phase
Similarly, the synchronizing torque per mechanical degree
1
= ¥ 59412 Nm
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
4
= 378.42 Nm/phase.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/:2
SPMF!PG!EBNQFS!XJOEJOH! 7/34
Damper windings are used in salient-pole machines which help in maintaining synchronism by
providing additional damping. The damper winding consists of low-resistance copper or aluminium
bars embedded in notches carved in rotor pole shoes and short-circuited at both ends by rings. This
winding is also known as amortisseur winding.
During normal operating condition, the relative speed between the damper winding and the air-
gap magnetic field is zero as the copper bars of the damper winding are embedded on the pole face
of the rotor. Under this condition, there is no induced voltage in the damper windings. But when a
disturbance occurs and the rotor deviates from synchronism, the damper bars have relative motion
with respect to the air-gap field. Hence, a voltage is induced in the damper bars. Since the damper
bars are short-circuited, a current flows in the bars. This induced current in the bars reacts with the
air-gap field and produces an effect so as to restore synchronism between the rotor and the air-gap
magnetic field. The torque due to the damper winding is the induction torque. The induced emf in
the damper bar is proportional to the relative velocity between the rotor and the air-gap magnetic
field.
Let the initial load angle during normal operating condition be do. Let the incremental change in
load angle be Dd when a disturbance occurs. Hence, the load angle becomes
d d d ( Dd )
d = do + Dd and = = Dw
dt dt
where Dw is the incremental speed deviation of the rotor from synchronous speed. The restoring
dd dd
torque Td, known as damping torque, is proportional to i.e., Td = Kd = Kd Dw where Kd is
dt dt
the constant of proportionality in Nm/rad/s. The restoring torque is also called induction torque.
The damper winding also serves as a starter for synchronous motor which is not self-starting. The
cylindrical rotor machine does not require to use the damper winding. The solid-steel rotor cores of
these machines provide the path for eddy currents, which provide damping torque.
TZNNFUSJDBM!BOE!VOTZNFUSJDBM!TIPSU!DJSDVJUT! 7/35
!JO!B!UISFF.QIBTF!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS!
The most severe transient condition that can occur in a synchronous generator is three-phase short
circuit at the armature terminals. The machine is assumed to be initially unloaded and operates at
synchronous speed after short circuit occurs. Figure 6.58 shows the nature of current variation in
any one of the three phases when the armature terminals of the generator are suddenly short cir-
cuited. During the first few cycles, the waveform of armature current will depend upon the point in
the emf cycle at which short circuit occurs. The current in each phase consists of an ac component
and a dc component. The ac component of the symmetrical short-circuit current can be divided into
three periods—subtransient, transient and steady-state period.
! 7/:3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Subtransient
period
Transient Steady-state
period period
Short-circuit current
O
Time
Actual envelope
Gjh/!7/69! Uif!bd!dpnqpofou!pg!tznnfusjdbm!tipsu!djsdvju!dvssfou!jo!b!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups
The subtransient period lasts for about 2 cycles after the fault occurs and the current is very
high during this period, about 5 to 10 times the rated current. The current drops rapidly during this
period. The rms value of initial current is called subtransient current and is denoted by I ≤. The re-
E
actance corresponding to I≤ is known as subtransient reactance Xd≤. Hence Xd≤ = where E is the
rms value of the open circuit voltage. I ¢¢
After the subtransient period, the current decreases at a slower rate. This period is known as
transient period which lasts for about 30 cycles. The rms value of the current during this period is
known as transient current I ¢. I ¢ is about five times the steady-state fault current. The reactance of
the armature winding corresponding to I ¢ is known as transient reactance X¢d where
E
Xd¢ =
I¢
After the transient period, the fault current reaches its steady-state value. The rms value of cur-
rent during this period is Isc and the synchronous reactance
E
Xd =
I sc
If a three-phase star-connected synchronous generator is driven at rated speed with an excitation
sufficient to develop its voltage on open circuit, a sudden short circuit across any two terminals or
between one line and neutral will cause it to function as a single-phase machine. The single-phase
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/:4
armature current produces an mmf which alternates at normal frequency and is stationary with
respect to the armature winding. This alternating but stationary mmf may be resolved into two
components each having half the amplitude of the alternating original mmf. One component is re-
volving at synchronous speed in the same direction as the rotor and the other at equal speed in the
opposite direction.
The unsymmetrical short-circuit fault condition is most effectively handled by resolving the
unbalanced current by the method of symmetrical components, i.e. positive, negative and zero
sequence currents. The positive sequence components constitute a balanced set of three-phase cur-
rents which produce an mmf moving in step with the rotor field. The negative sequence components
produce an armature mmf revolving at synchronous speed in the direction opposite to that of the
rotor and, hence, set up double-frequency emfs and currents in the field winding, in the damper
winding and in the eddy-current paths. The zero sequence components of armature current all have
the same time phase, as a result of which the mmfs due to zero sequence phase currents are mutu-
ally 120° apart in space phase.
7/35/2! Nfbtvsfnfou!pg!Ejsfdu.byjt!Tvcusbotjfou!Sfbdubodf
For measuring direct-axis subtransient reactance, the field
Amp. Watts
winding is short-circuited and a single-phase voltage is im-
pressed across two armature phase windings in series (con- If
nected for 120° phase displacement) as shown in Fig. 6.59. E
The rotor is blocked in the angular position for maximum
induced field current. The subtransient reactance X≤d is then
equal to half the applied voltage divided by the resulting ar-
mature current. Gjh/!7/6:! Djsdvju!gps!nfbtvsfnfou!
pg!Y e≤
7/35/3! Nfbtvsfnfou!pg!Ofhbujwf!Tfrvfodf!Sfbdubodf!
a
The negative sequence impedance can be determined experimen-
tally by applying balanced negative sequence voltage to the ar- E
mature terminals with the machine driven at rated speed with its
field winding short-circuited. The negative sequence impedance Watt.
b
is obtained by dividing the impressed voltage per phase by the Am.
current per phase. Figure 6.60 shows a star-connected machine c
which is driven at rated speed with its two terminals, b and c Gjh/!7/71! Djsdvju!gps!nfbtvsfnfou!
short circuited. Voltage E is applied between the terminal a and pg! ofhbujwf! tfrvfodf!
the junction of terminals b and c. An ammeter and current coil sfbdubodf
of a wattmeter are connected in the short-circuited phases and the potential coil of the wattmeter is
connected across the voltage E. The negative sequence impedance is
E
Z2 =
I
! 7/:5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
7/35/4! Nfbtvsfnfou!pg![fsp!Tfrvfodf!Sfbdubodf
To measure zero sequence reactance, the machine is driven I
at rated speed with its field winding short-circuited. All the
Field
three phases are connected in series and a single-phase cur- E
rent is circulated by impressing a voltage upon the open ter-
minals as shown in Fig. 6.61. The zero sequence reactance
is then
E
xo =
I
Gjh/!7/72! Djsdvju!gps!nfbtvsfnfou!pg!
Sometimes it is convenient to connect the phases in par- {fsp!tfrvfodf!sfbdubodf
allel instead of in series. In this case, the voltage required
will be one third of that required for series connection and the current will be three times larger. It
should be checked that the currents flow simultaneously in the same direction from the line termi-
nals
MPTTFT!BOE!FGGJDJFODZ! 7/36
The losses in a synchronous generator include
1. I 2R loss (a) in the armature winding, (b) in the field winding, and (c) at the contact between
brushes and slip rings
2. Core loss
3. Friction and windage loss, including the loss due to circulation of cooling air through a
closed ventilating system and also the brush-friction loss at the slip rings
4. The stray-load loss caused by eddy currents in the armature conductors and by additional
core loss due to the distortion of the magnetic field under load condition.
For large machines, there are some additional losses such as (i) loss in the field regulating rheo-
stat, and (ii) the loss in ventilating ducts external to the machine itself.
The copper losses in the armature and field windings are calculated by using the dc values of
resistance connected, at the working temperature of 75°C.
The core loss, including the hysteresis and eddy-current loss, is that which corresponds to the
main flux at rated frequency when the machine develops an open-circuit voltage per phase equal to
the phasor sum of its rated voltage per phase and the ohmic drop per phase.
Brush-contact losses of synchronous machines are very small and can be neglected. The stray-
load loss per phase is added to the armature copper loss per phase and then it is divided by the
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/:6
square of the armature current to get the effective value of the armature resistance. The combined
value of friction and windage loss is either measured or estimated on the basis of experience with
similar machines and in both cases, this loss is treated as constant loss.
The efficiency of a synchronous generator is given by
output output 3 VL I L cos f
h= = = ¥ 100%
input output + losses 3 VL I L cos f + losses
[losses in denominator includes armature loss, core loss, frictional windage loss, stray loss and
other small losses, as applicable]
! Qspcmfn!7/58
B!551!W-!61!lWB!tjohmf.qibtf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!xjui!fggfdujwf!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/5!W!
boe!gjfme!dvssfou!pg!31!B!qspevdft!bo!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!411!B!po!tipsu!djsdvju!boe!bo!fng!pg!511!
W! po! pqfo! djsdvju/! Efufsnjof! uif! tzodispopvt! sfbdubodf! boe! wpmubhf! sfhvmbujpo! bu! gvmm! mpbe! xjui!
qpxfs!gbdups!1/9!mbhhjoh/!
Solution
50 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 113.64 A
440
400
Synchronous impedance Zs = W = 1.33 W
300
ra = 0.4
! Qspcmfn!7/59
B!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!xjui!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!pg!)1/4!,!k8*!W!
qfs!qibtf!efmjwfst!361!B!bu!qpxfs!gbdups!1/9!mbhhjoh!up!bo!22!lW!jogjojuf!cvt/!Jg!uif!tufbn!tvqqmz!
jt!vodibohfe-!efufsnjof!uif!qfsdfoubhf!dibohf!jo!uif!joevdfe!fng!ofdfttbsz!up!sbjtf!uif!qpxfs!
gbdups!up!vojuz/!Ofhmfdu!mpttft/
! 7/:7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
11, 000
Vt = V = 6351 V
3
E = 6351 + 250 -36.87∞ (0.3 + j7)
= 6351 + 1751.6 50.68∞
= 7460.9 + j 1355.07
= 7582.96 10.29∞ V
As the input is constant and losses are neglected, the output is also constant.
The power output at unity power factor and current Ia2 is Vt Ia2 X1
\ Vt Ia2 = Vt Ia2 cos q1 = Vt ¥ 250 ¥ 0.8
\ Ia2 = 200 A
The new value of induced emf
E¢ = 6351 + 200 ∞ (0.3 + 7)
= 6351 + 1401.28 87.55∞
= 6411 + j 1400
= 6562.08 12.32∞ V
\ percentage change in induced emf
7582.96 - 6562.08
= ¥ 100%
7582.96
= 13.46%.
! Qspcmfn!7/5:
B! 21! lWB-! 351! W-! 2611! sqn-! uisff.qibtf-! 61! I{-! tubs.dpoofdufe! tzodispopvt! hfofsbups! ibt! bs.
nbuvsf!xjoejoh!jnqfebodf!pg!1/5!,!k!7!W!qfs!qibtf!boe!gjfme!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!pg!6!W/!Xifo!uif!
hfofsbups!pqfsbuft!bu!gvmm.mpbe!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh-!uif!gjfme!xjoejoh!dvssfou!jt!9!B/!Jg!uif!spubujpobm!
mptt!jt!811!X-!efufsnjof!gvmm.mpbe!sfhvmbujpo-!fggjdjfodz!boe!upsrvf!bqqmjfe!cz!uif!qsjnf!npwfs/
Solution
240
Vt = V = 138.56 V
3
10 ¥ 103
Ia = -36.87∞ A = 24.056 -36.87∞ A
3 ¥ 240
\ generated voltage per phase
E = 138.56 + 24.056 -36.87∞ ¥ (0.4 + j 6)
= 138.56 + 144.656 49.316∞
= 232.8 + j 109.7 = 257.35 25.23∞ V
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/:8
257.35 - 240
\ Voltage regulation = ¥ 100% = 7.23%
240
Power output = 3 ¥ 138.56 ¥ 24.056 ¥ 0.8 = 8000 W
Armature copper loss = 3 ¥ (24.056)2 ¥ 0.4 = 694.43 W
Field copper loss = (8)2 ¥ 5 = 320 W
\ total loss = 700 + 694.43 + 320
= 1714.43 W
8000
\ Efficiency = ¥ 100%
8000 + 1714.43
= 82.35%
The angular velocity of the prime mover is
1500
w s = 2p ¥ rad/s = 50p rad/s
60
The torque applied by the prime mover
8000 + 700 + 694.43
= Nm = 59.84 Nm.
50p
! Qspcmfn!7/61
B!uisff.qibtf-!44!lW-!:11!lWB-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe-!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!ibt!ejsfdu!
byjt!sfbdubodf!pg!1/9!q/v/!boe!rvbesbuvsf.byjt!sfbdubodf!pg!1/5!q/v/!Efufsnjof!uif!joevdfe!fng!boe!
uif!qpxfs!bohmf!xifo!uif!bmufsobups!jt!tvqqmzjoh!sbufe!mpbe!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
Xd = 0.8 p.u.
Xq = 0.4 p.u.
Vt = KV
900
Ia = A = 15.75 A
3 ¥ 33
cos q = 1, q = 0°
In per unit, Vt = 1 and Ia = 1
From Eq. (6.78),
X q I a cos q 0.4 ¥ 1 ¥ 1
d = tan–1 = tan -1
Vt + X q I a sin q 1 + 0.4 ¥ 1 ¥ 0
= tan–1 0.4 = 21.8°
From Fig. 6.56,
Id = Ia sin (q + d) = 1 sin 21.8° = 0.371 p.u.
\ E = Vt cos d + Id Xd
! 7/:9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!7/62
Bo! 22! lW-! uisff.qibtf-! tubs.dpoofdufe! dzmjoesjdbm! spups! tzodispopvt! hfofsbups! ibt! tzodispopvt!
sfbdubodf! pg! 2! W! qfs! qibtf! boe! jt! tvqqmzjoh!b! qpxfs! pg! 961! NX! bu! 1/9! qpxfs! gbdups! mbhhjoh/! Jg!
uif!fydjubujpo!jt!jodsfbtfe!cz!26&!xjui!uif!pvuqvu!qpxfs!sfnbjojoh!dpotubou-!gjoe!uif!bmufsobups!
dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups/!Xjui!uijt!fydjubujpo-!jg!uif!joqvu!qpxfs!up!uif!hfofsbups!jt!jodsfbtfe!up!
86!NX-!gjoe!uif!bmufsobups!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!
Solution
50 ¥ 103
Ia = -36.87∞ A = 3280 -36.87∞ A
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 0.8
11000
Vt = V = 6351 V
3
\ E = Vt + Ia jxs neglecting ra
or, E = 6350 + 3280 -36.87∞ ¥ 1 90∞
= 6350 + 3280 53.13∞
= 8318 + j 2624 = 8722 17.51∞ V
Now the increased excitation E¢ = 1.15 ¥ 8722
= 10030 V
From Eq. (6.34),
11
3¥ ¥ 103 ¥ 10030
3
50 ¥ 106 = sin d
1
\ sin d = 0.2616
or d = 15.165°
The armature current
10030 15.165∞ - 6351
Ia¢ =
1
= 10030 -74.835∞ + j 6351
= 2623.84 – j 3329.7
= 4239.27 - 51.76∞ A
Power factor is cos 51.76° lag or 0.619 lag.
Now input power is 75 MW.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/::
3 ¥ 10030 ¥ 6351
\ 75 ¥ 106 = sin d
1
\ sin d = 0.39 or d = 22.95°
10030 22.95∞ - 6351
\ Ia = A = 10030 - 67∞ + j 6351
1
= 3919 – j 2882
= 4864.6 - 36.33∞ A
! Qspcmfn!7/63
B!36!NWB-!uisff.qibtf-!7/7!lW-!21.qpmf-!61!I{-!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!sfbdubodft!
pg!Ye!>!4!W!boe!Yr!>!2!W!xjui!ofhmjhjcmf!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf/!Efufsnjof!uif!gpmmpxjoh!bu!gvmm!mpbe-!
vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups!boe!sbufe!wpmubhf;
! )b*! Fydjubujpo!wpmubhf!
! )c*! Qpxfs!
! )d*! Tzodispoj{joh!qpxfs!qfs!fmfdusjdbm!efhsff!boe!dpssftqpoejoh!upsrvf
! )e*! Tzodispoj{joh!qpxfs!qfs!nfdibojdbm!efhsff!boe!dpssftqpoejoh!upsrvf
Solution
6600
Vt = V = 3810.5 V
3
25 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 2187 A
3 ¥ 6.6 ¥ 1
From Eq. (6.78), neglecting ra
X q I a cos q 1 ¥ 2187 ¥ 1
d = tan–1 = tan -1
Vt X q I a sin q 3810.5 + 1 ¥ 2187 ¥ 0
= 29.85°
(a) From Fig. 6.56,
Id = Ia sin (q + d) = 2187 sin (0° + 29.85°) = 1088.54 A
Excitation voltage
E = Id Xd + Vt cos d
= 1088.54 ¥ 3 + 3810.5 cos 29.85°
= 6570.58 V
EVt V2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
(b) P = sin d + t - sin 2d
Xd 2 Ë X q X d ˜¯
Á
3172 ¥ 103
Tsy = Nm = 50509 Nm.
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
10
! Qspcmfn!7/64
Bo!91!lWB-!511!W-!4.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!ebub;
! Pqfo.djsdvju!dpsf!mptt! >!561!X
! Gsjdujpo!boe!xjoejoh!mptt! >!411!X
! Bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!qfs!qibtf! >!1/14!W
! Gjfme!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf! >!261!W
Uif!wpmubhf!bqqmjfe!up!uif!gjfme!xjoejoh!jt!311!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!hfofsbups!fggjdjfodz!bu!gvmm!mpbe!boe!
pof.uijse!pg!gvmm!mpbe!bu!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/!
Solution
80 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 115.47 - 36.87 A
3 ¥ 400
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/212
Ê 2216.67 ˆ
\ Efficiency = Á1 - ¥ 100%
Ë 64000 + 2216.67 ˜¯
= 96.65%
1
At one-third load, output at 0.8 power factor lagging = ¥ 64000 = 21333 W
3
Armature copper loss at one third load
2 2
ÊI ˆ Ê 115.47 ˆ
= 3 Á a ˜ ra = 3 ¥ Á ¥ 0.03 = 133.33 W
Ë 3¯ Ë 3 ˜¯
! Qspcmfn!7/65
B!6!lWB-!4.qibtf-!331!W-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!Ye!>!6!W!boe!Yr!
>!3!W/!Jg!uif!hfofsbups!efmjwfst!gvmm!mpbe!dvssfou!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh!boe!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf-!efufsnjof!
uif!mpbe!bohmf!boe!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!pvuqvu!pg!uif!hfofsbups/
Solution
220
Vt = V = 127 V
3
5 ¥ 103
I= A = 13.12 A
3 ¥ 220
! 7/213 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!7/66
Uxp! tzodispopvt! hfofsbupst! bsf! pqfsbujoh! jo! qbsbmmfm! boe! tibsjoh! b! mpbe! pg! 6! lX! bu! 1/9! qpxfs!
gbdups!mbhhjoh/!Uif!op.mpbe!gsfrvfodz!pg!uif!nbdijoft!bsf!63!I{!boe!62/6!I{!sftqfdujwfmz!boe!uif!
gsfrvfodz!espq!jt!2!I0lX!gps!cpui!nbdijoft/!)b*!Efufsnjof!uif!gsfrvfodz!bu!xijdi!uif!nbdijoft!
bsf!pqfsbujoh!boe!uif!mpbe!tvqqmjfe!cz!fbdi!nbdijof/!)c*!Jg!uif!upubm!mpbe!cfdpnft!8!lX-!efufsnjof!
uif!ofx!gsfrvfodz!boe!uif!mpbe!tibsfe!cz!fbdi!nbdijof/!)d*!Jg!uif!hpwfsops!tfu!qpjou!pg!nbdijof!3!
jt!jodsfbtfe!cz!2!I{-!efufsnjof!uif!ofx!gsfrvfodz!boe!uif!mpbe!tibsfe!cz!fbdi!nbdijof!gps!b!upubm!
mpbe!pg!8!lX/
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/214
Solution
(a) Let load on machine 1 be P1 kW
\ load on machine 2 is (5 – P1) kW
Operating frequency of Machine 1 is (52 – P1) Hz
Operating frequency of Machine 2 is 51.5 – 1 (5 – P1) Hz
Since the machines are operating in parallel, the operating frequencies should be same for
both machines.
\ 52 – P1 = 51.5 – (5 – P1)
or, 52 – P1 = 51.5 – 5 + P1
or, 2P1 = 52 – 51.5 + 5 = 5.5
or, P1 = 2.75 kW
\ P2 = 5 – 2.75 = 2.25 kW
Operating frequency 52 – 2.75 = 49.25 Hz
(b) New load is 7 kW.
Let load shared by Machine 1 and Machine 2 be P¢1 kW and (7 – P¢1) kW respectively
\ 52 – P¢1 = 51.5 – (7 – P¢1)
or, 52 – P¢1 = 44.5 + P¢1
or, P¢1 = 3.75 kW
\ load shared by Machine 1 is 3.75 kW and that by Machine 2 is 3.25 kW.
Operating frequency 52 – 3.75 or 48.25 Hz
(c) Let the load shared by Machine 1 and Machine 2 be P≤1 kW and (7 – P≤1) kW respectively.
No-load frequency of Machine 2 is 51.5 + 1 or 52.5 Hz
\ 52 – P≤1 = 52.5 – (7 – P≤1)
or, 52 – P≤1 = 45.5 + P≤1
or, P≤1 = 3.25 kW
\ load shared by Machine 1 is 3.25 kW and that of Machine 2 is 3.75 kW
\ operating frequency is 52 – 3.25 or 48.75 Hz.
! Qspcmfn!7/67
Uxp!jefoujdbm!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!hfofsbupst!bsf!pqfsbujoh!jo!qbsbmmfm!boe!tvqqmzjoh!b!upubm!
mpbe!pg!2311!lX!bu!22!lW!boe!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/!Uif!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!pg!fbdi!nb.
dijof!jt!)4!,!k!51*!W/!Uif!qpxfs!tvqqmjfe!cz!fbdi!nbdijof!sfnbjojoh!dpotubou!jg!uif!fydjubujpo!pg!uif!
gjstu!hfofsbups!jt!bekvtufe!tp!uibu!jut!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!jt!61!B!mbhhjoh-!efufsnjof!
! )b*! bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!uif!tfdpoe!nbdijof-!
! )c*! qpxfs!gbdups!bu!xijdi!fbdi!nbdijof!pqfsbuft-!boe!
! )d*! fng!pg!uif!gjstu!nbdijof/
! 7/215 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
As the machines are identical,
1200
P1 = P2 = kW = 600 kW
2
If the armature current and power factor of the first machine are Ia1 and cos q1 respectively then
Vt Ia1 cos q1 = P1
or, ¥ 11 ¥ Ia1 cos q1 = 600
600
\ Ia1 cos q1 = = 31.49 A
3 ¥ 11
Now Ia1 = 50 A
\ cos q1 = 0.63 or, q1 = 50.95°
If the total current is I then
¥ 11 ¥ I ¥ 0.8 = 1200
\ I = 78.73 A
(a) As I = Ia1 + Ia2 where Ia2 is the current supplied by the second generator,
Ia2 = 78.73 - 36.87∞ – 50 - 50.95∞
= 31.48 – j 8.4
= 32.58 - 14.94∞ A
(b) The first machine operates at a power factor of 0.63 lagging and the second machine operates
at a power factor of cos 14.94° lagging or 0.966 lagging.
11000
(c) The emf of the first machine = + 50 - 50.95∞ ¥ (3 + j 40)
3
11000
= + 2005.6 39∞
3
= 7909.5 + j 1262.16
= 8009.6 9.06∞ V
\ line value of emf is ¥ 8009.6 V or 13.87 kV.
! Qspcmfn!7/68
Uxp!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!hfofsbupst!ibwf!qfs!qibtf!hfofsbufe!wpmubhft!pg!311!
30° W!boe!311!15°!W!bu!op!mpbe!boe!sfbdubodft!pg!k!9!W0qibtf!boe!k21!W0qibtf!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uifz!
bsf!dpoodfdufe!jo!qbsbmmfm!up!b!mpbe!jnqfebodf!pg!9!,!k!7W0qibtf/!
Efufsnjof
! )b*! uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf-!
! )c*! uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!pg!fbdi!hfofsbups-!
! )d*! uif!qpxfs!tvqqmjfe!cz!fbdi!hfofsbups!boe!uif!upubm!qpxfs!pvuqvu/
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/216
Solution
E1 = 200 30∞ V
E2 = 2000 15∞ V
(a) From Eq. (6.49), the terminal voltage per phase
! Qspcmfn!7/69
B!tusbjhiu.mjof!mbx!dpoofdut!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!boe!mpbe!pg!b!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!
hfofsbups!efmjwfsjoh!dvssfou!bu!1/:!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh/!Uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bu!gvmm!mpbe!pg!4111!
lX!jt!7/7!lW!boe!bu!op!mpbe-!ju!jt!8/3!lW/!Bttvnjoh!dpotubou!tqffe!boe!gjfme!fydjubujpo-!efufsnjof!
uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!xifo!uif!nbdijof!jt!efmjwfsjoh!dvssfou!up!b!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!mpbe!
pg!jnqfebodf!)21!,!k!9*!W/
Solution
Full-load current
3000
If l = A = 291.6 A
3 ¥ 6.6 ¥ 0.9
6600
Vt = V = 3810.5 V
3
7200
E= V = 4157 V
3
Voltage drop for current of 291.6 A is (4157 – 3810.5) V or 346.5 V
346.5
Hence, voltage drop for 1 A current is
291.6
Let the machine be delivering a current I to the load at 0.9 p.f. lagging
346.5
\ voltage drop for supplying current I is I volts
291.6
Ê 346.5 ˆ
Hence, terminal voltage = Á 4157 - ˜V
Ë 291.6 ¯
Load terminal voltage = I ZL
= I 102 + 82 V
346.5
\ 4157 – I = I 102 + 82
291.6
or, 4157 – 1.188 I = 12.8 I
or, I = 297.18 A
\ terminal voltage per phase is 297.18 102 + 82 V or, 3805.76 V
Line value of terminal voltage is ¥ 3805.76 V or, 6592 V.
! Qspcmfn!7/6:
Uif!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!pg!b!26!lWB-!351!W-!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!dzmjoesjdbm!spups!bmufs.
obups!jt!)1/5!,!k!1/86*!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!bu!gvmm.mpbe!bu!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mfbejoh/!
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!xijdi!uif!wpmubhf!sfhvmbujpo!jt!{fsp!po!gvmm.mpbe/
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/218
Solution
15 ¥ 103
Ia = = 36.08 A
3 ¥ 240
240
Vt = = 138.56 V
3
E = Vt + Ia Zs
= 138.56 + 36.08 36.87∞ (0.4 + j 0.75)
= 138.56 + 30.668 98.8∞
= 133.86 + j 30.3 = 137.24 12.75∞ V
137.24 - 138.56
Voltage requlation = ¥ 100%
138.56
= –0.95%
Let at a power factor of cos q lagging, the voltage regulation is zero at 36.08 A load current.
E = 138.56 + 36.08 -q (0.4 + j 0.75)
= 138.56 + 30.67 61.93∞ - q
= 138.56 + 30.67 cos (61.93° – q) + j 30.67 sin (61.93° – q)
Now, | E | = |Vt | as voltage regulation is zero.
\ {138.56 + 30.67 cos (61.93° – q)}2 + {30.67 sin (61.93° – q)}2
= (138.56)2
or (138.56)2 + (30.67)2 cos2 (61.93° – q) + 2 ¥ 138.56 ¥ 30.67 cos (61.93° – q)
+ (30.67)2 sin2 (61.93° – q) = (138.56)2
or, (30.67)2 + 8499.27 cos (61.93° – q) = 0
or, cos (61.93° – q) = – 0.11 = cos 96.31°
or, q = – 34.38°
\ power factor is cos 34.38° leading or, 0.825 leading.
! Qspcmfn!7/71
B!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!dzmjoesjdbm.spups!tzodispopvt!hfofsbups!ibt!tzodispopvt!jnqfebodf!
pg!1/6!,!k!9!W!qfs!qibtf/!Uif!fydjubujpo!wpmubhf!jt!23/6!lW!boe!uif!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!jt!lfqu!dpotubou!
bu!22!lW/!Efufsnjof!voefs!nbyjnvn!sfbm!qpxfs!joqvu!dpoejujpo-!uif!)b*!qpxfs!pvuqvu-!)c*!bsnbuvsf!
dvssfou-!boe!)d*!qpxfs!gbdups/
! 7/219 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
(a) From Eq. (6.43), for maximum real input power,
x
d = 180° – fs = 180° – tan–1 s
ra
8
= 180° – tan–1
0.5
= 180° – 86.424 = 93.576°
From Eq. (6.30), the output power
2
11000 12500 Ê 11000 ˆ
3¥ ¥ 3¥Á
3 3 Ë 3 ˜¯
P= cos (86.424° – 93.576°) – ¥ cos 86.424°
(0.5) 2 + (8) 2 (0.5) 2 + (8) 2
= 17020559 – 941546
= 16079013 W = 16079 kW
(b) If power factor is cos q and armature current is I then
3 Vt I cos q = 16079 ¥ 103
16079 ¥ 103 16079
\ I cos q = A= A …(i)
11 ¥ 10 3
3 ¥ 11
3¥
3
(c) At E > Vt, power factor is lagging.
Now, E = Vt + I (ra + j xs)
12.5 ¥ 103 11 ¥ 103
or, 93.576∞ = I (cos q – j sin q) ¥ (0.5 + j 8)
3 3
or, –450.13 + j 7202.8 = 6351 I (0.5 cos q + 8 sin q – j 0.5 sin q + j 8 cos q)
Equating real parts,
– 450.13 = 6351 I (0.5 cos q + 8 sin q)
16079 Ê 16079 ˆ
– 450.13 = 6351 ¥ 0.5 ¥ + 8 ¥ 6351 I sin q ÁËE cos q = 3 ¥ 11 form Eq. (i)˜¯
3 ¥ 11
or, I sin q = – 52.75 (ii)
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),
52.75 ¥ 3 ¥ 11
tan q = – = – 0.0625
16079
\ q = –3.576°
\ power factor is cos 3.576° or 0.998 lag.
From Eq. (i),
16079
I= A = 845.62 A.
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 0.998
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/21:
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot!
1. Explain the differences between cylindrical rotor and salient pole rotor used in large
synchronous generators.
2. Describe the various schemes used for exciting large synchronous machines.
3. With the help of a neat diagram, describe the main parts of an alternator with their functions.
4. Derive e.m.f. equation for an alternator.
5. Define voltage regulation of an alternator. Draw the phasor diagram of a loaded alternator for
the following conditions:
(a) unity power factor load, (b) lagging power factor load and
(c) leading power factor.
6. What is armature reaction. Explain the effect of armature reaction on the terminal voltage of
alternator at
(a) unity power factor load
(b) zero lagging power factor load and
(c) zero leading power factor load. Draw relevant phasor diagram.
7. Discuss the synchronous impedance and mmf methods for calculating regulation of an
alternator.
8. Discuss the Poteir triangle method of finding regulation of an alternator.
9. Explain the two reaction theory applicable to salient pole synchronous machine.
10. For a salient pole synchronous machine derive an expression for power developed as a
function of load angle. Neglect the effect of armature resistance.
11. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a salient pole synchronous generator supplying
lagging power factor load.
12. Describe the slip test method for the measurement of Xd and Xq of synchronous machines.
13. Discuss the phenomenon of sudden three-phase short circuit of an alternator. Draw a typical
wave shape of current and mark the different regions.
14. What is synchronizing power? Derive equations for synchronizing power of cylindrical rotor
and salient pole alternators.
15. What is the necessity of parallel operation of alternators? State the conditions necessary for
parallel operation of alternators.
16. Describe different methods of cooling of alternators.
17. Derive an expression for power developed in a cylindrical rotor alternator in terms of power
angle and synchronous impedance.
18. Explain the effect of damper winding in alternators.
19. Enumerate the various losses in synchronous machines?
20. A cylindrical rotor alternator is operating at a lagging power factor. Show that E Ia cos q is
EVt
sin d where q is the internal power factor angle and d is the load angle. Neglect armature
xs
circuit resistance.
! 7/221 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Qspcmfnt
1. A 1500 kVA, 6.6 kV, three-phase, star connected synchronous generator has a resistance and
synchronous reactance of 0.5 W and 5 W respectively. If the rated output of the generator
at 0.8 p.f. is suddenly switch off what will be the voltage of the generator? What is the
percentage rise in voltage? [7416 V, 12.4%]
25 ¥ 103
[Hints: Ia = = 36 A
3 ¥ 400
E2 = (231 ¥ 0.8)2 + (231 ¥ 0.6 + 432)2 = 598.8 V
138.6 + 432
tan (d + q) = = 3.09
184.8
q = 36.87°, d = 35.1°, E = 3 ¥ 598.8 = 1037 V
Now, E = 1.25 ¥ 598.8 = 748.5 V
EVt
Po = sin d = 231 ¥ 36 ¥ 0.8
xs
748.5 ¥ 231
or sin d = 231 ¥ 36 ¥ 0.8
12
d = 27.52°
748.5 ¥ 231
Maximum power = sin 90° = 14 kW/ph
12
\ total power = 14 ¥ 3 = 42 kW]
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/222
1500 V. If this machine supplies a load of 4000 A at 0.8 p.f., determine (a) power developed by
the generator, (b) maximum power that can be obtained, and (c) power angle if the generator
develops 100 MW for the same excitation. [60.97 MW, 169 MW, 36.28°]
1500
[Hints: zs = = 1.08 W
3 ¥ 800
2 2
Ê 11000 ˆ Ê 11000 ˆ
E= Á ¥ 0.8˜ + Á ¥ 0.6 + 4000 ¥ 1.08˜
Ë 3 ¯ Ë 3 ¯
= 9586 V
(a) P = 3 ¥ 11000 ¥ 4000 ¥ 0.8 = 60.97 MW
11000
¥ 9586
(b) Pm = 3 3 W = 169 MW
1.08
11000
9586 ¥
(c) 100 ¥ 106 = 3 ¥ 3 sin d
1.08
\ d = 36.28°]
6. A 2 MVA, three-phase, star connected, 8-pole, 750 rpm synchronous generator is operating
on 6600 V bus bar. If xs is 6 W per phase, determine the synchronizing power and torque per
mechanical degree of displacement for full-load, 0.8 p.f. lagging.
[502.8 kW/mech. degree, 6400 Nm/mech/degree]
200 ¥ 103
[Hints: I= = 192.45 A
3 ¥ 6000
6000
E= + 192.45 -36.87∞ ¥ j 6 = 4258.32 12.53∞ V
3
6000
3¥ ¥ 4258.32
3 4p
Ps = cos 12.53∞ ¥
6 180
= 502.8 kW/mech. degree
502.8 ¥ 1000
Ts = = 6400 Nm/mech. degree]
750
2p ¥
60
7. A three-phase, 400 V, star-connected synchronous machine is synchronised with an infinite
bus at rated voltage. The synchronous machine is now made to deliver a shaft load of 9.5 kW.
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/224
Xd = 5 W and Xq = 3.2 W and resistance is negligible. Friction, windage and core loss amounts
to 500 W. Determine
(a) power angle, armature current, power factor
(b) maximum power output and the corresponding power angle.
[11.623°, 14.572 A, 0.99 lag, 35.43 kW 67°]
[Hints: P = 9.5 kW + 500 W = 10,000 W
È ( 400) 2 2
1 Ê 400 ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ ˘
10,000 = 3 Í sin d + Á ˜ Á - ˜ sin 2 d ˙
ÍÎ 3 ¥ 5 2 Ë 3 ¯ Ë 3.2 5 ¯ ˙˚
or, 1 = 3.2 sin d + 0.9 sin2 d
(a) d = 11.623°
As E = Vt, cos q is leading
400 400
- cos 11.623∞
E - Vt cos d
Id = = 3 3 = 0.947 A
Xd 5
400
sin 11.623∞
Iq = 3 = 14.541 A
3.2
Ia = I d2 + I q2 = 14.572 A
Iq = Ia cos (d + q)
Iq
d + q = cos–1 = 3.738°
Ia
\ q = –7.885 \ p.f. = cos 7.885° = 0.99 lag
(b) For maximum power
230.95 ¥ 3.2 1
cos d = – ± + (0.44) 2
4 ¥ 230.95 ¥ 1.8 2
or, d = 67°
Maximum power developed
3 ¥ ( 400) 2 ( 400) 2
= sin 67∞ + 3 sin 134° = 35.93 kW
3¥5 3¥ 2
Maximum power output
500
= 35.93 – = 35.43 kW]
1000
! 7/225 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
8. A 500 kVA, 11 kV, three-phase star connected synchronous generator has the following data:
Friction and windage loss is 1500 W, open circuit core loss is 2500 W, effective armature
resistance per phase is 4 W, field copper loss is 1000 W. Determine the alternator efficiency
at half load and 0.8 p.f. lagging. Also find the maximum efficiency of the generator.
[96.587%, 96.886%]
500
[Hints: Ia = = 26.244 A
3 ¥ 11
2
Ê 26.244 ˆ
(a) Armature copper loss = 3 ¥ Á ¥4
Ë 2 ˜¯
= 2066.24 W
Total loss at half load = 1500 + 2500 + 2066.24 + 1000
= 7066.24 W
Ê ˆ
Á 7066.24 ˜
\ h = Á1 - ˜ ¥ 100% = 96.587%
1
Á 500, 000 ¥ ¥ 0.8 + 7066.24 ˜
Ë 2 ¯
(b) For maximum h, variable loss = constant loss
\ 3Im2 ¥ 4 = 1500 + 2500 + 1000 = 5000 W
\ Im = 20.412 A
11000
Output at maximum efficiency = 3 ¥ ¥ 20.412 ¥ 0.8
3
= 311, 111.54 W
Total loss = 2 ¥ 5000 = 10,000 W
Ê 10, 000 ˆ
\ Max h = Á1 - ˜¯ ¥ 100 = 96.886%]
Ë 311 111
, . 54 + 10 , 000
9. A 70 MVA, 13.8 kV, 60 Hz, star-connected, salient-pole, three-phase synchronous generator
has Xd = 1.83 W and Xq = 1.21 W. It delivers rated load at 0.8 p.f. lagging. The armature
resistance is negligible. Determine voltage regulation and power developed by the generator.
[49.68%, 56 MW]
70 ¥ 106
[Hints: Ia = = 2928.59 A
3 ¥ 13800
2928.59 ¥ 1.21 ¥ 0.8
tan d = = 0.28
13800
+ 2928.59 ¥ 1.21 ¥ 0.6
3
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/226
\ d = 15.69°
Id = Ia sin (36.87° + 15.69°) = 2325.27 -74.31∞ A
Iq = Ia cos (36.87° + 15.69°) = 1780.38 15.69∞ A
13800 13800
E= + 2325.27 -74.31∞ ¥ 1.83 + 1569∞
3 3
= 11925.8 15.69∞ V
11925.8 - 7967.43
\ regulation = ¥ 100% = 49.68%
7967.43
13800
P =3¥ ¥ 2928.59 ¥ 0.8 = 56 mW]
3
10. Two three-phase, star connected synchronous generator have per phase generator votlages
of 120 10∞ V and 120 20∞ V under no load and reactances of j 5 W/phase and j 8 W/phase
respectively. They are connected in parallel to a load impedance of 4 + j 3 W/phase. Determine
per phase terminal voltage, armature current of each generator, power supplied by each
generator and total power output.
[82.17 V, 936 A, 7.31 A, 1624.68 W, 1617.82 W, 3242.5 W]
120 10∞ ¥ j 8 + 120 20∞ ¥ j 5
[Hints: Vt = ¥ ( 4 + j 3) = 82.17 -5.93∞ V
( 4 + j 3) (5 + j8) + j 5 ¥ j8
120 20∞ - 82.17 -5.93∞
I a1 = = 9.36 -51.17∞ A
j5
120 20∞ - 82.17 -5.93∞
Ia2 = = 7.31 -32.06∞ A
j8
P1 = 3 ¥ 82.17 ¥ 9.36 cos (51.17° – 5.93°) = 1624.68 W
P2 = 3 ¥ 82.17 ¥ 7.31 cos (32.06° – 5.93°) = 1617.82 W
Total power P = P1 + P2 = 3242.5 W]
11. A three-phase, 50 Hz, 8-pole synchronous generator has a star-connected winding with
120 slots and 8 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb sinusoidally distributed.
Determine the phase and line voltages. [1699 V and 2942.8 V]
120
[Hints: Slots per pole phase = =5
8¥3
180∞ ¥ 8
Slot angle = = 12°
12
! 7/227 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
5 ¥ 12∞
sin
\ Kd = 2 = 0.9567
12∞
5 sin
2
Total no. of conductors = 8 ¥ 120 = 960
960
Conductors per phase = = 320
3
320
Number of turns per phase = = 160
2
Generated voltage per phase
E = 2p ¥ 0.9567 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.05 ¥ 160
= 1699 V
\ line value of E = 3 ¥ 1699 = 2942.8 V]
12. A three-phase, 1500 kVA, star-connected, 50 Hz, 2300 V synchronous generator has a
resistance between each pair of terminals as measured by direct current is 0.16 W. Assume
that the effective resistance is 1.5 times the ohmic resistance. A field current of 70 A produces
a short circuit current equal to full load current of 376 A. The same field current produces an
emf of 700 V on open circuit. Determine the synchronous reactance of the machine and its
full load regulation at 0.8 power factor lagging. [1.068 W, 22.8%]
700
[Hints: zs = 3 = 1.075 W
376
0.16
ra = 1.5 ¥ = 0.12
2
xs = (1.075) 2 - (0.12) 2 = 1.068 W
2300
1631 -
\ regulation = 3 ¥ 100% = 22.8%]
2300
3
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/228
13. Two synchronous generators are operating in parallel and supplying a load of 8 mW at 0.8 p.f.
lagging. The output of generator A is adjusted to 5000 kW by changing its steam supply and
its power factor is adjusted to 0.9 lagging by changing its excitation. Determine the power
factor of generator B. [0.64 lagging]
[Hints: P = 8000 kW
cos q = 0.8
8000
Q= ¥ 0.6 = 6000 KVAR
0.8
PA = 5000 kW
cos qA = 0.9
5000
QA = sin (cos–1 0.9) = 2421.6 KVAR
0.9
\ PB = P – PA = 3000 W
QB = Q – QA = 3578.4 KVAR
3578.4
\ tan qB = = 1.1928
3000
\ cos qB = 0.64]
14. Two identical three-phase synchronous generators are running in parallel sharing equally
a total load of 10,000 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8, the excitation of two machines
remaining same. If the excitation of one machine is adjusted so that its armature current is
438 A, find the armature current and power factor of the second machine if the steam supply
is not changed. [769.5 A, 0.568 lag]
\ reactive component of I1
= ( 438) 2 - ( 437.4) 2 = 23 A
\ reactive component of I2 = 656.1 – 23 = 633.1
0.328 ¥ 10 -3
= ¥ 100% = 0.125%]
1.5 ¥ 1 12
cos 28.68 -
1.2 1.2
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. The phase sequence of a three-phase alternator will reverse if
(a) the field current is reversed keeping the direction of rotation same
(b) the field current remains same but the direction of rotation is reversed
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/22:
(c) the field current is reversed and the number of poles doubled
(d) the number of poles is doubled without reversing the field current [GATE 2000]
2. Xd, Xd¢ and X≤ d are steady state d-axis synchronous reactance, transient d-axis reactance and
sub transient d-axis reactance of a synchronous machine respectively. Which of the following
statements in true?
(a) Xd > X¢d > X≤d (b) Xd≤ > X¢d > Xd
(c) Xd¢ > Xd≤ > Xd (d) Xd > Xd≤ > Xd¢ [GATE 2001]
3. The Figure shows the magnetization curves of an alternator at rated armature current, unity
power factor and also at no load. The magnetization curve for rated armature current, 0.8
power factor leading is given by
(a) Curve A (b) Curve B
(c) Curve C (d) Curve D [GATE 2001]
Y No load
Rated armature
current unit p.f.
C
A
B D
Exciting current
4. Curves X and Y in the figure denote open circuit and full load zero power factor (ZPF)
characteristics of a synchronous generator, Q is a point on the ZPF characteristics at 1 p.u.
voltage. The vertical distance PQ in figure gives the voltage drop across
Voltage (pm)
P X
Y
1.0 Q
Field current
(c) the field current has to be increased and fuel input left unaltered.
(d) the field current has to be reduced and fuel input left unaltered [GATE 2003]
6. If field excitation of 20 A in a certain alternator results in an armature current of 400 A in
short circuit and a terminal voltage of 2000 V on open circuit. The magnitude of the terminal
voltage drop within the machine at a load current of 200 A is
(a) 1 V (b) 10 V
(c) 100 V (d) 1000 V [GATE 2010]
2000
[Hints: zs = W=5W
400
\ voltage drop = IZs = 200 ¥ 5 = 1000 V]
7. Consider a stator winding of an alternator with an integral high resistance ground fault. The
currents under the fault condition are as shown in the figure. The winding is protected using a
differential current scheme with current transformers of ratio 400/5A as shown. The current
through the operating coil is
(a) 0.17875 A (b) 0.2 A
(c) 0.375 A (d) 60 KA
CT ratio 400/5 CT ratio 400/5
250 + j 0
(220 + j 0) A
I1
I2
Operating coil
[GATE 2010]
[Hints: Current through operating coil
I1 - I 2 250 - 220
= = = 0.375 A]
CT ratio 400 / 5
8. When the real power of a cylindrical rotor alternator is maximum, the reactive power output
is
3Vtt2 3Ett2
(a) (b)
xs xs
3E 2 -3Vt 2
(c) (d)
xs xs
9. When an alternator is feeding an infinite bus bar,
(a) the excitation controls the reactive power output and the governor setting controls the real
power output
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/232
(b) the excitation controls both the real and reactive power output
(c) the excitation controls the terminal voltage and the governor setting controls the real
power output
(d) the governor setting controls the terminal voltage.
10. In two-reaction theory, the armature current is decomposed into two components Id and Iq. If
E and Vt are the generated emf and terminal voltage then
(a) Id is in phase with E and Iq is perpendicular to E
(b) Id is in phase with Vt and Iq is perpendicular to Vt
(c) Id is perpendicular to E and Iq is in phase with E
(d) Id is perpendicular to Vt and Iq is in phase with Vt.
11. The function of damper bars in synchronous machine is to
(a) prevent the rotor from running at super synchronous speed
(b) prevent the rotor from running at subsynchronous speed
(c) percent the rotor from running at synchronous speed
(d) reduce the rotor oscillations about the operating point.
12. A synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus is overexcited. Considering only the
reactive power, from the point of view of the system, the machine acts as
(a) an inductor (b) a capacitor
(c) a resistor (d) as R-L circuit
13. A three-phase synchronous generator is operating at constant load while the excitation is
adjusted to give unity power factor current. If the excitation is now increased the power factor
will
(a) remain unity (b) become zero
(c) become leading (d) become lagging
14. Poteir reactance of an alternator is almost the same as
(a) total armature reactance (b) field winding reactance
(c) armature leakage reactance (d) leakage reactance of field winding
15. Which of the following method gives more accurate results for determination of voltage
regulation of an alternator?
(a) mmf method
(b) Potier triangle method
(c) Synchronous impedance method
(d) American Institution Standard method
16. Synchronous reactance is
(a) equal to armature leakage reactance
(b) sum of armature leakage reactance and magnetization reactance
(c) same as magnetization reactance
(d) the difference of armature leakage reactance and magnetization reactance
! 7/233 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
17. During ‘Slip Test’ for maximum current, the armature mmf aligns along
(a) 45° to d-axis (b) 45° to q-axis
(c) d-axis (d) q-axis.
18. Which of the following is not a necessary condition to be satisfied for synchronizing an
incoming alternator to an already operating alternator?
(a) Same frequency (b) Same voltage magnitude
(c) Same phase sequence (d) Same prime mover speed
19. In a synchronous generator, the generated emf phasor
(a) leads the flux phase by 90° (b) is in phase with flux phasor
(c) lags behind the flux phasor by 90° (d) is in phase opposition to the flux phasor
20. A synchronous generator is feeding power to infinite bus bars at unity power factor. Its
excitation is now increased. It will feed:
(a) the same power but at a leading power factor
(b) the same power but at a lagging power factor
(c) more power at unity power factor
(d) less power at unity power factor
21. A synchronous generator is feeding a zero power factor (lagging) load at rated current. The
armature reaction is
(a) magnetizing (b) demagnetizing
(c) cross magnetizing (d) ineffective [GATE 2006]
22. In relation to the synchronous machines which of the following statements is false?
[GATE 2005]
(a) In salient pole machines, the direct axis synchronous reactance is greater than the
quadrature axis synchronous reactance
(b) The damper bars help the synchronous motor self-start
(c) short circuit ratio is the ratio of the field current required to produce the rated voltage
on open circuit to the rated current
(d) The V curve of a synchronous motor represents the variation in the armature current
with field excitation, at a given output power
23. Synchronous generator voltage obtained by the synchronous impedance method is
(a) higher than actual as it does not account for magnetic saturation
(b) lower than actual as it does not account for magnetic saturation
(c) nearly accurate as it accounts for magnetic saturation
(d) nearly accurate as the generator is normally operated in the unsaturated region of mag-
netization
24. Armature reaction AT of a synchronous generator at rated voltage zero power factor lagging
is
(a) magnetizing (b) demagnetizing
(c) cross magnetizing (d) both magnetizing and cross magnetizing
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups 7/234
25. If the armature current in a generating synchronous machine is in phase with excitation emf,
the armature mmf vector
(a) lags behind the field mmf vector by 90°
(b) is in the same direction as the field mmf vector
(c) is in a direction opposite to the field mmf vector
(d) leads the field mmf vector by 90°
Botxfst
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d)
6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b)
16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (a)
8
Tzodispopvt!Npups
JOUSPEVDUJPO!! 8/2
Like other rotating machines, a synchronous generator can be operated as a synchronous motor
and a synchronous motor can be operated as a synchronous generator. When a prime mover drives
the synchronous machine, it operates as a synchronous generator converting mechanical energy to
electrical energy. If the armature of the machine is supplied with electric power, it functions as a
motor converting electric power to mechanical power.
Synchronous motors run at a constant speed known as synchronous speed. It is a doubly fed mo-
tor. Three-phase alternating power is provided to the stator and the rotor is fed from a dc source.
By varying the rotor excitation, the power factor of the machine is varied. Synchronous motors can
operate both with lagging and leading power factors.
QSJODJQMF!PG!PQFSBUJPO! 8/3
When a three-phase stator winding of a synchronous machine is fed by a balanced three-phase ac
supply then a magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed is produced.
Let us assume that the rotor is rotating round the stator at synchronous speed having the same
number of poles as the stator. As the rotor is excited by an external dc source, the poles of the rotor
retain the same polarity throughout but the polarity of the stator poles changes as it is connected to
an ac supply, i.e. the polarity of the stator as poles are alternating. Two similar poles of the stator
and rotor repel each other with the result that the rotor tends to rotate in a particular direction. After
Ê 1ˆ
(T/2) seconds, Á i.e. T = ˜ , the polarity of the stator poles is reversed but the polarity of the rotor
Ë f¯
! 8/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
poles remains the same. Under this condition, stator N-poles attract rotor S-poles and stator S-poles
attract the rotor N-poles and, hence, the torque produced will be in the reverse direction and thus
the rotor starts to rotate in the reverse direction.
For a frequency of 50 Hz., these changes will occur 100 times in one second; thus the torque act-
ing on the rotor of the synchronous motor is pulsating and the rotor does not move in any direction
and remains stationary. Therefore, the synchronous motor is not self-starting.
Let us now consider that the rotor is rotated in a clockwise direction by some external means so
that torque is clockwise. After half a period later, the stator N-pole and S-pole will become S-pole
and N-pole. If the rotor speed is such that the N-pole of the rotor also turns by a pole pitch so that
it is again under the N-pole then the torque acting on the rotor will again be clockwise. Hence, in
order to obtain a continuous and unidirectional torque, the rotor must be rotated with such a speed
that it advances 1-pole pitch by the time the stator poles interchange their polarity. This means the
rotor must rotate at synchronous speed with the stator. At this instant, the stator and rotor poles get
magnetically interlocked (i.e. N-pole of stator attracts S-pole of rotor and vice versa). It is because
of this magnetic locking acting between the two that the motor rotates. The motor can rotate at
synchronous speed only.
When the mechanical load is applied to a synchronous motor, its speed cannot decrease since the
rotor must operate at constant speed. Hence, speed is independent of load and can be varied only
by varying the supply frequency.
FRVJWBMFOU!DJSDVJU!BOE!QIBTPS!EJBHSBN! 8/4
PG!B!TZODISPOPVT!NPUPS
The equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor + Xar Xal Ra Ia
synchronous motor is similar to that of a synchronous genera-
Xs
tor. The effect of armature reaction is replaced by the fictitious V(–) E M
reactance Xar, while the leakage reactance is Xal. The resultant of
Xar and Xal is called the synchronous reactance Xs. The equiva- Gjh/!8/2! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!
lent circuit of a cylindrical rotor synchronous motor is shown in b!dzmjoesjdbm!spups!
Fig. 7.1 tzodispopvt!npups
Here, Vt is the terminal voltage and E is the counter emf
jIaXar
Vt = E + Ia Ra + j Ia Xs (7.1) Vt
jIaXal
d
The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 7.2. q E
Iara
The phasor diagram of a salient-pole synchronous motor is shown
Ia
in Fig. 7.3(a). From this phasor diagram, the terminal voltage is ob-
tained as Gjh/!8/3! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!
b!dzmjoesjdbm!spups!
Vt = E + Ia Ra + j Id Xd + j Iq Xq (7.2) tzodispopvt!npups
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/4
Vt jIdXd a
b IaRa
jIqXq Vt
jIqXq e
d Iqra d
q Iq E d
q I E Idra
q
Iara Id Ia
Id Ia jIdXd c
Ia ra
(a) (b)
Gjh/!8/4! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!b!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!npups
The armature current Ia can be decomposed into two components: Id, which is lagging phasor E
by 90° and Iq, which is in phase with E.
Figure 7.3(b) shows the phasor diagram in terms of the known parameters. From this phasor
diagram, it is also evident that Vt = E + j Iq Xq + j Id Xd + Ia Ra. Next, ac is drawn from point a per-
pendicular to Ia and ac = j Ia Xq. From point e, i.e. the terminal point of V, ed is drawn parallel to ac
which meets the extended line of the vector E at d.
Hence, cd = jId Xq
Now, ac = cd + da
or j Ia Xq = j Id Xq + j Iq Xq
or j Iq Xq = j Ia Xq – j Id Xq
Hence, Vt = E + j Iq Xq + j Id Xd + Ia Ra
= E + Ia Ra + j Id Xd + j IaXq – j Id Xq
= E + Ia Ra + j Ia Xq + j Id (Xd – Xq). (7.3)
The equivalent circuit of the salient-pole synchronous motor is shown in Fig. 7.4.
For a cylindrical rotor synchronous motor, the excitation ra Ia
voltage E and power angle d can be calculated for differ- jXq
ent power factors. If Vt is taken as the reference phasor and V jId(Xd – Xq) E
I a xs cos q + I a ra sin q
and d = tan–1 (7.7)
Vt - I a ra cos q + I a xs sin q
When power factor is unity,
E = (Vt - I a ra ) 2 + ( I a xs ) 2 (7.8)
I a xs
and d = tan–1 (7.9)
Vt - I a ra
From Fig. 7.3, the excitation voltage and power angle for a salient-pole synchronous motor can
be determined.
From Fig. 7.3(a) for lagging power factor,
Vt cos d = E + Iq ra + Id Xd (7.10)
and Vt sin d = Iq Xq – Id ra (7.11)
Now, Id = Ia sin (q – d) and Iq = Ia cos (q – d) (7.12)
Hence, Vt cos d = E + Ia ra cos (q – d) + Ia Xd sin (q – d) (7.13)
and Vt sin d = Ia Xq cos (q – d) – Ia ra sin (q – d) (7.14)
From Eq. (7.14),
Vt sin d = Ia Xq cos q cos d + Ia Xq sin q sin d – Ia ra sin q cos d + Ia ra cos q sin d (7.15)
or, Vt sin d = (Ia Xq cos q – Ia ra sin q) cos d + (Ia Xq sin q + Ia ra sin d) (7.16)
I a xq cos q - I a ra sin q
or, tan d = (7.17)
Vt - I a X q sin q - I a ra cos q
I a X q cos q - I a ra sin q
or, d = tan–1 (7.18)
Vt - I a X q sin q - I a ra cos q
From Eq. (7.13),
E = Vt cos d – Ia ra cos (q – d) – Ia Xd sin (q – d) (7.19)
Similarly, for leading power factor,
I a X q cos q - I a ra sin q
d = tan–1 (7.20)
Vt + I a X q sin q - I a ra cos q
and E = Vt cos d + Ia Xd sin (q + d) – Ia ra cos (q + d) (7.21)
For unity power factor,
Ia X q
d = tan–1 (7.22)
Vt - I a ra
and E = Vt cos d + Ia Xd sin d (7.23)
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/6
TUBSUJOH!PG!TZODISPOPVT!NPUPST! 8/5
It is now evident that a synchronous motor needs an auxiliary starting arrangement. The methods
of starting of a synchronous motor are as follows:
1. Starting with the help of a damper winding
2. Starting with the help of a separate small induction motor
3. Starting by using a dc motor coupled to the synchronous motor
4. Starting as induction motor and run as synchronous motor
2/!Tubsujoh!xjui!uif!Ifmq!pg!b!Ebnqfs!Xjoejoh!
In this method, a synchronous motor is started independently using a damper winding. The damper
winding is provided on the pole face slots in the field. Bars of aluminium, copper, bronze or similar
alloys are inserted in slots of pole shoes. These bars are short-circuited by end-rings on each side
of the poles. By short-circuiting of these bars, a squirrel cage winding is virtually formed. When
a three-phase supply is given to the stator, a synchronous motor with damper winding will start as
a three-phase induction motor with the speed of rotation near to synchronous speed. Now the dc
excitation to the field winding of the rotor is applied and the rotor will be pulled into synchronism.
A reduced supply voltage may be necessary, to limit the starting current drawn by the motor.
In this method, since starting is done as an induction motor, the starting torque developed is rath-
er low. Hence, a large capacity synchronous motor may not be able to start on full load if damper
winding starting is employed.
3/!Tubsujoh!xjui!uif!Ifmq!pg!b!Tfqbsbuf!Tnbmm!Joevdujpo!Npups!
In this method, a separate induction motor is used to bring the speed of the synchronous motor to
synchronous speed. The number of poles of the synchronous motor needs to be more than that of
poles of the induction motor to enable the induction motor to rotate at the synchronous speed of the
synchronous motor. As the set attains synchronous speed, dc excitation is applied and as the rotor
and stator of the synchronus motor are pulled in synchronism, the induction motor is switched off.
4/!Tubsujoh!cz!Vtjoh!b!ed!Npups!Dpvqmfe!up!b!Tzodispopvt!Npups!
In this method, the dc motor drives the synchronous motor and brings it to synchronous speed. Then
the synchronous motor is synchronised with the supply.
5/!Tubsujoh!bt!Joevdujpo!Npups
In this method, the rotor winding is shorted at start and no dc excitation is given. The stator receives
the applied voltage in steps and when near full speed is attained by the rotor, the rotor short circuit is
! 8/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
removed and dc voltage is applied. The motor continues to operate as a synchronous motor. Instead
of keeping the rotor winding shorted at start, sometimes there is one more additional winding which
helps the machine to start as an induction motor. This winding remains open-circuited during the
run of the machine as a synchronous motor.
Out of these three methods, the method of using a damper winding for starting the synchronous
motor is mostly used, because it requires no external motor.
! Qspcmfn!8/2
Uif!joqvu!up!bo!22111!W-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!jt!71!B/!Uif!fggfdujwf!sftjt.
ubodf!boe!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!qfs!qibtf!bsf!2!W!boe!41!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Gjoe!uif!qpxfs!tvqqmjfe!
up!uif!npups!boe!uif!joevdfe!fng!gps!b!q/g/!pg!1/9!mfbejoh/
Solution
11000
Per phase input voltage is V = 6351 V
3
Ia = 60 –cos–1 0.8 A = 60–36.87° A
(Note that q is +ve as Ia is leading)
Xs = 30 W and Ra = 1 W
! Qspcmfn!8/3
B!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!npups!pg!2111!lX!boe!7/7!lW!ibt!b!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!21!W!qfs!
qibtf/!Uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups!jt!:1&/!Ofhmfdujoh!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf-!efufsnjof!uif!njojnvn!
dvssfou!boe!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!joevdfe!fng!bu!gvmm!mpbe/
Solution
At constant supply voltage and input power, the current is minimum when power factor is 1.
Output power = 1000 kW
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/8
Efficiency = 90%
1000
Hence, input power = = 1111.11 kW
0.9
At unity power factor,
1111.11 ¥ 103
line current = = 97.2 A
3 ¥ 6.6 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
Also, at unity power factor,
6600
induced emf E = –0° – j 97.2 –0° ¥ 10
3
= 3810.6–0° – j 972 = 3932.64 ––14.31° V.
! Qspcmfn!8/4
B!3611!W-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!pg!1/46!W!qfs!qibtf!boe!
tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!3/3!W!qfs!qibtf/!Uif!npups!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!1/86!q/g/!mfbejoh!xjui!b!mjof!
dvssfou!pg!361!B/!Efufsnjof!uif!fydjubujpo!wpmubhf!qfs!qibtf/
Solution
2500
Per phase voltage V = V = 1443.42 V
3
Resistance per phase Ra = 0.35 W
Synchronous reactance per phase Xs = 2.2 W
Power factor is 0.75 leading V
jIXs
Hence, cos q = 0.75 and sin q = 0.66 I
q
d IRa
Line current I = 250 A
E
The phasor diagram of synchronous motor at leading p.f. is
shown in Fig. 7.5. Gjh/!8/6! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!
uif!tzodispopvt!
Hence, excitation voltage per phase can be obtained. npups!bu!mfbejoh!q/g/
! Qspcmfn!8/5
B!551!W-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!npups!ublft!61!B!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/96!mbhhjoh/!Uif!
tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!qfs!qibtf!jt!6!W!boe!uif!sftjtubodf!jt!ofhmjhjcmf/!Uif!ovncfs!pg!bsnbuvsf!
dpoevdupst! qfs! qibtf! jt! 51/! Uif! ejtusjcvujpo! gbdups! jt! 1/:77! boe! uif! dpjmt! bsf! gvmm! qjudife! dpjmt/!
Efufsnjof!uif!gmvy!qfs!qpmf/
Solution
440
Terminal voltage per phase is = 254 V
3
Armature current I = 50
Power factor cos q = 0.85
Hence, sin q = 0.5268
Given, Xs =5W
Z = 40 V
Distribution factor Kd = 0.966
jIXs
d
Hence, number of turns per phase is q E V sin q
I
40 V
co
Tp = = 20 sq
2
Gjh/!8/7! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!
From the phasor diagram (Fig. 7.6).
Qspc/!8/5
E = (V cos q ) 2 + (V sin q - IX s ) 2
246.19
f= Wb = 57.4 mWb.
4.44 ¥ 0.996 ¥ 1 ¥ 50 ¥ 20
! Qspcmfn!8/6
B!3611!W-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!b!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!4!W!boe!
bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!pg!1/5!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Jg!uif!joevdfe!fng!jt!4111!W!boe!uif!joqvu!jt!2111!lX-!
efufsnjof!uif!mjof!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups/
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/:
Solution
2500
Vt = V
3
3000
E= V
3
3 ¥ VLine ¥ Ia cos q = 1000 ¥ 103
1000 ¥ 103
\ Ia cos q = A = 230.94 A
3 ¥ 2500
Considering lagging power factor,
E2 = (Vt – Ia ra cos q – Ia xs sin q)2 + (Ia xs cos q – Ia ra sin q)2
2 2
Ê 3000 ˆ Ê 2500 ˆ
\ ÁË ˜¯ = ÁË - 23.94 ¥ 0.4 - 3I a sin q ˜ + (3 ¥ 230.94 – 0.4 Ia sin q)2
3 3 ¯
2
Ê 3000 ˆ 2 2
or, ÁË ˜ = (1433.8 – 3Ia sin q) + (692.82 – 0.4 Ia sin q)
3 ¯
or, Ia2 sin2 q – 112.83 Ia sin q – 5720 = 0
\ Ia sin q = 150.76 A
150.76
\ tan q = = 0.6528
230.94
\ power factor cos q = 0.837 lag
230.94
Line current = Ia = A = 276 A.
0.837
! Qspcmfn!8/7
Bo!22!lW-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!esbxt!b!gvmm!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!261!B!bu!1/9!
q/g/!mfbejoh/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!2!W!boe!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!jt!9!W!qfs!qibtf/!Uif!tusbz!
mpttft!pg!uif!nbdijof!bsf!5111!X/!Efufsnjof!uif!joevdfe!fng!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!nbdijof/
Solution
11000
Vt = V
3
Ia = 150 A
cos q = 0.8 lead
ra =1W
xs =8W
! 8/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2
Ê 11000 ˆ
\ E= Á - 150 ¥ 0.8 + 150 ¥ 8 ¥ 0.6˜ + (150 ¥ 8 ¥ 0.8 + 150 ¥ 1 ¥ 0.6) 2
Ë 3 ¯
= 7029.7 V
\ line voltage of induced emf = 12176 V
Input power = 3 VL Ia cos q
= 3 ¥ 11000 ¥ 150 ¥ 0.8 W
= 2286 kW
Total copper loss = 3Ia2 ra
= 3 ¥ (150)2 ¥ 1 W
= 67.5 kW
Stray loss = 4 kW
\ Power output = 2286 – 67.5 – 4
= 2214.5 kW
2214.5
Hence, efficiency = ¥ 100% = 96.87%.
2286
! Qspcmfn!8/8
B!uisff.qibtf!31!NWB-!7/7!lW-!61!I{-!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!sfbdubodft!Ye!>!1/8!q/v/!
boe!Yr!>!1/4!q/v/!Uif!npups!esbxt!sbufe!dvssfou!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/96!mbhhjoh/!Efufsnjof!uif!
fydjubujpo!wpmubhf/
Solution
Vt = 1 0∞ p.u.
= 0.85 – 0.18
= 0.67 p.u.
! Qspcmfn!8/9
B!41!NWB-!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe-!22!lW-!61!I{-!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!Ye!>!9!W-!
Yr!>!5!W!boe!sb!>!2!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!fydjubujpo!wpmubhf!bu!gvmm!mpbe!boe!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
30 ¥ 106
Ia = = 1574.6 A
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 103
From Eq. (7.22) at unity power factor,
Ia X q 1574.6 ¥ 4
d = tan–1 = tan -1
Vt - I a ra 11 ¥ 103
- 1574.6 ¥ 1
3
= 52.82°
From Eq. (7.23),
11000
E= cos 52.82° + 1574.6 ¥ 8 sin 52.82°
3
= 13875.6 V
= 13.87 kV.
QPXFS!BOE!UPSRVF!EFWFMPQFE!JO! 8/6
B!DZMJOESJDBM!SPUPS!NPUPS
Let S represent the per phase complex power drawn by the cylindrical rotor synchronous motor.
*
V -E
S= V ◊ I*a = V◊ ,
Zs
where Zs is the synchronous impedance.
* *
V E
= V◊ -V ◊
Zs Zs
Now, E = | E | ––d
Xs
and Zs = | Zs | –f = Rs2 + X s2 – tan -1
Rs
! 8/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
| V | –0∞ | E | –d
Hence, S = | V | –0° . - | V | –0∞ ◊
| Z s | –- f | Z s | –- f
| V |2 | V || E |
= –f - –d + f = P + jQ
| Zs | | Zs |
| V |2 | V || E |
P= cos f - cos (d + f) (7.24)
| Zs | | Zs |
and reactive power Q per phase is
| V |2 | V || E |
Q= sin f - sin (d + f) (7.25)
| Zs | | Zs |
Pmax
P
–180° –90° 0° 90° 180° d
Motor Generator
Gjh/!8/8! Qpxfs!bohmf!dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!b!dzmjoesjdbm!spups!tzodispopvt!npups
The synchronous motor can be loaded up to a maximum value of Pmax which is called the static
stability limit and after which it will lose synchronism. In order to increase the stability limit at fixed
applied voltage V, the field current should be increased which in turn will increase the excitation
voltage E.
QPXFS!BOE!UPSRVF!EFWFMPQFE!JO! 8/7
B!TBMJFOU.QPMF!NPUPS
Neglecting the armature resistance, the simplified phasor diagram of salient-pole motor is shown
in Fig. 7.8.
From the phasor diagram,
| V | cos d = | E | + Id Xd
and | V | sin d = Iq Xq
| V | cos d - | E |
Hence, Id = and
Xd
| V | sin d
Iq = (7.28)
Xd
If Vd and Vq are the two components of V then V
Vd = –| V | sin d jIqXq
jIaXa
d b
[–ve sign appears as for motor d is –ve and sin (–d) = –sin d] a
q Iq E jIdXd
Vd = | V | cos d Id Ia
| V || E | Xd - Xq
= sin d + | V |2 sin 2d (7.29)
Xd 2Xd Xq
Hence, total mechanical power developed
3 | V || E | Xd - Xq
Pm = sin d + 3 | V |2 sin 2d (7.30)
Xd 2Xd Xq
Total torque developed
Pm 3 | V || E | Xd - Xq
T= = sin d + 3 | V |2 sin 2d (7.31)
ws ws X d 2w s X d X q
Ê 3 | V || E | ˆ
ÁË X sin d ˜ is the power of the synchronous motor due to excitation voltage E and
d ¯
Ê 3 |V |2 ˆ Ê 3 | V |2 ˆ
Á ( X d - X q )sin 2d ˜ is the power due to saliency. Á ( X d - X q )sin 2d ˜ is called
Ë 2Xd Xq ¯ Ë 2w s X d X q ¯
the reluctance torque and is independent of field excitation. The power angle curve of a salient-pole
synchronous motor is shown in Fig. 7.9.
Resultant power
Power 3 | V || E |
sin d
Xd
O
d
3 | V |2 (X – X ) sin 2d
d q
2 Xd Xq
Motor Generator
Gjh/!8/:! Qpxfs!bohmf!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!b!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!npups
! Qspcmfn!8/:
B!41!NWB-!22!lW-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!b!ejsfdu.byjt!sfbdubodf!pg!7!W!
boe!rvbesbuvsf!byjt!sfbdubodf!pg!5!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!fydjubujpo!wpmubhf!boe!qpxfs!bu!gvmm!mpbe!boe!
vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/!Ofhmfdu!uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf/
Solution
Terminal voltage per phase
11000
V= = 6351 V
3
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/26
3VE Xd - Xq
P= sin d + V 2 3 sin 2d
Xd 2Xd Xq
! Qspcmfn!8/21
B!2111!lWB-!44!lW-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!Ye!>!31!W!boe!Yr!>!21!W!
qfs!qibtf!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!fydjubujpo!fng!xifo!uif!npups!jt!tvqqmzjoh!sbufe!mpbe!bu!1/9!
mfbejoh! q/g/! Xibu! nbyjnvn!mpbe! dbo!uif!npups! tvqqmz! jg! uif! fydjubujpo! jt! dvu! pgg! xjuipvu! mptt! pg!
tzodispojtn@!Ofhmfdu!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!boe!bttvnf!mpbe!bohmf!up!cf!36/46°/
! 8/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
1000
Armature current = A = 175 A.
3 ¥ 3.3
3.3
Terminal voltage per phase V= kV = 1.9053 kV = 1905.3 V.
3
Given, Xd = 20 W and Xq = 10 W
Here, load angle d = 25.35°.
Now, Id = I sin d = 74.92 A
\ excitation voltage per phase is given as
E = V – j IXq – jId (Xd – Xq)
= 1905.3 – j 175 ¥ 10 – j 74.92 (20 – 10)
= 1905.3 – j 1750 – j 749.2
= 1905.3 – j 2499.2 = 3142.6 ––52.68° V.
When the excitation is cut off, output power is only the reluctance power.
Xd - Xq
Power = 3V 2 sin 2d
2Xd Xq
20 - 10
= 3(1905.3)2 sin (2 ¥ 25.35°)
2 ¥ 20 ¥ 10
= 210687 W = 210.687 kW.
! Qspcmfn!8/22
B!7/7!lW-!tubs.dpoofdufe-!tzodispopvt!npups!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!dpotubou!fydjubujpo/!Uif!tzodispopvt!
jnqfebodf!jt!)2!,!k!9*!W/!Ju!pqfsbuft!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/9!mbhhjoh!boe!esbxt!2111!lX!gspn!uif!
tvqqmz/!Efufsnjof!jut!qpxfs!gbdups!xifo!uif!joqvu!jt!jodsfbtfe!up!2311!lX/
Solution
Zs = 1 + j 8 = 8.06 –82.87° W
6600
V= = 3810.62 V
3
1000
P1 = kW = 333.33 kW
3
cos q = 0.8 lagging
Hence, Q1 = 333.33 ¥ tan q = 249.997 kVAR
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/28
! Qspcmfn!8/23
Uif!gvmm!mpbe!dvssfou!pg!b!7/7!lW-!tubs.dpoofdufe!npups!jt!311!B!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/!Uif!qfs!qibtf!
sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!pg!uif!npups!jt!2!W!boe!8!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Jg!uif!nfdibojdbm!mptt!jt!51!lX-!
gjoe!uif!fydjubujpo!fng-!upsrvf!bohmf-!fggjdjfodz!boe!tibgu!pvuqvu!pg!uif!npups/
Solution
Given,
R =1W
Xs = 7 W
! 8/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
6600
V= = 3810.6 V
3
I = 200 A, cos q = 0.85.
Hence, excitation emf is
E = 3810.6 – 200 ––cos–1 0.8 (1 + j 7)
= 3810.6 – 200 ––36.87° ¥ 7.07 –81.87°
= 3810.6 – 1414 –45°
= 2810.75 – j 999.8 = 2983.29 ––19.58° V.
\ excitation emf is 2983.29 V and torque angle is 19.58°.
Mechanical power developed
= 3 EI cos q, where q is the angle between E and I
= 3 ¥ 2983.29 ¥ 200 cos (–36.87° + 19.58°)
= 3 ¥ 2983.29 ¥ 200 cos (–17.29°)
= 1709089.88 W = 1709 kW.
The shaft output = 1709 – 40 = 1669 kW
Power input = 3 VL I cos q
! Qspcmfn!8/24
B!211!NWB-!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe-!22!lW-!7.qpmf-!61!I{-!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!tzodispopvt!
sfbdubodf!pg!1/3!q/v/!Efufsnjof!uif!tzodispoj{joh!qpxfs!qfs!nfdibojdbm!efhsff!jg!uif!npups!tvq.
qmjft!gvmm!mpbe!bu!1/96!qpxfs!gbdups!mfbejoh/!Ofhmfdu!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf/
Solution
100 ¥ 106
Ia = A = 5248.63 A
3 ¥ 11 ¥ 103
cos q = 0.85 leading
11000
E = Vt – j Ia xs = – j 5248.63 cos -1 0.85 ¥ 0.2
3
= 6350.85 – 1049.7 121.79∞
= 6903.84 – j 892.2
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/2:
= 6961.25 -7.41∞ V
\ d = 7.41°
Total synchronizing power per mechanical degree
dP p P d ÊV E ˆ Pp
Psyn = 3 ¥ ¥ = 3 Á t sin d ˜
dd 180 2 dd Ë x s ¯ 360
Vt E Pp
=3 cos d
xs 360
3 ¥ 11000 ¥ 6961.25 6¥p
= cos 7.41∞ ¥
3 ¥ 0.2 360
= 34415 kW.
! Qspcmfn!8/25
B!61!NWB-!uisff.qibtf-!22!lW-!tubs.dpoofdufe!21.qpmf-!61!I{!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!Ye!>!7!W!boe!
Yr!>!4!W/!Bu!gvmm!mpbe!boe!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups-!dbmdvmbuf!
! )b*! fydjubujpo!wpmubhf
! )c*! bdujwf!qpxfs
! )d*! tzodispoj{joh!qpxfs!qfs!fmfdusjdbm!efhsff!boe!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!upsrvf!
! )e*! tzodispoj{joh!qpxfs!qfs!nfdibojdbm!efhsff!boe!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!upsrvf
Solution
50 ¥ 106 = 3 ¥ 11 ¥ 103 ¥ Ia
\ Ia = 2624.32 A
From Eq. (7.22),
Ia X q 2624.32 ¥ 3
d = tan–1 = tan -1 neglecting ra
Vt - I a ra 11000
3
\ d = 51.1°
(a) From Eq. (7.23),
11000
E= cos 51.1° + 2624.32 ¥ 6 sin 51.1°
3
= 3988 + 12254 = 16242 V = 16.24 kV
490.56 ¥ 103
= Nm/electrical degree
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
10
= 7811.46 Nm/electrical degree
(d) Synchronizing power per mechanical degree
dP p P 10
= ¥ = 490.50 ¥ kW/mechanical degree
dd 180 2 2
= 2452.8 kW/mechanical degree
2452.8 ¥ 103
Torque = Nm/mechanical degree
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
10
= 39057 Nm/mechanical degree.
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/32
! Qspcmfn!8/26
Bo!22!LW-!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!Ye!>!23!W!boe!Yr!>!7!W/!Ju!jt!dpo.
ofdufe!up!bo!jogjojuf!cvt/!Jg!uif!gjfme!dvssfou!jt!sfevdfe!up!{fsp-!efufsnjof!uif!nbyjnvn!qpttjcmf!
mpbe!po!uif!tzodispopvt!npups/!Bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou/
Solution
From Eq. (7.29), per phase active power
Vt E Xd - Xq
P= sin d + Vt 2 sin 2d
Xd 2Xd Xq
FGGFDU!PG!DIBOHF!JO!MPBE! 8/8
The synchronous motor always runs at synchronous speed. Hence, the change of load has no effect
on the speed of the motor. In this section, we will examine the effect of change of load on the motor.
Let us consider that the excitation is normal and is kept constant. The motor is operating at lag-
ging power factor. Now if the load on the shaft of the motor is increased, the rotor slows down mo-
mentarily. It takes sometime to take more power from the line. In other words, the rotor poles slip
back by a small angle with respect to the stator poles. Hence, the torque angle d becomes greater
V E sin d
and the induced torque t increases. The increased torque increases the rotor speed and the
w xs
motor picks up synchronous speed, with a larger value of torque angle d. With the excitation kept
constant, the excitation emf E is constant. With increase in load as the power angle d increases, E
moves on a circular locus keeping its centre at the origin and with a radius equal to E as shown in
Fig. 7.10. The steady state stability limit is reached when d = 90°. A series of concentric circles can
be drawn for different excitation values.
With the increase of the load, the magnitude of Ia xs and d increases so that the relation V =
E + jI a xs is satisfied. Also the power factor angle q changes. With the increase in load, the lagging
power factor decreases or the power factor angle increases.
Thus, when the load on a synchronous motor increases at constant excitation, the torque angle d
and the armature current Ia increases, the phase angle q increases in the lagging direction, with the
speed remaining constant at synchronous speed.
O Vt
d1
Ia1
d3 d2 Ia1xs
Ia2
E1
Ia3
Ia2xs
Ia3xs
E2
E3
Excitation Stability
circles line
Gjh/!8/21! Fggfdu!pg!dibohf!jo!mpbe!xjui!fydjubujpo!dpotubou
If the load is increased, the torque angle increases till a point is reached when the rotor is pulled
out of synchronism and the motor stalls. The maximum value of the torque that a synchronous
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/34
motor can develop at rated voltage and frequency without losing synchronism is called the pull-out
torque. It ranges from 1.5 to 3.5 times the full load torque.
FGGFDU!PG!DIBOHF!JO!FYDJUBUJPO! 8/9
The power developed by a synchronous motor
EVt
P= sin d
xs
If the load on the motor is kept constant, the power developed is constant and, hence, E sin d is
constant. Hence, if the excitation of a synchronous motor is varied keeping the load constant, the
excitation emf will change in such a way that E sin d is constant. On the other hand, as the power
developed is constant, Vt Ia cos q is constant or Ia cos q is constant.
The phasor diagram of a synchronous motor for varying excitation with constant load is shown
in Fig. 7.11. Ia1, Ia2 and Ia3 are different armature currents for lagging, unity and leading power fac-
tors so that
Ia1 cos q1 = Ia2 cos 0° = Ia3 cos q3 = constant
Similarly, the varying excitation voltages corresponding to current Ia1, Ia2 and Ia3 are E1, E2, and
E3 such that
E1 sin d1 = E2 sin d2 = E3 sin d3 = constant
Locus of Ia
I a3
q3 Ia2 Vt
q1 d1
d3 d2
1 s
Ia x
Emin xs E sin d
Ia2xs
3
Ia
Ia1
E1 E2 E3
Ia cos q
Locus of E
Gjh/!8/22! Fggfdu!pg!dibohf!jo!fydjubujpo!xjui!mpbe!dpotubou!
The excitation which makes the armature current to be in phase with Vt, is the normal excita-
tion. Here, the normal excitation is E2 at armature current Ia2 and unity power factor. In this case
E2 cos d1 = Vt. When E cos d < Vt the motor has lagging current and considered to be under-excited.
! 8/35 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Here, at excitation emf is E1 at lagging armature current Ia1, E1 cos d1 < Vt and, hence, the motor
is underexcited. When E cos d > Vt, the motor takes leading current and the field current is large in
this case. The motor is said to be overexcited. In Fig. 7.11, during overexcited condition, excitation
emf is E3 and E3 cos d3 > Vt when armature current is Ia3 at leading power factor angle d3.
It is seen from Fig. 7.11 that if the excitation is reduced, the torque angle d increases. The mini-
mum value of E occurs when d = 90°.
Pxs
Hence, Emin =
Vt
W!DVSWFT!PG!B!TZODISPOPVT!NPUPS! 8/:
We have seen in the previous sections that keeping the motor load fixed, the armature current can be
varied over a large range by varying the excitation. Let us assume that the motor is operating under
No load
Armature current Ia
Unity pf line
Lagging pf Leading pf
Field current If
(a) V curves
Unity pf line
Full load
Power factor pf
50% load
No load
Lagging pf Leading pf
Gjh/!8/23! W!dvswft!boe!jowfsufe!W!dvswft!gps!ejggfsfou!mpbet
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/36
no-load condition. If the field current is increased, the armature current under lagging power factor
decreases until it becomes minimum. The lagging power factor goes on increasing until it becomes
unity when the armature current is minimum. If the field current is further increased, the armature
current again increases and the motor starts operating at leading power. The graph of armature cur-
rent vs. field current takes the shape of letter V and is called V curve which is shown in Fig. 7.12(a).
V curves are useful in adjusting the field current t. If the field current is increased beyond the
level of minimum armature current, the motor will operate under leading power factor. Similarly,
if the field current is decreased below the level of minimum armature current, the motor will start
operating at lagging power factor. Hence, by controlling the field current, the reactive power sup-
plied to or consumed from the power system network can be controlled.
Inverted V curves are the characteristics showing the variation of power factor with the armature
current for different excitations when the motor load is constant. The inverted V curves are shown in
Fig. 7.12(b). The maximum point on each curve indicates unity power factor. The field current for
unity power factor at full load is more than the field current for unity power factor at no load. If the
synchronous motor at full load is operating at unity power factor then removal of shaft load causes
the motor to operate at leading power factor.
IVOUJOH!PG!B!TZODISPOPVT!NBDIJOF! 8/21
When a synchronous motor is loaded mechanically at its shaft, the rotor falls back by a certain
angle known as load angle d behind the poles of the forward rotating magnetic field. If the load is
suddenly thrown off, the rotor poles are pulled into almost exact position to the poles of the forward
field, but due to inertia of rotor, the rotor poles travel beyond. They are then pulled back again and
this process may continue. Thus, an oscillation of the rotor is set up about the equilibrium position
corresponding to new load. This oscillation of the rotor about its equilibrium position is known as
hunting.
Hunting may be caused due to the following reasons:
(a) Change in load.
(b) Change in excitation.
(c) Change in supply frequency.
Hunting is an undesirable characteristic of all synchronous motors. It produces severe mechani-
cal stresses as well as great variations in current and power drawn by the motor. Hunting increases
the possibility of resonance.
Resonance takes place when the frequency of the torque component is equal to that of the tran-
sient oscillations of the synchronous motor. Hunting also increases the losses in motors and in-
creases temperature of the machine.
! 8/37 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
NFUIPET!PG!SFEVDJOH!IVOUJOH! 8/22
Hunting can be reduced by providing damper winding (or grids). These windings consist of short-
circuited copper bars embeded in the faces of the field poles of the synchronous motors.
When the rotation at constant load is uniform, there is no relative motion between the rotor and
stator forward rotating fields and, hence, no current is induced in these windings. But when hunting
takes place, the relative motion of the rotor sets up eddy currents in these windings which flow such
as to suppress the oscillations (as per Lenz’s Law). The dampers should have low resistance to be
more effective. However, this method cannot eliminate hunting completely.
DPNQBSJTPO!CFUXFFO!TZODISPOPVT!BOE! 8/23
JOEVDUJPO!NPUPST
2. It runs at constant speed called synchronous speed 2. The speed of the motor is always less than the
and this speed is independent of the load. synchronous speed and its speed decreases as the
shaft load increases.
4. It can be operated under a wide range of power 4. It runs with lagging p.f. only which may be very low
factors including lagging and leading p.f. at light loads.
5. It runs at synchronous speed only. The only way to 5. Many power electronic methods are available with
change its speed is by varying the supply frequency. which speed can be varied.
6. It is used to improve the p.f. and in that case it is 6. It is used only to drive a mechanical load.
called synchronous capacitor.
BQQMJDBUJPOT!PG!TZODISPOPVT!NPUPST! 8/24
An over-excited synchronous motor operates at leading p.f. and takes a leading current from the bus
bar; so it can be used to raise the overall power factor of the bus-bar supplying load.
When the motor is run without load with over-excitation for improving the voltage regulation of
a transmission line, it is called a synchronous capacitor or synchronous condenser. Synchronous
motors can be used in electrical clocks as they run at constant speed.
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/38
! Qspcmfn!8/27
B!2311!lX!mpbe!ibt!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/7!mbhhjoh/!Gjoe!uif!sbujoh!pg!b!tzodispopvt!dpoefotfs!up!
sbjtf!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!up!1/:!mbhhjoh/!Bmtp!gjoe!uif!upubm!lWB!tvqqmjfe!bu!uif!ofx!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 7.13.
P = 1200 kW
At 0.3 p.f. lagging,
1200 1200
Apprarent power is S1 = OB = = B
cos q1 0.6 S1
S2 C
= 2000 kVA.
q1 q2
O A
Reactive power Q1 = AB = S1 sin q1 1200 kW
! Qspcmfn!8/28
B!tvctubujpo!tvqqmjft!b!mpbe!pg!26!NWB!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbh/!Ju!jt!sfrvjsfe!up!sbjtf!uif!qpxfs!gbdups!up!
)b*!1/:!mbh-!boe!)c*!vojuz!cz!vtjoh!bo!pwfs.fydjufe!tzodispopvt!npups/!Efufsnjof!uif!sbujoh!pg!uif!
npups/
Solution
Reactive power supplied by the substation
= 15 sin (cos–1 0.8) = 15 ¥ 0.6 MVAR = 9 MVAR lag
(a) The required reactive power
= 15 sin (cos–1 0.9) = 6.538 MVAR lag
! 8/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Hence, the leading reactive power supplied by the motor = (9 – 6.538) MVAR
= 2.462 MVAR
\ rating of the motor is 2.462 MVAR
(b) Required reactive power = 15 sin (cos–1 1) = 0
Hence, leading reactive power supplied by the motor = 9 – 0 = 9 MVAR
\ rating of the motor is 9 MVAR.
! Qspcmfn!8/29
B!uisff.qibtf!21.qpmf-!551!W-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!pqfsbuft!po!op!mpbe!xjui!
jut! joevdfe! fng! frvbm! up! uif! tvqqmz! wpmubhf/! Uif! tzodispopvt! sfbdubodf! jt! 21! W! boe! bsnbuvsf!
sftjtubodf!jt!ofhmjhjcmf/!Jg!uif!npups!jt!mpbefe!boe!ju!tmjqt!cz!7°!gspn!jut!qptjujpo!pg!tzodispojtn-!
efufsnjof!uif!qpxfs!joqvu/!
Solution
440
Vt = V=E
3
xs = 10 W
P = 10
P 10
Power angle = 6 ¥ =6¥ = 30°
2 2
Now Vt = E + j Ia xs
Vt 0∞ = E -d + j Ia xs
440 440
\ j Ia xs = - -30∞
3 3
44 Ê 1 3ˆ
or, Ia = Á - j + 2 + j 2 ˜ = 12.7 – j 3.4 = 13.15 -15∞ A
3Ë ¯
! Qspcmfn!8/2:
B!7/7!lW-!uisff.qibtf-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!esbxt!2111!lX!bu!1/9!qpxfs!gbdups!mbh.
hjoh/!Uif!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!uif!npups!jt!6!W/!Ofhmfdujoh!uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf-!efufsnjof!
uif!ofx!mjof!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!xifo!uif!cbdl!fng!pg!uif!nbdijof!jodsfbtft!cz!51&!boe!uif!
npups!esbxt!tbnf!qpxfs!gspn!uif!tvqqmz/
Solution
3 VL IL cos q = P
or, 3 ¥ 6.6 ¥ 103 ¥ IL ¥ 0.8 = 1000 ¥ 103
or, IL = 109.35 A
E = Vt - I a Z s
6.6 ¥ 103
\ E = - 109.35 - cos -1 0.8 ¥ (j 5)
3
= 3810.5 – 546.75 -36.87∞
= 3373.1 + j 328
= 3389 5.55∞ V
When E is increased by 40%, the new value of E is
E = 1.4 ¥ 3389 V = 4744.6 V
As E > Vt (E E = 4744.6 V and Vt = 3810.5 V)
\ power factor is leading
! Qspcmfn!8/31
B! uisff.qibtf! 7/7! lW-! 61! I{-! tubs.dpoofdufe! tzodispopvt! npups! ibt! 1/2! W0qibtf! bsnbuvsf! sf.
tjtubodf/!Uif!pvuqvu!pg!uif!npups!jt!211!lX!boe!ju!pqfsbuft!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/9!mfbejoh/!Uif!
jspo!boe!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!bsf!6111!X!boe!uif!fydjubujpo!dvssfou!jt!26!B!gspn!b!411!W!ed!tpvsdf/!
Efufsnjof!uif!bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups/!
Solution
100
Per phase output power = kW = 33333 W
3
5000
Per phase iron and mechanical loss = W
3
\ power developed by the motor = 33333 + 1667
= 35000 W
Input power = Power developed + Copper losses in stator
= 35000 + Ia2 ¥ 0.1
Again input power = Vt Ia cos q = 0.8 Vt Ia
6600
\ 35000 + 0.1 Ia2 = 0.8 ¥ Ia
3
0.1 Ia2 – 3048 Ia + 35000 = 0
33333
h= ¥ 100% = 91.18%.
36556
! Qspcmfn!8/32
B!571!W-!61!lX-!71!I{-!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!b!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!5/26!W!boe!
bsnbuvsf!up!gjfme!nvuvbm!joevdubodf!pg!94!nI/!Uif!npups!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!sbufe!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!boe!
bo!joqvu!qpxfs!pg!51!lX/!Efufsnjof!uif!nbhojuvef!boe!qibtf!bohmf!pg!mjof!up!ofvusbm!hfofsbufe!
wpmubhf!boe!uif!gjfme!dvssfou!jg!uif!npups!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!)b*!1/96!qpxfs!gbdups!mbhhjoh-!)c*!vojuz!
qpxfs!gbdups-!boe!)d*!1/96!qpxfs!gbdups!mfbejoh/
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/42
Solution
40 ¥ 103
(a) Armature current Ia = A = 59.1 A
3 ¥ 460 ¥ 0.85
or, Ia = 59.1 - cos -1 0.85 A = 59.1 -31.78∞ A
2E 2 ¥ 249.15
The field current If = = A = 11.26 A
w Laf 2p ¥ 60 ¥ 0.083
(b) At unity power factor,
40 ¥ 103
Ia = 0∞ A = 50.2 0∞ A
3 ¥ 460
460
E= – j 50.2 ¥ 4.15
3
= 265.58 – j 208.33
= 337.54 -38.11∞ V
2 ¥ 337.54
If = A = 15.26 A
2p ¥ 60 ¥ 0.083
2 ¥ 446.42
\ If = A = 20.18 A.
2p ¥ 60 ¥ 0.083
! 8/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!8/33
B!61!I{-!uxp.qpmf-!861!lWB-!3411!W-!uisff.qibtf!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!ibt!b!tzodispopvt!sfbd.
ubodf!pg!8/86!W!boe!bdijfwft!sbufe!pqfo.djsdvju!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf!bu!b!gjfme!dvssfou!pg!231!B/!
! )b*! Efufsnjof!uif!bsnbuvsf!up!gjfme!nvuvbm!joevdubodf!
! )c*! Uif!nbdijof!jt!up!cf!pqfsbufe!bt!b!npups!tvqqmz!pg!711!lX!mpbe!bu!jut!sbufe!ufsnjobm!wpmubhf/!
Efufsnjof!uif!joufsobm!wpmubhf!boe!uif!dpssftqpoejoh!gjfme!dvssfou!jg!uif!npups!jt!pqfsbujoh!
bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/
Solution
Vt = 2300 V
If = 120 A
f = 50 Hz
xs = 7.75 W
(a) The armature to field mutual inductance
2 Vt 2 ¥ 2300
Laf = = H = 49.8 mH
3w I f 3 ¥ 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 120
(b) Armature current at unity power factor
600 ¥ 103
Ia = 0∞ A = 150.6 0∞ A
3 ¥ 2300
\ internal voltage
2300
E = Vt – j Ia xs = – j 150.6 ¥ 7.75
3
= 1327.9 – j 1167.15 = 1767.9 -41.3∞ V
2 ¥ 1767.9
Field current If = A = 160 A.
2p ¥ 50 ¥ 49.8 ¥ 10 -3
! Qspcmfn!8/34
Uif!gpmmpxjoh!sfbejoht!bsf!ublfo!gspn!uif!sftvmut!pg!bo!pqfo!boe!tipsu.djsdvju!uftu!po!b!6111!lX-!
5271!W-!uisff.qibtf-!gpvs.qpmf-!2911!sqn!tzodispopvt!npups!esjwfo!bu!sbufe!tqffe/
Solution
192
(a) Short-circuit ratio = = 1.136
169
1
(b) Per unit saturated synchronous reactance = = 0.88
1.136
Base impedance
( 4160) 2
Zbase = W = 3.46 W
5000 ¥ 103
\ saturated synchronous reactance = 0.88 ¥ 3.46 W = 3.0448 W
(c) At field current of 169 A, the line-to-neutral voltage on the air-gap line is
4640
Vag =
V
3
For the same field current, the armature current on short circuit is
Isc = 694 A
\ unsaturated value of synchronous reactance
4640
= 3 W = 3.86 W
694
3.86
Per unit value of unsaturated synchronous reactance = = 1.11.
3.46
! Qspcmfn!8/35
Dpotjefs! uif! ebub! hjwfo! jo! Qspcmfn! 8/34/! Dpnqvuf! uif! gjfme! dvssfou! sfrvjsfe! xifo! uif! npups! jt!
pqfsbujoh!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf-!5311!lX!joqvu!qpxfs!bu!1/98!qpxfs!gbdups!mfbejoh/!
Solution
The armature current
4200 ¥ 103
Ia = cos -1 0.87 A
0.87 ¥ 3 ¥ 4160
582.9
= 29.54∞ A = 670 29.54∞ A
0.87
xs = 0.12 p.u. = 0.12 ¥ 3.46 W = 0.4152 W
The line-to-neutral value of excitation voltage
| E | = Vt – Ia (ra + jxs)
! 8/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
4160
= - 670 29.54∞ (0.011 + j 0.4152)
3
= 2401.8 – 278.28 118∞
= 2532.44 – j 245.7
= 2544.33 V
2544.33 ¥ 3
Field current = A = 310 A.
4160
3 ¥ 169
! Qspcmfn!8/36
Jo!Qspcmfn!8/34-!uif!mptt!ebub!gps!uif!npups!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
Pqfo.djsdvju!dpsf!mptt!bu!5271!W!>!48!lX
Gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mptt!>!57!lX
Gjfme!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!jt!1/38:!W/
Efufsnjof!uif!pvuqvu!qpxfs!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups!xifo!ju!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!sbufe!joqvu!qpxfs-!
vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups!boe!sbufe!wpmubhf/
Solution
The armature current
5000 ¥ 103
Ia = 0∞ A = 694 0∞ A
3 ¥ 4160 ¥ 1
\ armature copper loss = Ia2 ra = 3(694)2 ¥ 0.011 W = 3 ¥ 5298 W = 15894 W
The excitation voltage
4160
|E| = – 694 (0.011 + j 0.4152)
3
= 2401.8 – 288.25 88.48∞
= 2394 – j 288 = 2411.26 V
2411.26 ¥ 3
Field current If = A = 293.87 A
4160
3 ¥ 169
\ field copper loss = If2 Rf = (293.87)2 ¥ 0.279 = 24094 W
Total loss = 37000 + 46000 + 15894 + 24094 = 122988 W = 122.988 kW
Hence, output power = 5000 – 122.988 = 4877 kW
4877
\ efficiency = ¥ 100% = 97.54%.
5000
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/46
! Qspcmfn!8/37
B!41!NWB-!22!lW-!61!I{-!tzodispopvt!nbdijof!ibt!b!tipsu.djsdvju!sbujp!pg!1/66/!Ju!sfrvjsft!b!gjfme!
dvssfou!pg!311!B!gps!sbufe!joevdfe!wpmubhf!po!op!mpbe/!)b*!Efufsnjof!uif!tbuvsbufe!tzodispopvt!
sfbdubodf!pg!uif!nbdijof!jo!pint!boe!jo!qfs!voju/!)c*!Uif!nbdijof!jt!dpoofdufe!up!bo!22!lW!jogjojuf!
cvt!boe!pqfsbujoh!bt!b!npups/!Jg!uif!gjfme!dvssfou!jt!bekvtufe!up!261!B-!efufsnjof!uif!qpxfs!gbd.
ups!boe!uif!upsrvf!bohmf/!Ofhmfdu!mpttft!pg!uif!nbdijof/!Tubuf!xifuifs!uif!nbdijof!jt!bdujoh!bt!b!
dbqbdjups!ps!bo!joevdups/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!frvjwbmfou!dbqbdjups0joevdups!wbmvf/
Solution
(a) Short-circuit ratio = 0.55
Hence, saturated synchronous reactance
1
Xs = = 1.82 p.u.
0.55
(11) 2
Now, Xbase = W = 4.03 W
30
Hence, Xs = 1.82 ¥ 4.03 W = 7.335 W
(b) If = 150 A
150
\ E = 11 ¥ kV = 8.25 kV (line to line)
200
Vt - E (11 - 8.25)103
\ Ia = = = 217.5 A
Xs 3 ¥ 7.3
As the motor is operated under no load condition and losses are neglected,
d = 0.
As Vt > E, the motor is operating at a power factor of 0 lag.
Hence, the motor acts as an inductor. If L be the equivalent inductance then
11 ¥ 103
wL = W.
3 ¥ 217.5
11 ¥ 103
\ L= H = 0.093 H.
3 ¥ 217.5 ¥ 2p ¥ 50
! Qspcmfn!8/38
B!2311!lX!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!4/4!lW!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!Ye!>!6!W!boe!Yr!>!4!W!qfs!
qibtf/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fydjubujpo!fng!xifo!uif!npups!jt!tvqqmzjoh!sbufe!mpbe!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups/!
Bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uif!nbyjnvn!nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!uibu!uif!npups!dbo!tvqqmz!xjui!uif!fydjubujpo!ifme!
gjyfe!bu!uijt!wbmvf/
! 8/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
3300
Vt = V
3
cos q = 1
1200 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 209.95 A
3 ¥ 3.3 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
Ia X q 209.95 ¥ 3
d = tan–1 = tan -1 = tan–1 0.33 = 18.26°
Vt 3.3 ¥ 103
3
3.3 ¥ 103
E= cos 18.26° + 5 ¥ 209.95 sin 18.26° = 2138 V
3
\ excitation emf = 3 ¥ 2138 V = 3.7 kV
EVt Xd - Xq
Mechanical power Pm = sin d + Vt 2 sin 2d
Xd 2Xd Xq
For maximum mechanical power,
dPm
=0
dd
EVt Xd - Xq
\ cos d + Vt 2 cos 2d = 0
Xd Xd Xq
3300
2138 ¥ 2
\ 3 cos d + Ê 3300 ˆ ¥ 5 - 3 cos 2d = 0
ÁË ˜
5 3 ¯ 5¥3
or, 427.6 cos d + 254 cos 2d =0
or, 427.6 cos d + 254 (2 cos2 d – 1) =0
or, cos2 d + 0.842 cos d – 0.5 =0
or, cos d = 0.402
\ d = 66.3°
Hence, maximum mechanical power for all the three phases
3300
2138 ¥ 2
3¥ 3 sin 66.3° + 3 ¥ Ê 3300 ˆ ¥ 5 - 3 sin (2 ¥ 66.3°)
ÁË ˜
5 3 ¯ 5¥3
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/48
= 2237.936 kW + 1068.8 kW
= 3306.74 kW.
! Qspcmfn!8/39
B!2/6!NX-!4/4!lW-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tzodispopvt!npups!pqfsbuft!bu!vojuz!qpxfs!gbdups!boe!
ibt!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!3!W!qfs!qibtf/!Ju!jt!tvqqmjfe!gspn!b!4/4!lW!tubs.dpoofdufe!bmufsobups!
xjui!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!4!W!qfs!qibtf/!Gps!sbufe!mpbe!po!uif!npups-!efufsnjof!uif!cbdl!fng!
pg!npups-!joevdfe!fng!pg!hfofsbups!boe!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!xijdi!dbo!gmpx!gspn!hfofsbups!up!npups/!
Solution
The equivalent circuit and phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 7.14(a) and Fig. 7.14(b) respectively.
EG
jXSGI
XSG XSM
I V
V jXSMI
G M
EM
(a) (b)
Gjh/!8/25! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!boe!qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!8/39
Let EM be the back emf of the motor and EG be the induced emf of the alternator
From Fig. 7.14(b),
2
Ê 3300 ˆ
\ EM = Vt 2 + ( X SM I ) 2 = Á + ( 2 ¥ 262.4) 2 = 1976 V per phase
Ë 3 ˜¯
! 8/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2
Ê 3300 ˆ
EG = Vt 2 + ( X SG I ) 2 = Á + (3 ¥ 262.4) 2 = 2061.5 V per phase
Ë 3 ˜¯
Maximum power transfer
E1E2 1976 ¥ 2061.5
=3 =3 W = 2444 kW.
X SG + X SM 2+3
! Qspcmfn!8/3:
B!6!NWB-!22!lW-!uisff.qibtf!dzmjoesjdbm!spups-!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!qfs!voju!sftjtubodf!pg!1/16!
boe!qfs!voju!tzodispopvt!sfbdubodf!pg!2/!Efufsnjof!uif!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!joqvu!boe!dpssftqpoejoh!
bsnbuvsf!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!jg!F!>!2/6!q/v/
Solution
(11) 2
Base impedance Zbase = = 24.2 W
5
\ ra = 0.05 ¥ 24.2 W = 1.21 W
xs = 1 ¥ 24.2 W = 24.2 W
Hence, Zs = 1.21 + j 24.2 W
24.2
\ f = tan–1 = 87°
1.21
For maximum power input d = 180° – fs = 93°
11
E = 1.5 ¥ kV = 9.526 kV per phase
3
Vt 2 VE
P= cos f - t cos (d + f)
ZS ZS
2
Ê 11 ˆ 11
ÁË ˜¯ ¥ 9.526
3 3
= cos 87∞ + MW
(1.21) 2 + ( 24.2) 2 (1.21) 2 + ( 24.2) 2
121 60.5
= cos 87∞ + MW = 2.58 MW
3 ¥ 24.23 24.23
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/4:
11 ¥ 103
\ = 9.526 ¥ 103 -93∞ + (406.24 + j Ia sin q) (1.21 + j 24.2)
3
or, 6351 = 9526 -93∞ + 491.55 – 24.2 Ia sin q + j (9831 + 1.21 Ia sin q)
or, 6351 = 9526 cos (–93°) + 491.55 – 24.2 Ia sin q + j {9526 sin (–93°) + 9831 + 1.21 Ia sin q}
\ Ia sin q = –262.7
Hence, Ia = 406.24 – j 262.7 = 483.8 -32.89∞ A
Power factor cos 32.89° lag or 0.84 lag.
! Qspcmfn!8/41
B!tbmjfou.qpmf!tzodispopvt!npups!ibt!Ye!>!1/9!boe!Yr!>!1/6!q/v/!Ju!jt!dpoofdufe!up!b!cvt!cbs!pg!2!q/v/!
wpmubhf!boe!jut!fydjubujpo!jt!2/5!q/v/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!nbyjnvn!qpxfs!uif!npups!dbo!tvqqmz!xjuipvu!
mptt!pg!tzodispojtn/
Solution
From Eq. (7.29), per phase output power
1.4 ¥ 1 (1) 2 (0.8 - 0.5)
P= sin d + sin 2d
0.8 2 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 0.5
or, P = 1.75 sin d + 0.375 sin 2d
For P to be maximum,
dP
=0
dd
\ 1.75 cos d + 0.75 cos 2d =0
or, 1.75 cos d + 0.75 (2 cos2 d – 1) =0
or, cos2 d + 1.167 cos d – 0.5 =0
or, cos d = 0.33 or d = 70.73°
Hence, Pmax = 1.75 sin 70.73 + 0.375 sin (2 ¥ 70.73°)
= 1.88 p.u.
! 8/51 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot!
1. Explain the principle of operation of a synchronous motor.
2. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor synchronous motor operating at
(a) lagging, (b) leading, and (c) unity power factor.
3. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a salient pole synchronous motor operating at
lagging power factor.
4. Explain why a synchronous motor does not have starting torque.
5. Describe the different methods of starting of synchronous motors.
6. Derive the power angle characteristic of a salient-pole synchronous motor.
7. What is a synchronous condenser? What is its application?
8. Explain the effect of change of excitation of a synchronous motor on its (a) armature current,
and (b) power factor
9. Explain the effect of change of load of a synchronous motor on its (a) torque angle, and
(b) armature current.
10. Explain V curves in a synchronous motor.
11. Compare between an induction motor and a synchronous motor.
12. What do you mean by hunting of a synchronous motor? What are the causes of hunting? How
do you prevent hunting?
Qspcmfnt
1. An industrial plant has a load of 800 kW at power factor or 0.8 lagging. It is required to instal
a synchronous motor to deliver a load of 200 kW and improve the overall power factor of a
plant to 0.92. Determine the kVA rating of the synchronous motor and its power factor. The
efficiency of the motor is 90%. [277.75 kVA, 0.8 lead]
[Hints: cos q1 = 0.8 lag
\ sin q1 = 0.6
P1 = 800 kW
800
S1 = = 1000 kVA
0.8
\ Q1 = 1000 ¥ 0.6 kVAR = 600 kVAR
200
Input of motor = kW = 222.2 kW
0.9
Total load = 800 + 222.2 = 1022.2 kW
cos q2 = 0.92
P2 = 1022.2 kW
sin q2 = 0.39
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/52
1022.2
S2 = kVA
0.92
1022.2
\ q2 = ¥ 0.39 kVAR = 433.3 kVAR
0.92
Reactive power supplied by motor = 600 – 433.3 = 166.7 kVAR
kVAR 166.7
\ tan q2 = = = 0.75
kW 222.2
\ cos q2 = 0.8 lead
kW 222.2
kVA of motor = = = 277.75]
cos q 2 0.8
2. A 2500 HP, 2300 V, 20-pole, 50 Hz synchronous motor has a reactance of 1.85 W per phase.
The field excitation is adjusted so that the power factor is unity at rated load. Determine the
maximum torque which the motor can develop. [106.95 ¥ 103 Nm]
2500 ¥ 735.5
[Hints: Total output = kW = 1838.75 kW
1000
1838.75 ¥ 103
Ia = = 461.5 A
3 ¥ 2300 ¥ 1
2
Ê 2300 ˆ
E= Á + ( 461.5 ¥ 1.85) 2 = 1578.7 V
Ë 3 ˜¯
2300
3¥ ¥ 1578.7
3Vt E 3
Maximum power output = = = 3399.5 ¥ 103 W
xs 1.85
3399.5 ¥ 103
Maximum torque = Nm = 108.26 ¥ 103 Nm]
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
20
3. A 6.6 kV, three-phase, star-connected synchronous motor operates at constant voltage and
constant excitation. The synchronous impedance is 2 + j 20 W per phase. When the input
is 1000 kW, the power factor is 0.8 leading. Determine the power factor when the input is
increased to 1500 kW. [0.935 lead]
1000 ¥ 103
[Hints: Ia = A = 109.35 A
3 ¥ 6.6 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
! 8/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
\ I¢ sin q¢ = 49.565
49.565
or, tan q¢ = = 0.377
131.2
Power factor cos q¢ = 0.935 load]
4. A salient-pole synchronous motor has Xd = 0.85 p.u. and Xq = 0.55 p.u. It is connected to an
infinite bus of 1 p.u. voltage and the excitation is adjusted to 1.2 p.u. Determine the maximum
power output that the motor can supply without loss of synchronism. [1.5332 p.u.]
EVt V2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
[Hints: P= sin d + t Á - ˜ sin 2d
Xd 2 Ë Xq Xd ¯
1.2 ¥ 1 1 Ê 1 1 ˆ
= + Á - sin 2d
0.85 2 Ë 0.55 0.85 ˜¯
= 1.412 sin d + 0.321 sin 2d
dP
For maximum power, =0
dd
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/54
dP
\ = 1.412 cos d + 2 ¥ 0.321 cos 2d = 0
dd
\ d = 69.764°
Pmax = 1.412 sin 69.764° + 2 ¥ 0.321 sin 2 ¥ 69.764°
= 1.5332 p.u.]
5. For a three-phase, salient-pole synchronous motor running as a reluctance motor, show that
under maximum power conditions
Xd + Xq
tan q =
Xd - Xq
[Hints: Id = Ia sin (q – d) and Iq = Ia cos (q – d)
Vt sin d = Iq Xq
Vt cos d = Id Xd
Iq X q X q cos (q - d )
\ tan d = =
Id X d X d sin (q - d )
Under maximum power condition, d = 45°
X q cos(q - 45∞) X q (sin q + cos q )
1= =
X d sin (q - 45∞) X d (sin q - cos q )
X d sin q + cos q
\ =
X q sin q - cos q
Xd + Xq sin q
= = tan q]
Xd - Xq cos q
6. A 480 V, three-phase, star-connected, salient-pole, synchronous motor is operating at its full
load and draws a current of 50 A at unity power factor. The d and q axis reactances are 3.5
W per phase and 2.5 W per phase respectively. The armature winding resistance is 0.5 W per
phase. Determine excitation voltage of the motor. [564 V]
[Hints: Ia = 50 0∞ A
Ia X q 50 ¥ 2.5
d = tan–1 = tan -1 = 26.37°
Vt - I a ra 480
- 50 ¥ 0.5
3
480
E= cos 26.37° + 50 ¥ 3.5 sin 26.37° = 326 V
3
\ line value of emf = 3 ¥ 326 V = 564 V]
! 8/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
7. A 6.6 kV, star-connected, three-phase synchronous motor operates at constant voltage and
excitation. Its synchronous impedance is 2 + j 20 W per phase. The motor operates at 0.8
leading power factor and draws 800 kW from the main. Determine the power factor when the
motor draws an increased power of 1200 kW from the mains. [0.9265 lead]
6600 800 ¥ 103
[Hints: E= - 36.87∞ ¥ (2 + j 20)
3 3 ¥ 6600 ¥ 0.8
= (4.724 – j 1.504) kV = 4.96 -17.66∞ kV
Zs = 2 + j 20 = 20.1 84.3∞
2
Ê 6.6 ˆ 6.6
Á ˜ ¥ cos 84.3∞ ¥ 4.96
1200 Ë 3 ¯ 3
Now = - cos (84.3° + d)
3 20.1 20.1
\ d = 26.1°
6.6
- 4.96 -26.1∞
Ia = 3 = 113 22.1∞
20.1 84.3∞
cos q = cos 22.1° = 0.9265 lead]
8. The full load current of a 3.3 kV, star-connected synchronous motor is 160 A at 0.8 power
factor lagging. The synchronous impedance of the machine is 0.8 + j 5.5 W per phase.
Determine the excitation emf, torque angle, efficiency and shaft output of the motor. Assume
the mechanical stray load loss to be 30 kW. [2.46 kV, 26.2°, 87.5%, 640 kW]
[Hints: Zs = 0.8 + j 5 = 5.56 81.7∞ W
3.3 160
E= - 5.56 81.7∞ ¥ -36.87∞
3 103
= 1.42 -26.2∞ kV
Line value of emf = 3 ¥ 1.42 kV = 2.46 kV
d = 26.2°
Power developed = 3 ¥ 1.42 ¥ 160 cos (–36.87° + 26.2°) = 670 kW
Shaft power output = 670 – 30 = 640 kW
Input power = 3 ¥ 3.3 ¥ 160 ¥ 0.8 = 731.5 kW
640
h= ¥ 100% = 87.5%]
731.5
Tzodispopvt!Npups 8/56
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. A three-phase salient-pole synchronous motor is connected to an infinite bus. It is operated
at no load at normal excitation. The field excitation of the motor is first reduced to zero and
then increased in the reversed direction gradually. Then the armature current
(a) increases continuously
(b) first increases and then decreases steeply
(c) first decreases and then increases steeply
(d) remains constant [GATE 2011]
2. A three-phase synchronous motor connected to ac mains is running at full load and unity
power factor. If its shaft load is reduced by half, with field current held constant, its new
power factor will be
(a) unity
(b) leading
(c) lagging
(d) dependent on machine parameters [GATE 2007]
3. An over-excited synchronous motor operates at
(a) lagging power factor
(b) leading power factor
(c) unity power factor
(d) lagging power factor at low loads and leading power factor at high loads
4. As the load on a synchronous motor increases, the torque angle
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) remains same
(d) depends on the power factor of the load
5. V curves of a synchronous motor show relation between
(a) armature current and field current
(b) armature current and terminal voltage
(c) field current and terminal voltage
(d) field current and excitation voltage
6. The function of amortisseur winding in a synchronous motor is
(a) to improve power factor
(b) to prevent hunting
(c) to provide starting torque
(d) to prevent hunting and provide starting torque
7. A salient-pole synchronous motor is running with normal excitation. If the excitation is
reduced to zero,
(a) it becomes an induction motor
(b) it remains a synchronous motor
! 8/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
15. A synchronous motor can operate over a range of power factors with both leading and lagging.
This can be done by
(a) varying load (b) varying voltage
(c) varying frequency (c) varying the field excitation
16. A synchronous motor runs with a constant load. When its excitation is reduced,
(a) the power angle decreases
(b) the power factor becomes more lagging
(c) the power factor improves
(d) the speed increases
17. When a synchronous motor is run as a synchronous capacitor, it operates
(a) with leading power factor without any load
(b) with leading power factor supplying loads
(c) with lagging power factor without any load
(d) with lagging power factor supplying load
18. Armature reaction of a synchronous motor at rated voltage zero power factor leading is
(a) cross magnetizing
(b) magnetizing
(c) demagnetizing
(d) both demagnetizing and cross magnetizing
19. In a salient-pole synchronous motor,
(a) Id and Iq are both in phase with E
(b) Id and Iq are both at 90° to E
(c) Iq is in phase with E and Id is at 90° to E
(d) Id is in phase with E and Iq is at 90° to E
20. In a salient-pole synchronous motor, the reluctance power is given by
Xd + Xq Xd + Xq
(a) Vt2 sin 2d (b) Vt2 sin d
2Xd Xq 2Xd Xq
Xd - Xq Xd - Xq
(c) Vt2 sin 2d (d) Vt2 sin d
2Xd Xq 2Xd Xq
Botxfst
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (d)
16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (c)
9
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!
Npups
JOUSPEVDUJPO! 9/2
In 1888, Ferrari introduced the concept of induction motor by publishing his revolutionary work on
the rotating magnetic field produced by polyphase currents. Induction motors are versatile electric
motors suited best for industrial applications as well as low-power application in domestic equip-
ment because of their unique advantage compared to other types such as dc and synchronous mo-
tors. More than 80% of all the motors used in the world are induction motors. The dominance of
induction motors is mainly due to the fact that they are the cheapest and most robust motors.
In a three-phase induction motor, three-phase ac supply is given to the stator winding. The flux
from the stator, flowing through the air gap links the rotor circuit. Voltages are induced in the short-
circuited rotor winding according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction causing currents
to flow in them. The fact that the rotor current arises from induction rather than conduction, is the
basis for the name of this class of machines. They are also called asynchronous motors because
their operating speed is slightly less than the synchronous speed.
DPOTUSVDUJPO!PG!JOEVDUJPO!NBDIJOFT! 9/3
Similar to other rotating electrical machines, a three-phase induction motor also consists of two
main parts: the stator and the rotor (the stator is the stationary part and the rotor is the rotating part).
Apart from these two main parts, a three-phase induction motor also requires bearings, bearing cov-
ers, end plates, etc., for its assembly.
! 9/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The stator of a three-phase induction motor has three main parts namely, stator frame, stator core
and stator windings. The stator frame can either be casted or can be fabricated from rolled steel
plates. The stator core is built up of high silicon sheet-steel laminations of 0.4 to 0.5 mm thickness.
Each lamination is separated from the other by means of either varnish, paper or oxide coating.
Each lamination is slotted on the inner periphery so as to house the winding. The laminations for
small machines are in the form of complete rings, but for large machines these may be made in sec-
tions. The insulated stator conductors are connected to form a three-phase winding, the stator phase
windings may be either star or delta connected.
The rotor is also built up of laminations of the same material as the stator. The laminated cylin-
drical core is mounted directly on the shaft or a spider carried by the shaft. These laminations are
slotted on their outer periphery to house the rotor conductors. There are two types of induction-
motor rotors.
(a) Squirrel cage or simply cage rotor
(b) Phase wound or wound rotor or slip-ring rotor
In either case, the rotor windings are contained in slots in a laminated iron core which is mounted
on the shaft. In small machines, the lamination stack is pressed directly on the shaft. In larger ma-
chines, the core is mechanically connected to the shaft through a set of spokes called a spider.
The motor having the first type of rotor is known as a squirrel-cage induction motor. This type
of rotor is cheap and has a simple and rugged construction, it is cylindrical in shape and is made
of sheet-steel laminations. Here, the slots provided to accommodate the rotor conductors are not
parallel to the shaft but are skewed. The purpose of skewing is (a) to reduce the magnetic hum, and
(b) to reduce the magnetic locking. The rotor conductors are short-circuited at the ends by brazing
the copper rings, resembling the cage of a squirrel and hence, the name squirrel-cage rotor.
In present days, die-cast rotors have become very popular. The assembled rotor lamina-
tions are placed in a mound. The molten aluminium is forced under pressure to form the bars.
Figure 8.1(a-c) shows a typical stator and rotor (both squirrel-cage type and slip-ring type) assembly.
Figure 8.1(d) shows the schematic of a cage rotor separately.
The motor having the second-type rotor, i.e. wound-type rotor, is named slip ring induction mo-
tor. In this motor, the rotor is wound for three-phase, similar to stator winding using open-type slots
in the lamination. Rotor winding is always star connected and thus, only three remaining ends of
the windings are brought out and connected to the slip rings as shown in Fig. 8.2. With the help of
these slip rings and brushes, additional resistances can also be connected in series with each rotor
phase (Fig. 8.2). This will increase the starting torque provided by the motor and will also help in
reducing, the starting current. When running under normal condition, the external resistances are
removed completely from the rotor by short circuiting these additional resistances from the rotor
circuit and the rotor behaves just like a squirrel-cage rotor.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/4
End rings
Copper bars
iron rotor
End ring
Gjh/!9/2! Tubups!boe!spups!qbsut
Gjh/!9/3! Beejujpo!pg!fyufsobm!sftjtubodft!up!uif!spups!pg!b!xpvoe.spups!joevdujpo!npups
DPNQBSJTPO!PG!TRVJSSFM.DBHF! 9/4
BOE!XPVOE!SPUPST
The advantages of a cage rotor induction motor are as follows:
1. The rotor is of robust construction and cheaper.
2. The absence of brushes reduces the risk of sparking.
3. Squirrel-cage rotors require lesser maintenance.
4. Squirrel-cage induction motors have higher efficiency and better power factor.
On the other hand, wound rotors have the following merits:
1. High starting torque and low starting current.
2. Additional resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit to control speed.
Ubcmf!9/2! B!dpnqbsjtpo!pg!trvjssfm.dbhf!boe!xpvoe!spups!npupst
1. No rotor terminals available, hence, no external 1. Rotor terminals are available, hence, an external
connections can be made to rotor circuit. impedance or device can be connected to the rotor
circuit.
2. No slip rings and brushes, so very robust 2. There are slip rings and brushes which require frequent
construction and almost no maintenance required. maintenance and cause problems.
5. With the starters needed to limit the starting 5. With the rotor resistance starter, starting current gets
current, the starting torque becomes very low. limited and starting torque becomes quite high.
6. Used generally for all the low-capacity loads and 6. Used normally with medium and large capacity loads
for medium and large loads where starting is light where no load starting, i.e., high torque starting, is
which is the most common case. required.
7. No speed control possible from the secondary side. 7. Speed can be controlled from the secondary side.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/6
BEWBOUBHFT!BOE!EJTBEWBOUBHFT!PG! 9/5
B!UISFF.QIBTF!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS
Bewboubhft
1. It is very simple, robust, rugged and capable of withstanding rough use.
2. It is quite cheap and reliable in operation.
3. Its maintenance cost is low.
4. The losses are reasonably small and hence, it has sufficiently high efficiency.
5. It is mostly a trouble-free motor.
6. Its power factor is reasonably good at full-load operation.
7. It is simple to start (since it has a self-starting torque).
An induction motor is equivalent to a static transformer whose secondary is capable of rotating
with respect to the primary.
Usually, the stator is treated as the primary, while the rotor is treated as the secondary. The in-
duction motor operation is electrically equal even if the rotor is primary and the stator operation is
treated as secondary.
Ejtbewboubhft!
1. Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing efficiency.
2. Its speed decreases with an increase in load.
3. Its starting torque is inferior to that of a dc shunt motor.
4. For direct online starting, the starting current is usually 5 to 8 times the full-load rated current.
5. It runs at a low lagging power factor when it is lightly loaded.
QSJODJQMF!PG!PQFSBUJPO! 9/6
A three-phase induction motor has a stator winding which is supplied by three-phase alternating
balanced voltage and has balanced three-phase currents in the winding. The rotor is not excited
from any source and has only magnetic coupling with the stator. Under normal running conditions,
the rotor winding (cage or slip-ring) is always short circuited to allow induced currents to flow in
the rotor winding. The flow of three-phase currents in the stator winding produces a rotating mag-
netic field of constant amplitude and rotates at a synchronous speed. Let us assume that the rotor is
at standstill initially: the rotating stator field induces an emf in the rotor conductor by transformer
action. Since the rotor circuit is a closed set of conductors, a current flows in the rotor circuit. This
rotor current then produces a rotor field. The interaction of stator and rotor field produces a torque
which causes the rotation of the rotor in the direction of the stator rotating field.
! 9/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
As per Lenz’s law, the rotor field will try to oppose the very cause of its production. Thus, it
speeds up in the direction of the stator field so that relative speed difference between these two
fields is zero. In this way, the three-phase induction motor catches up the speed.
When the rotor is at standstill, the relative motion between the stator field and rotor is maximum.
Therefore, the emf induced in the rotor and rotor current are reduced. However, the rotor cannot
attain the speed of the stator field which is equal to the synchronous speed. This is evidently due
to the reason that if the rotor is moving at synchronous speed, there is no relative motion between
the stator field and the rotor. Hence, the rotor-induced emf and current become zero and the torque
becomes zero. This causes the rotor speed to decrease. As the rotor speed falls below the synchro-
nous speed, the rotor emf and current continue to increase. Therefore, the electromagnetic torque
continuous to increase.
Finally, the rotor speed becomes constant at a value of speed slightly less than that of the stator
field. When a mechanical load is put on the rotor, the automatic tendency of the load is to produce
a braking action, i.e. the speed of the rotor is reduced which results in the increase of the relative
speed between the rotor conductors and the rotating magnetic field.
The direction of rotation of an induction motor is dependent on the direction of rotation of the
stator flux, which in turn is dependent on the phase sequence of the applied voltage. Interchanging
any two of the three line-leads to a three-phase induction motor will reverse the phase sequence,
thus, reversing the rotation of the motor.
JOEVDUJPO!NBDIJOF!BT!B!HFOFSBMJ[FE! 9/7
USBOTGPSNFS
An induction motor is very similar to a transformer as far as their principle of operation is con-
cerned. The similarities between a transformer and an induction motor are as follows:
1. Both an induction motor and transformer work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
In a transformer, ac voltage is supplied to the primary winding. This voltage produces
current in the primary winding which sets up flux f in the iron core. This flux links both the
primary and the secondary winding. As the flux is alternating in nature, an emf is induced
in the secondary winding. Hence, there is no electrical connection between the primary and
secondary windings of a transformer. The secondary windings receives energy from the
primary by electromagnetic induction.
Similarly, in an induction motor, the three-phase ac supply is given to the stator winding
which sets up a rotating magnetic field. This rotating magnetic field induces emf in the rotor
conductors. Hence, the rotor receives energy from the stator by electromagnetic induction.
2. The primary and secondary winding of a transformer resembles the stator and rotor winding
of an induction motor. The resistance and leakage reactance of stator and rotor winding of an
induction motor are similar to the primary and secondary winding of a transformer.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/8
DPODFQU!PG!TMJQ! 9/8
The speed of the rotating flux, called synchronous speed, is directly proportional to the frequency
of the supply voltage and inversely proportional to the number of pairs of poles (poles only occur
in pairs). Expressed mathematically, we have
fs 2 ¥ fs
ns = = r/s
P /2 P
120 ¥ f s
ns = r/min (8.1)
P
where ns stands for the speed of the rotating stator field, P is the total number of poles and fs is the
frequency of the supply voltage.
The relationship between the speed of the rotating flux and the number of stator poles may be
visualized by comparing the mechanical degrees of circular arc travelled by the flux in motors with
! 9/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
different numbers of stator poles. Thus, the circular arc travelled by the rotating field of a four-pole
motor is twice that of an eight-pole motor. Assuming the same frequency and same time period, the
centre line of flux rotates 60°(phase A to phase B) for a four-pole winding, and 30°(A to B) for an
eight-pole winding.
Increasing the frequency of the supply voltage increases the frequency of the current in the stator
circles, causing the flux to rotate at a proportionately higher speed. The synchronous speed of an
induction motor operating from a fixed-frequency system can be changed by changing the number
of poles in the stator.
The magnitude and frequency of the rotor voltages depend on the speed of the relative motion
between the rotor and the flux crossing the air gap. The difference between the synchronous speed
and the rotor speed expressed as a fraction (or percent) of synchronous speed is known as slip, i.e.
Slip speed = (ns – n) rev/s
n -n
and Slip (s) = s p.u. (8.2)
ns
or n = ns (1 – s) rps (8.3)
where ns = Synchronous speed (rev/s)
n = Rotor speed (rev/s)
s = Slip
When the speed is expressed in rpm, we can write
Ns - N N -N
s= p.u. = 1 ¥ 100 (in %) (8.4)
Ns Ns
and N = Ns (1 – s) rpm (8.5)
The slip s is a very useful quantity in the study of induction motors.
The value of slip at full-load is about 4 to 5% for small motors and about 2 to 2.5% for large
motors. The slip at no-load is about 1%. Thus, the speed of an ac induction motor is almost constant
from no-load to full-load. If the machine has P poles, the frequency of induced emf in the rotor, i.e.
f2, is given by
Ns - N È PN s P( N s - N ) Ê N - N ˆ˘
f2 = ¥ f1 ÍE f1 = : f2 = and hence ( f 2 / f1 ) = Á s ˙
Ns ÍÎ 120 120 Ë N s ˜¯ ˙˚
f2 = sf1 (8.6)
At standstill condition of the rotor, s = 1, i.e. the frequency of rotor currents is f1.
Pole changing may be accomplished by using separate windings for each speed, or by reconnect-
ing the windings of specially designed machines called consequent pole motors. When two separate
windings are used, the machine is called a two-speed two-windings motor. Three separate windings,
each arranged for a different number of poles, result in a three-speed three-winding motor.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/:
GSFRVFODZ!PG!SPUPS!WPMUBHF!BOE!DVSSFOU! 9/9
Let us consider a typical pair of rotor bars. As the rotor “slips” backward through the flux field, the
flux linking these bars will vary cyclically. The voltage induced in the rotor circuit is composed of
the voltages in these two bars and the end rings. It is at its peak at the instant when the rate of change
of flux linkages is a maximum. Thus, one cycle of rotor voltage is generated as a given conductor
slips past two poles of the air-gap flux field. In other words, one cycle of rotor voltage corresponds
to 360 electrical degrees of “slips”. Then the frequency of the rotor voltages and currents is given by
f2 = Pole-pairs slipped per second
( ns - n) P È PN s PN s Pns ˘
= ÍE f1 = 120 = 2 ¥ 60 = 2 ˙
– ns. = s. f1 (8.7)
ns 2 Î ˚
Frequency of rotor voltage or current = Per unit slip ¥ Supply frequency
At standstill, rotor speed is zero.
( ns - n) ns - 0
\ s= = =1
ns ns
and f2 = f1
\ Er (rotor induced voltage) = sE1 (stator voltage)
2/!Tuboetujmm!Dpoejujpot
Let E20= emf induced per phase of the rotor at standstill
R2= Resistance per phase of the rotor
X20= Reactance per phase of the rotor at standstill (= 2pf1L2)
Z20= Rotor impedance per phase at standstill (= R2 + jX20)
I20= Rotor current per phase at standstill
Z20= R2 + jX20
E
Hence, I20 = 20 (8.8)
Z 20
and power factor at standstill is given by
R R20
cos f20 = 2 = (8.9)
Z 20 R + X2
2
2 20
3/!Spups!Dvssfou!bu!Tmjq!t
Induced emf per phase in the rotor winding at slip s is
Er = sE2 (8.10)
! 9/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
FNGT!JO!XJOEJOHT!PG!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPST! 9/:
Let suffixes 1 and 2 be used for stator and rotor quantities respectively
V1 = Stator applied voltage per phase
T1 = Number of stator winding turns in series per phase
T2 = Number of rotor winding turns in series per phase
f = Flux per pole produced by the stator mmf = Resultant air-gap flux
E1 = Stator induced emf per phase
E2 = emf induced in the rotor per phase when the rotor is at standstill
Er = emf induced in the rotor per phase when the rotor is rotating at a slip s
R1 = Resistance of stator winding per phase
R2 = Resistance of rotor winding per phase
L20 = Rotor inductance per phase at standstill due to leakage flux
X20 = Leakage reactance of the rotor winding per phase when the rotor is at standstill
f1 = Stator emf frequency (supply frequency)
f2 = Frequency of the induced emf in the rotor at a slip s
X2s = Leakage reactance of rotor winding per phase when the rotor is rotating at a slip s
Kd1 = Distribution factor of stator winding
Kd2 = Distribution factor of rotor winding
KP1 = Pitch factor or coil-span factor of stator winding
KP2 = Pitch factor or coil-span factor of rotor winding stator induced emf per phase
E1 = 4.44 KP1 Kd1 f1 fT1 (8.15)
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/22
Induced emf per phase in the rotor when the rotor is at standstill is given by
E2 = 4.44 KP2 Kd2 f1 f T2 (8.16)
Induced emf per phase in the rotor when the rotor is rotating at a slip (s) is given by
Er = sE20 = sE2 (say, assuming E2 same as E20) (8.17)
\ Er = 4.44 KP2 Kd2 sf1 f T2 (8.18)
Let KP1 Kd1 = Kw1 = Winding factor of stator (8.19)
and KP2 Kd2 = Kw2 = Winding factor of rotor (8.20)
\ E1 = 4.44 Kw1 f1 fT1 (8.21)
E2p = 4.44 Kw2 sf1 f T2 (8.22)
Here, we define
Te1 ? Kw1 T1 (8.23)
Te2 ? Kw2 T2 (8.24)
! Qspcmfn!9/2
B!uisff.qibtf-!gpvs.qpmf!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!svot!bu!2561!sqn/!Gjoe!pvu!uif!qfsdfoubhf!tmjq!pg!
uif!joevdujpo!npups/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
N s - N 1500 - 1450
\ Slip = = = 0.033 = 3.33%.
Ns 1500
! Qspcmfn!9/3
B! uisff.qibtf-! 61! I{-! tjy.qpmf! joevdujpo! npups! svot! bu! :61! sqn/! Dbmdvmbuf! )b*! uif! tzodispopvt!
tqffe-!)c*!uif!tmjq-!boe!)d*!gsfrvfodz!pg!uif!spups!fng/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
(a) We know, Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
N s - N 1000 - 950
(b) Slip (s) = = = 0.05
Ns 1000
\ percentage of slip = 0.05 ¥ 100 = 5
(c) The frequency of rotor emf = sf1 = 0.05 ¥ 50 = 2.5 Hz.
! 9/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/4
Uif!gsfrvfodz!pg!uif!fng!jo!uif!tubups!pg!b!gpvs.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!jt!61!I{/-!boe!uibu!jo!uif!spups!
jt!3!I{/!Xibu!jt!uif!tmjq!boe!bu!xibu!tqffe!jt!uif!npups!svoojoh@!
Solution
We know
f2 = s. f1
f 2
\ s= 2 = = 0.04 = 4%
f1 50
P ◊ Ns
Again f1 =
120
120 ◊ f1 120 ¥ 50
\ Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
Speed of the motor
N = (1 – s) . Ns = (1 – 0.04) ¥ 1500 = 1440 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!9/5
B!21.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!jt!tvqqmjfe!cz!b!tjy.qpmf!bmufsobups-!xijdi!jt!esjwfo!bu!2511!sqn/!Jg!uif!
npups!svot!xjui!b!tmjq!pg!3&-!xibu!jt!jut!tqffe@
Solution
For induction motor, Synchronous speed is given by
120 f 120 ¥ 70 È PN A 6 ¥ 1400 ˘
Ns = = = 840 rpm ÍE f = 120 = 120 = 70 Hz ˙
P 10 Î ˚
N - N 840 - N
Now slip, s= s =
Ns 840
840 - N
\ 0.02 =
840
\ N = 823.2 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!9/6
B!uisff.qibtf-!71!I{!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!op.mpbe!tqffe!pg!9:1!sqn!boe!b!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe!pg!966!
sqn/!Dbmdvmbuf!
! )b*! uif!ovncfs!pg!qpmft-!! ! )c*!tmjq!t!bu!op.mpbe-! ! )d*!tmjq!bu!gvmm.mpbe-!
! )e*! gsfrvfodz!pg!spups!dvssfout!bu!op.mpbe-!boe! ! )f*!gsfrvfodz!pg!spups!dvssfout!bu!gvmm.mpbe/
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/24
Solution
(a) Since the no-load slip of an induction motor is about one percent, the synchronous speed is
slightly larger than the no-load speed of 890 rpm. For 60 Hz frequency, the number of poles
and their corresponding synchronous speeds are
P 2 4 6 8 10
Ns (rpm) 3600 1800 1200 900 720
It is obvious that the synchronous speed can be only 900 rpm and therefore, the number of
poles is 8.
900 - 890
(b) No-load slip (s) = ¥ 100 = 1.11%
900
900 - 855
(c) Full-load slip = ¥ 100 = 5%
900
1.11
(d) At no-load, f2 (= sf1) = ¥ 60 = 0.66 Hz
100
5
(e) At full-load, f2 = ¥ 60 = 3 Hz.
100
! Qspcmfn!9/7
B!uisff.qibtf!tjy.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!svot!bu!871!sqn!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Ju!jt!tvqqmjfe!gspn!bo!bmufsob.
ups!ibwjoh!gpvs!qpmft!boe!svoojoh!bu!2311!sqn/!Efufsnjof!uif!gvmm.mpbe!tmjq!pg!uif!joevdujpo!npups/
Solution
Given the number of poles of alternator PA = 4 and the synchronous speed of the alternator is 1200
N ◊ PA 1200 ¥ 4
rpm, the frequency f is = = 40 Hz
120 120
\ frequency generated by the alternator is 40 Hz.
For the given induction motor, P = 6. Speed at full-load N = 760 rpm, supply frequency from the
alternator is f = 40 Hz.
120 f 120 ¥ 40
\ synchronous speed of the motor, Ns = = = 800 rpm.
P 6
Ns - N . 800 - 760
\ the percentage slip, s= 100 = ¥ 100 = 5%.
Ns 800
! Qspcmfn!9/8
B!uisff.qibtf-!511!W-!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!tqffe!pg!:11!sqn!po!gvmm.mpbe/!Uif!npups!ibt!
tjy!qpmft/!)b*!Gjoe!pvu!uif!tmjq/!)c*!Ipx!nboz!dpnqmfuf!bmufsobujpot!xjmm!uif!spups!wpmubhf!ublf!qfs!
njovuf@
! 9/25 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
(a) Given N = 900 rpm, f = 50 Hz and P = 60
120 ¥ f 120 ¥ 50
\ Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
N - N 1000 - 900
\ slip (s) = s = = 0.1 or 10%
Ns 1000
(b) Alternation of rotor voltage
f ¢ = s ¥ f = 0.01 ¥ 50 = 0.5/sec or 30/min.
! Qspcmfn!9/9
B!uisff.qibtf-! tjy.qpmf-! 61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b! tmjq! pg! 1/9&! bu!op.mpbe! boe! 3&!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!
Dbmdvmbuf
! )b*! uif!tzodispopvt!tqffe-! )c*! uif!op.mpbe!tqffe-! )d*! uif!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe-!boe!!
! )e*! uif!gsfrvfodz!pg!spups!dvssfou!bu!tuboetujmm/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
(a) Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
(b) Speed at no-load = (1 – slip at no-load) ¥ Ns = (1 – 0.008) ¥ 1000 = 992 rpm
(c) Speed at full-load = (1 – slip at full-load) ¥ Ns = (1 – 0.02) ¥ 1000 = 980 rpm
(d) Frequency of rotor current at standstill f2 = sf = 1 ¥ 50 = 50 Hz
(e) Frequency of rotor current at full-load, f2 = (slip at full-load) ¥ f
= 0.02 ¥ 50 = 1.0 Hz.
! Qspcmfn!9/:
Uif!wpmubhf!bqqmjfe!up!uif!tubups!pg!b!uisff.qibtf-!gpvs.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!gsfrvfodz!pg!61!
I{/!Uif!gsfrvfodz!pg!uif!fng!joevdfe!jo!uif!spups!jt!2/6!I{/!Efufsnjof!tmjq!boe!tqffe!bu!xijdi!uif!
npups!jt!svoojoh/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
(a) Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
Rotor emf frequency, f2 = sf
or 1.5 = s ¥ 50
1.5
\ slip (s) = = 0.03 or 3.0%
50
(b) Actual speed of motor is N = (1 – s). Ns = 1500 (1 – 0.03) = 1455 rpm.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/26
! Qspcmfn!9/21
B!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{-!tjy.qpmf!dbhf!npups!jt!svoojoh!xjui!b!tmjq!pg!4&/!Dbmdvmbuf
! )b*! uif!tqffe!pg!uif!spubujoh!gjfme!sfmbujwf!up!uif!tubups!xjoejoh!
! )c*! uif!npups!tqffe!
! )d*! uif!gsfrvfodz!pg!fng!joevdfe!jo!uif!spups!
! )e*! uif!tqffe!pg!spubujpo!pg!spups!nng!sfmbujwf!up!spups!xjoejoh!
! !)f*! uif!tqffe!pg!spubujpo!pg!spups!nng!sfmbujwf!up!tubups!xjoejoh
Solution
120 ¥ f 120 ¥ 50
(a) Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
Ê 3 ˆ
(b) N = Ns (1 – s) = 100 Á1 - = 970 rpm
Ë 100 ˜¯
3
(c) f2 = sf1 = ¥ 50 = 1.5 Hz
100
120 ¥ f 2 120 ¥ 1.5
(d) Speed of rotor mmf relative to rotor winding = = = 30 rpm
P 6
(e) Since the rotor is rotating at 970 rpm and the rotor mmf is revolving at 30 rpm with respect
to rotor, therefore, speed of the rotor mmf relative to the stationary winding (stator) is (970 +
30) rpm = 1000 rpm.
FRVJWBMFOU!DJSDVJU!PG! 9/21
BO!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS
When a balanced three-phase induction motor is excited by a balanced three-phase voltage source,
the currents in the phase windings must be equal in magnitude and 120° electrical degrees apart in
phase. The same must be true for the currents in the rotor windings as the energy transferred across
the air gap from the stator to the rotor is by induction only. However, the frequency of the induced
emf in the rotor is proportional to its slip. Since the stator and the rotor windings are coupled induc-
tively, an induction motor resembles a three-phase transformer with a rotating secondary winding.
The similarity becomes evident when the rotor is at rest (standstill condition s = 1). Thus, a three-
phase induction motor can be represented on a per-phase basis by an equivalent circuit at any slip
(s) as depicted in Fig. 8.3.
In this figure,
V1 = Applied voltage (rms value) to the stator on per-phase basis
R1 = Per-phase stator winding resistance
L1 = Per-phase stator winding leakage inductance
! 9/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
R1 jX1 R2 jXr
I1 Im I2
+
+
+ Ic E1
V1 Rm Xm Er
– Im –
–
a:1
Gjh/!9/4! Qfs.qibtf!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!b!cbmbodfe!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups
E2 (= 4.44 f1T2 Kw2 f) = Per-phase induced emf in the rotor winding under blocked-rotor condi-
tion (s = 1)
Er = sE2 = Per-phase induced emf in the rotor winding at slip (s)
I2 = Per-phase rotor winding current
I1 = Per-phase current supplied by the source
Im = Ic + Im = Per-phase excitation current
Ic = Per-phase core-loss current
Im = Per-phase magnetization current
Kw1 T1
a=
Kw 2 T2
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/28
From the per-phase equivalent circuit in Fig. 8.3, it is evident that the current in the rotor circuit
is
Er sE2
I2 = =
R2 + jX r R2 + jsX 2
E2
= (8.25)
( R2 / s) + jX 2
Based upon the above equation, we can develop another circuit of an induction motor as given
in Fig. 8.4. In this circuit, the hypothetical resistance (R2/s) in the rotor circuit is called the effective
resistance. The effective resistance is the same as the actual rotor resistance when the rotor is at
rest (standstill or blocked-rotor condition). On the other hand, when the slip approaches zero under
no-load condition, the effective resistance is very high (R2/s Æ •).
R2
R1 jX1 jX2
s
I1 Im I2
+
+
+ E1
V1 Rm jXm E2
Ic Im
– –
–
a:1
Gjh/!9/5! Npejgjfe!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!b!cbmbodfe!uisff.qibtf!npups!po!b!qfs.qibtf!cbtjt
We can represent the induction motor by its per-phase equivalent circuit as referred to the stator.
Such an equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 8.5, where
R¢2 = a2 R2
X¢2 = a2 X2 (8.26)
2
i.e., when referred to primary, the secondary impedance is a times of its value at the secondary
side.
E1 K w1 T1 Te1
\ = = =a (8.27)
E2 K w2 T2 Te2
where Te1 and Te2 are called effective stator and rotor turns per-phase respectively and a is effective
turns ratio of an induction motor
I1 Te2 1
Also, = = (8.28)
I 2 Te1 a
! 9/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Equation (8.27) shows that the ratio between stator and rotor emfs is constant at standstill. The
ratio depends on the turns ratio modified by distribution and pitch factors of the windings. The in-
duction motor, therefore, behaves like a transformer. It is to be noted that the factors for stator and
rotor windings are not the same, because the number of slots in them may be different.
I2
Also, I2¢ =
a
and E¢2 = aE2
For this equivalent circuit,
I 2 R2¢
E1 = + jI2 X2¢
s
and Im = Ic + Im
where
E1 E1
Ic = and Im =
Rm jX m
The per-phase stator winding current and the applied voltage are
I1 = Im + I¢2
and V1 = E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1)
The equivalent circuit of the rotor in Fig. 8.4 is in terms of the hypothetical resistance R2/s. In
this circuit, I22 R2/s represents the per-phase power delivered to the rotor. However, the per-phase
copper loss in the rotor must be I22 R2. Thus, the per-phase power developed by the rotor is
R¢2
R1 jX1 s jX¢2
I1 Im I¢2
+
V1 Ic Rm jXm
– Im
!
Gjh/!9/6! Qfs.qibtf!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!b!cbmbodfe!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!bt!sfgfssfe!up!uif!
tubups!tjef
R2 È1 - s ˘
I22 – I22 R2 = I22 R2 Í ˙
s Î s ˚
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/2:
R2 È1 - s ˘
while = R2 + R2 Í ˙ (8.29)
s Î s ˚
The above equation establishes the fact that the hypothetical resistance (R2/s) can be divided into
two components: the actual resistance of the rotor (R2) and an additional resistance [R2[(1 – s)/s]].
This additional resistance is called load resistance or the dynamic resistance. The load resistance
depends upon the speed of the motor and is said to represent the load on the motor because the
mechanical power developed by the motor is proportional to it. In other words, the load resistance
is the electrical equivalent of a mechanical load on the motor.
An equivalent circuit of an induction motor in terms of the load resistance is given in Fig. 8.6.
This circuit is said to be the exact equivalent circuit of a balanced three-phase induction motor on
per-phase basis referred to the stator side.
R1 jX1 R¢2 jX¢2
I1 Im I¢2
Ê I2 ˆ
Ic ÁË I2¢ = a ˜¯
jXm
Rm R¢2
V1 (1 – s)
Im E1 = E¢2 s
(E ¢2 = aE2)
Gjh/!9/7! Uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!Gjh/!9/6!npejgjfe!up!tipx!uif!spups!boe!mpbe!sftjtubodf
The approximate equivalent circuit of an induction motor is obtained by shifting the shunt branch
to the input terminals. The approximate equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 8.7. In an induction mo-
tor, as the no-load current is very high compared to that of the transformer (Article 8.6), the com-
putation using approximate equivalent circuit of an induction motor involves considerable error.
The phasor diagram of the induction motor is shown in Fig. 8.8.
I1 R1 jX1 R¢2 jX¢2
Im I¢2
Ic
jXm
Rm R¢2
V1 (1 – s)
Im V1 = E1 = E¢2 s
Gjh/!9/8! Bqqspyjnbuf!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!b!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups
! 9/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
fm
E2
= sE
Im 2
I1 Er
Im I2sx2
Im
I¢2 Ic I2R2 I2
E2
=a
E¢2
)=
I1R1 (–E 1
È-E1 = E2¢ = aE2; E1 / E2 = a; a > 1.˘
Í ˙
I1X1 Í I2¢ = (I2 / a ); In = Ic2 + I m2 ; ˙
Í ˙
Í Er = sE2 = I2 (R2 + jX 2 ◊ s ) ˙
Í ˙
V1 Î-E1 + I1(R1 + jx1) = V1 ˚
Gjh/!9/9! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!b!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!)pqfsbujoh!xjui!tmjqt*!po!qfs!qibtf!cbtjt
QPXFS!SFMBUJPOT!JO!B!UISFF.QIBTF! 9/22
JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS
Since the load resistance varies with the slip and the slip adjusts itself to the mechanical load on the
motor, the power delivered to the load resistance is equivalent to the power developed in the motor.
Thus, the performance of the motor at any slip can be determined from its equivalent circuit, as
given in Fig. 8.4.
For a balanced three-phase induction motor,
Pin = 3V1 I1 cos q (8.30)
where q is the phase difference between the applied voltage V1 and the stator winding current I"1.
The most important electrical loss that must be taken into consideration is the stator copper loss.
The total stator copper loss is given by
PL1 = 3 I12 R1 (8.31)
If the core loss is assumed to take phase in an equivalent core loss resistance (Rm), the total core
loss (magnetic loss) is obtained as
Pm = 3 Ic2 Rm (8.32)
The electrical power that is crossing the air gap and is transported to the rotor by electromagnetic
induction is called the air-gap power. In this case, the air-gap power is
3 I 22 R2
Pag = (8.33)
s
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/32
The electrical power loss in the rotor circuit or rotor copper loss is then
PL2 = 3 I22 R2 = sPag (8.34)
Hence, the power developed by the motor is
3 I 22 (1 - s) R2
Pe = Pag – PL2 = (1 – s)Pag (8.35)
s
The electromagnetic torque developed by the motor is
Pe (1 - s) Pag Pag R
Te = = = = 3 I 22 2 (8.36)
w (1 - s) w s w s sw s
By subtracting the rotational loss (Prot) from the power developed Pe , we obtain the power output
of the motor as
Po = Pe – Rotor mechanical loss (Prot)
Po = Pe – Pr (8.37a)
Since the core loss has already been accounted for, the rotational loss includes the friction and
windage loss Pf and Pw as well as the stray-load loss Pst.
Thus, Po = Pe – (Pf + Pw + Pst) = Te ¥ w (8.37b)
MPTTFT!BOE!FGGJDJFODZ!PG!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS! 9/23
At starting and during acceleration, the rotor core losses are high, and with the increase in speed
these losses decrease to some extent. The friction and windage losses are zero at start and with
increase in speed, these losses increase. However, the sum of friction windage and core losses is
roughly constant for a motor even with variable speed. Hence, these categories of losses are often
lumped together and called constant losses.
\ P(constant loss) = Pcore loss + Pmechanical loss
Losses in a three-phase induction motor are of two types, mainly (a) fixed losses, and (b) variable
losses
(a) Fixed losses
— Core loss
— Bearing friction loss
— Brush friction loss in wound rotors
— Windage loss
! 9/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3s (1 - s) Er2 R2
= (8.47)
R22 + s 2 X 22
P 3s E 2 R
\ Pag = e = 2 r2 2 2 (8.48)
1 - s R2 + s X 2
The power stages of a three-phase induction motor are shown in Fig. 8.9.
Air
gap
Pe (mechanical power
developed in rotor)
Input
power Rotor Shaft Shaft output (Po)
Stator
(Pin) Shaft output torque (Tsh)
Pag
Rotor
mechanical
Stator copper Rotor loss (Prot)
loss + stator copper
core loss loss Te (gross mechanical torque
(Pscu + Psc) (Prcu) developed in rotor)
Gjh/!9/:! Qpxfs!tubhft!jo!b!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups
! Qspcmfn!9/22
B!uisff.qibtf-!6!IQ-!511!W-!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!jt!xpsljoh!bu!gvmm.mpbe!xjui!bo!fggjdjfodz!pg!:1&!
bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!1/9!mbhhjoh/
Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!joqvu!qpxfs-!boe!)c*!uif!mjof!dvssfou/
Solution
Rating of the motor = 5 HP = 5 ¥ 735.5 = 3677.50 watts; V = 400 V (line value); f = 50 Hz; full-
load efficiency = 90% (= 0.9) and p.f = 0.8 (lagging).
Output
(a) E efficiency h = ,
Input
Output 5 ¥ 735.5
Input power = = = 4.086 kW
h 0.9
(b) For a three-phase induction motor,
Input power = 3 VL IL cos f
or 4086 = 3 ¥ 400 ¥ IL ¥ 0.8
4086
Hence, the line current (IL) = = 7.37 A.
3 ¥ 400 ¥ 0.8
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/36
! Qspcmfn!9/23
B!uisff.qibtf-!gpvs.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!svot!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2551!sqn!po!611!W-!61!I{!nbjot/!Uif!
nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!cz!uif!spups!jt!31/4!IQ/!Uif!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!bsf!3/34!IQ/!Efufsnjof!
)b*!uif!tmjq-!)c*!uif!spups!dpqqfs!mpttft-!boe!)d*!uif!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
120 ◊ f 120 ¥ 50
(a) Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
N s - N 1500 - 1440
\ Slip = = = 0.04 or 4%
Ns 1500
! Qspcmfn!9/24
Uif!gvmm.mpbe!tmjq!pg!b!611!IQ-!61!I{!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!jt!1/14/!Uif!spups!xjoejoh!ibt!b!
sftjtubodf!pg!1/41!W0qibtf/!Efufsnjof!uif!tmjq!boe!uif!qpxfs!pvuqvu-!jg!bo!fyufsobm!sftjtubodf!pg
3!pint!jt!jotfsufe!jo!fbdi!spups!qibtf/!Bttvnf!uibu!uif!upsrvf!sfnbjot!tbnf/
Solution
(a) R2 = 0.3 W, R¢2 = 2 + 0.3 = 2.3 W, s = 0.03
R2¢ ◊ s 2.3 ¥ 0.03
\ Slip s¢ = = = 0.23
R2 0.3
! Qspcmfn!9/25
B!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{-!gpvs.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!tubs.dpoofdufe!xpvoe!spups/!Uif!spups!fng!
jt!61!W!cfuxffo!uif!tmjq!sjoht!bu!tuboetujmm/!Uif!spups!sftjtubodf!boe!tuboetujmm!sfbdubodf!bsf!1/5!W!
boe!3/1!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Dbmdvmbuf
! )b*! uif!spups!dvssfou!qfs!qibtf!bu!tubsujoh!xjui!tmjq!sjoht!tipsu!djsdvjufe-
! )c*! uif!spups!dvssfou!qfs!qibtf!bu!tubsujoh!jg!61!W!qfs.qibtf!sftjtubodf!jt!dpoofdufe!cfuxffo!tmjq!
sjoht-
! )d*! uif!spups!fng!xifo!uif!npups!jt!svoojoh!bu!gvmm.mpbe!bu!2551!sqn-
! )e*! uif!spups!dvssfou!bu!gvmm.mpbe-!boe!
! )f*! spups!qpxfs!gbdups!)q/g/*!bu!gvmm.mpbe/
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
50
(a) Er = = 28.867 V
3
At standstill with slip rings short-circuited,
Er 28.867
I2 = = = 14.15 A
( R22 + X 22 )0.5 {(0.4) 2 + 22 }0.5
(b) The total resistance in the rotor circuit is 5.4 ohms per phase.
28.867
\ I2 = = 5.01 A
{(5.4) 2 + 22 }0.5
1500 - 1440
(c) Full-load slip = = 0.04
1500
\ Rotor emf = 28.87 ¥ 0.04 = 1.555 V/Ph
sEr 1.155
(d) I2 = 2 = = 2.82 A.
[ R2 + ( sX 2 ) ]
2 0.5
[0.4 + (0.04 ¥ 2) 2 ]0.5
2
! Qspcmfn!9/26
B!fjhiu.qpmf-! 61! I{-!uisff.qibtf! joevdujpo!npups! ibt! spups! joqvu!pg! 211! lX! po! gvmm.mpbe/! Uif!sp.
ups! fng! nblft! 231! dzdmft! qfs! njovuf/! Efufsnjof! )b*! spups! tqffe! jo! sqn-! )c*! spups! dpqqfs! mptt-!
)d*! nfdibojdbm! qpxfs! efwfmpqfe-! boe! )e*! spups! sftjtubodf! qfs! qibtf! jg! spups! dvssfou! jt! 91! B! qfs!
qibtf/
Solution
No. of poles P = 8
Supply frequency f = 50 Hz
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/38
Input = 100 kW
120
Rotor emf frequency = cycles/s = 2 cycles/s
60
= 2 Hz
\ sf = 2 Hz where s is the slip.
2
\ s= = 0.04
50
(a) Rotor speed Nr = (1 – s) Ns where Ns is the synchronous frequency
120 ¥ 50
Nr = (1 – 0.04) ¥
8
= 720 rpm
(b) Rotor input Pag = 100 kW
\ Rotor copper loss = sPag = 0.04 ¥ 100 = 4 kW
(c) Mechanical power developed
Pe = (1 – s) Pag = (1 – 0.04) ¥ 100 = 96 kW
(d) Rotor copper loss = I22 R2
where I2 is the rotor current and R2 is the rotor resistance per phase
! Qspcmfn!9/27
B!xpvoe.spups!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe!pg!691!sqn/!Jg!uif!tvqqmz!gsfrvfodz!jt!61!I{-!
efufsnjof!uif!ovncfs!pg!qpmft!boe!tmjq!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Jg!spups!sftjtubodf!jt!epvcmfe-!efufsnjof!uif!
dpqqfs!mptt!jg!uif!jojujbm!dpqqfs!mptt!jt!411!X/!
Solution
Motor speed Nr = 580 rpm
Supply frequency f = 50 Hz
As slip lies between 0.03 to 0.05 at full-load, the synchronous speed Ns = 600 rpm
If P be the number of poles then
120 f
= Ns
P
! 9/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
120 f 120 ¥ 50
or, P= = = 10
Ns 600
580
\ Slip s = 1 – = 0.033
600
The copper loss is proportional to the rotor resistance.
\ if rotor resistance is doubled, the copper loss is also doubled.
\ copper loss = 300 ¥ 2 = 600 W.
! Qspcmfn!9/28
B!uisff.qibtf!551!W-!tjy.qpmf-!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!efwfmpqt!56!IQ!bu!::1!sqn!bu!b!qpxfs!gbdups!
pg!1/:!mbhhjoh/!Efufsnjof!uif!spups!dpqqfs!mptt-!gsfrvfodz!pg!spups!fng!boe!upubm!qpxfs!joqvu/!Of.
hmfdu!nfdibojdbm!boe!jspo!mpttft!pg!uif!spups!boe!bttvnf!tubups!mpttft!up!cf!2611!X/
Solution
P=6
As mechanical losses are neglected,
Output power = Mechanical power developed by the motor.
\ Pe = 45 HP = 45 ¥ 735 W = 33075 W
990 990
Slip s = 1 – =1– = 0.01
120 ¥ 50 1000
6
If Pag is the rotor input power,
(1 – s) Pag = 33075
\ Pag = 33409 W
\ copper loss = sPag = 334.1 W
Frequency of rotor emf = sf = 0.01 ¥ 50 = 0.5 Hz
Total power input = Pag + Stator losses
= 33409 + 1500 = 34909 W.
! Qspcmfn!9/29
Uif! qbsbnfufst! pg! uif! frvjwbmfou! djsdvju! pg! b! uisff.qibtf! 61! IQ-! fjhiu.qpmf-! 551! W-! 61! I{! tubs.
dpoofdufe!joevdujpo!npups!sfgfssfe!up!uif!tubups!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
! S2! >!1/9!W!Y2!>!2/6!W
! S¢3! >!1/6!W!Y¢3!>!1/6!W
! Yn! >!41!W
Uif!tmjq!jt!4&/!Jg!uif!nfdibojdbm!boe!tubups!jspo!mpttft!bsf!2611!X-!boe!911!X-!efufsnjof!)b*!tqffe-!
)c*!tubups!dvssfou-!)d*!qpxfs!gbdups-!)e*!bjs.hbq!qpxfs-!nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!boe!qpxfs!pvu.
qvu-!)f*!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!boe!mpbe!upsrvf-!)g*!fggjdjfodz-!boe!)h*!spups!dpqqfs!mptt!qfs!qibtf/!Ofhmfdu!
dpsf!mptt!sftjtubodf!Sn/
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/3:
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns= = = 750 rpm
P 8
Slip s = 0.03
(a) Speed Nr = (1 – s) Ns = (1 – 0.03) ¥ 750 = 728 rpm
440
(b) Per phase supply voltage V1 = = 254 V
3
From Fig. 8.7,
V1
I¢2 =
(1 - s)
R1 + R2¢ + R2¢ ◊ + j ( X 1 + X 2¢ )
s
V1
=
Ê R2¢ ˆ
ÁË R1 + s ˜¯ + j ( X 1 + X 2¢ )
254
=
Ê 0.5 ˆ
ÁË 0.8 + 0.03 ˜¯ + j (1.5 + 0.5)
254
= = 14.44 -6.53∞ A
17.47 + j 2
254
\ Im = A (Neglecting Rm)
j 30
= 8.47 -90∞ A
Po 7591.228
(f) Efficiency h= = ¥ 100% = 69.47%
Pi 10927.3
Rotor copper loss per phase
sPag 0.03 ¥ 9372.4
= = W = 93.724 W.
3 3
! Qspcmfn!9/2:
B!41!IQ!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!pg!95&/!Uif!tubups!boe!spups!dpqqfs!mpttft!fbdi!
frvbm!uif!tubups!jspo!mptt!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Uif!upubm!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!bsf!pof!gjgui!pg!uif!op.mpbe!mptt/!
Efufsnjof!uif!gvmm.mpbe!tmjq!pg!uif!npups/
Solution
The output of the motor
Po = 30 HP = 30 ¥ 735 = 22050 W
22050
Input Pi = = 26250 W
0.84
\ total loss = Pi – Po = 4200 W
Let stator iron loss be x.
\ stator copper loss = Rotor copper loss = x
No-load loss = Stator iron loss + Mechanical loss = x + Mechanical loss
1
\ total mechanical loss = (x + Mechanical loss)
5
x
\ total mechanical loss =
4
\ Stator iron loss + Stator copper loss + Rotor copper loss + Mechanical loss = 4200
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/42
x
\ x+x+x+ = 4200
4
13 x
or, = 4200
4
or, x = 1292.31 W
\ mechanical power produced by the motor
Pe = Po + Mechanical loss
1292.31
= 22050 + = 22373 W
4
Power input to the rotor
Pag = Pi – Stator losses
= 26250 – 1292.31 ¥ 2
= 23665 W
If s be the slip at full-load,
(1 – s) Pag = Pe
22373
\ 1–s = = 0.9454
23665
or, s = 0.055.
! Qspcmfn!9/31
B!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!svoojoh!bu!b!tmjq!pg!51&!jt!ubljoh!bo!joqvu!pg!71!lX/!Jg!uif!tubups!
mpttft!bsf!2/6!lX!boe!gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mpttft!bsf!3/6!lX-!efufsnjof!)b*!qpxfs!joqvu!up!uif!sp.
ups-!)c*!spups!dpqqfs!mptt!qfs.qibtf-!)d*!nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe-!boe!)e*!npups!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
Slip s = 0.04
Input = 60 kW
Stator loss = 1.5 kW
(a) \ rotor input Pag = 60 – 1.5 = 58.5 kW
(b) Rotor copper loss PL2 = sPag = 0.04 ¥ 58.5
= 2.34 kW
(c) Mechanical power developed Pe = (1 – s) Pag = (1 – 0.04) ¥ 58.5
= 56.16 kW
(d) Motor output Po = Pe – 2.5 = 56.16 – 2.5
= 53.66 kW
53.66
\ efficiency = ¥ 100% = 89.43%.
60
! 9/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/32
B!uisff.qibtf-!gpvs.qpmf-!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!tvqqmjft!b!vtfgvm!upsrvf!pg!271!On!bu!5&!tmjq/!Ef.
ufsnjof!)b*!spups!joqvu-!)c*!npups!joqvu-!boe!)d*!fggjdjfodz/!Gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mpttft!bsf!611!X!
boe!tubups!mptt!jt!2111!X/
Solution
(a) Motor speed,
120 f (1 - s) 120 ¥ 50 (1 - 0.04)
N = Ns (1 – s) = = = 1440 rpm
P 4
Gross power developed in rotor of motor
Tshaft ¥ 2p N
(Pc) = + Friction + Windage losses
60
160 ¥ 2p ¥ 1440
or, (Pc) = + 500 = 24615 W
60
Pm 24615
\ Rotor input (Pg) = = = 25640 W
(1 - s) (1 - 0.04)
(b) Motor input (Pin) = Rotor input (Pag) + Stator losses = 25640 + 1000 = 26640 W
Net motor output (Po )
(c) Efficiency (h) = = 0.9052 = 90.52%.
Motor input (Pin )
! Qspcmfn!9/33
B!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{-!gpvs.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!tmjq!pg!5&/!Efufsnjof!)b*!tqffe!pg!uif!npups-!
boe!)c*!gsfrvfodz!pg!spups!fng!)d*!Jg!uif!spups!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!pg!2!W!boe!tuboetujmm!sfbdubodf!pg
5!W-!dbmdvmbuf!qpxfs!gbdups!)j*!bu!tuboetujmm-!boe!)jj*!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2511!sqn/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
(a) Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
( N s - N ) (1500 - N )
Now, slip (s) = 0.04 = =
Ns 1500
\ speed of motor, N = 1440 rpm
(b) Frequency of rotor emf, f2 (= sf1) = 0.04 ¥ 50 = 2 Hz = 120 rpm
(c) (i) At standstill, N = 0, s = 1
\ Rotor reactance = 4 ¥ s = 4 ¥ 1 = 4 W
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/44
! Qspcmfn!9/34
Uif!qpxfs!joqvu!up!b!tjy.qpmf-!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!jt!51!lX/!Tubups!mptt!jt!2!lX/!Gsjd.
ujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mptt!>!1/3!lX/!Tqffe!jt!:71!sqn/!Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!tmjq-!)c*!uif!CIQ-!)d*!uif!spups!
dpqqfs!mptt-!boe!)e*!uif!fggjdjfodz!h/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
(a) Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
N - N 1000 - 960
\ Slip (s) = s = = 4%
Ns 1000
40
(b) BHP (Brake Horse Power) = = 54.38 BHP [E 1 HP = 735.5 W]
0.7355
(c) Motor input = 40 kW, stator loss = 1 kW
\ Rotor input = 36 kW
Rotor copper loss = Slip ¥ Rotor input = 0.04 ¥ 39 = 1.56 kW
(d) Rotor gross output is (1 – s) ¥ rotor input = 39(1 – 0.04) = 37.44 kW
\ rotor output power = (37.44 – 0.2) kW = 37.24 kW
37.24
\ motor efficiency (h) = ¥ 100
40
i.e., h = 93% (app.).
! Qspcmfn!9/35
B!29/76!lX-!gpvs.qpmf-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mpttft!pg!3/7&!
pg!uif!pvuqvu!boe!gvmm.mpbe!tmjq!jt!5/3&/!Gjoe!pvu!)b*!uif!spups!dpqqfs!mptt-!)c*!uif!spups!joqvu-!)d*!uif!
pvuqvu!upsrvf-!boe!)e*!uif!hsptt!nfdibojdbm!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!jo!uif!spups/
Solution
2.6
Motor output = 18650 W, friction and windage losses = ¥ 18650 = 484.9 W.
100
! 9/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Ê s ˆ
(a) Rotor copper loss = Rotor gross power developed ¥ Á
Ë 1 - s ˜¯
= 19134.9 ¥ 0.42/(1 – 0.042) = 838.89
Rotor copper loss 838.89
(b) Rotor input Pag = = = 19973.5 W
Slip 0.042
[Alternatively, Rotor input = 19134.9 + 838.89 = 19973.79 W]
120 f 120 ¥ 50
(c) Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
! Qspcmfn!9/36
B!uisff.qibtf-!551!W-!61!I{-!tjy.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!svoojoh!bu!:61!sqn!ublft!61!lX!bu!b!dfsubjo!
mpbe/!Uif!gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mptt!jt!2/6!lX!boe!tubups!mpttft!>!2/3!lX/!Efufsnjof!)b*!uif!tmjq-!
)c*!uif!spups!dpqqfs!mptt-!)d*!uif!pvuqvu!gspn!uif!spups-!boe!)e*!fggjdjfodz/!
Solution
(b) Rotor copper loss = Slip ¥ Rotor input = 0.05 ¥ 48.8 kW = 2.44 kW
[Rotor input = Input – Stator loss = 50 – 1.2 = 48.8 kW]
(c) Rotor output = Rotor input – Rotor copper loss – Friction and windage loss
= 48.8 – 2.44 – 1.5 = 44.86 kW
Motor output 44.86
(d) Efficiency (h) = ¥ 100 = ¥ 100 = 0.897 = 89.7%.
Motor input 50
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/46
! Qspcmfn!9/37
B!uisff.qibtf-!526!W-!61!I{!tubs.dpoofdufe!gpvs.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!tubups!jnqfebodf![2!>!
)1/3!,!k!1/6*!W!boe!spups!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!tubups!tjef!jt![3!>!)1/2!,!k!1/6*!W!qfs!qibtf/!Uif!
nbhofuj{joh!sfbdubodf!jt!21!W!boe!sftjtubodf!sfqsftfoujoh!dpsf!mptt!jt!61!W!po!qfs!qibtf!cbtjt/
Efufsnjof!)b*!uif!tubups!dvssfou-!)c*!uif!tubups!qpxfs!gbdups-!boe!)d*!uif!spups!dvssfou/!Dpotjefs!tmjq!
bt!1/15/
Solution
I1 0.2 W 0.5 W 0.1 W 0.5 W
Io
I¢2
415 1 - sˆ
V 50 W 10 W RL = R¢2 ÊÁ
3 Ë s ¯˜
Gjh/!9/21! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!9/37
Ê1 - sˆ Ê 1 - 0.04 ˆ
Load resistance RL = R¢2 Á ˜ = 0.1 Á = 2.4 W
Ë s ¯ Ë 0.04 ˜¯
\ total resistance R1e = 2.4 + 0.2 + 0.1 = 2.7 W
and total reactance X1 = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1 W
Impedance Z1 = ( 2.7) 2 + 1 = 8.29 = 2.88 W
Angle of Z1 is tan–1 is (1/2.7) i.e., 20.323° (lag)
Given, VL = 415 V
415
\ Vphase = = 240 V
3
Vph 240 –0∞
\ I¢2 = = = 83.36 – – 20.323° A
Z1 2.88 – 20.325∞
i.e. rotor current (referred to stator) = 83.36 A [Ans. of (c)]
E I0 = IC + Im
240
and IC = = 4.8 A
50
240
and Im = = 24 A
10
\ I0 = Ic + I m = (4.8 – j 24) A
! 9/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/38
B!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{-!611!W!joevdujpo!npups!efwfmpqt!31!CIQ!bu!b!tmjq!pg!5&/!Uif!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!
bsf!2!IQ/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!fggjdjfodz!h-!jg!uif!tubups!mptt!jt!2111!X/!
Solution
Here, VL = 500 V, f = 50 Hz, s = 4% = 0.04
Given, BHP = 20, stator losses = 1000 W
Mechanical loss = 1 HP = 735.5 W
Power output = 20 BHP = 20 ¥ 735.5 W = 14710 W = Rotor net output.
\ Rotor gross mechanical power developed = Rotor net output + Mechanical loss
= 14710 + 735.5 = 15445.5 W
! Qspcmfn!9/39
B!uisff.qibtf-!tjy.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!efwfmpqt!41!IQ!jodmvejoh!3!IQ!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!bu!b!tqffe!
pg!:71!sqn!gspn!661!W-!61!I{!nbjot/!Uif!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!1/:!mbhhjoh/!Efufsnjof!)b*!uif!tmjq-!)c*!
uif!spups!dpqqfs!mptt-!)d*!uif!upubm!joqvu-!jg!tubups!mpttft!bsf!3!lX!)e*!uif!fggjdjfodz-!boe!)f*!uif!mjof!
dvssfou/
Solution
Here, P = 6, N = 960 rpm, f = 50 Hz,
VL = 550 V, p.f = cos f = 0.90
120 f 120 ¥ 50
(a) Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
N s - N 1000 - 960
Slip s = = = 0.04 = 4%
Ns 1000
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/48
30 ¥ 735.5 30 ¥ 735.5
(b) Power transferred from stator to rotor (Pag) = = = 22984.4 W
1- s (1 - 0.04)
\ rotor copper loss = (22984.4 – 28 ¥ 735.5) = 2390.4 W
(c) Total input = (30 ¥ 735.5 + 2000) = 24,065 W
30 ¥ 735.5
(d) Efficiency = = 0.96 %
22984.4
Inut 24065 24065
(e) Line current (IL) = = = = 28.06 A.
3 VL cos f 3 ¥ 550 ¥ 0.9 857.365
! Qspcmfn!9/3:
B!gpvs.qpmf-!61!I{-!joevdujpo!npups!tvqqmjft!21!lX!up!b!mpbe!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2551!sqn/
! )b*! Xibu!jt!uif!npupsÕt!tmjq@
! )c*! Xibu!jt!uif!joevdfe!upsrvf!jo!On@
! )d*! Xibu!xjmm!cf!uif!pqfsbujoh!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!jg!jut!upsrvf!jt!epvcmfe@
! )e*! Ipx!nvdi!qpxfs!xjmm!cf!tvqqmjfe!cz!uif!npups!jg!uif!upsrvf!jt!epvcmfe@
Solution
1440
(a) Slip s = 1 – = 0.04
120 ¥ 50
4
(b) Induced torque is assumed to be equal to the load torque and the load power is 10 kW
10 ¥ 103
\ Induced torque = Nm = 66.35 Nm
1440
2p ¥
60
(c) For low values of slip, the torque speed curve is linear; hence, induced torque is directly
proportional to slip.
\ when torque is doubled, slip is doubled.
\ s = 0.04 ¥ 2 = 0.08
120 ¥ 50
\ Speed = (1 – 0.08) ¥ = 1380 rpm
4
(d) \ power supplied to the motor
1380
P = 2 ¥ (66.35) ¥ 2p ¥ = 19167 W.
60
! Qspcmfn!9/41
B!uisff.qibtf-!551!W-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!fjhiu.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!qbsbn.
fufst!sfgfssfe!up!uif!tubups;
S2!>!1/3!W-!Y2!>!1/6!W-!S¢3!>!1/26!W-!Y3¢!>!1/7!boe!Yn!>!41!W/
! 9/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Efufsnjof!tubups!dvssfou!boe!q/g/!bu!sbufe!wpmubhf!boe!bu!t!>!1/14/!Ofhmfdu!Sn/
Solution
Referring to the equivalent circuit of Fig. 8.9, rotor current
V1
I¢2 =
Ê R2¢ ˆ
ÁË R1 + s ˜¯ + j ( X 1 + X 2¢ )
440 / 3
=
Ê 0 .15 ˆ
ÁË 0.2 + 0.03 ˜¯ + j (0.5 + 0.6)
254
= A
5.2 + j 1.1
= 47.79 -11.94∞ A
254
Im = = – j 8.467 A
j 30
\ stator current I1 = I¢2 + Im = 47.79 -11.94∞ – j 8.467
= 46.756 – j 18.354
= 50.23 -12.43∞ A
! Qspcmfn!9/42
B!61!IQ!joevdujpo!npups!esjwft!b!mpbe!xiptf!upsrvf!wbsjft!bt!uif!dvcf!pg!uif!tqffe/!Uif!gvmm.mpbe!
tmjq!jt!5&!boe!uif!tuboetujmm!spups!fng!jt!91!W/!Efufsnjof!uif!sftjtubodf!up!cf!beefe!jo!uif!spups!
djsdvju!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!cz!21&/!Ofhmfdu!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!boe!spups!sfbdubodf/
Solution
Full-load slip sf l = 0.04
Output = 50 ¥ 735.5 = 36775 W
Er
Rotor current I2 = (neglecting rotor reactance)
R2
s
80 ¥ 0.04 3.2
= =
R2 R2
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/4:
3 ¥ (10.88) 2 (1 - 0.136)
or, = 24128
(0.02 + R2¢ ) ¥ 0.136
or, (0.02 + R¢2) ¥ 3281.41 = 306.83
or, R¢2 = 0.0735 W/phase.
! 9/51 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/43
B!41!IQ-!551!W-!61!I{-!tjy.qpmf-!:91!sqn!joevdujpo!npups!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!b!mbhhjoh!q/g/!pg!1/96!xjui!
gsjdujpobm!boe!xjoebhf!mpttft!pg!3!IQ/!Efufsnjof!bu!gvmm.mpbe!)b*!spups!dpqqfs!mptt-!)c*!fggjdjfodz!jg!
tubups!mptt!jt!2611!X-!boe!)d*!mjof!dvssfou/
Solution
Frictional and windage loss = 2 ¥ 735
= 1470 W
Output power Po = 30 HP = 30 ¥ 735 = 22050 W
\ mechanical power developed by the motor
Pe = 22050 + 1470 = 23520 W
(a) If Pag be the air gap power then
Rotor copper loss = sPag
Again, Pe = (1 – s) Pag
P
or, Pag = e where s is the slip
1- s
980
\ s =1– = 0.02
120 ¥ 50
6
23520
\ rotor copper losses = 0.02 ¥ = 480 W
1 - 0.02
(b) Stator loss = 1500 W
480
\ power input Pi = Pag + 1500 = + 1500 = 25500
0.02
P 22050
\ efficiency = o ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 86.47%
Pi 25500
(c) If IL be the line current then
3 VL IL cos q = Pi
or, 3 ¥ 440 ¥ IL ¥ 0.85 = 25500
or, IL = 39.365 A.
! Qspcmfn!9/44
B!211!IQ-!341!W-!61!I{-!tjy.qpmf!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!esbxt!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!359!B!boe!
ibt!bo!fggjdjfodz!pg!:2&/!Uif!tubups!boe!spups!dpqqfs!mptt!bsf!3914!X!boe!265:!X!sftqfdujwfmz!boe!
tubups!dpsf!mptt!jt!27:8!X/!Efufsnjof!uif!qpxfs!joqvu-!upubm!mpttft-!bjs.hbq!qpxfs-!qpxfs!gbdups-!
dpncjofe!xjoebhf!boe!gsjdujpo!mptt-!boe!tibgu!upsrvf/
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/52
Solution
Shaft power Psh = 100 H.P. = 100 ¥ 735
= 73500 Watts
Efficiency h = 0.91
73500
\ power input to the stator Pin =
0.91
= 80769 W
Total losses = Pin – Psh = 7269 W
Total stator loss = Stator core loss + Stator copper loss
= 1697 + 2803 = 4500 W
\ Air-gap power = Power input to the rotor (Pag)
= 80769 – 4500 = 76269 W
If s be the slip then
Rotor copper loss = sPag
\ sPag = 1549
1549
or, s= = 0.0203
76269
\ electromagnetic power developed by the rotor
Pe = (1 – s) Pag = 74720 W
\ combined windage and friction
loss = 74720 – 73500 = 1220 W
80769
Now Pin = 3 VL IL cos q = = 0.817
3 ¥ 230 ¥ 248
120 ¥ 50
Rotor speed Nr = (1 – s) Ns = (1 – 0.0203) ¥
6
= 980 rpm
73500
\ Shaft torque Tsh =
980
2p ¥
60
= 716.56 Nm.
! Qspcmfn!9/45
B!551!W-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!jt!esbxjoh!61!B!bu!1/9!q/g/!mbhhjoh/!Uif!tubups!boe!
spups!dpqqfs!mpttft!bsf!4!lX!boe!2!lX!sftqfdujwfmz/!Uif!gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mpttft!bsf!911!X!boe!
dpsf!mptt!jt!3!lX/!Efufsnjof!bjs.hbq!qpxfs-!pvuqvu!qpxfs!boe!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups/
! 9/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Input power Pin = 3 VL IL cos q
= 3 ¥ 440 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.8
= 30484.1 W
Air-gap power Pag = Pin – Stator core loss – Stator copper loss
\ Pag = 30484.1 – 2000 – 3000
= 25484.1 W
Output power Po = Pag – Rotor copper loss – Friction and windage loss
= 25484.1 – 1000 – 800
= 23684.1 W
\ efficiency of the motor
23684.1
h= ¥ 100% = 77.69%.
30484.1
! Qspcmfn!9/46
B!551!W-!61!I{-!gpvs.qpmf!tubs.dpoofdufe!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!jnqfebodft!jo!pint!qfs!
qibtf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!tubups!tjef/
! S2! >!1/76!W-!S¢3!>!1/46!W-!Y2!>!2/26!W-!Y3¢!>!1/6-
! Yn! >!36!W
Uif!upubm!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!bsf!2311!X/!Efufsnjof!gps!b!spups!tmjq!pg!3/6&!uif!)b*!npupsÕt!tqffe-!
)c*! tubups! dvssfou-! )d*! qpxfs! gbdups-! )e*! pvuqvu! qpxfs-! )f*! tibgu! upsrvf-! boe! )g*! fggjdjfodz/! Ofhmfdu!
tubups!dpsf!mptt/
Solution
(a) s = 0.025
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
Motor’s speed = (1 – 0.025)1500 = 1463 rpm
(b) From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 8.5, the total equivalent impedance
Ê R¢ ˆ
jX m Á 2 + jX 2¢ ˜
Ë s ¯
Z = R1 + jX1 + (neglecting Rm)
R2¢
jX m + + jX 2¢
s
Ê 0.35 ˆ
j 25 Á + j 0.5˜
Ë 0.025 ¯
= 0.65 + j 1.15 +
0.35
j 25 + + j 0.5
0.025
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/54
Po 10016.9
(e) Shaft torque Tsh = = = 65.41 Nm
w 1463
2p ¥
60
Po 10016.9
(f) Efficiency h = = = 81.925%.
Pin 12226.85
! 9/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/47
B!tjy.qpmf-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!jt!svoojoh!bu!b!tqffe!pg!:61!sqn!xifo!uif!joqvu!jt!61!lX/!
Bu!uijt!dpoejujpo-!uif!tubups!dpqqfs!mptt!jt!2/6!lX!boe!uif!spubujpobm!mptt!jt!2!lX/!Efufsnjof!uif!
spups!dpqqfs!mptt-!fmfduspnbhofujd!qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!cz!uif!spups!boe!uif!nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!pvuqvu/
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed = = 1000 rpm
6
Rotor speed = 950 rpm
950
Hence, slip s =1– = 0.05
1000
Input = 50 kW
Hence, air-gap power (Pag) = (50 – 1.5) = 48.5 kW
\ rotor copper loss is (sPag) (= 0.05 ¥ 48.5) or 2.425 kW
\ gross mechanical power developed by the rotor is
[(1 – s)Pag] or, (1 – 0.05) ¥ 48.5 = 46.075 kW
\ Shaft power output = Gross mechanical power – Rotational loss
= 46.075 – 1 = 45.075 kW.
! Qspcmfn!9/48
B!uisff.qibtf-!526!W-!5!lX!efmub.dpoofdufe!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!tipsu.djsdvju!mjof!dvssfou!pg!31!
B!bu!311!W/!Uif!npups!jt!tubsufe!cz!b!tubs.efmub!tubsufs/!Jg!uif!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!boe!q/g/!bsf!1/96!
boe!1/9!sftqfdujwfmz-!efufsnjof!uif!tubsujoh!dvssfou!esbxo!cz!uif!npups!boe!sbujp!pg!tubsujoh!up!
gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou/
Solution
Short-circuit line current of the motor at 200 V is 20 A. Hence, phase current of the motor is
20
A, i.e. 1155 A.
3
415
The phase voltage of the motor is = 239.6 V (when started by star–delta starter).
3
È 239.6 ˘
Hence, the starting current drawn by the motor is Í11.55 ¥ A , i.e., 13.83 A.
Î 200 ˙˚
At full-load condition, the motor is delta connected.
40000
Hence, full-load line current is = 8.184 A
3 ¥ 415 ¥ 0.85 ¥ 0.8
13.83
\ the ratio of starting to full-load current = 1.689.
8.184
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/56
! Qspcmfn!9/49
Uif!gpmmpxjoh!bsf!uif!qbsbnfufst!pg!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!b!526!W-!uisff.qibtf-!tjy.qpmf!tubs.
dpoofdufe!joevdujpo!npups;
Tubups!jnqfebodf!>!)1/3!,!k!1/6* W
Nbhofuj{joh!sfbdubodf!>!36!W
Dpsf!mptt!sftjtubodf!>!261!W
Frvjwbmfou!spups!jnqfebodf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!tubups!>!)1/4!,!k!1/8*!W
Efufsnjof!uif!tubups!dvssfou-!spups!dvssfou-!nfdibojdbm!qpxfs!pvuqvu!boe!joqvu!qpxfs!bu!tmjq!pg!5&!
vtjoh!uif!fybdu!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju/
Solution
The per-phase exact equivalent circuit of the motor is shown in Fig. 8.5.
Here, R1 + jX1 = (0.2 + j 0.5) W
Xm = 25 W
Rm = 150 W; s = 0.04
R2¢ 0.3
\ + jX2¢ = + j 0.7 = (7.5 + j 0.7) W
s 0.04
The parallel combination of Rm and Xm gives
Rm ( jX m ) 150 ( j 25) j 150
Zm = = = W
Rm + jX m 150 + j 25 6 + j
È R¢ ˘
However, Zo is in parallel with Í 2 + jX 2¢ ˙
Î s ˚
È R¢ ˘
Z m Í 2 + jX 2¢ ˙
Hence, total input impedance is Z = Z1 + Î s ˚
È R2¢ ˘
Z m + Í + jX 2¢ ˙
Î s ˚
j 150
(7.5 + j 0.7)
6+ j
\ Z = (0.2 ¥ j 0.5) +
j 150
+ (7.5 + j 0.7)
6+ j
24.67 –80.54∞ ¥ 7.53 –5.33∞
= (0.2 + j 0.5) +
24.67 –80.54∞ + 7.5 + j 0.7
185.765 –85.87∞
= (0.2 + j 0.5) +
11.55 + j 25.03
! 9/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
185.765 –85.87∞
= (0.2 + j 0.5) +
27.57 –65.23∞
= 0.2 + j 0.5 + 6.74 – 20.64° = (6.51 + j 2.87) W.
\ stator current I1 is obtained as
415
–0∞
E1 3 239.6 –0∞
I1 = = = = 33.7 ––23.79° A
Z 6.51 + j 2.87 7.11 – 23.79∞
Voltage across the magnetizing branch is obtained as
E¢2 = E1 – I1(R1 + jX2)
= 239.6 –0° – 33.7 ––23.79° (0.2 + j 0.5)
= 239.6 –0° – 18.13 –44.4°
= 226.65 – j12.68 = 227 ––3.2° V
227 – - 3.2∞
\ current through Rm is, IC = = 1.51 ––3.2° A
150
227 – - 3.2
Current through Xm is, Im = = 9.08 ––93.2° A
j 2.5
Hence, no-load current
Im = 1.51 ––3.2° + 9.08 ––93.2°
= (1.5 – 0.5) + j (–0.08 – 9.06)
= 1 – j 9.146 = 9.2 ––83.76° A
Also, the rotor current referred to stator is
I 2¢ = I1 – Im = 33.7 ––23.79° – 9.2 ––83.76°
= (30.8 – 1) + j (–13.59 + 9.145)
= 29.8 – j 4.445 = 30.13 ––8.48° A
Per-phase mechanical power output is
Ê1 - sˆ Ê 1 - 0.04 ˆ
I¢2 R¢2 Á ˜ = (30.13)2 ¥ 0.3 Á
Ë s ¯ Ë 0.04 ˜¯
= 907.82 ¥ 0.3 ¥ 24 = 6536.3 W
Per-phase input power is (3E1 I1 cos q),
i.e., Pin = 3 ¥ 239.6 ¥ 33.7 cos 23.79°
= 22165.286 W = 22.165 kW.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/58
! Qspcmfn!9/4:
B!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{-!211!lX!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!pg!96&/!Uif!tubups!dpqqfs!
mptt!boe!spups!dpqqfs!mptt!bsf!fbdi!frvbm!up!uif!tubups!dpsf!mptt!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Uif!nfdibojdbm!mptt!
jt!frvbm!up!pof!gpvsui!pg!uif!spups!dpqqfs!mptt/!Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!uif!spups!dpqqfs!mptt-!)c*!uif!bjs!hbq!
qpxfs-!boe!)d*!uif!tmjq/
Solution
100
Input power of the motor is kW = 117.65 kW
0.85
Total loss = Input – Output = (117.65 – 100) kW = 17.65 kW
Let stator copper loss = Rotor copper loss = Stator core loss = P
1 P
Mechanical loss = Rotor copper loss =
4 4
Now, Total loss = Stator core loss + Stator copper loss + Rotor copper los + Mechanical loss
P 13 P
=P+P+P+ =
4 4
13 P
Hence, = 17.65
4
or P = 5.43
\ rotor copper loss is 5.43 kW.
Air gap power = Input power – Stator core loss – Stator copper loss
= 117.65 – 5.43 – 5.43 = 106.788 kW
But, Rotor copper loss = Slip ¥ Air gap power
5.43
Hence, slip = = 0.05.
106.788
! Qspcmfn!9/51
Bo!fjhiu.qpmf-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf!pg!311!On!xifo!uif!gsf.
rvfodz!pg!uif!spups!fng!jt!3/6!I{/!Jg!uif!nfdibojdbm!mptt!jt!26!On-!efufsnjof!uif!spups!dpqqfs!mptt!
boe!uif!fggjdjfodz!pg!uif!npups/!Uif!upubm!tubups!mptt!jt!2111!X/
Solution
If s be the slip at full-load then
s.f = 2.5 (from the given data)
2.5
\ s= = 0.05
50
The speed of the motor at full-load
N = (1 – s) Ns
! 9/59 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
120 f 120 ¥ 50
But synchronous speed Ns = = = 750 rpm
P 8
Hence, N = (1 – 0.05) 750 = 713 rpm
713 ¥ 2p
or w= rpm = 74.665 rad/s
60
Mechanical power developed by the rotor
Pm = (200 + 15) Nm = 215 Nm = 215 ¥ 74.665
= 16052.975 W [E P = ws ¥ T]
If Pag be the air-gap power then,
(1 – s) Pag = Pm
16.053
or Pag = kW = 16.898 kW
1 - 0.05
Rotor copper loss is (sPag) = 0.05 ¥ 16.898 = 0.845 kW
Motor input = 16.052 + 0.845 + 1 = 17.897 kW
Motor output = 200 ¥ 74.665 W = 14.933 kW
14.933
Hence, efficiency is = 0.8344 or 83.44%.
17.897
! Qspcmfn!9/52
B!tjy.qpmf-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!efwfmpqt!36!IQ!jodmvejoh!4!IQ!nfdibojdbm!mpttft!bu!b!tqffe!
pg!:71!sqn!xifo!dpoofdufe!up!551!W-!uisff.qibtf!nbjot/!Uif!qpxfs!gbdups!jt!1/9/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!tmjq-!
)c*!uif!spups!dpqqfs!mptt-!)d*!uif!upubm!joqvu!jg!tubups!mptt!jt!4!lX-!boe!)e*!uif!fggjdjfodz/
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
Speed of the motor N = 960 rpm
Ê 960 ˆ
(a) Slip = Á1 - = 0.04
Ë 1000 ˜¯
(b) Gross mechanical power developed is 35 ¥ 735.5 W = 25742.5 W
or Pm = 25742.5 W = 25.742 kW
P 25.742
\ air-gap power (Pag) = m = = 26.81 kW
1 - s 1 - 0.04
Hence, rotor copper loss is sPag, i.e. 0.04 ¥ 26.81 or 1.072 kW.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/5:
! Qspcmfn!9/53
B!21!lX-!551!W-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe-!61!I{-!fjhiu.qpmf!trvjssfm.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!uif!
gpmmpxjoh!qfs.qibtf!dpotubout!sfgfssfe!up!uif!tubups/
S2!>!1/3!W-!Y2!>!2!W-!S3!>!1/29!W-!Y3!>!2/6!W-!Y1!>!41!W
Uif!dpotubou!mptt!jt!611!X!boe!uif!tmjq!jt!6&/
Efufsnjof!uif!tubups!dvssfou-!pvuqvu!upsrvf!boe!fggjdjfodz/!Ofhmfdu!dpsf!mptt!sftjtubodf/!
Solution
The equivalent circuit of the induction motor is shown in Fig. 8.5.
The per-phase applied stator voltage
440
E1 = V = 254 V
3
Slip s = 0.05 (given)
Ê 0.18 ˆ
j 30 Á + j 1.5˜
Ë 0.05 ¯
Neglecting Rm total impedance from input = (0.2 + j1) + W
0.18
j 30 + + j 1.5
0.05
-45 + j 108
= 0.2 + j + W
3.6 + j 31.5
117 –112.62∞
= 0.2 + j +
31.7 –83.48∞
= 0.2 + j + 3.69 – 29.14° W
= 1.073 + j 1.487 + 1.834 – 54.186° W
254
\ stator current I1 = = 138.49 – –54.186°
1.834 –54.186∞
3(138.49) 2 ¥ 0.2
Air-gap power Pag = 61.757 – = 50.25 kW
1000
[\ Pag = Stator input power – Stator copper loss, core loss being neglected in stator]
Mechanical power developed
Pm = (1 – s) Pg = (1 – 0.05) 50.25 = 47.737 kW
Ê 500 ˆ
Power output Pout = Á 47.737 - 3 ˜ = 47.237 kW
Ë 10 ¯
47.237 ¥ 103
Output torque Tout = Nm. [where N (rpm) is the speed of the motor,
2p ¥ N
60
Pout N 120 ¥ 50
Tout = , ws = 2pns, ns = rpm; N = (1 – 0.05) ¥ = 712.5 rpm]
ws 60 8
47.237 ¥ 103 ¥ 60
Hence, output torque = = 633.40 Nm
2p ¥ 712.5
Power output 47.237
Efficiency = = ¥ 100% = 76.48%.
Power input 61.757
! Qspcmfn!9/54
Uif!spups!sftjtubodf!pg!bo!fjhiu.qpmf-!61!I{!xpvoe.spups!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!sftjtubodf!pg!1/6!W!
qfs!qibtf/!Uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!jt!831!sqn!bu!gvmm.mpbe/!Efufsnjof!uif!fyufsobm!sftjtubodf!up!cf!
dpoofdufe!xjui!uif!spups!djsdvju!up!sfevdf!uif!tqffe!up!791!sqn!gps!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = = 750 rpm
P 8
È 720 ˘
Slip (s) = Í1 - ˙ = 0.04
Î 750 ˚
If R2 be the rotor resistance then the rotor copper loss is I22 R2, where I2 is the rotor current. If Pag
be the air-gap power or power input to the rotor then
sPag = I22 R2
I 22 R2 0.5 I 22
or 0.04 = = (i)
Pag Pag
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/62
Hence, the external resistance to be connected is (R – R2) or (1.1625 – 0.5), i.e., 0.6625 W per
phase.
UPSRVF!FYQSFTTJPO!PG!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS! 9/24
From Eq. (8.36) and Eq. (8.46), the electromagnetic torque developed by the induction motor
Pag 3 R2¢ V12
Te = = Nm (8.49)
ws ÏÔÊ R¢ ˆ
2 ¸Ô
w s s ÌÁ R1 + 2 ˜ + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2 ˝
Ë a¯
ÓÔ ˛Ô
when the circuit parameters are referred to the stator side.
From Eq. (8.48),
3 R2 sEr2
Te = (8.50)
w s ( R22 + s 2 X 22 )
when the circuit parameters are referred to the rotor side.
9/24/2! Tubsujoh!Upsrvf!)Ut*
The expression for starting torque is obtained from Eq. (8.49) putting s = 1
3 V12
\ Ts = R¢2 Nm (8.51)
ws ( R1 + R2¢ ) 2 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2
! 9/63 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
9/24/3! Fggfdu!pg!Dibohf!pg!Tvqqmz!Wpmubhf!po!Upsrvf!boe!Tmjq!
From Eq. (8.49),
3 V12 s
Te = R¢2
ws ( R1s + R2¢ ) 2 + ( sX 1 + sX 2¢ ) 2
As R1s 1 R¢2 and sX1 and sX 2¢ are negligible for low values of s.
3 V2 s
Te = R¢2 1 2
ws R2¢
V12 s
or, Te μ (8.53)
R2¢
Therefore, torque under normal conditions is proportional to the square of the supply voltage.
With drop in supply voltage, running torque T decreases and to maintain the same torque, slip must
be increased.
9/24/4! Dpoejujpo!gps!Nbyjnvn!Upsrvf!)Unby*
To get the slip for maximum torque condition, we differentiate Eq. (8.49) with respect to slip. Since
the numerator of this equation is independent of s, we differentiate the denominator w.r.t. s.
d ÏÔÊ R2¢ ˆ
2 ¸Ô
\ s ÌÁ R1 + ˜ + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2 ˝ = 0
ds Ë s ¯
ÓÔ ˛Ô
Ï Ê R¢ ˆ Ê R¢ ˆ ¸ Ê R¢ ˆ
or, s Ì2 Á R1 + 22 ˜ Á - 22 ˜ ˝ + Á R1 + 2 ˜ + (X1 + X2¢)2 = 0
Ó Ë s ¯ Ë s ¯˛ Ë s ¯
R1R2¢ R¢ R¢ 2 2 R R¢
or, –2 - 2 22 + R12 + 22 + 1 2 + (X1 + X2¢)2 = 0
s s s s
R2¢ 2
or, R12 – 2
+ (X1 + X2¢)2 = 0
s
R2¢ 2
or, 2
= R12 + (X1 + X 2¢ )2 = 0
s
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/64
3 V12 R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2
=
w s {R12 + R12 + ( X1 + X 2¢ ) 2 + 2 R1 R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2 }
3 V12 R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2
=
w s {2 R12 + 2 ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2 + 2 R1 R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2 }
3 V12 R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2
=
2 w s R12 + ( X 1 + X 21 ) 2 { R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2 + R1}
3 V12
( )
= (8.56)
2 w s R1 + R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2
K Er2
or, Tmax =
X2
3
where K=
2 ws
1
\ Tmax μ
X2
Thus, the maximum torque of an induction motor operating on constant applied voltage and con-
stant supply frequency is inversely proportional to the standstill rotor reactance X2 but independent
of rotor circuit resistance R2.
From Eq. (8.50) and Eq. (8.58), we have
Te 2s X R 2s 2s
= 2 22 2 2 = =
Tmax R2 + s X 2 R2 X 2
+ s 2 2 smax + s
X2 R2 smax
2
= (8.59)
smax s
+
s smax
Again from Eq. (8.59), putting s = 1,
Ts 2
= (8.60)
Tmax 1
smax +
smax
For squirrel-cage induction motor since the rotor is permanently short circuited, no resistance
can be inserted in its rotor circuit. Thus, slip for maximum torque is constant and its value is con-
siderably varied.
Since external resistance can be inserted into the rotor circuit in a slip-ring induction motor, its
slip can be varied for obtaining maximum torque. For rotor circuit without external resistances,
R
smax (1) = 2
X2
and if a resistance r per phase is inserted in the rotor circuit,
R2 + r
smax (2) =
X2
9/24/5! Dpoejujpo!gps!Nbyjnvn!Tubsujoh!Upsrvf!
We obtain the condition for maximum starting torque by differentiating Eq. (8.52) with respect to
R2.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/66
d Ts d Ê 3 R2 Er2 ˆ
\ = =0
dR2 dR2 ÁË w s ( R22 + X 22 ) ˜¯
d Ê R2 ˆ
or, =0
dR2 ÁË R22 + X 22 ˜¯
UPSRVFÐTMJQ!DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT!PG!B! 9/25!
UISFF.QIBTF!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS
From Eq. (8.50), we can write
s
Tμ
R22 + X 22 s 2
At synchronous speed, slip s is zero, hence, torque T is zero.
Consequently, the torque slip curve starts from origin (i.e. s = 0), and ends at s = 1.
Dbtf!Tuvez!2
s
When s (slip) is very low (at rotor speeds close to synchronous speed), sX2 1 R2 and T μ 2 (at
low slips). R2
i.e. torque-slip curve at low values of slip is a straight line passing through the origin, and torque is
R
maximum when s = 2 (from Eq. 8.55).
X2
Dbtf!Tuvez!3
When the load on the motor increases, the speed of the motor decreases. When slip s is large, com-
pared to R2, sX2 is much large and hence, sX2 1 R2.
s 1 1
Tμ μ μ (at high slips)
( sX 2 ) 2 sX 22 s
! 9/67 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
i.e. the torque T slip s curve for larger values of slip is approximately a rectangular hyperbola.
Consequently, any further increase in motor load, beyond the print of maximum torque, results in
decrease of the torque developed by the motor. Eventually, the motor slows down. The maximum
torque developed in an induction motor is called the pull-out torque or breakdown torque. This
torque is a measure of the short-time overloading capability of the motor. Figure 8.11 shows the
torque-slip characteristics of an induction motor operating with constant applied voltage and con-
stant frequency.
R +r
Smax(2) = 2 1
R +r X2 S R2
Smax(3) = 2 2 max(1) =
X2 X2
Tmax
3
1
Max. torque
Torque (T)
O (s = 0) (N = Ns)
s = 1(N = 0)
Slip
[r2 > r1]
Speed
Gjh/!9/22! Upsrvf.tmjq!dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!bo!joevdujpo!npups
Dvswf!2! represents (T-s) characteristic of an induction motor having low rotor resistance or when
no resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit.
R
Maximum torque is developed at Smax (1) = 2 .
X2
Dvswf!3! represents the (T-s) characteristic of an induction motor. When an external resistance of
r1 W/phase is inserted in the rotor circuit, the magnitude of the maximum torque remains unchanged,
but the slip for maximum torque in Smax (2) = (R2 + r1)/X2.
Dvswf!4! represents the (T-s) characteristic of an induction motor, when an external resistance of
r2 W/phase is inserted in the rotor circuit such that R2 + r2 = X2, a condition for maximum torque
at starting.
It may be noted here that (R2 + r2) > (R2 + r1) > R2
It is also seen that as the rotor resistance is increased, the pull-out speed of the motor decreases,
but the maximum torque remains constant. However, for squirrel-cage rotors, it is not possible to
insert any rotor resistance under normal operating conditions and hence, it is not easily possible to
enhance the value of the starting or maximum torque for a squirrel-cage induction motor.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/68
UPSRVF!DPOEJUJPO!EVSJOH!MPBEJOH-! 9/26
CSFBLEPXO!BOE!OP.MPBE
Assume the induction motor is operating initially at rated load and then subsequently mechanical
load increases. For this condition, the load torque becomes greater than the developed torque, and
the motor slows down. The resultant increase in slip causes an increase in the developed torque. If
the new developed torque (caused by the increase in slip) equals the load torque on the shaft plus
windage, friction, and stray load, the motor will then operate at the steady-state speed and at a
higher slip.
Further increase in shaft load (overload) causes additional deceleration, accompanied by
increase in input power and thus, increase in developed torque. If, however, the load torque on the
shaft is increased to a value greater than the maximum torque that the machine can develop, the
machine will “break down”. Increase in slip, due to increase in shaft load above the breakdown
value, causes a rapid decrease in speed and may even stall the motor.
There will be a very high input current (similar to short circuit of secondary of transformer) and
this will burn out the motor windings unless protective devices remove the machine from the line.
The breakdown torque is then defined as the maximum torque that a motor can develop while being
loaded (at rated voltage and rated frequency) without suffering an abrupt drop in speed.
Although an induction motor can be operated momentarily at overloads up to the breakdown
point, it cannot do so continuously without overheating and causing severe damage, to both stator
and rotor. If a sustained overload occurs, to prevent damage, a motor control circuits using overload
relays and/or solid state devices should be used to trip the machine from the line.
If there is no-load on the shaft, the rotor will run near synchronous speed and the rotor current
will be very low and near zero value. Under such conditions, the line current drawn by the stator
will only be enough to produce the rotating magnetic field and supply the friction, windage and
iron losses. Thus, in a way, the no-load current drawn by the stator of an induction motor is similar
to the exciting current of a transformer that supplies only the transformer flux and iron losses. The
complete equivalent circuit of an induction motor, including stator and rotor windings, is similar to
the equivalent circuit of a transformer.
Neglecting the induction motor exciting current, the stator (primary) current will be directly
proportional to the rotor (secondary) current. Increasing the shaft load increases the rotor current,
causing a proportional increase in stator current (Istator μ Irotor).
9/26/2! Qbsbtjujd!Upsrvft
The periodic variation of magnetic-circuit reluctance, caused by rotor and stator slots, results in a
nonsinusoidal space distribution of the rotating flux. Analysis of this rotating flux pattern shows it
to consist of a number of rotating fields of different speeds called space harmonics. The first har-
monic, called the fundamental, runs at a speed corresponding to the number of poles in the actual
winding. The fifth space harmonic rotates backward at one-fifth the speed of the fundamental, the
! 9/69 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
seventh space harmonics rotates forward one-seventh the speed of the fundamental, and so forth.
There are no even space harmonics and no third harmonics or its multiples. Although the funda-
mental dominates, the component torques produced by the fifth and seventh harmonics, called
parasitic torques or harmonic torques, can cause undesirable bumps and dips in the motor torque-
speed characteristic during acceleration, and may even cause the rotor to lock in at some subsyn-
chronous speed and “crawl”. Figure 8.12 shows the effect of parasitic torques on the torque-speed
characteristic. The presence of significant dips in the torque-speed characteristic of an induction
motor may indicate a defective design, a damaged rotor, or improper repair of a damaged stator.
Breakdown
Developed Torque
Pull up
Locked rotor
O Speed 100%
Gjh/!9/23! Fggfdu!pg!qbsbtjujd!upsrvft!po!uif!upsrvf.tqffe!dibsbdufsjtujd!pg!bo!joevdujpo!npups
9/26/3! Qvmm.vq!Upsrvf!
The pull-up torque of an induction motor is the minimum torque developed by the motor during
the period of acceleration from rest to the speed at which breakdown torque occurs. For the torque-
speed characteristic, the pull-up torque is the value of torque at the bottom of the dip caused by a
parasitic torque. If the pull-up torque is less than the load torque on the shaft, the motor will not
accelerate past the pull-up point.
! Qspcmfn!9/55
B!uisff.qibtf!gpvs.qpmf!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!spups!sftjtubodf!pg!1/131!W0qibtf!boe!tuboe.
tujmm!sfbdubodf!pg!1/6!W0qibtf/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!tqffe!bu!xijdi!uif!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!jt!efwfmpqfe/
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/6:
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
R2 0.020
For maximum torque slip, smax = = = 0.04
X2 0.5
\ speed at maximum torque = Ns (1 – smax) = 1500 (1 – 0.04) = 1440 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!9/56
B!uisff.qibtf!fjhiu.qpmf!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!gvmm.mpbe!tmjq!pg!2/6&/!Uif!spups!sftjtubodf!jt!
1/112!W0qibtf!boe!uif!tuboetujmm!sfbdubodf!jt!1/116!W0qibtf/!Dbmdvmbuf!uif!sbujp!pg!uif!nbyjnvn!
up!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf-!boe!uif!tqffe!bu!xijdi!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!ublft!qmbdf/
Solution
Given: f = 50 Hz, P = 8, s = 0.015, R2 = 0.001 W;
X2 = 0.005 W,
R2 0.001
smax = = = 0.2
X 2 0.005
T 2 ◊ s ◊ smax 2 ¥ 0.015 ¥ 0.2 6 ¥ 10 -3
Now = = =
Tmax s 2 + smax
2
(0.015) 2 + (0.2) 2 4.02 ¥ 10 -2
T 4.02 ¥ 10 -2
\ = = 6.7
Tmax 6 ¥ 10 -3
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Now, Ns = = = 750 rpm
P 8
! Qspcmfn!9/57
B!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{!tjy.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!svot!po!gvmm.mpbe!xjui!b!tmjq!pg!1/15/!Efufsnjof!uif!
bwbjmbcmf!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!jo!ufsnt!pg!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf/!Bmtp!efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!bu!xijdi!uif!nbyj.
nvn!upsrvf!ublft!qmbdf/!\Hjwfo!uibu!uif!spups!tuboetujmm!jnqfebodf!qfs!qibtf!jt!)1/12!,!k!1/16*!W/^
Solution
Slip (s) = 0.04
R2 0.01
smax = = = 0.2
X 2 0.05
! 9/71 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Tmax s 2 + smax
2
(0.04) 2 + (0.2) 2
\ = = = 2.6
T 2 ◊ s ◊ smax 2 ¥ 0.04 ¥ 0.2
or Tmax = 2.6 ¥ T [T is full-load torque].
! Qspcmfn!9/58
B!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{!gpvs.qpmf!joevdujpo!npups!)tmjq!sjoh*!efwfmpqt!b!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!pg!211!On!
bu!2511!sqn/!Uif!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!tubs.dpoofdufe!spups!jt!1/36!W0qibtf/!Efufsnjof!uif!wbmvf!pg!
sftjtubodf!uibu!nvtu!cf!jotfsufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!fbdi!spups!qibtf!up!qspevdf!b!tubsujoh!upsrvf!frvbm!
up!ibmg!uif!nbyjnvn!upsrvf/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
The synchronous speed Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
Speed at maximum torque = 1400 rpm (given)
N s - Speed at maximum torque
\ slip (smax) at maximum torque =
Ns
1500 - 1400
= = 0.067
1500
R2
Also, smax =
X2
R2 0.25
\ X2 = = = 3.73
smax 0.067
From Eq. (8.60),
Ts 2 1
= =
Tmax 1 2
smax +
smax
1
\ smax + =4
smax
or, smax = 0.2679
If r be the external resistance inserted then
0.25 + r
= 0.2679
3.73
\ r = 0.75 W.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/72
! Qspcmfn!9/59
B! uisff.qibtf-! 35.qpmf-! 61! I{-! 4311.wpmu! tubs.dpoofdufe! joevdujpo! npups! ibt! b! tmjq.sjoh! spups! pg!
1/127!W!sftjtubodf!boe!tuboetujmm!sfbdubodf!pg!1/381!W!qfs!qibtf/!Gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf!jt!pcubjofe!bu!b!
tqffe!pg!358!sqn/!Efufsnjof
)b*!uif!sbujp!pg!nbyjnvn!up!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf
)c*!uif!tqffe!bu!nbyjnvn!upsrvf-!tubups!jnqfebodf!cfjoh!ofhmfdufe/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = = 250 rpm
P 24
N s - N 250 - 247
\ slip (s) = = = 0.012
Ns 250
R2 0.016
Also, smax = = = 0.059
X 2 0.270
T 2 ◊ smax ◊ s
We know, =
Tmax s 2 + smax
2
T 2 ¥ 0.059 ¥ 0.012
Here, =
Tmax (0.012) 2 + (0.059) 2
T (0.012) 2 + (0.059) 2
or = = 2.56
Tmax 2 ¥ 0.059 ¥ 0.012
Let N¢ be the intended speed at maximum torque.
N s - N ¢ 250 - N ¢
Then, smax = =
Ns 250
smax = 0.059 from calculations we have got earlier.
250 - N ¢
i.e., 0.059 =
250
or N¢ = 235.25 rpm.
! Qspcmfn!9/5:
B!uisff.qibtf-!tjy.qpmf!61!I{-!joevdujpo!npups!efwfmpqt!b!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!pg!41!On!bu!:71!sqn/!
Dbmdvmbuf!uif!upsrvf!qspevdfe!cz!uif!npups!bu!7&!tmjq/!Uif!spups!sftjtubodf!qfs!qibtf!jt!1/7!W/
Solution
Given, f = 50 Hz, P = 6
! 9/73 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
120 f 120 ¥ 50
\ Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
R2
Also, smax =
X2
R2 0.6
\ X2 = = = 15 W
smax 0.04
T 2 s ◊ smax
If T is the torque at slip s, = .
Tmax s 2 + smax
2
! Qspcmfn!9/61
B! 857! lX-! uisff.qibtf-! 61! I{-! 27.qpmf! joevdujpo! npups! ibt! b! spups! jnqfebodf! pg!
)1/13!,!k1/26*!pint!bu!tuboetujmm/!Gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf!jt!pcubjofe!bu!461!sqn/
Efufsnjof!)b*! uif! tqffe! bu!xijdi! nbyjnvn!upsrvf! pddvst-! )c*! uif! sbujp! pg! nbyjnvn!up! gvmm.mpbe!
upsrvf-! )jjj*! uif! fyufsobm! sftjtubodf! qfs! qibtf! up! cf! jotfsufe! jo! uif! spups! djsdvju! up! hfu! nbyjnvn!
upsrvf!bu!tubsujoh/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Ns = = = 375 rpm
P 16
Speed at full-load = 350 rpm
375 - 350
\ slip at full-load = = 0.06
375
Slip at maximum torque
R2 0.02 2
smax = = = = 0.133
X 2 0.15 15
Ê 2ˆ
(a) Speed at which maximum torque occurs = (1 – smax) Ns = Á1 - ˜ ¥ 375 = 325 rpm
Ë 15 ¯
2
Ê 2ˆ
(0.06) 2 + Á ˜
T 2
smax + s2 Ë 15 ¯
(b) = = = 1.33
Tmax 2 s ◊ smax 2
2 ¥ 0.06 ¥
15
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/74
(c) Let the external resistance per phase added to the rotor circuit be ‘r’ W, so that rotor resistance
per phase, R2 = (0.02 + r).
The starting torque will be maximum when R2 = X2
\ 0.02 + r = 0.15
or r = 0.13 W per phase.
! Qspcmfn!9/62
B! 21.qpmf! 61! I{-! uisff.qibtf! tubs.dpoofdufe! tmjq.sjoh! joevdujpo! npups! ibt! b! spups! sftjtubodf! pg!
1/16!W!boe!b!tuboetujmm!spups!sfbdubodf!pg!1/4!W!qfs!qibtf/!Bu!gvmm.mpbe-!uif!npups!jt!svoojoh!bu!b!
tqffe!pg!696!sqn/!Efufsnjof!uif!tmjq!bu!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!boe!gjoe!uif!sbujp!pg!nbyjnvn!up!gvmm.
mpbe!upsrvf/
Solution
R2 0.05
smax = = = 0.167
X2 0.3
T (0.025) 2 + (0.167) 2
= = 3.414.
Tmax 2 ¥ 0.025 ¥ 0.167
! Qspcmfn!9/63
B!tjy.qpmf-!61!I{!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!efwfmpqt!b!nbyjnvn!pg!611!On!xifo!uif!tqffe!pg!
uif!npups!jt!:11!sqn/!Efufsnjof!uif!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!cz!uif!npups!xifo!uif!tmjq!jt!5&/!Jg!uif!spups!
sftjtubodf!qfs!qibtf!jt!1/6!W-!efufsnjof!uif!qfs!qibtf!spups!sfbdubodf/
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
! 9/75 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
900
Slip s =1– = 0.1
1000
Torque is maximum when slip
R2
smax = = 0.1
X2
From Eq. (8.59),
Te 2
=
Tmax smax s
+
s smax
where s = 0.04
2
\ Te = 500 ¥
0.1 0.04
+
0.04 0.1
2
= 500 ¥ = 96.154 Nm
10 + 0.4
Rotor resistance R2 per phase is 0.5 W.
If X2 be the rotor reactance per phase
R2
= smax = 0.1
X2
R 0.5
\ X2 = 2 = = 5 W.
0.1 0.1
! Qspcmfn!9/64
B! 551! W-! uisff.qibtf-! gpvs.qpmf-! 61! I{! joevdujpo! npups! ibt! b! tubs.dpoofdufe! spups! xjoejoh! boe!
efmub.dpoofdufe!tubups!xjoejoh/!Uif!wpmubhf!cfuxffo!uif!tmjq!sjoht!jt!311!W!bu!tuboetujmm/!Uif!tubups!
jnqfebodf!jt!2!,!k4!W/!Jg!uif!spups!sftjtubodf!boe!tuboetujmm!spups!sfbdubodf!jt!1/19!W!boe!1/6!W!
sftqfdujwfmz-!efufsnjof!)b*!tmjq!bu!nbyjnvn!upsrvf-!)c*!nbyjnvn!upsrvf-!)d*!upsrvf-!tmjq!boe!qpxfs!
pvuqvu!bu!gvmm.mpbe!jg!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!jt!uisjdf!uif!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf/
Solution
Stator voltage per phase E1 = 440 V
200
Rotor voltage per phase Er = = 115.47 V
3
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/76
( )
Tmax =
2 w s R1 + R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2
3 ¥ ( 440) 2
=
2 ¥ 2p ¥
2 ¥ 50
4 (
1 + 12 + (3 + 7.258) 2 )
3 ¥ ( 440) 2
= = 163.6 Nm
4p ¥ 25 ¥ 11.306
(c) Full-load torque
1
Tf l = Tmax = 54.53 Nm
3
From Eq. (8.49),
3 R2¢ V12
= 54.53
ÏÔÊ R2¢ ˆ
2
2Ô
¸
w s s ÌÁ R1 + ˜ + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) ˝
Ë s ¯
ÓÔ ˛Ô
3 ¥ 1.1613 ( 440) 2
or, = 54.53
2 ¥ 50 ÏÔÊ 1.1613 ˆ ¸
2
2Ô
s ÌÁ1 + + (3 + 7.258) ˝
4 ÔÓË s ˜¯ Ô˛
ÔÏÊ 1.1613 ˆ Ô¸
2
or, s ÌÁ1 + ˜ + 105.226 ˝ = 496.76
ÔÓË s ¯ Ô˛
! 9/77 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
1.3486
or, s+ + 2.3226 + 105.226s = 494.76
s
or, 106.226s2 – 492.4374s + 1.3486 = 0
or, s2 – 4.6357s + 0.01269 = 0
\ s = 0.00274 (neglecting the other value of s which is not feasible)
\ full-load speed
120 ¥ 50
Nf l = (1 – 0.00274) = 1496 rpm
4
Power output
1496
Po = 2p Tf l
60
2p ¥ 1496 ¥ 54.53
=
60
= 8538.38 W.
! Qspcmfn!9/65
Uif!tmjq!bu!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!pg!b!uisff.qibtf!gpvs.qpmf-!61!I{-!511!W!joevdujpo!npups!jt!1/19/!Uif!
tmjq!pg!uif!npups!jt!1/15!xifo!ju!jt!esjwjoh!b!mpbe!xiptf!upsrvf!jt!qspqpsujpobm!up!uif!trvbsf!pg!uif!
tqffe/!Jg!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!cfdpnft!2511!sqn-!efufsnjof!uif!njojnvn!wbmvf!up!xijdi!uif!
tvqqmz!wpmubhf!dbo!espq/
Solution
Slip at maximum torque
R2
smax = = 0.08
X 2¢
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
The slip of the motor
s = 0.04
\ speed Nr = (1 – 0.04) 1500 = 1440 rpm
The new speed Nr¢ = 1400 rpm
1400
\ New slip = 1 – = 0.0667
1500
As torque is proportional to the square of the speed,
2 2
T ¢ Ê N r¢ ˆ Ê 1400 ˆ
= =
T ÁË N r ˜¯ ÁË 1440 ˜¯
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/78
Now
3 V12
T= neglecting stator impedance
s w s Ê R2¢ ˆ 2
ÁË s ˜¯ + X 2¢
! Qspcmfn!9/66
B!gpvs.qpmf-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!pqfsbuft!voefs!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!pg!411!On!xifo!
tqffe!jt!2551!sqn/!Efufsnjof!uif!upsrvf!bu!tmjq!pg!1/14!xifo!spups!sftjtubodf!jt!1/9!W!qfs!qibtf/!
Ofhmfdu!tubups!jnqfebodf/
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
1440 R¢ R
\ smax =1– = 0.04 = 2 = 2
1500 X 2¢ X 2
Now slip s = 0.03
From (Eq. 8.59),
T 2 2
= = = 0.96
Tmax smax s 0.04 0.03
+ +
s smax 0.03 0.04
\ T = 0.96 ¥ 300 = 288 Nm.
! 9/79 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/67
B!9!qpmf-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!spups!sftjtubodf!pg!1/4!W!qfs!qibtf/!Efufsnjof!uif!
beejujpobm!spups!sftjtubodf!up!hfu!uisff.gjgui!pg!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!bu!tubsujoh/!Ofhmfdu!tubups!jnqfe.
bodf/!Uif!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!jt!211!On!bu!811!sqn/
Solution
R2 = 0.3 W
Tm = 100 Nm
700 700
smax = 1 – =1– = 0.067
120 ¥ 50 750
8
R2
\ = 0.067
X2
0.3
or, X2 = = 4.4776
0.067
From Eq. (8.58),
3 Er2
= 100
2w s X 2
Er2 2 2 ¥ 100 ¥ 4.4776
\ = ¥ 100 ¥ X2 =
ws 3 3
Now from Eq. (8.52), the starting torque
3( R2 + r ) Er2
Ts =
ws ( R2 + r ) 2 + X 22
where r is the external resistance.
3 (0.3 + r )Er2 3
\ Ts = = ¥ 100 = 60
w s {(0.3 + r ) + ( 4.4776) }
2 2
5
Let 0.3 + r = R
R ws 20 ¥ 3
\ = 60 ¥ =
R + ( 4.4776)
2 2
3 Er2 2 ¥ 100 ¥ 4.477
R
or, = 0.067
R + 20.05
2
! Qspcmfn!9/68
B!551!W-!gpvs.qpmf-!61!I{-!tubs.dpoofdufe!tmjq!sjoh!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!jnqfebodft!
qfs!qibtf!sfgfssfe!up!uif!tubups!djsdvju;
S2!>!1/6!W! S¢3!>!1/5!W! Y2!>!3!W! Y3¢!>!2/6!W! Yn!>!46!W
Efufsnjof! )b*! nbyjnvn! upsrvf! boe! uif! wbmvf! pg! uif! tmjq! bu! xijdi! nbyjnvn! upsrvf! pddvst-! boe!
)c*! tubsujoh! upsrvf/! Xifo! uif! spups! sftjtubodf! jt! epvcmfe-! xibu! jt! uif! tqffe! bu! xijdi! nbyjnvn!
upsrvf!pddvst@!Xibu!jt!uif!ofx!tubsujoh!upsrvf!pg!uif!npups@
Solution
From Eq. (8.56),
3 V12
(a) Maximum torque Tmax =
2 w s ( R1 + R12 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2
2
Ê 440 ˆ
3¥Á
Ë 3 ˜¯
=
2 ¥ 50
2 ¥ 2p ¥
4
{
(0.5) 2 + ( 2 + 1.5) 2 }
= 152.78 Nm
From Eq. (8.54), the slip at maximum torque
R2¢ 0.4
smax = =
R12 + ( X1 + X 2¢ ) 2
(0.5) + ( 2 + 1.5) 2
2
= 0.113
(b) From Eq. (8.51), the starting torque
3 V12 R2¢
Ts =
w s {( R1 + R2¢ ) 2 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2 }
2
Ê 440 ˆ
3¥Á ¥ 0.4
Ë 3 ˜¯
=
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥ {(0.5 + 0.4) 2 + ( 2 + 1.5) 2 }
4
= 37.77 Nm
When the rotor resistance is doubled
smax = 2 ¥ 0.113 = 0.226
120 ¥ 50
\ Speed = (1 – 0.226) ¥ = 1161 Nm
4
! 9/81 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2
Ê 440 ˆ
3¥Á ¥ 0.4 ¥ 2
Ë 3 ˜¯
New starting torque Ts =
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥ {(0.5 + 0.4 ¥ 2) 2 + ( 2 + 1.5)2 }
4
= 70.767 Nm.
! Qspcmfn!9/69
Uif!spups!sftjtubodf!boe!sfbdubodf!pg!b!gpvs.qpmf-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!tmjq.sjoh!joevdujpo!npups!bsf!
1/6!W!boe!6!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!bu!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!boe!uif!sbujp!pg!nbyjnvn!
upsrvf!up!uif!tubsujoh!upsrvf/!Xibu!tipvme!cf!uif!wbmvf!pg!spups!sftjtubodf!qfs!qibtf!jg!uif!tubsujoh!
upsrvf!jt!ibmg!uif!nbyjnvn!upsrvf@
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
From Eq. (8.55),
R2 0.5
smax = = = 0.1
X2 5
\ speed at maximum torque
Nr = (1 – 0.1) ¥ 1500 = 1350 rpm
1
smax +
Tmax smax
= (from Eq. 8.60)
Ts 2
1
0.1 +
= 0.1 = 5.05
2
1
If Ts = Tmax then
2
1
¢ +
smax
¢
smax
2= where s¢max is the new slip
2
1
\ s¢max + =4
¢
smax
2
or, s¢max – 4 s¢max + 1 = 0
4 ± 16 - 4
\ s¢max =
2
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/82
! Qspcmfn!9/6:
B! gpvs.qpmf-! 61! I{-! uisff.qibtf! joevdujpo! npups! ibt! b! tubsujoh! upsrvf! pg! 28/9&! pg! uif! gvmm.mpbe!
upsrvf! pg! boe! 246&! nbyjnvn! upsrvf! pg! uif! gvmm.mpbe! upsrvf/! Efufsnjof! uif! gvmm.mpbe! tqffe! boe!
tqffe!bu!nbyjnvn!upsrvf/
Solution
Starting torque T 17.8
= s = = 0.178
Full-load torque T 100
Maximum torque Tmax 135
= = = 1.35
Full-load torque T 100
Ts 0.178
Hence, = = 0.1318
Tmax 1.35
T 2
Now, at slip s if the torque be T then we have = where sm is the slip at maximum
Tm s smax
+
torque. smax s
È ˘
Í T 2◊s◊s 2 ˙
ÍEFrom Eq. (8.59), we have = 2 2max = ˙
Í Tm s + smax s smax ˙
Í +
Î smax s ˙˚
At starting s = 1, hence, from the above relations we can write,
Ts 2
= = 0.1318
Tm 1 s
+ m
sm 1
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed (Ns) = = 1500 rpm
4
! 9/83 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/71
B! 6! lX-! gpvs.qpmf-! uisff.qibtf! tubs.dpoofdufe! joevdups! npups! ibt! tmjq.sjoh! spups! sftjtubodf! pg!
1/16!W!boe!tuboetujmm!sfbdubodf!pg!1/6!W!gps!qibtf/!Uif!gvmm.mpbe!tqffe!jt!2561!sqn/!Efufsnjof!uif!
sbujp!pg!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!up!uif!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf-!tubsujoh!upsrvf!up!uif!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf!boe!sbujp!pg!
tubsujoh!upsrvf!up!uif!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf/
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
N = 1450 rpm (given)
1450
\ sf l (full-load slip) = 1 – = 0.033 (= s) (i.e. 3.3%)
1500
R2 0.05
smax (slip at maximum torque) = = = 0.1 (i.e. 10%)
X2 0.5
T Full-load torque 2 ◊ s ◊ smax
E = =
Tmax Maximum torque s 2 + smax 2
KE12 R2
Ts =
R22 + X 22
KE12 ◊ sR2
And T=
R22 + ( sX 2 ) 2
Ts KE 2 R R 2 + ( sX ) 2
\ = 2 1 22 ¥ 2 2 2
T R2 + X 2 KE1 sR2
R22 + ( sX 2 ) 2 (0.05) 2 + (0.033 ¥ 0.5) 2 0.0028
= = = = 0.336.
( R22 + X 22 ) s 0.033(0.05 + 0.5 )
2 2
0.00833
i.e., Ts /T = 0.336.
! Qspcmfn!9/72
Uif!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!spups!xjoejoh!pg!b!gpvs.qpmf-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!jt!1/3!W!qfs!
qibtf!boe!uif!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!efwfmpqfe!jt!26!On!xifo!uif!npups!jt!svoojoh!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2461!
sqn/!Efufsnjof!)b*!uif!upsrvf!bu!b!tmjq!pg!5&-!boe!)c*!uif!fyufsobm!sftjtubodf!up!cf!beefe!up!uif!spups!
djsdvju!up!pcubjo!81&!pg!uif!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!bu!tubsujoh/
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
Ê 1350 ˆ
Slip at maximum torque smax = Á1 - = 0.1
Ë 1500 ˜¯
If P2 and X2 be the resistance and reactance of the rotor circuit,
R2 R 0.2
= smax or, X2 = 2 = =2W
X2 smax 0.1
Writing the expression for maximum torque using Eq. 8.58, we get
3 Er2 3 Er2 3 E2
Tmax = ◊ = = ◊ r (i)
w s 2 X 2 w1 ¥ 2 ¥ 2 4 w r
(a) When slip is 4%, we can write, s = 0.04. From torque equation (10.13) we have, for three-
phase torque,
3 E 2 ◊ s ◊ R2
T= ◊ 2r Nm (ii)
w s [ R2 + ( sX 2 ) 2 ]
3 . 2
Replacing Er from Eq. (ii) by 4Tmax (as obtained in Eq. (i)) we get
ws
! 9/85 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
R 4.9
With R = 4.9 W, smax = = = 2.45, which is an impossible value.
X2 2
\ feasible value of R is 0.816 W.
Thus, external resistance to be added is (R – R2), i.e., (0.816 – 0.2) or, 0.616 W/phase.
! Qspcmfn!9/73
B!tjy.qpmf-!61!I{-!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!pg!311!On!xifo!ju!jt!svoojoh!
bu!b!tqffe!pg!:11!sqn/!Uif!sftjtubodf!pg!uif!spups!jt!1/36!W/!Ofhmfdujoh!tubups!jnqfebodf!efufsnjof!
uif!upsrvf!bu!6&!tmjq/
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
È Ê 900 ˆ ˘
At maximum torque slip smax = Í1 - Á ˜ ˙ = 0.1
Î Ë 1000 ¯ ˚
R2 = 0.25 (given)
R2 0.25
Hence, X2 = = = 2.5 W
smax 0.1
Torque at any slip s is given by
3 E 2 sR
T= ◊ 2 r 2 2 Nm
w s [ R2 + ( sX 2 ) ]
3 0.05 ¥ 0.25 3 Er2
= ◊E ¥
2
= 0.16
w s r (0.25) 2 + (0.05 ¥ 2.5) 2 ws
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/86
! Qspcmfn!9/74
B!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!261&!tubsujoh!upsrvf!pg!gvmm.mpbe!boe!311&!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!
pg!gvmm.mpbe/!Efufsnjof!uif!tmjq!bu!nbyjnvn!upsrvf-!gvmm.mpbe!tmjq!boe!spups!tubsujoh!dvssfou!bt!b!
qfsdfoubhf!pg!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou/
Solution
We know that in any slip s, the developed torque can be expressed in terms of maximum torque,
i.e.
T 2
=
Tmax s s
+ max
smax s
where Tmax is the maximum torque at slip smax.
Starting torque (Ts )
Now, = 1.5
Full-load torque (T )
Tmax
as well as =2
T
Ts 1.5 3 2
Hence, = = = .
Tmax 2.0 4 1
+ smax
smax
During starting, the slip is 1.
Ê 1 ˆ 8
\ ÁË s + smax ˜ = = 2.67
max ¯ 3
T 2 1
Also, = =
Tmax sfl s 2
+ max
smax sfl
or s 2fl – 4 ¥ 0.45 . sf l + (0.45)2 = 0
or s 2fl – 1.8 sf l + 0.2025 = 0
1.8 ± (1.8) 2 - 4(0.2025)
or sf l = = 0.12
2
At full-load, rotor current may be obtained as
E2
I2f l =
R2
+ jX 2
sfl
[refer approximate equivalent circuit neglecting the magnetizing branch and stator impedance]
2 E2
or I 2f l= 2
Ê R2 ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + X 2
2
fl
Similarly, starting current
2 E22
I 2st =
R22 + X 22
2
Ê I 2fl ˆ R22 + X 22
Hence, ÁË I ˜¯ = 2
2st Ê R2 ˆ
ÁË 0.12 ˜¯ + X 2
2
R2
Now, smax = = 0.45
X 2¢
2
Ê R2 ˆ
Ê I 2fl ˆ
2 ÁË X ˜¯ + 1 (0.45) 2 + 1
2
Hence, ÁË I ˜¯ = 2
= 2
= 0.0798
2 fl Ê R2 ˆ Ê 0.45 ˆ
ÁË 0.12 X ˜¯ + 1 ÁË 0.12 ˜¯ + 1
2
I 2fl
Hence, = 0.0798 = 0.28
I 2st
I 2st
or = 3.54.
I 2fl
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/88
! Qspcmfn!9/75
B!551!W!tubs!fjhiu.qpmf-!61!I{-!tmjq.sjoh!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!tubups!boe!frvjwbmfou!spups!tuboetujmm!
jnqfebodft!pg!1/4!,!k1/7!W!boe!1/2!,!k 1/6!W!qfs!qibtf!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!tubsujoh!dvssfou!
boe!upsrvf!)b*!xifo!tmjq!sjoht!bsf!ejsfdumz!tipsufe-!boe!)c*!xifo!fyufsobm!spups!sftjtubodf!jt!jotfsufe!
xiptf!frvjwbmfou!wbmvf!jo!uif!tubups!jt!1/6!W!qfs!qibtf/!Jhopsf!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou/
Solution
(a) When slip rings are directly shorted
V1
Starting current Is =
( R1 + R2¢ ) 2 + ( X 1 + X 2¢ ) 2
440 / 3
=
(0.3 + 0.1) 2 + (0.6 + 0.5) 2
= 217.04 A
3 I s2 R2¢
Starting torque Ts =
ws
3 ¥ ( 217.04) 2 ¥ 0.1
= Nm
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
8
= 180.02 Nm
(b) When external rotor resistance of 0.5 W is inserted
440 / 3
Is =
(0.3 + 0.1 + 0.5) 2 + (0.6 + 0.5) 2
= 178.74 A
Starting torque
3 ¥ (178.74) 2 ¥ (0.1 + 0.5)
Ts = Nm
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
8
= 732.565 Nm.
! Qspcmfn!9/76
B!gpvs.qpmf!uisff.qibtf-!61!I{-!joevdujpo!npups!esjwft!b!dpotubou!upsrvf!mpbe!bu!2551!sqn/!Efufs.
njof!uif!npups!tqffe!boe!dpqqfs!mpttft!jg!uif!tvqqmz!wpmubhf!espqt!up!:1&/!Dpotjefs!mjofbs!upsrvf!
tmjq!dibsbdufsjtujd!pwfs!uif!xpsljoh!sbohf/
! 9/89 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
1440
Slip s=1– = 0.04
1500
If the rated supply voltage is V1, the new voltage is 0.9 V1,
from Eq. (8.53), Te μ V12 s if rotor resistance is constant.
As load torque is constant,
V12 s = constant
1
or, sμ 2
V1
If s¢ be the slip when voltage drops by 90%,
s¢ V12
= = 0.049
0.04 (0.9 V1 ) 2
R2¢
For small values of slip, has much larger value compared to R1, X1 or X2¢.
s
V Vs
\ I¢2 = 1 = 1
R2¢ R2¢
s
or, I¢2 μ V1 s
Hence, when voltage drops, slip increases or speed decreases and rotor copper loss increases.
Therefore, due to reduction of supply voltage, temperature rises noticeably under constant loss
condition.
! Qspcmfn!9/77
B!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!pqfsbuft!bu!sbufe!gsfrvfodz!pg!61!I{-!551!W/!Jg!uif!npups!pqfsbuft!
bu!51!I{!boe!511!W!tvqqmz!wpmubhf-!efufsnjof!uif!sbujp!pg!61!I{!up!51!I{!pqfsbujpo!gps!uif!tubsujoh!
dvssfout-!tubsujoh!upsrvft!boe!nbyjnvn!upsrvft/
Solution
Let the rotor leakage reactance at 50 Hz be X2.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/8:
40
\ at 40 Hz. the rotor reactance is X or, 0.8 X2
50 2
At starting, slip is 1.
R2¢
\ is less as compared to X2¢
s
Hence, starting current
V
Is μ (neglecting stator impedance)
X2
Starting current at 50 Hz 440 0.8 X 2¢
\ = = 0.88
Starting current at 40 Hz X 2¢ 400
V2
Starting torque μ
w s X 2¢ 2
(440)2
Starting torque at 50 Hz 50 X 2¢ 2
=
Starting torque at 40 Hz ( 400) 2
40 ¥ (0.8) 2 X 2¢ 2
2
Ê 440 ˆ 40
=Á ˜ ¥ ¥ (0.8)2 = 0.619
Ë 400 ¯ 50
! Qspcmfn!9/78
Xifo!tvqqmjfe!gspn!551!W-!61!I{!tpvsdf!bo!joevdujpo!npups!svot!bu!b!tmjq!gsfrvfodz!pg!4!I{/!Ef.
ufsnjof!uif!tmjq!gsfrvfodz!bu!xijdi!uif!npups!xjmm!svo!jg!tvqqmjfe!gspn!b!uisff.qibtf!511!W-!51!I{!
tvqqmz-!uif!efwfmpqfe!upsrvf!sfnbjojoh!tbnf/!Uif!nbyjnvn!upsrvf!bu!61!I{!pddvst!bu!b!tmjq!pg!1/3/!
Ofhmfdu!uif!tubups!jnqfebodf!boe!bttvnf!mjofbs!upsrvf.tmjq!dibsbdufsjtujd!jo!uif!xpsljoh!sfhjpo/!
! 9/91 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
At 50 Hz
R2
smax1 = = 0.2
X2
R2
\ μ 0.2 (E X2 μ f )
50
3
If s1 be the slip then s1 = = 0.06
50
At 40 Hz,
R2
μ smax2
40
50
\ smax2 = 0.2 ¥ = 0.25
40
From Eq. (8.57),
V2
Tmax μ
w s X 2¢
V2
or, Tmax μ (E ws μ f and X2 μ f )
f 2 X2
where X2 is the reactance at 50 Hz.
Tmax1 ( 440) 2 ¥ ( 40) 2
\ = = 0.7744
Tmax 2 (50) 2 ¥ ( 400) 2
Let s2 be the slip when the motor is operating at 40 Hz, 400 V supply.
Now from Eq. (8.59),
Te1 2 2
= = = 0.55
Tmax1 smax1 s1 0.2 0.06
+ +
s1 smax1 0.06 0.2
Te2 2 2
= =
Tmax 2 smax 2 s2 0.25 s
+ + 2
s2 smax 2 s2 0.25
Te1 0.55 Tmax1
\ = ¥
Te2 2 Tmax 2
0.25 s2
+
s2 0.25
Te1 Ê 0.25 s ˆ
or, = 0.21296 ¥ Á + 2 ˜
Te2 Ë s2 0.25 ¯
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/92
! Qspcmfn!9/79
B!551!W-!61!I{-!gpvs.qpmf!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!efwfmpqt!uisff.gjgui!pg!uif!sbufe!upsrvf!bu!
2581!sqn/!Efufsnjof!uif!gsfrvfodz!jg!uif!npups!efwfmpqt!uif!tbnf!upsrvf!bu!2681!sqn-!uif!bqqmjfe!
wpmubhf!nbhojuvef!sfnbjojoh!tbnf/!Ofhmfdu!tubups!xjoejoh!sftjtubodft-!tubups!boe!spups!mfblbhf!
sfbdubodf!boe!jspo!mpttft/
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
\ slip at three-fifth of rated torque
1470
s=1– = 0.02
1500
Neglecting leakage reactance and stator resistance from Eq. (8.49),
3 V12
Te =
w s ◊ s ◊ ( R2¢ /s 2 )
V12 s
or, Te μ (\ ws μ f )
f R2
where f is the frequency of supply voltage.
Te1 s f ¢ R2 0.02 f ¢
\ = =
Te2 50 R2 ¥ s¢ 50 s¢
where f ¢ and s¢ are the frequency and slip under new condition.
As torque is same in both conditions,
0.02 f ¢
=1
50 s¢
\ f ¢ = 50 = 2500 (i)
s¢ 0.02
! 9/93 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/7:
B! uisff.qibtf-! 61! I{! joevdujpo! npups! jt! eftjhofe! up! pqfsbuf! bu! 551! wpmut/! Uif! nbyjnvn! upsrvf!
pddvst!bu!b!tmjq!pg!1/36!boe!tubups!jnqfebodf!jt!ofhmjhjcmf/!Jg!uif!nbdijof!pqfsbuft!bu!51!I{-!uif!
tvqqmz!wpmubhf!sfnbjojoh!dpotubou-!gjoe!uif!sbujp!pg!tubsujoh!dvssfou-!tubsujoh!upsrvf!boe!nbyjnvn!
upsrvf!bu!51!I{!dpnqbsfe!up!uibu!bu!61!I{!pqfsbujpo/
Solution
Slip at maximum torque
R2
smax = = 0.25
X2
\ R2 = 0.25 X2
40
If the rotor leakage reactance at 50 Hz be X2, the rotor leakage reactance at 40 Hz is X2 or
0.8 X2. 50
Starting currents:
440 440
Ist1 = =
R22 + X 22 (0.25 X 2 ) 2 + X 22
440 440
Ist2 = =
(0.25 ¥ 3 X 2 ) + (0.8 X 2 )
2 2
(0.25 X 2 ) 2 + (0.8 X 2 ) 2
Starting torques:
( 440) 2 R2 ( 440) 2 ¥ 0.25 X 2
Tst1 = =
w s ( R22 + X 22 ) 50 {(0.25 X 2 ) 2 + X 22 }
( 440) 2 ¥ 0.25 X 2
Tst2 =
40 {(0.25 X 2 ) 2 + (0.8 X 2 ) 2 }
Tst 2 0.25 X 2 ¥ 50 {(0.25) 2 + 1} 13.28
\ = = = 1.89
Tst1 2
40{(0.25 X 2 ) + (0.8) } ¥ 0.252
7.025
Maximum torques:
3 ( 440) 2
Tmax1 =
2 ¥ 50 ¥ X 2
3 ( 440) 2
Tmax2 =
2 ¥ 40 ¥ 0.8 X 2
Tmax 2 50 X 2 50
\ = = = 1.56.
Tmax1 40 ¥ 0.8 X 2 40 ¥ 0.8
EFUFSNJOBUJPO!PG!NPUPS!FGGJDJFODZ! 9/27
The efficiency of small induction motors can be determined by directly loading them and by mea-
suring their input and output powers. For larger motors, it may be difficult to arrange loads for them.
Moreover, the power loss will be large with direct loading tests. Therefore, indirect methods are
used to determine the efficiency of three-phase induction motors. The following tests are performed
on the motor:
(a) No-load test (or open circuit test)
(b) Blocked-rotor test
The parameters of the equivalent circuit can be found from the no-load and blocked-rotor test
also.
9/27/2! Pqfo.Djsdvju!ps!Op.mpbe!Uftu
This test is similar to the open-circuit test on a transformer. A three-phase auto-transformer is used
to supply rated voltage at the frequency. The motor is run at no-load. The power input is measured
by two wattmeter method. The power factor under no-load condition is generally less than 0.5.
Therefore, use of the wattmeters will show negative reading. It is, therefore, necessary to reverse
the direction of current coil terminals to take the reading.
Let Wo, i.e. the wattmeter reading, be equal to the sum of stator core losses and mechanical
losses. Let Vo and Io be the per-phase values of voltage and current.
! 9/95 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Wo
Then no-load power factor is cos qo =
3 Vo I o
However, IC = Io cos qo
and Im = Io sin qo (8.62a)
Vo Vo
\ Ro = =
I c I o cos q o
V Vo
Xo = o = (8.62b)
I m I o sin q o
The circuit diagram for no-load test and the corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.
8.13(a) and Fig. 8.13(b).
W1 (P )
A 1
Three-
phase
V
supply Three-phase
at rated induction
voltage W2 motor
and
(no mechanical load)
frequency
(P2 )
Gjh/!9/24)b*! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!gps!op.mpbe!uftu!po!b!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups
Io
Io
Ic Im Rotor circuit
E1 open
3 Ro Xo
Ê R2¢ ˆ
ÁË s = 0, s = •˜¯
Gjh/!9/24)c*! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!bu!op.mpbe
9/27/3! Cmpdlfe.Spups!Uftu!
The circuit for blocked rotor test is shown in Fig. 8.14. The motion of the rotor is blocked by a brake
(or a belt). This test is analogous to the short-circuit test of a transformer because the rotor wind-
ing is short-circuited through slip rings, and in cage motors, the rotor bars are permanently short
circuited. Only a reduced voltage needs to be applied to the stator at rated frequency. The voltage
should be such that the ammeter reads rated current of the motor.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/96
Isc W1
(P1)
A
Reduced V
Three-phase
supply induction
voltage W2 motor
Blocked rotor
(P2 )
Gjh/!9/25)b*! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!gps!cmpdlfe.spups!uftu
Is/c Rs Xs X¢2
R2¢
E(reduced)
= R2¢
s
= Vs /c
3 ( s = 1)
Gjh/!9/25)c*! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!evsjoh!cmpdlfe.spups!uftu
The total power input on short circuit Ws/c is equal to the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter
readings, i.e. equals the copper losses of the stator and rotor. Let Vs/c and Is/c be the voltage and cur-
rent per phase. Then the power factor under blocked rotor condition is
Ws / c
cos qs/c =
3 (Vs / c ) ( I s/ c )
[neglecting the core and mechanical losses]
Since in a R-L circuit, R = Z cos q and X = Z sin q, here we can write
Ê Vs / c ˆ
(Rs + R¢2) = Á ˜ cos qs/c (8.63a)
Ë Is / c ¯
Ê Vs / c ˆ
(Xs + X 2¢ ) = Á ˜ sin qs/c (8.63b)
Ë Is / c ¯
The stator resistance Rs is measured separately by using a battery, ammeter and a voltmeter. Then
R¢2 can be found from Eq. 8.63(a). The reactances (Xs) and (X2¢) are generally assumed equal.
9/27/4! Uif!ed!Uftu!
The purpose of the dc test is to determine R1. This is accomplished by connecting any two stator
leads to a variable-voltage dc source as shown in Fig. 8.15(a). The dc source is adjusted to provide
approximately rated stator current, and the resistance between the two stator leads is determined
from voltmeter and ammeter readings. Thus, from Fig. 8.15(a),
! 9/97 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Vdc
Rdc =
I dc
T1
A
Adjustable
dc V Induction motor
source T2
T3
(a)
T1 T1
R 1, D
R 1, y
T2 R 1, y T2
R1 , D
Vdc R 1, y Vdc
R1, D
T3 T3
Idc Idc
(b) (c)
Gjh/!9/26! Djsdvjut!gps!ed!uftu!up!efufsnjof!qbsbnfufs!S2
R1D ◊ 2 R1D 2
Rdc = = R1D
R1D + 2 R1D 3
R1D = 1.5 Rdc (8.65)
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/98
TUBSUJOH!PG!B!UISFF.QIBTF!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS! 9/28
A three-phase induction motor has a definite positive starting torque. When switched on to supply,
it starts itself but draws a high starting current. This is evident from the equivalent circuit. At the
È R (1 - s) ˘
time of starting, slip s = 1 and hence, the resistance Í 2 ˙ becomes zero (the motor behaves
Î s ˚
as a short-circuited transformer). The current in the rotor and the stator windings may be about five
times more than full-load values.
These high rotor and stator currents cause many problems.
1. High electromagnetic forces between the conductors on the same part.
2. High heat generation causing high temperature may damage the insulation.
3. High current (at low power factor) may cause an appreciable drop in supply voltage causing
undesirable effect on other equipment.
Therefore, suitable means must be provided with the motor at start, to limit the starting current
up to safe value.
The device which is used to start the three-phase induction motor is termed starter. The function
of the starter is to limit the initial rush of current to a predetermined safe value.
The various methods of starting the three-phase induction motor are
1. By Direct On-Line (DOL) starter
2. By star-delta starter
3. By auto-transformer starter
9/28/2! Ejsfdu!Po.Mjof!Tubsujoh!)EPM*
For small size squirrel-cage (less than 2 HP) motors or for motors in a power system where inrush
of high-starting current is permissible, direct start may be used. For these small motors, the starting
torque is about twice the full-load torque and the starting period lasts only a few seconds.
Figure 8.16 shows a starter for direct starting with in-built short circuit, overload and
undervoltage protection. When the motor is to be started, the main switch is put on and the start
button is pressed. This energizes the relay coil S causing the normally open contacts S1, S2, S3 to
close. Power is supplied to the motor and it starts. The contact S4 also shuts, thus, shorting out the
starting switch allowing the operator to release it without removing power from the S relay. When
the stop button is pressed, the S relay is de-energised and the S contacts open, thus, stopping the mo-
tor. Short-circuit protection is provided by fuses F1, F2 and F3. A Thermal Overload Relay (OLC)
protects the motor from sustained overloads opening the contact D.
! 9/99 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Three-phase supply
L1 L2 L3
F1 F2 F3 Fuses
S a
S4 S1 S2 S3
Local
stop
Start
OLC
Remote Motor
stop
Gjh/!9/27! Ejsfdu!po.mjof!tubsufs
9/28/3! Tubs.Efmub!Tubsufs!
Figure 8.17 shows the diagram of the star-delta starter. A star-delta starter can be used only for
those three-phase induction motors whose stator winding has been designed for delta connection.
All the six terminals (of the three-phases) are brought out. For starting, the phases are connected in
1
start thereby reducing the voltage of each phase to of its normal value.
From Eq. (8.33), we have 3
I2 R
Pag = 2 2
s
Pag 1 2 1
\ Tf l = = ◊ I 2 R2 ¥
ws ws sfl
where Tf l is the full-load torque at slip sf l.
When the circuit parameters are referred to the stator side,
I 2¢ 2 R2¢
Tf l =
w s sfl
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/9:
Three-phase
supply
Rotor
Delta-run Stator
Gjh/!9/28! Tubs.efmub!tubsufs
At s = 1 (i.e., at starting),
1 2 I 2¢¢ 2 R2¢
Ts = I2¢ ¥ R¢2 =
ws ws
Ts Ê I 2¢¢ 2 ˆ
\ =Á ˜
Tfl Ë I 2¢ ¯
If T represents full-load torque, If l the full-load rotor current reflected to primary, we have If l = I2¢
neglecting the magnetizing branch current. Similarly, I≤ 2 represents the starting current (Is) at stator,
the magnetizing branch being neglected.
2
\ we can write,
Ts = Ê I s ˆ ¥ s (8.66)
Á ˜ fl
Tfl Ë I fl ¯
1
The starting line current of the motor with star-delta starter is thus, also reduced to full volt-
3
2
age starting-line current. The starting torque which is proportional to Ê E1 ˆ is reduced to 1/3 of
ÁË ˜¯
3
the full-load torque. Thus, for star-delta start, though we are able to reduce the starting current, we
sacrifice the torque and the starting torque reduces to 1/3 of the full-load torque.
Let us analyse the star-delta starting method to find the torque. We assume that the motor first
operates with star connection [Fig. 8.18(a)] and when speeds up, it operates with delta connection
of the stator [Fig. 8.18(b)].
! 9/:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(a) (b)
Gjh/!9/29! Tubs.efmub!tubsujoh
In Fig. 8.18(b),
E
Starting phase current IP(start) =
Zs
\ starting line current Is(delta) = 3 IP(start)
I s( start ) Ê 1
\ = ◊I
ˆ
I s(delta) ÁË 3 P ( start ) ˜¯ (
∏ 3 I P (start ) =
1
3
)
1
Using the relation (8.66), we can write Ts(start)/Tf l = (IP(start)/If l)2 ¥ sf l. Thus, starting torque is
1 3
of that obtained in DOL starting.
3
This method is a bit economical one but for motors rated beyond 3 kV, this method is not ap-
plicable. Like other three-phase motor starters, in this starter also overload coil and no-voltage
coils are provided for the protection of the motor (not shown in the star-delta figure). An automatic
star-delta starter can also be made by using pushbuttons, contactors, Time Delay Relay (TDR), etc.
9/28/4! Bvup.Usbotgpsnfs!Tubsufs
In this method, reduced voltage is obtained by some fixed tappings on the three-phase auto-trans-
former. Generally, 60 to 65% tappings can be used to obtain a safe value of starting current. The
full rated voltage is applied to the motor by taking the auto-transformer out of the motor circuit
when the motor has picked up speed up to 85% of its normal speed. Figure 8.19 shows the circuit.
Let us assume that the input voltage E is reduced to xE using auto-transformer tappings.
Therefore, the motor starting current is, Is = xI, where I is the motor starting current when full volt-
age E is applied. However, the current drawn from the supply Is (line) is obtained from the relation
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/:2
I s( line )
=x
I s( motor )
Three-phase AC Is(line)
E Auto-transformer
Main switch xE
Start
Run
Is(motor)
Stator
Rotor
Gjh/!9/2:! Bvup.usbotgpsnfs!tubsufs
It is found that while the starting torque is reduced by x2 of that of DOL starting, the line current
is also reduced by the same fraction.
9/28/5! Dbmdvmbujpo!pg!Spups!Sftjtubodf!Tubsufs!Tufqt
In any motor starter, the steps are so designed that the current during starting fluctuates between a
maximum and a minimum value. It is customary to design the steps of a slip-ring induction motor
rotor resistance starter following the same criterion. Let the rotor current at the start of each step be
I2max and that at the end of each step be I2min. Also the rotor induced emf per phase at standstill be
E2. If s1, s2, s3, … sn are the slips at steps 1, 2, 3, … n, then s1 = 1 and sn = final slip.
! 9/:3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
1 2 3 n
where, r1, r2, r3, … , rn are the rotor resistance including corresponding starter step resistances at
slips s1, s2, … , sn respectively, and X2 is the rotor reactance at standstill and E2 the rotor voltage
per phase.
r1 r2 r3 r
Hence, = = =º= n (8.67a)
s1 s2 s3 sn
where rn = R2, the rotor resistance.
E2 E2 E2 E2
Also, I2min = = = =º=
2 2 2 2
Ê r1 ˆ Ê r2 ˆ Ê r3 ˆ Ê rn - 1 ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + X 2
2 2
ÁË s ˜¯ + X 2 ÁË s ˜¯ + X 2
2
ÁË s ˜¯ + X 2
2
2 3 4 n
r1 r r rn - 1
i.e., = 2 = 3 =º= (8.67b)
s2 s3 s4 sn
s2 r2 s r
From (8.67a), = and 3 = 3 (8.67c)
s1 r1 s2 r2
and so on.
r2 s3 r s
From (8.67b), = and 3 = 4 (8.67d)
r1 s2 r2 s3
and so on.
From (8.67c) and (8.67d), we have,
s2 s3 s4 s r r r r
= = =º= n = 2 = 3 = 4 = … n = a (8.67e)
s1 s2 s3 sn - 1 r1 r2 r3 rn -1
where a is a constant.
From (8.67a), we have, r1/s1 = rn/sn \ r1 = R2 /sn (E s1 = 1) (8.68)
2
From (8.67e), we have, r2 = a r1 ; r3 = a r2 = a r1;
r4 = a r3 = a2 r2 = a3 r1 and so on (8.69)
\ rn (= R2) = an–1 . r1 \ a = (R2/r1)1/(n – 1) = (sn)1/(n – 1) (8.70)
Thus, the value of a can be found from Eq. (8.70) and then the total resistance in the rotor at
various steps can be obtained from Eq. (8.69).
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/:4
Ubcmf!9/3! Dpnqbsjtpo!pg!Ejggfsfou!Tubsujoh!Bssbohfnfou!
1. Full voltage is applied to the 1. Each winding gets 58% of the 1. The starting voltage can be
motor at the time of starting. rated line voltage at the time of adjusted according to the
starting. requirement.
2. The starting current is 5–6 2. The starting current is reduced to 2. The starting current can be
times the full-load current. 1 reduced as desired.
that of direct on-line starting.
3
3. The three windings are 3. The three windings are connected 3. The three windings are generally
connected generally in star. in star at the time of starting, and connected in delta.
then in delta at the time of running.
4. Only three wires are to be 4. Six wires to be brought out from 4. Only three wires are to be brought
brought out from the motor. the motor. out from the motor.
5. Easy-to-connect motor with 5. Identification of three starting 5. Input and output connections of
direct on line. leads and three end leads is not so the auto-transformers are to be
easy. made properly.
6. Very easy operation. 6. It is required that connections 6. Skilled operator is needed for
are first to be made in star, and connection and starting.
then in delta either manually or
automatically.
8. Less space required for 8. More space required. 8. More space required.
installation.
SFWFSTBM!PG!SPUBUJPO! 9/29
The direction of rotation of a three-phase induction motor can be reversed by reversing the direction
of the rotation of the magnetic field. This can be done by interchanging the connections of any two
of the three wires of the three-phase power supply. This causes the currents in the phases to inter-
change their relative timings in going positive and negative with the result that the magnetic field
produces reversal in direction of rotation.
! Qspcmfn!9/81
B!31!IQ!uisff.qibtf-!511!W!tubs.dpoofdufe!joevdujpo!npups!hbwf!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut;
ed!uftu!xjui!uif!tubups!xjoejoht!pg!uxp!qibtft!jo!tfsjft;!32!W-!41!B/!
! 9/:5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Op.mpbe!uftu;!511!W!bqqmjfe!wpmubhf-!9!B!mjof!dvssfou-!xbuunfufs!sfbejoh!3471!X!boe!Ð2271!X/
Tipsu.djsdvju!uftu;!251!W!!bqqmjfe!wpmubhf-!44!B!mjof!dvssfou-!xbuunfufs!sfbejoh!3931!X!boe!Ð481!X/
Efufsnjof!uif!qbsbnfufst!pg!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju/!Bttvnf!Y2!>!Y¢3/
Solution
Since two phases of the stator windings are in series in the dc test, we have
21
2R1 = = 0.70 W
30
or R1 = 0.35 W
No-load test:
400
Vo = = 230.95 V; Io = 8 A
3
Wo = (W10 + W20) = 2360 – 1160 = 1200 W
1200
\ cos qo = = 0.216
3 ¥ 230.95 ¥ 8
Vo 230.95
Ro = = = 133.65 W
I o cos q o 8 ¥ 0.216
Vo 230.95
Xo = = = 29.57 W
I o sin q o 8 ¥ 0.976
Short-circuit test:
140
Vsc = = 80.83 V
3
Isc = 33 Amps; Wsc = 2450 W
2450
\ cos q sc = = 0.306
3 ¥ 80.83 ¥ 33
Vsc . 80.83
\ R1 + R¢2 = cos q sc = ¥ 0.306 = 0.745 W
I sc 33
V 80.83 80.83
and X1 + X 2¢ = sc . sin q sc = ¥ sin q sc = ¥ 0.9518 = 2.33 W
I sc 33 33
\ X1 = X2¢ = 0.5 ¥ 2.33 = 1.666 W
and R¢2 = 0.745 – 0.35 = 0.395 W
Hence, we can write
R0 = 133.65 W
X0 = 29.57 W
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/:6
R1 = 0.35 W
R¢2 = 0.395 W
X1 = X¢2 = 1.166 W.
! Qspcmfn!9/82
B!551!W-!61!I{!fjhiu.qpmf!tubs.dpoofdufe!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut;
Op.mpbe!uftu;!551!W-!36!B-!3611!X
Cmpdlfe!spups!uftu;!261!W-!226!B-!:111!X
Efufsnjof!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!qbsbnfufst!pg!uif!npups!xifo!uif!qfs.qibtf!tubups!sftjtubodf!jt!
1/3!W/!
Solution
From no-load test we have,
440
Per phase voltage E0 = V = 254.03 V
3
Per phase current Io = 25 A
2500
Per phase power W0 = W = 833.33 W
3
W
Power factor under no-load condition (cos q0) = o
Vo I o
833.33
Hence, cos q0 = = 0.1312 (lag)
254.03 ¥ 25
[usually the no-load p.f. is very low for induction motors]
Core loss component of the no-load current
IC = I0 cos q0 = 25 ¥ 0.1312 = 3.2804 A
Magnetizing component of the no-load current
If = I0 sin q0 = 25 sin (cos–1 0.1312) = 24.783 A
Voltage across the magnetizing branch is obtained as [V0 – I0(Rs + jXs)], where (Rs + jXs) is the
per phase stator impedance in ohms.
Again from blocked-rotor test data, we have
150
Per-phase voltage Es/c = V = 86.6 V
3
Per-phase current Is/c = 115 A
9000
Per-phase power Ws/c = W = 3000 W
3
! 9/:7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Es / c 86.6
\ per-phase impedance Zs/c = = W = 0.753 W
Is / c 115
Ws / c 3000
Per-phase resistance Rs/c = = W = 0.2268 W
I s2/ c (115) 2
! Qspcmfn!9/83
B!uisff.qibtf-!26!lX-!551!W-!61!I{-!tjy.qpmf!trvjssfm.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!efmub.dpoofdufe!
tubups!xjoejoh/!Uif!npups!evsjoh!cmpdlfe.spups!uftu!zjfmet!uif!gpmmpxjoh!sftvmut;!351!W-!36!B-!8!lX/
Uif!ed!sftjtubodf!nfbtvsfe!cfuxffo!boz!uxp!tubups!ufsnjobmt!jt!2!W/!Jg!uif!tubups!dpsf!mptt!bu!sbufe!
wpmubhf!jt!511!X-!efufsnjof!uif!tubsujoh!upsrvf!xifo!sbufe!wpmubhf!jt!bqqmjfe/
Solution
If the stator winding resistance per phase is r then the resistance between any two terminals (see
Fig. 8.20) is
r(r + r )
=1
r + (r + r)
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/:8
2r 2
or =1
3r
3
or r = W = 1.5 W
2
r r
Gjh/!9/31! Tubups!xjoejoh!)D*
2
Ê 440 ˆ
At the rated voltage, power input during the blocked rotor test will be 7 ¥ Á kW, i.e.,
Ë 240 ˜¯
Ê 440 ˆ
23.52 kW. At rated voltage, stator current during blocked rotor test will be Á 25 ¥ or 45.83 A.
Ë 240 ˜¯
È Ê 45.83 ˆ 2 ˘
Thus, at rated voltage the stator copper loss will be Í3 ¥ Á ˜ ¥ 1.5˙ or, 3150.768 W
ÍÎ Ë 3 ¯ ˙˚
Air-gap power Pag = Power input – (Stator copper loss + Stator core loss)
= (23520 – 3150.768 – 400) = 19.969 kW
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
Hence, starting torque when rated voltage is applied
Pag 19969
= Nm = 190.79 Nm
ws 2p ¥ 1000
60
È Ns ˘
ÍEw s = 2p ns = 2p ◊ 60 , N s being expressed in rpm ˙ .
Î ˚
! Qspcmfn!9/84
B!uisff.qibtf!trvjssfm.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups!hjwft!b!cmpdlfe!spups!uftu!dvssfou!pg!311&!pg!uif!sbufe!
dvssfou!xifo!41&!pg!uif!sbufe!wpmubhf!jt!bqqmjfe/!Uif!tubsujoh!upsrvf!jt!41&!pg!uif!sbufe!upsrvf/!
Uif!npups!xifo!tubsufe!cz!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!mjnjut!uif!tubsujoh!mjof!dvssfou!up!271&!pg!uif!sbufe!
dvssfou/!Efufsnjof!uif!qfsdfoubhf!tubsujoh!upsrvf!xjui!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!tubsujoh/
! 9/:9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
At 30% or rated voltage, blocked rotor current is 200% (given)
At rated voltage, blocked rotor current is
2 .
Isc = If l = 6.67 If l, where If l is the full-load current.
0.3
Now, if x be the fraction of the voltage applied to the stator during auto-transformer starting then
per phase starting current would be
Ist = x2 Isc (i)
Here, Ist = x2 (6.67 If l) (ii)
Again, it is given that (Ist) = 1.6 If l (ii)
From the equations (i) and (ii),
1.6
x2 = = 0.23988
6.67
Also, T μ voltage2, here, 0.3 Tf l μ (0.3 V)2, where V is the rated voltage, Tf l is the full-load
torque T,
0.3 .
i.e., V2 μ Tf l
0.09
From the text we know that
Starting torque with auto-transformer starting
= x2
que with direct on line starting
Starting torq
Hence, starting torque with auto-transformer starting is,
0.3 0.3
x2 ¥ Tf l = (0.23988)2 ¥ . Tf l = 0.1918 Tf l
0.09 0.09
i.e., starting torque with auto-transformer starting is 19.18% of the full-load torque.
! Qspcmfn!9/85
B!dbhf!npups!ibt!b!tubsujoh!dvssfou!pg!51!B!xifo!txjudife!po!ejsfdumz/!Bvup.usbotgpsnfs!xjui!56&!
ubqqjoh!jt!vtfe/
Efufsnjof!)b*!tubsujoh!dvssfou-!boe!)c*!sbujp!pg!tubsujoh!upsrvf!xjui!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!up!uif!tubsujoh!
upsrvf!xjui!ejsfdu!txjudijoh/
Solution
The ratio of transformation (x) is 0.45.
(a) \ Starting current with auto-transformer = (0.45)2 ¥ 40 = 8.1 A
Starting torque with auto-transformer
(b) = (0.45)2 = 0.2025.
Starting torque with direct starting
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/::
! Qspcmfn!9/86
B!uisff.qibtf-!21!lX-!tjy.qpmf-!61!I{-!511!W!pg!efmub.dpoofdufe!joevdujpo!npups!svot!bu!:71!sqn!
po!gvmm.mpbe/!Jg!ju!esbxt!96!B!po!ejsfdu!po.mjof!tubsujoh-!dbmdvmbuf!uif!sbujp!gps!uif!tubsujoh!upsrvf!up!
gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf!xjui!Z.D!tubsufs/!Qpxfs!gbdups!boe!gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!bsf!1/99!boe!:1&!sftqfdujwfmz/!
Solution
Given: Output = 10 kW
No. of poles = 6
Frequency f = 50 Hz
N = 900 rpm
h = 90%
Full-load p.f. = 0.88.
Full-load line current drawn by a three-plane D-connected induction motor is given as
Output in watt
(If l) =
3 ◊ VL ¥ P.f. ¥ efficiency
10 ¥ 1000 10000
= = = 18.22 A
3 ¥ 400 ¥ 0.88 ¥ 0.9 548.71
Now, full-load current per phase (D-connection)
18.22
If l = = 10.52 A
3
On direct on-line start the current Isc drawn by the motor per phase is given as
85
Isc = = 49.07 A
3
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed (Ns) = = = 1000 rpm
P 6
N s - N 1000 - 960
Full-load slip (s) = = = 0.04
Ns 1000
2
Ts = 1 Ê I sc ˆ ¥ s
E Á ˜ fl
Tfl 3 Ë I fl ¯
2
\ Here
Ts = 1 Ê 49.07 ˆ ¥ 0.04 = 0.290.
Á ˜
Tfl 3 Ë 10.52 ¯
! 9/211 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/87
B!uisff.qibtf!efmub.dpoofdufe!dbhf.uzqf!joevdujpo!npups!xifo!dpoofdufe!ejsfdumz!up!b!511!W-!61!I{!
tvqqmz!ublft!b!tubsujoh!dvssfou!pg!216!B!jo!fbdi!tubups!qibtf/!Gjoe!pvu!
! )b*! uif!mjof!dvssfou!gps!EPM!tubsujoh-
! )c*! mjof!boe!qibtf!tubsujoh!dvssfout!gps!Z.D!tubsujoh-!boe!
! )d*! mjof!boe!qibtf!tubsujoh!dvssfout!gps!b!81&!ubqqjoh!po!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!tubsujoh/
Solution
(a) Direct on line (DOL) starting current = 3 ¥ 105 = 181.86 A
V 400
(b) In Y-D starting, phase voltage on starting = L = = 230.9 V
3 3
400 105
Since 400 V produce 150 A in phase winding, will produce = 60.62 A
3 3
\ starting phase current = 60.62 A
In Y-connection, line current = phase current
\ starting line current = 60.62 A
(c) In auto-transformer start, with 70% tapping on auto-transformer, the line voltage across the
D-connected motor = 0.7 ¥ 400 V.
In D-connection, Phase voltage = Line voltage = 0.7 ¥ 400 = 280 V. Since 400 V produces
105 A in phase winding.
(0.7 ¥ 400) V = 280 V produces 0.7 ¥ 105 = 73.5 A
Hence, motor phase current is 73.5 A
\ motor phase current = 3 ¥ 73.5 = 127.30 A
supply line current motor applied voltage
But = = 0.7
motor line current supply voltage
\ supply line current = 0.7 ¥ 127.30 = 89.11 A.
! Qspcmfn!9/88
Dbmdvmbuf! uif! tvjubcmf! ubqqjoh! po! bo! bvup.usbotgpsnfs! tubsufs! gps! b! uisff.qibtf! joevdujpo! npups!
sfrvjsfe!up!tubsu!uif!npups!xjui!61&!pg!gvmm.mpbe!upsrvf/!Uif!tipsu.djsdvju!dvssfou!pg!uif!npups!jt!
7!ujnft!uif!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!boe!gvmm.mpbe!tmjq!jt!1/146/!Bmtp!dbmdvmbuf!uif!dvssfou!esbxo!gspn!uif!
nbjo!tvqqmz!bt!b!gsbdujpo!pg!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou/
Solution
2
2
Ê I sc ˆ
Starting torque = x . Á ˜ ¥ Slip at full-load ¥ Torque at full-load
Ë I fl ¯
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/212
i.e., x = 0.629
\ current drawn from the supply mains = x2 Isc = 0.396 ¥ 6 ¥ Ifull-load = 2.736 If l.
! Qspcmfn!9/89
B!526!W-!61!I{-!fjhiu.qpmf!uisff.qibtf!efmub.dpoofdufe!trvjssfm.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!b!tubsujoh!
dvssfou!pg!41!B!xifo!dpoofdufe!ejsfdumz!up!uif!tvqqmz/!Gjoe!)b*!uif!mjof!boe!qibtf!dvssfou!esbxo!cz!
uif!npups!xifo!dpoofdufe!ejsfdumz!po!mjof-!)c*!uif!mjof!dvssfou!xifo!tubsufe!cz!bo!bvup.usbotgpsnfs!
xjui!81&!ubqqjoh-!boe!)d*!uif!mjof!dvssfou!xifo!tubsufe!cz!b!tubs.efmub!tubsufs/
Solution
(a) Line current when connected directly to the supply is 30 A.
30
As the motor is delta connected, the phase current under direct online supply is A=
3
1732 A.
(b) At 70% auto-transformer tapping the applied line voltage is 415 ¥ 0.7 V = 290.5 V.
As the motor is delta-connected phase voltage is 290.5 V.
When phase voltage is 415 V, the phase current is 17.32 A.
17.32 ¥ 290.5
When phase voltage is 290.5 V, the current supplied by the auto-transformer is
415
= 12.124 A.
Hence, phase current of the motor = 0.7 ¥ 12.124 = 8.48 A
Hence, the line current when started by auto-transformer starter is 8.48 ¥ 3 = 14.7 A
(c) When the motor is started by a star-delta starter, the motor is connected in star at the instant of
415
starting. Hence, phase voltage of the motor during stating is V = 239.6 V. Phase current
239.6 3
at phase voltage of 239.6 V is 17.32 ¥ = 10 A.
415
\ Line current = Phase current = 10 A at start.
! Qspcmfn!9/8:
B!uisff.qibtf!trvjssfm.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!cmpdlfe!spups!dvssfou!pg!611&!boe!upsrvf!pg!311&!
pg!jut!gvmm.mpbe!dvssfou!boe!upsrvf!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!uif!dvssfou!boe!upsrvf!bt!b!qfsdfoubhf!
pg! gvmm.mpbe! wbmvft! xifo! tubsufe! cz! )b*! tubs.efmub! tubsufs-! )c*! bvup.usbotgpsnfs! tubsufs! xjui! 91&!
ubqqjoh-!boe!)d*!qsjnbsz!sftjtubodf!tubsufs-!mjnjujoh!uif!tubsujoh!dvssfou!up!81&!pg!ejsfdu!po!mjof!
dvssfou/
! 9/213 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
(a) When started by star-delta starter
1
Starting current = ¥ 500% = 166.67%
3
1
Starting torque = ¥ 200% = 66.67%
3
(b) With auto-transformer starter,
Starting current = 500 ¥ (0.8)2 = 320%
Starting torque = 200 ¥ (0.8)2 = 128%
(c) With primary resistance starter,
Starting current = 500 ¥ 0.7 = 350%
Starting torque = 200 ¥ (0.7)2 = 9.8%.
TQFFE!DPOUSPM!PG!B!UISFF.QIBTF! 9/2:
JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS
The synchronous speed (Ns) of a three-phase induction motor is given by
N 120 f
Ns = or N = Ns (1 – s) = (1 – s)
1- s P
The speed N of an induction motor can be changed by the three basic methods.
)b*!Gsfrvfodz!Dpouspm! By changing the supply frequency f, the speed can be varied directly
proportional to the supply frequency of ac supply.
)c*!Qpmf!Dibohjoh! Speed control can also be obtained by changing the number of poles P on the
stator (as speed is inversely proportional to the number of poles). This change can be incorporated
by changing the stator winding connections with a suitable switch. The change in the number of
stator poles P changes the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating flux, thereby the speed of the motor
also changes.
)d*! Cz! Dibohjoh! uif! Tmjq! This can be accomplished by introducing resistance in the rotor
circuit, which causes an increase in slip, thereby bringing down the speed of the motor.
9/2:/2! Tqffe!Dpouspm!cz!Dibohf!pg!Tvqqmz!Gsfrvfodz
If the frequency of the supply to the stator of an induction motor is changed its synchronous speed
is changed, depending on the frequency and hence, provides a direct method of speed control. To
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/214
keep the magnetization current within limits, the applied voltage must be reduced in direct propor-
tion to the frequency. Otherwise, the magnetic circuit will become saturated resulting in excessive
magnetization current.
The starting torque at reduced frequency is not reduced in the same proportion, because rotor
power factor improves with reduction in frequency. The torque that can be produced by the maxi-
mum permissible rotor current is equal to that at rated conditions. Since power is the product of
torque and speed, operation at reduced speed results in lesser permissible output.
This method of speed control is not a common method and hence, this method would be used
only as a special case.
In earlier days, the variable frequency was obtained from a motor generator set or mercury arc in-
verter. In recent days, frequency control is used by SCR based inverters or by using IGBT inverters.
9/2:/3! Tqffe!Dpouspm!cz!Qpmf!Dibohjoh
If an induction motor is to run at different speeds, one way is to have different windings for the mo-
tor so that it will have different synchronous speeds and the running speeds. Another method is used
with suitable connections for a changeover to double the number of poles. The principle of forma-
tion of consequent poles is used. The method of changing the number of poles is accomplished by
producing two sections of coils for each phase which can be reversed with respect to the other sec-
tion. It is important to note in this connection that slot angle (i.e., electrical degrees), phase spread,
breadth factor and pitch factor will be different for the low- and high-speed connections. The three
phases can be connected in star or delta, thus, giving a number of connections. If 50% per pole pitch
is used for a high-speed connection, a full-pitch winding is obtained for low-speed connection. The
method of connecting coils of a four-pole motor is shown in Fig. 8.21 for one phase and also change
over connections to obtain eight poles for the same machine with the same winding.
1 2 3 4
N S N S
(a)
1 2 3 4
S S
N S N N N S
(b)
Gjh/!9/32! Gpvs.qpmf0fjhiu.qpmf!dpoofdujpot!gps!pof!qibtf!pg!joevdujpo!npups
The methods of speed control by pole changing are suitable for squirrel-cage motors only be-
cause, a cage rotor has as many poles induced in it as there are in the stator and can thus, adapt when
the number of stator poles changes.
! 9/215 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
9/2:/4! Tqffe!Dpouspm!cz!Dibohf!pg!Tmjq
Slip can be varied in three ways:
1. By varying resistance of the rotor circuit
2. By varying the stator applied voltage
3. By injecting an external slip emf in the rotor circuit
2/!Spups!Sftjtubodf!Dpouspm!
This method is applicable to slip-ring induction motor as the slip rings make it possible to connect
external resistance to the rotor circuit. When speed control in a limited range for a short period is
required, this method is used.
As the total resistance in the rotor circuit increases, the speed drops for constant torque as evident
from the torque-slip characteristic of Fig. 8.11. For a constant stator voltage, the air-gap flux is con-
stant. Therefore, for a constant torque, the rotor current and the stator current are constant. When
the rotor resistance is increased, the decrease of speed increases the rotor emf because of relative
increase of speed with respect to the rotating air-gap flux, tending to increase the rotor current. But
the increase of rotor resistance due to increase of rotor frequency offsets this tendency.
Hence, there is a built-in mechanism for limiting the current at constant torque. The increase
of rotor resistance with the same rotor current increases the rotor copper loss resulting in reduced
efficiency and inversed temperature rise. Hence, this method is well suited when speed control for
short periods is required. For a constant rotor current, the torque at standstill can be made much
higher than normal full-load torque by inserting a suitable external resistance, so that when started
on full-load, the motor accelerates faster.
3/!Tubups!Wpmubhf!Dpouspm!
Speed control by controlling the applied voltage to the stator is used only in small three-phase
squirrel induction motors. The torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square
of the applied voltage (as evident from Eq. 8.49). A reduction of stator voltage reduces the torque.
But if the load torque is constant, the electromagnetic torque cannot decrease for a stable operation.
Hence, the slip changes (increases) in such a way so as to make up the reduction of stator voltage,
i.e., the speed reduces.
In an induction motor, the electromagnetic torque is developed due to the interaction of rotor
current and air-gap flux. The strength of the air-gap flux is proportional to the stator voltage due
to the fact that the magnetizing current depends on the stator voltage. Therefore, a reduction of
stator voltage reduces the air-gap flux so that for a fixed electromagnetic torque, the rotor current
and, therefore, the stator current increase. This increase of current should be such that the full-load
value is not exceeded. Now if the motor is operating at rated stator voltage and rated stator current,
a reduction of stator voltage requires an increase of stator current above the rated value for the same
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/216
load torque. As this is not possible, the speed control by stator voltage control is possible with a
load torque only if it is less than the motor torque corresponding to rated voltage and rated current.
4/!Tqffe!Dpouspm!cz!fng!Jokfdujpo!jo!Tfdpoebsz!Djsdvju!
This method of speed control is possible only in case of slip-ring induction motors.
Let the standstill rotor voltage be E2. When the motor runs on load with slip rings shorted, the
rotor voltage reduces to sE2 = I2 Z2s where Z2s is the rotor impedance. The current I2 provides the
necessary torque. Now if the motor speed is to be decreased then an external emf Ef of slip fre-
quency (that means the frequency of the externally injected emf should be exactly the same as that
of sE2) is injected in the rotor circuit in each phase and in phase opposition to E2. If the load torque
on the motor remains approximately the same, the current in the motor remains in the same direc-
tion and of the same value. This means I2Z2s remains approximately the same value. This is pos-
sible only when the induced emf in the rotor increases to a value s1E2 (s π s1). This means the slip
must increase or speed must decrease. There are two voltages applied in the rotor circuit s1E2(emf
induced) and Ef (emf injected).
Since there are two voltages applied to the rotor circuit s1 E2 (emf induced) and Ef (emf injected),
hence, the difference of their magnitudes should be equal I2 Z2s.
\ s1 E2 – E2 = I2Z2s (8.71)
Since Z2s (the rotor impedance) is normally small, hence, we may neglect I2Z2s. This gives
\ s1E2 = Ef or s1 = Ef /E2 (8.72)
On the other hand,
If the external slip emf is injected in the same phase with E2 then by the same reasoning we have,
Ef
s1 E2 + Ef = 0 or s1 = – (8.73)
E2
Hence, the slip becomes negative, i.e. the motor runs at super-synchronous speed.
Thus, we observe that if the external slip emf is injected in the rotor in phase with E2 the rotor
runs above synchronous speed and if injected at 180° to E2, the motor runs below synchronous
speed. More the magnitude of Ef , more the speed variation.
For a wide variation of speed, by this method slip is increased to high values, so that the power
absorbed in the secondary circuit (i.e. rotor copper loss) increases. Power absorbed in the external
rotor circuit (neglecting the small power loss in rotor winding itself) = s ¥ Power transferred be-
tween stator and rotor.
An external resistance in rotor can consume electrical power but cannot supply electrical power
Hence, it can change motor speed in subsynchronous region only. Actually, it injects an external
voltage (in the form of I2R2 drop across the external resistance in each phase) at 180° to E2 in the
rotor circuit. Proper electronic thyristor circuitary, which can make controlled electrical power flow
in both the directions and can generate slip frequency emf on one side and power frequency on the
! 9/217 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
other, when connected to secondary circuit of a slip trying induction motor, can control its speed
below or above synchronous speed. If we connect capacitors or pure inductors in the rotor circuit,
they do not absorb any real power or generate any electrical power and they cannot control the speed
of the motor. The I2X2 drop which gets injected in the secondary circuit is at 90° to E2 and it simply
changes the power factor of the motor current.
If the regulating mechanism at rotor circuit is capable of handling the electrical power absorbed
in such a way that it takes electrical power from supply system and feeds to rotor (–ve absorption)
to cater for extra mechanical power developed then the speed control is done at high efficiency. The
regulating power is not lost as heat.
5/!Dbtdbef!Dpoofdujpo
Here, two induction motors are required, and one of them must be a slip ring induction motor. The
connections are as shown in Fig. 8.22. The two motors are coupled electrically as well as mechani-
cally. For motor A, it is external slip emf control from the secondary side.
3-f supply
A B
Gjh/!9/33! Dbtdbef!dpouspm
This method has not found wide application because of large weight of the two motors and
comparatively lower power factor; however, sometimes it is used in drives like rolling mills
and large ventilating fans.
QPXFS!GBDUPS!BU!EJGGFSFOU!MPBEJOHT! 9/31
Referring to the equivalent circuit of the induction motor as shown in Fig. 8.13(b), the power fac-
tor of the motor means the power factor of I1 with respect to V1. At no-load, I 2¢ is negligible. So
the power factor is due to the current Im only. Im is the magnetizing component predominantly and
hence, has very low power factor. At full-load or near full-load, I2 is predominant and I¢2 is governed
by R¢2. Thus, the power factor of the motor is much better at full-load or close to full-load values, Im
has little effect this time.
However, at high value of slip, (R¢2/s) decreases and obviously the power factor starts deteriorat-
ing. At s = 1, blocked-rotor condition, the power factor is worst as the motor current is then highly
inductive.
Power factor of an induction motor on full-load is a design factor. Normally, less number of
poles or higher speed motors have better power factors. Power of larger capacity motors is normally
better than that of smaller capacity motors. Actually, power factor is a function of air gap, leakage
reactance, core material, etc., in the machine.
Fggjdjfodz!wt!Mpbe!Dibsbdufsjtujd
Efficiency of induction note is naturally very low at no-load and increases fast as load increases,
and reaches maximum value when the variable losses become equal to constant losses. It then again
starts decreasing slowly with further increase in load as shown in Fig. 8.23.
Full-load efficiency of a machine is again a design factor and depends mainly upon the losses in
the machine. Higher speed and higher capacity motors have generally better efficiencies.
Load
Gjh/!9/34! h!wt!mpbe!dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!bo!joevdujpo!npups
! 9/219 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
PQFSBUJPO!PG!BO!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS!BU! 9/32
EJGGFSFOU!GSFRVFODJFT
When a voltage V1 is applied to the primary of an induction motor, a voltage E1 (= V1) is induced
in that primary such that E1 = 4.44 fm f N1.
If the motor is to be operated at a higher frequency, the value of fm decreases as V1 is constant. It
is not a problem as regards to no-load current, but the speed of the motor will increase. If the torque
of the load remains constant, the power delivered will be more and load component of the current
will become excessive.
In order to bring down the current, either V1 has to be increased (to make V/f constant) or the sta-
tor must be rewound with less number of turns so that N1 f is constant and the flux is constant. The
iron losses will be more because of the increased frequency.
If the motor is to be run on a lower frequency than the normal frequency, the flux fm is required
to be increased. Normally, the core and especially the teeth are operating near saturation region of
the magnetization curve. Thus, Io may become very high. One solution to their problem is that the
applied voltage may be decreased such that V/f is a constant.
So whenever a machine is to be operated at a lower frequency, it should be ensured that the ap-
plied voltage is decreased in the same proportion. But with this measure, the starting torque, stall-
ing torque, etc., also become less as torque is proportional to square of the applied voltage. If the
applied voltage is to be kept same, the solution is to rewind the stator with increased number of
turns such that N1 f is constant.
DSBXMJOH!BOE!DPHHJOH!PG!BO!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS! 9/33
In a squirrel-cage induction motor, the starting torque is usually low. Sometimes, a squirrel-cage
motor, after starting, run at a very low speed of about 1/7th of its full speed. This is known as crawl-
ing of the induction motor. The reason is as follows; Because of certain practical reasons, it is not
possible to have more than 3 or 4 slots per pole per phase in the stator. The windings in these slots
produce an approximately stepped mmf wave in place of a sine wave and this stepped wave is com-
posed of a large number of harmonics. This can be proved by Fourier analysis of the mmf wave.
Since the wave shape is almost perfectly symmetrical about the x-axis, the even harmonics are total-
ly absent. Third harmonics and their multiples cancel out because of three-phase connection in the
windings. Hence, only 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, etc., harmonics are present. But the strength of these
harmonics goes on diminishing with their increasing order. Thus, the 5th and 7th harmonics in the
flux wave are of predominance. The fifth harmonic has negative phase sequence, so it does not pro-
duce a forward torque. The seventh harmonic has the same direction of rotation as the fundamental,
and thus, its forward torque slip characteristics get superimposed over that due to fundamental. The
seventh harmonic in the air-gap flow produces the effect of number of poles seven times more than
the poles in fundamental. Thus, the synchronous speed for the seventh harmonic is 1/7th of the fun-
damental. That is why there is a hump and a cusp in the torque vs slip characteristics of the motor
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/21:
at about 1/7th of the synchronous speed as shown in Fig. 8.24. If the load characteristics intersects
the motor characteristics somewhere on the torque descending line AB then the motor will keep on
running at this low speed. These gap flux harmonics are produced not only by windings but also
due to slotting, saturation, gap-length irregularities, harmonics or unbalance in supply voltage, etc.
This phenomenon of operation of the induction motor at more than 1/7th of synchronous speed is
called creating crawling of the motor.
Gjh/!9/35! Fggfdu!pg!uif!ibsnpojd!jo!gmvy!po!U0t!dvswf
When the number of the stator and the number of rotor slots are such that they are in the same
position then the reluctance of the magnetic path is minimum. If the rotor leaves this position, the
reluctance increases and a reluctance torque is produced which opposes the movement of the rotor.
If the starting torque of the motor is less than the reluctance torque, the motor will fail to start. This
phenomenon is known as cogging or magnetic locking and is due to equalization of number of sta-
tor and rotor slots.
TLFXJOH!PG!SPUPS!TMPUT!JO!B!UISFF.! 9/34
QIBTF!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS!
A larger number of induction motors are produced with skewed rotor slots. Placing the rotor bars
in skewed slots results in reduction of cogging, crawling and other torque problems, minimizes the
motor noise and increases the rotor resistance (because of the increase in the rotor bar length). The
torque defects are minimized because the rotor and stator slots are no more parallel to each other
to provide possibility of magnetic locking and one end of a rotor bar may be under the north pole
of a harmonic while the other end of the same bar may be under south of the same harmonic. This
results in no current flow in the bar due to the harmonics. Thus, skewing improves performance of
the motor considerably.
! 9/221 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
PQFSBUJPO!PO!VOCBMBODFE!WPMUBHF! 9/35
BOE!TJOHMF!QIBTJOH!
If the three line voltages supplied to a three-phase induction motor are not equal, they not only
cause unequal phase currents in the rotor and stator windings but the percentage current unbalance
may be 6 to 10 times larger than the percentage voltage unbalance. The resultant increase in I 2R
losses will overheat the insulation, shortening its life. Unbalanced voltages also cause a decrease in
locked-rotor and breakdown torque. Thus, in those applications where there is only a small margin
between the locked-rotor torque and the load torque, severe voltage unbalance may prevent the mo-
tor from starting. The full-load speed of the running motor is reduced slightly by voltage unbalance.
Percent voltage unbalance is defined by the maximum line voltage deviation from the average
value of the three line voltages, times 100.
Expressed as an equation, we have
Percent unbalanced
Vmax dev.
voltage = . 100 (8.74)
Vavg.
where Vavg = (V1 + V2 + V3)/3
and Vmax dev = maximum deviation of voltage between a line voltage and Vavg.
Single phasing in a three-phase induction motor means that one of the three phases of the supply
has been cut off due to any reason, or one phase fuse has blown off or removed or disconnected
somewhere in one phase. The motor, when already running, keeps on running as a single-phase
motor making a characteristic noise. This is a single-phasing condition because the current in both
the remaining two lines now is the same single current.
In a star-connected stator, the load is taken by the remaining two phases so the motor now can
take a load of 1/ 3 times (57.7%) its rating. In single phasing condition, for the same current and
voltage, P = VI cos f; while in three-phase operation, P = 3 VI cos f. Thus, if the motor is operat-
ing at a load near full-load, the healthy phases will be overloaded. If the stator is delta connected the
current distribution in different phases is not the same. One of the windings gets overloaded even
when the current in the healthy lines is normal.
Under single-phasing condition, apart from the possibility of overloading of healthy windings,
there is the danger of increased heating due to increased rotor losses. Hence, protection devices
must be provided to disconnect the supply to the three-phase motor whenever single phasing oc-
curs. If the motor is attempted to start in single-phasing condition from the stalling condition, it will
not start as there is no three-phase rotating field to rotate the rotor.
DJSDMF!EJBHSBN! 9/36
To determine the performance characteristics of induction motors on load, it is not really easy to
provide the loading facility. Especially, for large capacity motors it is almost impossible to load
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/222
the motors on the manufacturing sites. So by simply conducting the no-load and the blocked-rotor
tests and by drawing the circle diagram, one can compute all the performance characteristics of
the motor on all possible loads. The performance characteristics of a motor can be theoretically
predetermined, even before the production of the motor, from its design data using the equivalent
circuit analysis. The circle diagram is an extension of the equivalent circuit analysis. It is faster in
manually computing the characteristics of a motor at various loads. Besides the approximations of
the equivalent circuit, it involves the approximation of construction and length measurement.
The approximate equivalent circuit of an induction motor as referred to primary is as in Fig. 8.7.
V
I¢2 = Load current as referred to primary =
Rt2 + X t2
R2¢
where Rt = R1 + and Xt = X1 + X2¢
s
Let f be the phase angle between I 2¢ and V.
Rt Xt
\ cos f = and sin f =
Rt2 + X t2 Rt2 + X t2
V
\ I2¢ = sin f
Xt
If the applied voltage and the leakage inductances of the stator and rotor windings are constant
V
then the above expression represents a circle of diameter passing through the origin. We assume
Xt
Xt as constant for all the normal motors. This assumption is very nearly true. But for deep-bar and
double-cage motors, the diameter of the circle goes on changing with the changing Xt.
The value of I2¢ changes as the load or Rt changes and it lies on the locus of a circle as shown in
Fig. 8.25(a). If the voltage is taken on the y-axis and if Rt = • then sin f = 0, and lies on y-axis. If
Rt = 0, sin f = 1, I2¢ = V/Xt at 90° to V, i.e. on x-axis.
Mpdvt!pg!J¢3!po!uif!Djsdmf!
Since V/Xt is the maximum value of I¢2, therefore, it forms a semicircle above x-axis.
I¢2 will be equal to V/Xt only if Rt = 0 which is practically impossible. So, it is only a theoretical
value. Since I1 = Io + I¢2, therefore, Fig. 8.25(b) gives the primary current I1 for any load current I¢2.
Io in the equivalent circuit is actually the open-circuit current, i.e. the core loss and magnetization
current. But on performing the no-load test on an induction motor, it gives Io plus a small amount of
I¢2 corresponding to the friction and windage losses in the motor. Thus, this also introduces a small
approximation in these computations.
! 9/223 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
I¢2 Motoring I1
I¢2
Io
I¢2 = V
Generating
Xt
(b)
(a)
Gjh/!9/36! Djsdmf!ejbhsbn
One knows Io and fo from no-load test, Is and fs from blocked-rotor test and the resistance of
stator winding per phase (Rs) can be measured. Is is the blocked-rotor current with rated supply
voltage.
The construction of a circle diagram is described in Fig. 8.26. At first, a vertical line OY repre-
senting the input voltage V is drawn. Now a line OA is drawn making an angle fo with the vertical
axis to represent the no-load current Io. From A, a line AB is drawn at an angle fs with the vertical
axis with magnitude equal to Is. Join OB. Now a perpendicular bisector of AB is drawn which meets
the horizontal line drawn from A, i.e., AC at E. With E as centre and EA as radius, a semicircle is
drawn. From B on the semicircle, a vertical line is drawn which meets AC at H and the horizontal
line drawn from O at G.
The vertical line BG represents the input power under blocked-rotor condition with rated voltage
applied across the stator. Now from A a perpendicular is drawn on OG at U. Hence,
HG = AU
Again, from D OAU
AU = Io cos fo
Hence, AU can be equated to the no-load input power which supplies mainly core loss, friction
and windage loss.
The power scale can be determined from AU as it is equal to the no-load power Wo.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/224
Wo
\ Power scale 1 cm =
Length of AU in cm
Wo
=
Length of HG in cm
As BG represents input power under blocked-rotor condition and HG represents no-load power,
BH represents the copper loss in the stator and rotor as the output in the blocked-rotor condition is
zero. BH is divided at the point J such that HJ represents the stator copper loss and JB represents
the rotor copper loss. If stator and rotor copper losses are assumed to be equal then
E BJ = HJ
The line joining points A and J, i.e. the line AJ represents the torque line and line AB represents
the output line.
Now let us assume that the motor is taking a current represented by the line OK. The perpendicu-
lar line KL represents the input power.
LM represents the fixed losses. MN and NP represent the stator and rotor copper loss. PK repre-
sents output power and NK represents the output torque.
For the determination of maximum torque developed by the motor, a line parallel to the torque
line AJ is drawn which makes a tangent to the circle at the point T. Then draw a vertical line TS to
the torque line. The length of TS represents the maximum torque.
Y
V
K T
Q
e
t lin
tpu
Ou
I1
D
I¢2
P line J
Torque
f R
fs S
N
fo E H F
C
A M
O Ia U L G
Gjh/!9/37! Djsdmf!ejbhsbn
Similarly, to determine the maximum power developed by the motor, a line parallel to the output
line AB is drawn which makes a tangent to the circle at the point Q. Then draw a vertical line QR on
the output line. The length of QR represents the maximum output.
! 9/225 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
It is advisable to draw as big a circle diagram as is reasonably possible. This will minimize the
measurement errors.
IJHI.UPSRVF!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPST! 9/37
Conventional squirrel-cage motors suffer from the disadvantage of low starting torque because of
low rotor resistance. The starting torque can be increased by using bar material of higher resistivity.
A higher rotor resistance gives a higher starting torque and lower starting line current at a higher
power factor. However, higher rotor resistance reduces the full-load speed and increases rotor
ohmic losses resulting in lower efficiency. A low rotor resistance is required for normal operation,
when running, so that the slip is low and the efficiency is high. Therefore, for good starting perfor-
mances, the rotor resistance should be high at start, and under normal operating speeds, the rotor
resistance should be low.
In wound-rotor induction motors, these conditions are fulfilled by connecting external resis-
tances in the rotor circuit at the time of starting. As the motor speeds up, the external resistance is
cut out and the rotor windings are short-circuited through the slip rings.
In order to obtain high rotor resistance at starting and low rotor resistance at running, two types
of rotor connections are used in squirrel-cage motors:
1. Deep bar rotor
2. Double-cage rotor
Figure 8.27 shows a cage rotor with deep and narrow bars. As such, a bar may be assumed to be
made up of number of narrow layers connected in parallel. Figure 8.27 shows three such layers, X,
Y and Z. It may be observed that the topmost layers, element X is linked with minimum leakage flux
Element X
Rotor bar
Element Y
Gjh/!9/38! Effq.cbs!dbhf!spups!cbs
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/226
and, therefore, its leakage inductance is minimum. On the other hand, the bottom layer Z links with
maximum leakage flux and, therefore, its leakage inductance is maximum.
At starting, the rotor frequency is equal to the supply frequency. The bottom-most layer element
Z offers greater impedance to the flow of current than the topmost layer element X. Therefore,
maximum current flows through the topmost layer and minimum current flows through the bottom
layer. Because of the unequal distribution of current, the effective rotor resistance increases and the
leakage reactance decreases. This causes a high rotor resistance at starting conditions; the starting
torque is relatively higher while the starting current is relatively lower.
Under normal operating conditions, the slip and the rotor frequency are very small. The reac-
tance of all layers of the bar are very small in comparison to their resistances. The impedances of
all layers of the bar are nearly equal and hence, current flowing through all parts of the bar is mostly
identical. Also the resulting larger cross-sectional area makes the rotor resistance itself quite small,
resulting in a good efficiency at low slips.
An induction motor with two rotor windings (or cages) is also used for obtaining high starting
torque at low starting current. The stator of a double-cage rotor induction motor is similar to that
of an ordinary induction motor. In the double-cage rotor, there are two layers of bars as shown in
Fig. 8.28.
Outer cage
Negligible outer cage
leakage flux
Slit
Inner cage
Inner cage leakage flux
Mutual flux
Gjh/!9/39! Epvcmf.dbhf!spups!tmpu
Each layer is short-circuited by end rings. The outer cage bars have a smaller cross-sectional
area than the inner bars and are made of high resistivity materials like brass, aluminum, bronze,
etc. The inner-cage bars are made of low-resistance copper. Thus, the resistance of the outer cage
is greater than the resistance of the inner cage. There is a slit between the top and bottom slots. The
slit increases leakage flux around the inner-cage bars. Thus, the leakage flux linking the inner-cage
winding is much greater than that of the outer-cage winding, and hence, the inner winding has a
greater self-inductance.
! 9/227 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
At starting, the voltage induced in the rotor is same as the supply frequency voltage. The leakage
reactance of the inner-cage winding (= 2pfL) is much larger than that of the outer-cage winding
as frequency of rotor is same as the frequency of stator. Therefore, most of the starting current is
flowing in the outer-cage winding which offers low-impedance to the flow of current. The high-
resistance outer-cage winding, therefore, develops a high starting torque.
As the rotor speed increases, the frequency of the rotor emf (fr = sf ) decreases. At normal oper-
ating speed, the leakage reactances (= 2p sfL) of both the windings become negligibly small. The
rotor current division between the two cages is governed mainly by their resistances. Since the
resistance of the outer cage is about 5 to 6 times that of the inner cage, most of the rotor current
flows through the inner cage. Hence, under normal operating speed, torque is developed mainly by
the low-resistance inner cage.
It may, thus, be noted that for low-starting torque requirements, an ordinary cage motor can be
used. For higher torque requirements, a deep-bar motor may be used. A double-cage motor is used
for still higher torques. For large-size motors with very large starting torques and long starting pe-
riods, slip ring motors are used.
A single-cage motor and a double-cage motor of the same rating can be compared as follows:
1. A double-cage rotor has low starting current and high starting torque. Therefore, it is more
suitable for direct on-line starting.
2. The high resistance of the outer cage increases the effective resistance of a double-cage
motor. Therefore, full-load copper losses are increased and the efficiency of the double-cage
motor is decreased.
3. Since effective rotor resistance of a double-cage motor is higher, there is a larger rotor heating
at the time of starting as compared to that of a single-cage rotor.
4. A double-cage induction motor has higher effective leakage reactance due to additional
reactance of the inner cage. Therefore, the full-load power factor is reduced.
5. The pull-out torque of a double-cage motor is smaller than that of a single-cage motor because
the two cages produce the maximum torque at different speeds.
6. By a proper choice of resistances and reactance of the outer and inner cages, a wide range of
torque-slip characteristics can be obtained with double-cage motors. This is not possible with
a single-cage motor.
7. The cost of a double-cage motor is higher than that of a single-cage motor of the same rating.
Let R1 = Resistance per phase of stator
X1 = Reactance per phase of stator
R¢20 = Resistance per phase of outer cage referred to stator
¢
X2o = Standstill leakage reactance per phase of outer cage referred to stator
R¢2i = Resistance per phase of the inner cage referred to stator.
X¢2i = Standstill leakage reactance per phase of the inner cage referred to stator
s = Slip
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/228
It is assumed that the main flux completely links both the cages and hence, the impedances of the
two cages can be considered in parallel.
I1 I¢2 R1 X1
Io I¢2o I¢2i
Ic Im X¢2i
X2o
Ro E¢2
Xo
V1 R¢2s R¢2i
s s
Gjh/!9/3:)b*! Frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!pg!b!epvcmf.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups
The equivalent circuit of the double-cage induction motor at slip s is shown in Fig. 8.29(a).
If the shunt branches containing Ro and Xo are neglected, the equivalent circuit becomes simpli-
fied and is shown in Fig. 8.29(b).
I1 R1 X1
I¢2o I¢2i
X¢2o X¢2i
E¢2
V1 R¢2o R¢2i
s s
Gjh/!9/3:)c*! Bqqspyjnbuf! frvjwbmfou! djsdvju! pg! b! epvcmf.dbhf! joevdujpo! npups! xjui! nbhofuj{joh!
dvssfou!ofhmfdufe
4
Input current
Starting torque
Torque, current(Pm)
Total torque
2 Torque cage 2
Torque cage 1
slip (pu)
O 1 o
Speed w ws
Synchronous speed
Gjh/!9/41! Upsrvf!boe!dvssfou!dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!b!epvcmf.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/22:
The resultant torque-speed characteristics can be modified according to the requirement. This is
done by modifying the individual cage resistances and leakage reactances. The resistances can be
changed by changing the area of cross section of bars. The leakage reactance can be changed by
changing the width of the slot openings and the depth of the inner cage.
Power developed per phase by the outer cage is given by
R2¢ o
Pdo = I 22o¢ (8.79)
s
Power developed per phase by the inner cage is
R2¢ i
Pdi = I 22i¢ (8.80)
s
\ power developed per phase by both the cages is given as
R2¢ o R¢
Pd = Pdo + Pdi = (I 2¢ o)2 + ( I 2¢ i ) 2 2i (8.81)
s s
From the equivalent circuit of the double-cage motor,
E2¢
I2¢o = (8.82)
Z 2¢ o
E2¢
I2i¢ = (8.83)
Z 2¢ i
2
Ê R¢ ˆ
¢ = Á 2o ˜ + ( X 2¢ i ) 2
Z 2o (8.84)
Ë s ¯
2
Ê R¢ ˆ
Z2¢ i = Á 2i ˜ + ( X 2¢ i ) 2 (8.85)
Ë s ¯
Let
Tdo = Torque developed by the outer cage
Tdi = Torque developed by the inner cage
Td = Total torque developed by the two cages
\ Pd = (2p ns) Td
P 1 È 2 R2¢ o 2 R2i ˘
where, Td = d = Í( I 2¢ o ) s + ( I 2¢ i ) s ˙ (8.86)
2p ns 2p ns Î ˚
2
Ê R2¢ o ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + ( X 2¢ o )
2
Tdo
Also, = 2
(8.87)
Tdi Ê R2¢ i ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + ( X 2¢ i )
2
! 9/231 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
EJGGFSFOU!PQFSBUJOH![POFT!PG! 9/38
BO!JOEVDUJPO!NBDIJOF
The torque slip characteristic for a normal induction machine has been drawn for slips from +2 to
–1 as shown in Fig. 8.31.
+2 1 ns –1
0
S Speed
Gjh/!!9/42! U0tmjq!dibsbdufsjtujdt!efqjdujoh!ejggfsfou!npeft!pg!pqfsbujpo
For slip 1 to 0, the machine is rotating in the direction of the field and the torque developed is
in the same direction, so it is motoring action. For all the values of slips above +1, the machine is
running in the opposite direction to the field causing braking action.
When slip is negative, the mechanical torque developed is also negative. Negative mechanical
torque developed by a machine means it is working as a generator. That means an induction ma-
chine works in the generating mode when its slip is negative.
2/!Npupsjoh!Npef
When the slip is between 0 and 1, the mechanical power developed is positive and the power input
to the rotor is also positive. Thus, it means electrical power is received by the rotor through stator
and there it is converted into mechanical power. The machine is working as a motor.
3/!Hfofsbujoh!Npef
When slip is negative, i.e. when rotor speed is higher than synchronous speed in the direction of the
field, then there is a reverse flow of power. Mechanical power is not developed but is consumed and
the rotor does not receive electrical power from the stator, instead, it delivers it. Hence, the machine
is working as a generator.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/232
4/!Csbljoh!Npef
When slip is more than unity, i.e., when the rotor is running in opposite direction to the direction of
the field, power developed is negative while power input is positive.
For this mode, slip is greater than 1. This is achieved by bringing the rotor to a quick stop by
a braking action called plugging. In plugging, any two stator terminals are interchanged causing
reversal of phase sequence. The direction of the rotating magnetic field becomes opposite to the
direction of rotation of the rotor. The electromagnetic torque is developed in the opposite direction
causing braking action. The motor is brought to rest quickly but the supply must be disconnected
from the stator before the rotor starts rotating in the opposite direction.
JOEVDUJPO!SFHVMBUPS! 9/39
An induction machine to be used as a variable voltage supplier is known as induction regulator. In
this mode of operation, it is in standstill condition. Hence, it works like an auto-transformer. Induc-
tion regulator is different from auto-transformer in the way that the latter supplies different voltages
by changing tappings on its windings while the motor gives different voltages by changing its rotor
position. The rotor has to be held after turning it by the required angle in the position by some me-
chanical means, otherwise the rotor may try to rotate as a motor (specially in case of a three-phase
regulator). The primary is usually on the rotor.
The principle of operation is described here by considering the primary supply to the stator.
Mag. field axis
Prime V1 V1 V1 V1
V0 V0 V0 V0
sec.
comp.widg V2
comp.widg
V2 V2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
V0
V1 V0 V1 V0 V1V2
V1
V0
(a) Stator and rotor (b) Stator and rotor (c) Stator and rotor (d) Stator and rotor axes
windings, axes same windings, axes at 45° windings axes at 90° at 180° to each other
Gjh/!!9/43! Qsjodjqmf!pg!b!tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!sfhvmbups
The principle of operation of a single-phase induction regulator is quite clear from Fig. 8.32.
The output voltage Vo = V1 ± V2 where the magnitude of V2 changes with rotor position. Thus,
one can get any output voltage between the maximum value (V1 + V2) and minimum value (V1 – V2).
! 9/233 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
B
C
V0 min
q
Vo
A
V1
V1
(a) 3-phase connections (b) Connections of each phase (c) Phasor diagram
Gjh/!9/44! Uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!sfhvmbups
GSFRVFODZ!DIBOHFS! 9/3:
This is a specially designed three-phase slip-ring induction machine to generate variable frequency.
In the frequency changer as shown in Fig. 8.34, output frequency (f2) = sf1, where f1 is the fre-
quency of the supply to its stator.
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/234
3-phase
3-phase supply at
output at
of frequency f1 frequency
f2
Gjh/!9/45! Joevdujpo!gsfrvfodz!dibohfs
This machine is generally used for getting higher frequency supplies. The driving motor is run in
a direction opposite to that of the field of the frequency changing machine. The slip for the machine
is then more than unity and output frequency is more than the input frequency. Ignoring losses, the
power output share of the driving motor is the fraction (f2 – f1)/f2 of the higher frequency output.
JOEVDUJPO!HFOFSBUPS! 9/41
Figure 8.31 shows the complete torque-speed curve of an induction machine for all ranges of
speeds. If the machine is driven at a speed greater than synchronous speed by a prime mover, the
direction of torque reverses and it acts as an induction generator. There is a maximum torque in the
generating region too (just as in motoring mode, the maximum torque or pull-out torque exists).
If the prime mover applies a torque greater than this maximum value, the machine will have over-
speed.
The rotating magnetic field in an induction motor is set up by the magnetizing current drawn
from the mains. Even when the speed of the machine is above synchronous speed and it is act-
ing as a generator, this magnetizing current must be available. Thus, an induction generator is not
self-exciting, but must be operated in parallel with another source which can supply its magnetizing
power.
An induction generator has many limitations. Since it does not have a field circuit, it cannot
produce reactive power. It consumes reactive power from the magnetizing current must be supplied
to it. It cannot control its output voltage and the generator’s output voltage is maintained by the
external power system connected to it.
It is possible to operate an isolated induction generator successfully if a capacitor bank is con-
nected across its terminals as shown in Fig. 8.35. The capacitor bank supplies the reactive power of
the generator and the other loads.
! 9/235 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
P P
3-phase Q Q
induction
generator
Gjh/!9/46! Pqfsbujpo!pg!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!hfofsbups!jo!qbsbmmfm!xjui!b!dbqbdjups!cbol
C2
C1
Terminal voltage
Voltage
C1> C2 > C3
Magnetizing current
Capacitor current
(a) Induction generator alone
(b) Capacitor bank alone
C3
C2
C1
V1
V2
V3
O I3 I2 I1 I
(c) Induction generator in parallel with capacitor bank.
Gjh/!9/47! Dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!joevdujpo!hfofsbups!boe!dbqbdjups!cbol;
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/236
Fig. 8.36(b). If a three-phase bank of capacitors is connected to the terminals of an induction gen-
erator, the no-load terminal voltage of generator will be given by the point of intersection of genera-
tor’s magnetization curve and capacitor’s load line [Fig. 8.36(c)].
When the induction generator is made to run, its residual magnetism produces a small terminal
voltage which produces a capacitive current. This current increases the voltage which in turn in-
creases the current till the voltage builds up to the point of intersection of capacitor load line and
generator’s magnetization curve. The process is similar to that in a self-excited dc generator. If there
is no residual flux in the rotor of induction generator, voltage build-up cannot take place. In that
case, it must first be run as a motor to generate residual magnetism.
The output voltage varies widely with changes in load, as shown in Fig. 8.37. For a lagging power
factor load, the voltage collapses very rapidly which causes a serious disadvantage of an induction
generator. The output frequency varies by about 5% from no-load to full-load.
The induction generators were used in industry till the early twentieth century. Due to increase
in fuel prices, there is a trend for new conventional sources of energy and the induction generator is
ideal for such applications because of its simple control and maintenance. Because of its simplicity
and small size per kW of power output, an induction generator is suitable for windmills.
IL
Gjh/!9/48! Wpmubhf!hsbqi
DPNQBSJTPO!PG!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS!BOE! 9/42
TZODISPOPVT!NPUPS
A three-phase induction motor and synchronous motor have different characteristics in their own
field of application. The main differences in characteristics and applications are as under:
1. A synchronous motor requires dc excitation (it is a doubly excited machine), whereas an
induction motor is singly excited machine and does not require any dc excitation.
2. Induction motor is a self-starting motor, whereas a synchronous motor requires a special
starting method (since it has no starting torque).
! 9/237 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3. An induction motor always operates at a lagging power factor. However, the power factor of a
synchronous motor can be adjusted to be leading as well as lagging by variation of excitation
current.
4. A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed only. The speed of an induction motor at
full-load is about 5% less than its synchronous speed. An induction motor does not develop
any torque at synchronous speed and cannot run at this speed.
5. An induction motor is used only for supplying mechanical loads, whereas a synchronous
motor is used for supplying mechanical loads as well as for power-factor control in power
systems.
BQQMJDBUJPO!PG!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPST! 9/43
The three-phase induction motor is the most widely used motor in industry and workshops. It is
manufactured in a variety of ratings from a few kW to 5000 kW or so. It is simple and of rugged
construction; it has almost maintenance-free operation and does not require any dc excitation cur-
rent.
Typical application of three-phase induction motors include fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps,
compressors, crushers, agitators, reciprocating pumps, shears, punch presses, bulldozers, boilers,
hoists, cranes, etc.
! Qspcmfn!9/91
B!61!I{-!gpvs.qpmf-!51!IQ-!511!W!efmub.dpoofdufe!joevdujpo!npups!hbwf!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!ebub;
Op.mpbe!uftu;!511!W-!31!B-!2311!X
Cmpdlfe!spups!uftu;!211!W-!56!B-!3911!X
Esbx!uif!djsdmf!ejbhsbn!up!efufsnjof!
! )b*! mjof!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!bu!sbufe!pvuqvu!
! )c*! nbyjnvn!pvuqvu
! )d*! nbyjnvn!upsrvf
! )e*! gvmm.mpbe!fggjdjfodz!
! )f*! gvmm.mpbe!spups!tqffe!
! ! Bttvnf!tubups!boe!spups!dpqqfs!mpttft!up!cf!frvbm!bu!tuboetujmm/
Solution
From the no-load test data, the no-load power factor
1200
cos fo = = 0.0866
3 ¥ 400 ¥ 20
\ fo = 85°
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/238
53363
\ maximum torque = = 363.39 Nm.
1403
2p ¥
60
V
T
Q
B
I1 K
f
e
ut lin
Outp
P J
69° S e
85° R To rque lin
I0
N H F
A M E
0 L G
Gjh/!9/49! Djsdmf!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!9/91
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/23:
! Qspcmfn!9/92
B!551!W-!uisff.qibtf!tubs.dpoofdufe!epvcmf.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!frvjwbmfou!joofs!boe!pvufs.
dbhf!tuboetujmm!jnqfebodft!pg!)1/17!,!k!1/7*!W!boe!)1/6!,!k!1/26*!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Efufsnjof!)b*!uif!
qpxfs!efwfmpqfe!cz!uif!npups!bu!tubsujoh!boe!bu!gvmm.mpbe!xjui!5&!tmjq-!boe!)c*!uif!tmjq!bu!xijdi!uif!
uxp!dbhft!efwfmpq! frvbm!qpxfs/! Jhopsf!tubups!jnqfebodf! boe!nvuvbm!sfbdubodf! cfuxffo! uif!uxp!
dbhft/
Solution
(a) Neglecting the stator impedance, the equivalent impedance of the two cages at standstill are
(0.06 + j 0.6) (0.5 + j 0.15)
Ze2 =
0.06 + j 0.6 + 0.5 + j 0.15
0.603 84.29∞ ¥ 0.522 16.7∞
=
0.56 + j 0.75
0.315 101∞
= = 0.3365 47.75∞
0.936 53.25∞
\ power developed by the motor at standstill
2
2 Ê 440 ˆ
Pe = 3 I 2 R2 = 3 ¥ Á ˜ ¥ 0.3365 cos 47.75
Ë 3 ¥ 0.3365 ¯
= 386.84 kW
The equivalent impedance of the two cages at 4% slip
Ê 0.06 ˆ Ê 0.5 ˆ
ÁË 0.04 + j 0.6˜¯ ÁË 0.04 + j 0.15˜¯
Ze2 =
0.06 0.5
+ j 0.6 + + j 0.15
0.04 0.04
(1.5 + j 0.6) (12.5 + j 0.15)
=
1.5 + j 0.6 + 12.5 + j 0.15
1.6155 21.8∞ ¥ 12.5 0.6875∞
=
14 + j 0.75
20.19 22.49∞
= = 1.44 19.49∞ W
14.02 3∞
2
Ê 440 ˆ 1.44 cos19.49
\ power developed = 3 ¥ Á ˜ ¥
Ë 3 ¥ 1.44 ¯ 0.04
= 3168.5 kW.
! 9/241 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
2 2
Ê 0.06 ˆ Ê 0.5 ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + (0.6)
2
ÁË s ˜¯ + (0.15)
2
\ =
0.06 0.5
Ê 0.06 ˆ
2 ÏÔÊ 0.5 ˆ 2 ¸Ô
ÁË s ˜¯ + (0.6) = 0.12 ÌÁË
2
or, ˜ + (0.15) 2 ˝
¯
ÓÔ s ˛Ô
0.0264
or, = 0.3573
s
or, s = 0.272 or 27.2.
! Qspcmfn!9/93
Uif!tuboetujmm!jnqfebodf!pg!uif!pvufs!boe!joofs!dbhf!pg!b!epvcmf.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups!bsf!1/7!,!
k1/9!W!boe!1/4!,!k2/5!W!sftqfdujwfmz/!Dpnqbsf!uif!sfmbujwf!dvssfout!boe!upsrvft!pg!uif!uxp!dbhft!)b*!
bu!tuboetujmm-!boe!)c*!bu!7&!tmjq/!Ofhmfdu!tubups!jnqfebodf/
Solution
E2
The current in the outer cage I21 =
2
Ê 0.6 ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + (0.8)
2
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/242
E2
The current in the inner cage I22 =
2
Ê 0.3 ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + (1.4)
2
(a) At standstill s = 1
E2 E2
\ I21 = = = E2
(0.6) + (0.8)
2 2 1
E2 E2
I22 = =
(0.3) + (1.4)
2 2 1.432
I 21
\ = 1.432
I 22
R
3 I 22 2
Torque = s
wr
Torque developed by the outer cage 0.6
\ = (1.432)2 ¥ = 4.1
Torque developed by the inner cage 0.3
(b) At s = 0.06
2
Ê 0.3 ˆ
ÁË 0.06 ˜¯ + (1.4)
2
I 21 26.96
= 2
= = 0.259
I 22 Ê 0.6 ˆ 400.64
ÁË 0.03 ˜¯ + (0.8)
2
! Qspcmfn!9/94
B! tjy.qpmf-! 61! I{-! uisff.qibtf! tmjq.sjoh! joevdujpo! hfofsbups! jt! esjwfo! bu! 2151! sqn/! Xjui! uif! tmjq!
sjoht!tipsu.djsdvjufe-!uif!tubups!pvuqvu!jt!23!lX/!Uif!spups!jt!tubs.dpoofdufe!boe!uif!tuboetujmm!wpmu.
bhf!bdsptt!tmjq!sjoht!jt!411!W/!Ofhmfdu!tubups!sftjtubodf!boe!spups!sfbdubodf/!Efufsnjof!)b*!spups!
dpqqfs!mptt-!)c*!spups!sftjtubodf!qfs!qibtf-!boe!)d*!fyufsobm!sftjtubodf!up!cf!beefe!up!uif!spups!qfs!
qibtf!up!sfevdf!uif!joevdujpo!hfofsbups!pvuqvu!up!9!lX/
Solution
Since stator resistance is neglected the rotor output is 12 kW.
(a) Rotor copper loss = s ¥ 12
The slip in induction generator is negative and its magnitude is
! 9/243 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
120 ¥ 50
1040 -
6 1040 - 1000
= = 0.04
120 ¥ 50 1000
6
\ rotor copper loss = 0.04 ¥ 12 = 0.48 kW
(b) If R2 be the rotor resistance per phase then
R2 E2 R 3 E 2 sR
3 I 22 =3 2 2 = 2 = 2 2 2 2 2 = 12000
s R2 s R2 + s X 2
2
+ X 22
s
2
Ê 300 ˆ
3¥Á ¥ 0.04 R2
Ë 3 ˜¯
or, = 12000 (Neglecting rotor reactance)
R22
or, R2 = 0.3 W
(c) Let R¢2 be the new rotor resistance
2
Ê 300 ˆ
3¥Á ¥ 0.04 R2¢
Ë 3 ˜¯
= 8000
R2¢ 2
\ R¢2 = 0.45 W
\ external resistance to be added is
(0.45 – 0.3) W = 0.15 W.
! Qspcmfn!9/95
B!tjy.qpmf-!61!I{!joevdujpo!npups!jt!vtfe!bt!gsfrvfodz!dibohfs/!Efufsnjof!uif!npups!tqffe!up!hjwf!
bo!pvuqvu!gsfrvfodz!pg!)b*!21!I{-!)c*!:1!I{/
Solution
(a) f = 50 Hz
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
If s be the slip then
sf = 10
10
or s= = 0.2
50
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/244
! Qspcmfn!9/96
B!61!I{-!fjhiu.qpmf!tmjq.sjoh!joevdujpo!npups!jt!pqfsbujoh!bt!b!gsfrvfodz!dibohfs/!)b*!Efufsnjof!uif!
gsfrvfodjft!jg!uif!nbdijof!jt!pqfsbufe!gjstu!bu!2611!sqn!jo!uif!pqqptjuf!ejsfdujpo!boe!uifo!486!sqn!
jo!uif!tbnf!ejsfdujpo/!)c*!Efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!boe!ejsfdujpot!sfrvjsfe!up!pcubjo!gsfrvfodjft!pg!)j*!
41!I{-!)jj*!611!I3!boe!)jjj*!261!I{/!
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 750 rpm
8
(a) Speed is 1500 rpm in opposite direction
\ Nr = –1500 rpm
Ï Ê -1500 ˆ ¸
\ Frequency of the machine fr = sf = Ì1 - Á ˜ ˝¥ 5
Ó Ë 750 ¯ ˛
= (1 + 2) ¥ 50
= 150 Hz
Now speed is 350 rpm in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field.
\ Nr = 350 rpm
Ê 375 ˆ
\ fr = sf = Á1 - ¥ 50 = 25 Hz
Ë 750 ˜¯
(b) (i) when fr = 30 Hz
Ê N ˆ
30 = Á1 - r ˜ ¥ 50
Ë 750 ¯
or, Nr = 300 rpm in the same direction
! 9/245 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!9/97
B!uisff.qibtf!trvjssfm.dbhf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!opsnbm!tmjq!pg!4&!boe!spups!sftjtubodf!qfs!qibtf!
pg!1/2!W/!Eftjho!b!gjwf.tufq!spups!sftjtubodf!tubsufs!gps!ju/
Solution
From Eq. (8.68),
R2 0.1
r1 = = = 3.33
sn 0.03
From Eq. (8.70),
1 1
n -1
a= sn = (0.03) 4 = 0.4162
From Eq. (8.69),
r2 = a r1 = 0.4162 ¥ 3.33 = 1.387
r3 = a r2 = 0.5773
r4 = a r3 = 0.24
r5 = 0.1
Total external resistance is 3.33 – 0.1 = 3.23 W with tappings at (1.387 – 0.1) = 1.287 W, (0.5773
– 0.1) = 0.4773 and (0.24 – 0.1) = 0.14 W should be used.
! Qspcmfn!9/98
B!uisff.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!tuboetujmm!jnqfebodf!pg!2/6!,!k5!W!qfs!qibtf/!Ju!jt!gfe!gspn!551!W-!
61!I{!tpvsdf!uispvhi!b!511!n!mpoh!gffefs/!Efufsnjof!uif!njojnvn!bmmpxbcmf!dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!fbdi!
dpoevdups!pg!uif!gffefs!tp!uibu!uif!tubsujoh!upsrvf!jt!opu!sfevdfe!cz!npsf!uibo!36&!evf!up!wpmu.
bhf!espq!jo!uif!gffefs/!Uif!sftjtujwjuz!pg!uif!gffefs!nbufsjbm!jt!1/14!W0n0nn3!boe!uif!nbdijof!jt!
tubsufe!uispvhi!b!tubs.efmub!tubsufs/!
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/246
Solution
Without feeder starting torque,
3V 2
Ts1 =
{
w s (1.5) 2 + ( 4) 2 }
With feeder starting torque,
3V 2
Ts2 = .
{
w s ( R + 1.5) 2 + 4 2 }
where R is the resistance of the feeder.
Starting torque with feeder should be at least 0.75 times the starting torque without feeder.
\ Ts2 = 0.75 Ts1
1 0.75
\ =
( R + 1.5) + 4
2 2
(1.5) 2 + 4 2
\ R = 1.39 W
Length of feeder l = 400 m
Resistivity f = 0.03 W/m/mm2
If A be the cross-sectional area in mm2,
rl
= 1.39
A
0.03 ¥ 400
\ A= = 8.63 mm2.
1.39
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot!
1. Explain why the speed of an induction motor cannot be equal to the synchronous speed.
2. Explain the principle of operation of a three-phase induction motor.
3. Describe with a suitable diagram the constructional features of squirrel-cage and slip-ring
induction motor.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a squirrel-cage motor over a wound-rotor
motor?
5. Why is an induction motor called a generalized transformer? In what respect is the operation
of an induction motor different than that of a transformer?
6. Define slip. Deduce an expression for the rotor current frequency in terms of the supply
frequency.
! 9/247 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
7. Draw and describe the approximate equivalent circuit of an induction motor. Why does the
computation using approximate equivalent circuit involve considerable error in induction
motor?
8. Show that the rotor copper loss is slip times the power input to the rotor.
9. Derive the equation for the torque developed in an induction motor.
10. Draw and explain the torque-slip cause of a three-phase induction motor.
11. Deduce the expression for slip under maximum torque condition and also find the expression
for the maximum torque.
2
12. Prove that the ratio of the starting torque to the maximum torque is where sm is the
1 sm
+
slip under maximum torque. sm 1
13. Prove that for a constant applied voltage, the magnitude of rotor resistance equals that of
rotor reactance for the starting torque to be maximum.
14. What are the different losses of an induction motor? How do you find efficiency of such
motors?
15. Why do we perform no-load test and blocked-rotor test on induction motors? Describe how
we can find circuit parameters from these two tests.
16. Why are starters needed for starting three-phase induction motors?
17. Discuss the principle of operation of a star-delta starter.
18. What are the different methods of speed control of a three-phase induction motor?
19. Discuss the methods of speed control by change of slip.
20. Explain the phenomenon a of crawling and cogging in a three-phase induction motor.
21. What is induction generator? Discuss the principle of operation of an induction generator.
22. How do you compare the operation of a three-phase induction motor with that of a synchronous
motor?
23. Explain the procedure of drawing the circle diagram of an induction motor. What information
can be obtained from it and how?
24. Discuss the working principle of deep-bar rotor and double-cage induction motor.
25. Describe the operation of three-phase induction motor under single phasing condition.
Qspcmfnt
1. A six-pole, 60 Hz induction motor rotates at 3% slip. Find the speed of stator field, the rotor
and the rotor field. What is the frequency of the rotor currents?
[1200 rpm, 1164 rpm, 1200 rpm 1.8 Hz]
120 ¥ 60
[Hint: Ns = = 1200 rpm
6
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/248
\ Stator field rotates at 1200 rpm. Rotor field rotates in the air gap in the same speed.
N(rotor speed) = Ns (1 – s) = 1200 (1 – 0.03) = 1164 rpm
5. The rotor of a six-pole, 50 Hz, slip-ring induction motor has a resistance of 0.3 W/phase and it
runs at 960 rpm at full-load. How much external resistance/phase must be added to the rotor
circuit to reduce the speed to 800 rpm, the torque remaining constant? [1.2 W]
120 f
[Hint: Ns = = 1000 rpm
P
1000 - 960
sf l (full-load slip) = = 0.04
1000
snew R2 + r
If r be the additional resistance per phase in rotor circuit, we can write = .
sfl R2
Since the power input to the rotor and rotor current remain constant for constant torque and
Rotor Cu loss
hence, from the relation, slip = , we have
Rotor input
snew 3I 22 ( R2 + r ) R2 + r
= = .
sfl 3I 22 R2 R2
Substitution of the values of sf l = 0.04
1000 - 800
snew = = 0.2 and R2 = 0.3, yields r = 1.2 W]
1000
6. A three-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has an output rating of 500 HP, 3.3 kV (L – L). Calculate
the approximate full-load current at 0.85 p.f., locked-rotor current and no-load current. What
is the apparent power drawn under locked rotor condition? Assume the starting current to be
6 times full-load current and no-load current to be 30% of full-load current.
[If l = 76.78 A; Ino-load = 23.093 A; Ilock rotor = 460.68 A; Plocked rotor = 2633 kVA]
500 ¥ 746
[Hint: If l = = 76.78 A
3 ¥ 3300 ¥ 0.85
\ Ino-load = 0.3 ¥ 76.78 = 23.03 A
E Ilock rotor ∫ Istart
Hence, Istart = 6 ¥ If l = 460.68 A
Apparent power drawn during locked rotor condition is
PA = 3 ¥ VL ¥ Ist = 3 ¥ 3300 ¥ 460.68 = 2633 kVA]
7. A four-pole, 60 Hz, 460 V, 5 HP induction motor has the following equivalent circuit
parameters:
Rs = 1.21 W; Xs = 3.10 W
R¢2 = 0.742 W; X¢2 = 2.41 W
X0 = 65.6 W
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/24:
25 ¥ 735.5 25 ¥ 735.5
T(full-load) = = = 0.122 Nm
w 1440
2p ¥ ¥ 10 3
60
s0 R2 E12
Ts R22 + ( s0 X 2 ) 2
\ = , (s0) being the slip at starting.
T sR2 E12
R22 + ( sX 2 ) 2
With s0 = 1,
2
Ê R2 ˆ Ê 1ˆ
2
ÁË X ˜¯ + s 2
ÁË 4 ˜¯ + (0.04)
2
Ts R22 + ( sX 2 ) 2 2
= = = = 1.51]
T s [ R2 + X 2 ]
2 2
È Ê R2 ˆ
2 ˘ ÈÊ 1 ˆ 2 ˘
s ÍÁ + 1˙ 0.04 ÍÁ ˜ + 1˙
ÍË X 2 ˜¯ ˙ ÍÎË 4 ¯ ˙˚
Î ˚
14. A 415 V, three-phase, six-pole, 50 Hz induction motor runs at a slip of 4% on full-load. The
rotor resistance and reactance are 0.01 W and 0.05 W when the motor is at standstill. Find the
ratio of full-load torque to maximum torque. Also obtain the speed at which the maximum
torque occurs. [Nmax = 800 rpm; (T/Tmax) = 0.385]
R2 0.01
[Hint: smax = = = 0.2.
X 2 0.05
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/254
The speed at a slip of 0.2 would then be 800 rpm as Ns = 1000 rpm.
T 2 ◊ s ◊ smax
E =
Tmax s 2 + smax
2
T 2 ¥ 0.04 ¥ 0.2
For this problem, = = 0.385]
Tmax (0.04) 2 + (0.2) 2
15. For a 30 HP, 440 V, 50 Hz, three-phase, six-pole star connected motor, no-load test and
blocked rotor tests are conducted. The test results are as follows:
No-load test
No-load voltage V0 line to line: 440 V
No-load current I0: 15 A
No-load power Po: 1550 W
Resistance measured for each stator phase winding = 0.5 W
Locked rotor test
Input voltage (L – L) : 160 V
Input current : 60 A
Input power : 7000 W
Determine the equivalent circuit of the motor. Assume stator leakage reactance to be is equal
to rotor stand still reactance referred to stator side.
[R0 = 130.27 W, X0 = 17.08 W, Rs = 0.5 W; R¢2 = 0.148 W, Xs = 0.7 W, X¢2 = 0.7 W]
[Hint: Rs = 0.5 W.
W0 1500
cos q0 = = = 0.13
3V0 I 0 440
3¥ ¥ 15
3
IC = I0 cos q0 = 15 ¥ 0.13 = 1.95 A
If = I0 sin q0 = 15 ¥ 0.99 = 14.873 A
V0 440 / 3
\ R0 = = = 130.27 W
Ic 1.95
V0 440 / 3
X0 = = = 17.08 W
If 14.873
Ws / c 7000
cos qs/c = = = 0.421
3 (Vs / c )( Is / c ) 160
3¥ ¥ 60
3
! 9/255 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Vs / c 160 / 3
\ Rs + R¢2 = cos qs/c = 0.421
I s/c 60
= 0.648
or R¢2 = 0.648 – Rs = 0.148 W
Vs / c 160 / 3
Xs + X¢2 = sin qs/c = 0.91
I s/c 60
= 1.4 W
1.4
Since Xs = X2¢, hence, Xs = X2¢ = = 0.7 W.
2
The approximate equivalent circuit is shown below.
R0 = 130.27 W; X0 = 17.08 W; Rs = 0.5 W; R¢2 = 0.148 W, Xs = 0.7 W; X 2¢ = 0.7 W]
16. An induction motor has a short circuit current of 6 times the full-load current at normal
supply voltage. It has a full-load slip of 5%.
Calculate the starting torque in terms of the full-load torque if started by
(a) star-delta starter
(b) auto-transformer starter with 60% tapping
Neglect magnetizing branch currents. [0.2; 0.648]
[Hint:
2
Ts = Ê I s ˆ
we have Á ˜ ◊ sfl
Tf l Ë If l ¯
Ê 1 ˆ
(a) For Y-D starting: At start, winding is placed in star and only Á ˜ of normal voltage
Ë 3¯
is applied. Again, short-circuit current being 6 times the full-load current (winding in
delta connection), we can write short-circuit phase current as
6 ¥ f .l. current
Is/c(ph) =
3
1
\ Istarting/phase = ¥ Is/c(ph)
3
1
as of normal voltage is applied per phase,
3
1 6
i.e., Ist/ph = ¥ ¥ If l.
3 3
I st 1 6
\ = ¥ =2
Ifl 3 3
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/256
Hence,
Ts = (2)2 ¥ 0.05 = 0.2
Tfl
(b) Auto-transformer starting with 60% tapping: At start, stator winding remain in delta
connection. However, only 60% voltage is made available at stator.
60
\ Is = ¥ 6 If l = 3.6 If l
100
Hence,
Ts = (3.6)2 ¥ 0.05 = 0.648]
Tfl
17. The rotor of a four-pole, 50 Hz slip-ring induction motor has a resistance of 0.2 W per phase
and runs at 1440 rpm at full-load. Determine the external resistance per phase which must be
added to reduce the speed to 1200 rpm, the torque remaining same in both the cases.
[0.8 W]
18. An eight-pole 400 V, 50 Hz delta-connected, three-phase induction motor has stator to rotor
turns ratio 2:1. The stator impedance per phase is (0.13 + j0.6) W and rotor circuit standstill
impedance per phase is (0.035 + j0.15). Determine (a) the maximum torque developed and
its corresponding slip, and (b) the starting torque. [2280.42 Nm, 11.57%, 520.62 Nm]
19. An eight-pole, 50 Hz, three-phase wound rotor induction motor has rotor winding resistance
and standstill reactance per phase of 0.03 W and 0.15 W respectively. Determine (a) the speed
at which the developed torque is maximum, and (b) the external resistance per phase to be
added to the rotor circuit in order to develop three-fourth of maximum torque at starting.
[600 rpm, 0.03 W]
20. Calculate the full-load efficiency of a 415 V, three-phase, 50 Hz delta connected induction
motor from the following tests:
No-load power intake is 1500 W at rated input voltage. Full-load line current is 50 A, power
factor is 0.85 and slip is 0.04. Resistance of stator winding per phase is 0.5 W.
Assume ratio of stator core loss to friction and windage loss as 3:2. [87.28%]
[Hints:
Motor input 3 ¥ 415 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.5 = 30548 W at full-load
2
Ê 50 ˆ
Stator copper loss on full-load = 3 ¥ Á ˜ ¥ 0.5
Ë 3¯
= 1250 W
No-load input power = Stator core loss + Friction and windage loss
3
\ stator core loss = ¥ 1500 = 900 W
5
2
Friction + Windage loss = ¥ 1500 = 600 W
5
! 9/257 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpo!
1. The slip of an induction motor normally does not depend on
(a) rotor speed (b) synchronous speed
(c) shaft torque (d) core-loss component [GATE 2012]
2. A balanced three phase voltage is applied to a star connected induction motor, the phase to
neutral voltage being V. The stator resistance, rotor resistance referred to the stator, stator
leakage reactance, rotor leakage reactance referred to the stator, and the magnetizing reactance
are denoted by rs, rr, xs, xr and xm respectively. The magnitude of the starting current of the
motor is given by
V V
(a) (b)
( rs + rr ) + ( xs + xr )
2 2
rs2 + ( x s + xm ) 2
V V
(c) (d) [GATE 2010]
( rs + rr ) + ( xm + xr )
2 2
rs2 + ( xm + xr ) 2
3. A 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor supplied from a balanced 3-phase source drives a
mechanical load. The torque-speed characteristics of the motor (solid curve) and of the load
(dotted curve) are shown. Of the two equilibrium points A and B, which of the following
options correctly describes the stabilities of A and B?
Torque B
A
O 1
N
Ns [GATE 2009]
(a) A is stable, B is unstable (b) A is unstable, B is stable
(c) Both are stable (d) Both are unstable
[Hints: A is unstable as at A slip is nearly equal to 0 and B is stable as at B slip is nearly equal
to 1]
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/258
4. On the torque/speed curve of induction motor shown in the figure four points of operation are
marked as W, X, Y and Z. Which one of them represents the operation at a slip greater than 1?
Torque
Y
W
O
Speed
Z
(a) W (b) X
(c) Y (d) Z [GATE 2005]
[Hints: When speed = 0, slip = 1. When speed is negative slip > 1]
5. For an induction motor, operating at a slip s, the ratio of gross power output to air-gap power
is equal to
(a) (1 – s)2 (b) (1 – s)
(c) (1 - s) (d) (1 – s ) [GATE 2005]
6. The direction of rotation of a three phase induction motor is clockwise when it is supplied
with three phase sinusoidal voltage having phase sequence A–B–C. For counterclockwise
rotation of the motor, the phase sequence of the power supply should be
(a) B – C – A (b) C – A – B
(c) A – C – B (d) B – C – A or C – A – B [GATE 2004]
[Hints: For reversing the direction of rotation any two phases should be interchanged]
7. A 3-phase, 4-pole squirrel cage induction motor has 36 stator and 28 rotor slots. The number
of phases in the rotor is
(a) 3 (b) 9
(c) 7 (d) 8 [GATE 2000]
[Hints: The number of phases in a three phase induction motor is 3 in both stator and rotor.]
8. The following starting method for an induction motor is inferior view of the poor starting
torque per ampere of the line current drawn:
(a) Direct line starting
(b) Auto transformer method of starting
(c) Series induction method of starting
(d) Star-delta method of starting
9. If an induction motor is run at above synchronous speed, it acts as
(a) a synchronous motor (b) an induction generator
(c) an induction motor (d) none of these
! 9/259 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(c) r2 ÊÁ - 1ˆ˜
1
(d) r2 (s – 1)
Ës ¯
16. The no load current of a three phase induction motor in terms of its rated current is
(a) 30 to 50% (b) 20 to 30%
(c) 10 to 20% (d) 3 to 5%
17. In a three phase induction motor the electromagnetic torque Te at any slip s and maximum
torque Tm at slip sm are related as
Te 2s Te 2s s
(a) = 2 m2 (b) = 2 m2
Tm s + sm Tm s + sm
Te ss 2s
(c) = 2 m2 (d)
Tm s + sm s 2 + sm2
18. A star-delta starter is equivalent to an autotransformer starter with a tapping of
(a) 58% (b) 57%
(c) 86.6% (d) 57.73%
Uisff.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups 9/25:
Botxfst
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a)
5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (a)
17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (c)
:
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!
Npupst
JOUSPEVDUJPO! :/2
Single-phase induction motors have numerous and diversified applications, both in homes and
the industry. It is probably safe to say that single-phase induction motor applications far outweigh
three-phase motor applications in the domestic sector. At homes, normally only single-phase power
is provided, since power was originally generated and distributed to provide lighting. For this rea-
son, early motor-driven appliances in homes depended on the development of the single-phase
motor. Single-phase induction motors are usually small-sized motors of fractional kilowatt rating.
They find wide applications in fans, washing machines, refrigerators, pumps, toys, hair dryers, etc.
Single-phase induction motors operate at low power factors and are less efficient than three-phase
induction motors.
QSPEVDUJPO!PG!UPSRVF! :/3
From the study of three-phase induction motors, it is seen that the three-phase distributed stator
winding sets up a rotating magnetic field which is fairly constant in magnitude and rotates at syn-
chronous speed. In a single-phase induction motor, there is only single-field winding excited with
alternating current and, therefore, it is not inherently self-starting since it does not have a true re-
volving field. Various methods have been devised to initiate rotation of the squirrel-cage rotor and
the particular method employed to start the rotor of single-phase motor will designate the specific
type of motor.
Consider the behaviour of the magnetic field set up by an ac current in the single-phase winding.
With reference to Fig 9.1, when the sinusoidal current is flowing in the field winding, neglecting the
! :/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
saturation effects of the magnetic iron circuit, the flux through the armature will vary sinusoidally
with time. The magnetic field created at a particular instant of time will reverse during the next
half-cycle of the ac supply voltage. Since the flux is pulsating, it will induce currents in the rotor
bars which, in turn, will create a rotor flux which by Lenz’s law opposes that of the main field. The
direction of the rotor current as well as the torque created can also be determined. It is apparent that
the clockwise torque produced is counteracted by the counter-clockwise torque and so no motion
results, i.e. the motor is at standstill.
Squirrel
Simple field wind
cage rotor
Main
flux
Single
phase ac l
Gjh/!:/2
:/3/2! Sfwpmwjoh.Gjfme!Uifpsz!
According to this theory, the pulsating stationary mmf wave can be revolved into two counter-
rotating mmf waves of equal magnitudes and rotating at synchronous speed. If two sinusoidally
distributed mmfs, each of magnitude Fmax/2, rotate in opposite directions, their combined effect is
equivalent to one pulsating field Fmax cos wt varying between +Fmax and –Fmax which is shown in
Fig. 9.2(a). A physical interpretation of the two oppositely rotating field components is depicted
in Fig. 9.2(b). Assuming the stator mmf wave to be sinusoidally distributed in space and varying
sinusoidally with time, it can be represented as Fs = Fs max sinwt cos a where Fs max is the peak
value corresponding to maximum instantaneous alternating current in stator winding and a is the
space-displacement angle measured from the stator main-winding axis. Here, sin wt indicates that
mmf variation is sinusoidal with time and the term cos a indicates its co-sinusoidal distribution in
space along the air-gap periphery.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/4
From the above discussion, it is clear that as the speed increases, the backward flux wave de-
creases and the forward flux wave increases. Hence, in the under running condition, the forward
field torque Tf is greater than the backward field torque Tb and the net torque (Tf – Tb) is in the
direction of rotor rotation. In the normal operating region, the torque speed curve of a single-phase
induction motor is not far inferior from the three-phase induction motor as the forward flux wave
at small slips is several times greater than the backward flux wave and the resultant air-gap field is
similar to three-phase induction motor.
Fsmax
F = F1 + F2
F2
1 F
ax smax = F1 F1
1 F sm 2
=
F2 2
(a) (b)
Gjh/!:/3
The torque–slip curve of the motor can be obtained by applying the principle of superposition.
The superposition of two torques Tf and Tb, as shown in Fig. 9.3, gives the required torque–slip
curve of a single-phase induction motor. From Fig. 9.3, it can be inferred that when the rotor speed
is zero and the rotor speed is slightly less than ns, the motor torque T is zero. Also, the motor can
run in either direction.
(forward)
Torque
Tf
Standstill T = Tf – Tb
nr < n s
2.0 0
1 0
(backward)
SLIP
Tb
–ns ns
Gjh/!:/4
The single-phase induction motor having a simple winding, once started, will continue to run in
the direction in which it is started. The manual self-starting is not a desirable practice and modifi-
cations are introduced to obtain the torque required to start. To accomplish this, a quadrature flux
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/6
component in time and space with the stator flux must be provided at standstill. Auxiliary windings
are normally placed on the stator to provide starting torque.
:/3/3! Dsptt.gjfme!Uifpsz!
The cross-field theory is an application of two axes or generalized theory of electrical machines.
The performance of induction motor under normal running condition can be explained by this
theory. Hence the flux is resolved into two components—one component acting along the stator
winding axis and the other at right angles to it as shown in Fig. 9.4. x1 x2 and y1 y2 represent the two
groups of short-circuited rotor conductors. x1 x2 links with one component flux and y1 y2 links with
the other component flux.
fd
V
y1
x1 x2
fq
y2
Gjh/!:/5
When the motor is at standstill, the stator applied voltage V sets up an mmf in q-axis and this
mmf causes flux fq in this axis. This flux links with turn y1 y2 and induces the transformer emf in
this turn which causes a current Iq. This current sets up an opposing mmf along the q-axis. Actu-
ally the resultant of these two mmfs sets up the fq. As both these mmfs are along the same axis, no
torque is produced. The axis of the coil x1x2 is 90° to q-axis. Hence, no emf is induced in this coil
and no current flows. Therefore, there is no torque in either coils.
When the motor is running, a back emf is induced in the stator winding which is equal to the
voltage applied to the stator provided the voltage drops in the stator resistance and leakage reac-
tances are neglected. The flux fq is constant. The flux fq sets up a motional emf in the coil x1x2. A
current Id starts flowing in the coil as it is short-circuited. This current sets up an mmf and flux fd
in the d-axis.
The interaction of flux fq with current Id and of flux fd with current Iq produces torque and the
motor continues to run.
FRVJWBMFOU!DJSDVJU! :/4
At standstill, the equivalent circuit of a single-phase induction motor is exactly similar to that of a
transformer on short circuit. The equivalent circuit at standstill condition is shown in Fig. 9.5(a). Rc
and Xf represent the core loss and magnetizing reactance. R1 and x1 are the resistance and leakage
! :/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
reactance of the stator, r¢2 and x¢2 are the resistance and leakage reactance of the rotor referred to the
stator.
r1 x1 r¢2 x¢2
Rc Xf
Gjh/!:/6)b*
The air-gap flux can be resolved into two oppositely rotating components. These components at
standstill are equal in magnitude, each one contributing an equal share to the resistive and reactive
voltage drops in the rotor circuit. Hence, r2 and x2 can be split into two parts, each one correspond-
ing to the effects of one of the magnetic fields. Ef and Eb are the voltages set up by the two oppo-
sitely rotating fields, viz. forward and backward rotating fields respectively. The equivalent circuit
considering the effects of forward and backward flux components is shown in Fig. 9.5(b).
r1 x1
r¢2
Rc Xf 2
2 2 x¢2 Ef (Forward)
2
V1
r¢2
Rc Xf 2 Eb (Backward)
2 2 x¢2
2
Gjh/!:/6)c*
When the motor is running at a slip s, the slip for the forward field is s and for the backward
Ê r¢ ˆ
field is (2 – s). Hence, the resistance in the forward field becomes Á 2 ˜ and in the backward field
Ë 2s ¯
Ê r2¢ ˆ Ê r¢ ˆ Ê r2¢ ˆ
becomes Á ˜ . As s is normally very small, Á 2 ˜ is much higher than Á . Hence, Ef
Ë 2( 2 - s) ¯ Ë 2s ¯ Ë 2( 2 - s) ˜¯
is much greater than Eb.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/8
r1 x1
r¢2
Rc Xf 2
2 2 x¢2 Ef (Forward)
2
r¢2
Rc Xf 2 Eb (Backward)
2 2 x¢2
2
Gjh/!:/7
r2¢
Pgf = Air-gap power of forward field = ( I 2¢ f )2 W
2s
r2¢
Pgb = Air-gap power of backward field = ( I 2¢ b )2 W
2( 2 - s)
Pgf
Tf = Torque due to forward field = Nm
2p ns
Pgb
Tb = Torque due to backward field = Nm
2p ns
Net torque, T = Tf – Tb
Rotor copper loss due to forward field (Pcu(rot.) f ) = sPgf
Rotor copper loss due to backward field (Pcu(rot.)b) = (2 – s)Pgb
Total rotor copper loss (Pcu(rot.) = sPgf + (2 – s)Pgb
Mechanical power developed (=Pm) = (1 – s) (Pgf – Pgb)
! Qspcmfn!:/2
B!311!X-!351!W-!61!I{!tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!svot!po!sbufe!mpbe!xjui!b!tmjq!pg!1/16!q/v/!Uif!
qbsbnfufst!bsf!
! s2! >!22/5!W-!y2!>!25/6!W-
! s¢3! >!24/9!W-!y3¢ !>!25/5!W-!Yf!>!381!W
Dbmdvmbuf!)b*!qpxfs!gbdups-!)c*!joqvu!qpxfs-!boe!)d*!fggjdjfodz/
! :/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
From Fig. 9.6, neglecting the core loss resistance RC, the total series impedance
240 – 0∞ 240 – 0∞
\ input current = = = 2 – – 48.96° A
78.69 + j 90.4 119.85 – 48.96∞
Hence, power factor is (cos 48.96°) lagging, i.e. 0.656 lagging.
Input power = 240 ¥ 2 ¥ 0.656 W, i.e. 314.88 W.
Output power is 200 W.
Output 200
Hence, efficiency = = = 0.638, i.e. 63.5%.
Input 314.88
! Qspcmfn!:/3
B!341!W-!61!I{/!5.qpmf!tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!qbsbnfufst;!
! ! ! ! s2!>!3/62!W-!y2!>!5/73!W-!s3¢ !>!8/92!W-!y3¢ !>!5/73!W
boe! ! Yf!>!261/99!W
Efufsnjof!uif!tubups!nbjo!xjoejoh!dvssfou!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!xifo!uif!npups!jt!svoojoh!bu!b!tmjq!
pg!1/16/
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/:
Solution
The total series impedance is obtained as
150.88 Ê 7.81 4.62 ˆ 150.88 Ï 7.81 4.62 ¸
j Á + j ˜ j Ì + j ˝
2 Ë 2 ¥ 0.05 2 ¯ 2 Ó 2( 2 - 0.05) 2 ˛
Z = 2.51 + j4.62 + +
7.81 Ê 4.62 150.88 ˆ 7.81 Ê 150.88 4.62 ˆ
+ jÁ + ˜¯ + jÁ + ˜
2 ¥ 0.05 Ë 2 2 2( 2 - 0.05) Ë 2 2 ¯
! Qspcmfn!:/4
Jo!b!7.qpmf-!tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups-!uif!hsptt!qpxfs!bctpscfe!cz!uif!gpsxbse!boe!cbdlxbse!
gjfmet!bsf!271!X!boe!31!X!sftqfdujwfmz/!Jg!uif!npups!tqffe!jt!:61!sqn!boe!uif!op.mpbe!gsjdujpobm!mptt!
jt!86!X-!gjoe!uif!tibgu!upsrvf/
Solution
Air-gap power of forward field Pgf = 160 W
Air-gap power of backward field Pgb = 20 W
Net power = Pgf – Pgb = 160 W – 20 W = 140 W
120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
Speed of motor Nr = 950 rpm
1000 - 950
Hence, slip s = = 0.05
1000
Power output is (1 – s) ¥ 140 – 75 = 58 W (= shaft power)
shaft power 58
Shaft torque = = = 0.58 Nm.
950 95
2p ¥ 2p ¥
60 6
! :/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
EFUFSNJOBUJPO!PG!QBSBNFUFST!PG! :/5
FRVJWBMFOU!DJSDVJU
The parameters of the equivalent circuit of a single-phase induction motor can be determined from
the no-load and blocked rotor test.
:/5/2! Cmpdlfe.Spups!Uftu!
In this test, a very small voltage is applied to the stator and the rotor is blocked (care is to be taken
such that the stator current does not exceed the full-load current.)
The voltage, current and power input to the stator are measured. When the rotor is blocked,
ÊR ˆ Ê Xf ˆ È r¢ x¢ ˘
s = 1 and hence parallel combination Á c ˜ and Á is much greater than Í 2 + j 2 ˙
Ë 2¯ Ë 2 ˜¯ Î2 2˚
(in Fig. 9.6). Therefore, under blocked rotor test, the equivalent circuit reduces to that shown in
Fig. 9.7. Since (Rc/2) and (Xf/2) are of very high values, hence they can be neglected in the equiva-
lent circuit.
Let Vsc, Isc and Wsc be the input voltage, current and power during blocked rotor test.
Wsc
The total resistance (r1 + r¢2) = = Rsc
I sc2
Vsc
Total impedance, Zsc =
I sc
Isc r1 x1
r2¢ ¸
2 ÔÔ
˝ (Forward)
x2¢ Ô
2 Ô˛
Vsc
r2¢ ¸
2 ÔÔ
˝ (Backward)
x2¢ Ô
2 Ô˛
Gjh/!:/8
:/5/3! Op.Mpbe!Uftu
In this test, the motor is run on no-load condition and voltage Vo, current Io and power Wo of the
stator are measured. At no load, s is very small and core loss resistance Rc is neglected. Hence,
Ê r¢ ˆ Ê Xf ˆ r2¢ Ê r2¢ ˆ
from Fig. 9.6, Á 2 ˜ is much greater than Á
Ë 2 ˜¯
. Also, Á = ˜ is much smaller than Xf /2.
Ë s ¯ 2( 2 - s) Ë 4 ¯
Therefore, under no-load condition, the equivalent circuit can be reduced to that shown in Fig. 9.8.
Ê r¢ ˆ Ê Xf ˆ
Here, Á 2 ˜ and Á
Ë 2 ˜¯
are neglected in equivalent circuit.
Ë s¯
Wo
No load p.f. (cos f0) =
Vo I o
Io r1 x1
xf
2
r¢2
Vo
4
x¢2
2
Gjh/!:/9
Ê Xf ˆ È ÏÊ r ˆ Ê x ¢ ˆ ¸˘
Now voltage across Á ˜ is ÍVo - I o – fo ÌÁ r1 + 2 ˜ + j Á x1 + 2 ˜ ˝˙
Ë 2 ¯ ÓË 4¯ Ë 2 ¯ ˛˚
Î
ÈÊ r¢ ˆ Ê x¢ ˆ ˘
Vo - I o – - fo ÍÁ r1 + 2 ˜ + j Á x1 + 2 ˜ ˙
Xf ÎË 4 ¯ Ë 2 ¯˚
Hence, =
2 Io
and Xf can thus be determined.
! Qspcmfn!:/5
Uif!nbjo!xjoejoh!pg!bo!9.qpmf-!tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!jt!fydjufe!gspn!351!W-!61!I{!tvqqmz!
boe!uif!npups!ublft!b!mjof!dvssfou!pg!50 -50∞!B!bu!tuboetujmm/!Efufsnjof!uif!upsrvf!bu!b!tmjq!pg!5&!
ofhmfdujoh!tubups!jnqfebodf-!nbhofuj{joh!dvssfou!spubujpobm!mptt/
! :/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
From Fig. 9.5(a), neglecting the stator impedance and magnetizing reactance
240
Z2 = r¢2 + jx¢2 = = 4.8 50∞ W = 3.08 + j3.68
50 -50∞
\ r¢2 = 3.08 W and x¢2 = 3.68
From Fig. 9.6, at slip s = 0.04,
r2¢ x¢
Forward impedance Zf = Rf + jXf = +j 2
2s 2
3.08 3.68
= +j
2 ¥ 0.04 2
= 38.5 + j1.84 W
r2¢ x¢
Backward impedance Zb = Rb + j ¥ b = + j 2
2( 2 - s) 2
3.08 3.68
= + j
2( 2 - 0.04) 2
= 0.786 + j 1.84 W
\ total input impedance when the motor is running at a slip of 4% is
Z1 = Rf + jXf + Rb + jXb
= 39.286 + j 3.68 W (neglecting stator impedance)
V 240 0∞
The stator current I1 = = A
Z1 39.286 + j 3.68
240 0∞
= A
39.457 5.35∞
= 6.08 -5.35∞ A
Air-gap power of forward field
r ¢2
Pgf = I12 = I 12 Rf
2s
Air-gap power of backward field
r ¢2
Pgb = I 12 = I 12 Rb
2( 2 - s)
\ mechanical power developed
Pm = (1 – s) (Pgf – Pgb) = (1 – 0.04) ¥ (6.08)2 ¥ (Rf – Rb)
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/24
! Qspcmfn!:/6
Uif!ebub!pcubjofe!gspn!uftut!pg!b!341!W-!411!X-!61!I{-!9.qpmf!tjohmf!joevdujpo!npups!bsf!bt!gpmmpxt;
Op.mpbe!uftu;! ! ! ! ! 341!W-! ! 251!X-! ! 4!B
Cmpdlfe.spups!uftu;! ! 226!W-! ! !511!X-! ! 7!B
Jg!uif!tubups!xjoejoh!sftjtubodf!jt!4!W-!efufsnjof!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!qbsbnfufst!jg!uif!tubsujoh!
xjoejoh!jt!pqfo!evsjoh!cmpdlfe!spups!uftu/!Bmtp-!efufsnjof!uif!dpsf-!gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mpttft/
Solution
From blocked-rotor test,
Vsc 115
Zsc = = = 19.17 W
I se 6
Ê r ¢ ˆ 400
Rsc = r1 + 2 Á 2 ˜ = W = 11.11 W
Ë 2 ¯ (6 ) 2
Ê x¢ ˆ
\ Xsc = x1 + 2 Á 2 ˜ = (19.17) 2 - (11.11) 2
Ë 2¯
= 15.62 W
Now, r1 = 3 W
\ r¢2 = 11.11 – 3 = 8.11 W
1
and x1 = x¢2 = Xsc = 7.81 W
2
From no-load test,
230
Znl = W = 76.67 W
3
140
No-load power factor cos qnl = = 0.2
230 ¥ 3
\ sin qnl = 0.98
! :/25 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
xf x2¢
\ Xnl = x1 + + = Znl sin q = 76.67 ¥ 0.98
2 2
= 75.1366 W
Now x1 = x¢2 = 7.81 W
Ê 7.81ˆ
\ Xf = 2 Á 75.1366 - 7.81 - ˜
Ë 2 ¯
= 126.84 W
The power input to a single-phase induction motor at no load is equal to core, friction, windage
and ohmic loss.
From Fig. 9.8, the ohmic loss at no load is
Ê r¢ ˆ Ê 8.11ˆ
I nl2 Á r1 + 2 ˜ = 32 Á 3 + ˜ = 45.2475 W
Ë 4¯ Ë 4 ¯
\ the core, friction and windage losses are
140 – 45.2475 = 94.7525 W.
TUBSUJOH!PG!TJOHMF.QIBTF!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPST! :/6
Since a single-phase induction motor does not have a starting torque, it needs special methods of
starting. The stator is provided with two windings, called main and auxiliary windings, whose axes
are space displaced by 90 electrical degrees. The auxiliary winding is excited by a current which
is out of phase with the current in the main winding, both currents derived from the same supply.
If the phase difference between the two currents is 90° and the mmfs created by them are equal,
maximum starting torque is produced. If the phase difference is not 90° and the mmfs are equal,
the starting torque will be small, but in many applications, it is still sufficient to start the motor. The
auxiliary winding may be disconnected by a centrifugal switch after the motor has achieved about
75% speed.
Single-phase induction motors are usually classified according to the auxiliary means used to
start the motors. They are classified as follows:
1. Split-phase motor
2. Capacitor-start motor
3. Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor
4. Shaded-pole motor
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/26
TQMJU.QIBTF!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPST! :/7
One of the most widely used types of single-phase motors is the split-phase induction motor. Its
service includes a wide variety of applications such as refrigerators, washing machines, portable
hoists, small machine tools, blowers, fans, centrifugal pumps, etc.
The essential parts of the split-phase motor is shown in Fig. 9.9(a). It shows auxiliary winding,
also called the starting winding, in space quadrature, i.e., 90 electrical degrees displacement with
the main stator winding. The rotor is normally of squirrel-cage type. The two stator windings are
connected in parallel to the ac supply. A phase displacement between the winding currents is ob-
tained by adjusting the winding impedances, either by inserting a resistor in series with the starting
winding or as is generally the practice, by using a smaller gauge wire for the starting winding. A
phase displacement of 30° between the currents of main winding Im and auxiliary winding Ia can be
achieved at the instant of starting. A typical phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 9.9(b).
l la
lm
V
Single- Centrifugal
Main switch
phase ac
winding Rotor la
voltage
lm
Auxiliary
(or starting winding)
(a) (b)
Gjh/!:/: ! "# $! # $
When the motor has come to about 70 to 75% of synchronous speed, the starting winding may be
opened by a centrifugal switch and the motor will continue to operate as a single-phase motor. At
the point where the starting winding is disconnected, the motor develops nearly as much torque with
the main winding alone as it was with both windings connected. It can be observed from the typical
torque–speed characteristic for this type of motor in Fig. 9.10. The starting winding is designed to
take the minimum starting current from the required torque. The locked rotor starting current may
be typically in the range 5 to 7 times the rated current while the starting torque is also about 1.5 to 2
times the rated torque. The high starting current is not objectionable since once started, it drops off
almost instantly. The major disadvantages of this type of induction motor are relatively low starting
torque and high slip. Moreover, the reversal of rotation can be made only when the motor is stand-
still (by reversing the line connections of either the main winding or the starting winding) but not
while running. Also, the efficiency is lower.
! :/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Torque for
combined
Switch
windings for
operates
starting
Torque
ly
g on
n din
wi
in
Ma
O Speed
Gjh/!:/21
DBQBDJUPS.TUBSU!NPUPS! :/8
In the split-phase motor, the phase shift between the stator currents was accomplished by adjusting
the impedances of the windings, i.e. by making the starting winding of a relatively higher resis-
tance. This resulted in a phase shift of nearly 30°. Since the developed torque of any split-phase
motor is proportional to the pole flux produced and the rotor current, it is also dependent on the
angle between the winding currents. This implies that if a capacitor is connected in series with the
starting winding, the starting torque will increase. By proper selection of the capacitor, the current
in the starting winding will lead the voltage across it and a greater displacement between winding
currents is obtained.
Figure 9.11 shows the capacitor-start motor and its corresponding phasor diagram indicating a
typical displacement between winding currents of about 80°–90°. The value of the capacitor needed
to accomplish this is typically 135 pF or a 1/4 h.p. motor and 175 pF for a 1/3 h.p. motor. Contrary
to the split-phase motor discussed earlier, the speed of the capacitor-start motor under running
conditions is reversible. If temporarily disconnected from the supply line, its speed will drop allow-
ing the centrifugal switch to close. The connections to the starting winding are reversed during this
interval and the motor is reconnected to the supply with closed centrifugal switch. The resulting
rotating field will now rotate opposite to the direction in which the motor rotates. Since the current
displacement between the windings is much larger in this motor compared to the split-phase motor,
the torque being proportional to this will also be much larger and exceed the torque produced by
the rotor. Therefore, the motor will slow down, stop and reverse its direction of rotation. When the
speed reaches to about 75 to 80% of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch opens and the motor
will reach speed as dictated by the load.
Because of higher starting torques, capacitor-start motors are used in applications where not only
higher starting torques are required but also where reversible motors are needed. Applications of ca-
pacitor motors are in washing machines, betted fans and blowers, dryers, pumps and compressors.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/28
lst lline
rt
ta
ls
lrun
C V
Single-
Main
Rotor phase ac
winding
Starting voltage
winding lline
Centrifugal
switch lrun
Circuit diagram Phase diagram
(a) (b)
Combined winding
Switch
operates
Torque
Speed
Torque speed charge
(c)
Gjh/!:/22
DBQBDJUPS.TUBSU!DBQBDJUPS.SVO!NPUPS! :/9
The capacitor-start motor discussed above has still relatively low starting torque, although it is con-
siderably better than the split-phase motor.
In case where higher starting torques are required, best results will be obtained if a large value
of capacitance is used at start which is then gradually decreased as the speed increases. In practice,
two capacitors are used for starting and one is cut out of the circuit by a centrifugal switch once a
certain speed is reached, usually about 75% of full-load speed. This starting or intermittent capaci-
tor is of fairly high capacity (usually of the order of 10 to 15 times the value of the running capaci-
tor, which remains in the circuit.) Figure 9.12 illustrates the connection diagrams for the capacitor
motor showing two methods generally encountered.
The first method shown in Fig. 9.12(a) uses an electrolytic capacitor in the starting circuit whose
leakage is too high. The second capacitor is oil-filled which remains in the circuit always and has
little leakage; it is therefore suitable for continuous operation.
! :/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The second circuit [Fig. 9.12(b)] uses an auto-transformer and one-oil filled high-voltage capaci-
tor. This method utilizes the transformer principle of reflected impedance from the secondary to the
primary. For instance, an auto-transformer with 180 turns tapped at the 30-turn point would reflect
2
Ê 180 ˆ
an 8 mF running capacitor to the primary as Á ¥ 8 mF = 288 mF, representing an increase of
Ë 30 ˜¯
about 36 times. Thus, running an oil-filled capacitor may be used for starting purposes as well, by
eliminating one capacitor in lieu of the auto-transformer, which is of comparable cost. Care must be
taken to ensure that the capacitor can withstand the stepped-up voltage which is 180/30 = 6 times
the rated voltage at start.
Like the capacitor-start motor, the capacitor-run motor may be damaged if the centrifugal switch
fails to operate properly. The primary advantage of a capacitor-run motor or a two-value capacitor
motor is its high starting torque, good running torque and quiet operation. Reversing the line leads
to one of the windings in the usual manner causing motor operation in the opposite direction. It is,
therefore, classified as a reversible-type motor. These motors are manufactured in a number of sizes
from 1/8 to 3/4 hp and are used in compressors, conveyors, pumps and other high-torque loads.
Single-phase
ac
Main
Cs
Start C
Centrifugal
switch
(a)
Single-phase
Auto-transformer
ac
Main
Run
C
Start
Start
(b)
Gjh/!:/23
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/2:
TIBEFE.QPMF!NPUPST! :/:
Like any other induction motor, the shaded-pole motor is caused to run by the action of the mag-
netic field set up by the stator windings. There is, however, one extremely important difference
between the polyphase induction motor and the single-phase induction motor discussed so far. As
discussed, these motors have a truly rotating magnetic field, either circular, as in the three-phase
machine, or of elliptical shape as encountered in most of the single-phase motors. In the shaded-
pole motor, the field merely shifts from one side of the pole to the other. In other words, it does not
have a rotating field but one that sweeps across the pole faces.
An elementary understanding of how the magnetic field is created may be gained from the
simple circuit in Fig. 9.13, illustrating the shaded-pole motor. As can be seen, the poles are divided
into two parts, one of which is “shaded”, i.e., around the smaller of the two areas formed by a slot
cut across the laminations, a heavy copper short circuited ring, called the shading coil, is placed.
That part of the iron around which the shading coil is placed is called the shaded part of the pole.
When the excitation winding is connected to an ac source, the magnetic field will sweep across the
pole face from the unshaded to the shaded portion. This, in effect, is equivalent to an actual physical
motion of the pole, the result is that the squirrel-cage rotor will rotate in the same direction.
Shading
pole
Shading
pole
Gjh/!:/24 !
To understand how this sweeping action of the field across the pole face occurs, let us consider
the instant of time when the current flowing in the excitation winding is starting to increase posi-
tively from zero, as illustrated in Fig. 9.14(a). In the unshaded part of the pole, the flux will start to
build up in phase with the current. Similarly, the flux f, in the shaded portion of the pole, will build
up, but this flux change will induce a voltage in the shading coil which will cause current to flow.
By Lenz’s law, this current flows in such a direction as to oppose the flux change that induces it.
Thus, the building up of flux f, in the shaded portion is delayed. It has the overall effect of shifting
the axis of the resultant magnetic flux into the unshaded portion of the pole. When the current in
the excitation coil is at or near the maximum value as indicated in Fig. 9.14(b), the flux does not
change appreciably. With an almost constant flux, no voltage is induced in the shading coil and,
therefore, it, in turn, does not influence the total flux. The result is that the resulting magnetic flux
shifts to the centre of the pole.
! :/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Dt1
(a) Main flux f
Axis of
resultant flux
f
Dt2
Main flux f
(b)
Dt3
Main flux f
(c)
Gjh/!:/25 !
Figure 9.14(c) shows the current in the excitation coil decreasing. The flux in the unshaded
portion of the pole decreases immediately. However, currents induced in the shading coil tend to
oppose this decrease in flux; consequently, they try to maintain the flux. The result of this action
translates into a movement of the magnetic flux axis towards the centre of the shaded portion of the
pole. Hence, flux f continues to lag behind the flux axis during this part of the cycle.
It can similarly be reasoned that at any instant of the current cycle, the flux f lags behind in
time. The net effect of this time and space displacement is to produce a gliding flux across the pole
face and consequently in the air gap, which is always directed towards the shaded part of the pole.
Therefore, the direction of rotation of the shaded-pole motor is always from the unshaded towards
the shaded part of the pole.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/32
Simple motors of this type cannot be reversed but must be assembled so that the rotor shaft
extends from the correct end in order to drive the load in the proper direction. There are specially
designed shaded-pole motors which are reversible. One form of design is to use two main windings
and a shading coil. For one direction of rotation, one main winding is used and for the opposite
rotation the other; such an arrangement is adaptable only to distributed windings, hence this neces-
sitates a slotted stator.
Another method employed is to use two sets of open-circuited shading coils, one set placed on
each side of the pole. A switch is provided to short circuit the shading coil. Depending on the rota-
tional direction desired, offsetting the simple construction and a low cost of this motor. This motor
has a low starting torque, little overload capacity and low efficiencies (5 to 35%).
These motors are built in sizes ranging from 1/250 hp up to about 1/20 hp. Typical applications
of shaded-pole motors are where efficiencies are of minor concern such as in toys and fans.
TQFFE!DPOUSPM!PG!B!TJOHMF.QIBTF! :/21
JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS
The speed control of a single-phase induction motor can be obtained by change of line frequency,
change of number of poles and change of voltage applied to the stator.
But the only economical method is to change the voltage applied to the stator as these motors are
small in size. The change of voltage applied to the stator can be achieved by any of the following
methods:
1. The motor can be fed from the variable secondary voltage of the auto-transformer. This
method is expensive and rarely used.
2. SCR or TRIAC circuit may be used to reduce the applied voltage by ac phase control.
3. A resistor in series with the motor circuit gives a very cheap method of voltage control. It has
the disadvantage of reduced efficiency due to energy loss in the resistor. But it is the most
commonly used method.
Figure 9.15 shows a single-phase ac regulator. Two thyristors connected in antiparallel are used.
Thyristor T1 is fired at an angle a and conducts from a to p. At p, the current through T1 falls to
zero, and this thyristor is subjected to a reverse bias and turns off. Thyristor T2 is fired at (p + a) and
conducts from (p + a) to 2p. At 2p, the thyristor T2 is turned off and this cycle is repeated. As a is
varied from 0 to p, the rms value of the applied voltage changes from V to 0.
! :/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
T1
T2
ac LOAD
Gjh/!:/26 !
DPNQBSJTPO!CFUXFFO!TJOHMF.QIBTF!BOE! :/22
UISFF.QIBTF!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPST
Single-phase induction motors, when compared with three-phase induction motors, have the fol-
lowing disadvantages:
Rotor core loss and rotor ohmic loss are more in single-phase induction motors due to double-
frequency currents induced by backward rotating field.
1. For the same load torque, a single-phase induction motor requires more stator current and
operates at higher slip. Hence, they have more stator copper losses.
2. For the same size, the output of a single-phase induction motor is less than that of three-phase
induction motor because the backward field torque opposes the forward field torque. Hence,
for the same size, a single-phase motor has higher temperature rise and lower efficiency as
compared to three-phase induction motor.
3. As the stator winding of a single-phase induction motor carries magnetizing current for both
the forward and backward fields, the ratio of magnetizing current to the active component of
stator current is much greater than that in a three-phase motor. Hence, single-phase motors
operate at a poor power factor compared to three-phase induction motors.
4. Single-phase induction motors require more iron than three-phase induction motors for the
same power and speed rating. Moreover, the necessity of providing auxiliary windings makes
them costlier as compared to three-phase induction motors. However, large-scale production
of fractional kilowatt single-phase induction motors decrease their cost and the cost is
comparable to the cost of three-phase induction motors of the same power rating and speed.
However, single-phase induction motors are simple, robust, reliable and less expensive for small
ratings.
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/34
! Qspcmfn!:/7
1
B!331!W-!61!I{-!7.qpmf-! !iq!tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!s2!>!21!W-!s¢3!>!26!W-!y2!>!y3¢ !>!27!W!
4
boe! Yf! >! 386! W/! Vtjoh! epvcmf.sfwpmwjoh.gjfme! uifpsz-! gjoe! )b*! joqvu! dvssfou! boe! qpxfs! gbdups-! )c*!
upsrvft! evf! up! gpsxbse! boe! cbdlxbse! gjfme! dpnqpofout! boe! hsptt! upsrvf-! )d*! pvuqvu-! )e*! joqvu!
qpxfs-!boe!)f*!fggjdjfodz!xifo!uif!npups!jt!pqfsbujoh!bu!b!tmjq!pg!1/15/!Ofhmfdu!Sd/!Dpotubou!mpttft!
bsf!41!X/
Solution
From Fig. 9.6, neglecting the core loss resistance RC
r2¢ x¢ 15 16
(a) + j 2 = + j = 187.5 + j 8 ohms
2s 2 2 ¥ 0.04 2
= 187.67 – 2.44° ohms
Xf 275
j =j = 137.5 – 90° ohms
2 2
(187.67 – 2.44∞) (137.5 –90∞)
Zf = = 108.73 – 54.64°
187.67 – 2.44∞ + 137.5 –90∞
= 62.92 + j 88.67 ohms
(2 – s) = (2 – 0.04) = 1.96
r2¢ x¢ 15 16
+ j 2 = + j = 3.83 + j8 ohms = 8.86 – 64.43° W
2( 2 - 5) 2 2 ¥ 1.96 2
(8.86 – 64.43∞) (137.5 – 90∞)
Zb = = 8.37 – 65.93° ohm
8.86 – 64.43∞ + 137.5 – 90∞
= (3.41 + j 7.64) ohms
Eb 13.56
¢ =
I2b = = 1.53 A
r2¢ x¢ 8.86 – 64.43∞
+ j 2
2( 2 - 5) 2
2 ¥ 50 50
Ns = = rps
6 3
Ê r¢ ˆ 2Ê 15 ˆ
I 2¢ f Á 2 ˜ (0.94) Á
Ë 2s ¯ Ë 2 ¥ 0.04 ˜¯
Torque due to forward field = = = 1.582 Nm
2p ns Ê 50 ˆ
2¥pÁ ˜
Ë 3¯
È r2¢ ˘
( I2¢ b ) 2 Í ˙
Î 2( s - 2) ˚ = (1.53) ¥ 3.83 = 0.085 Nm
2
Torque due to backward field =
2p ns Ê 50 ˆ
2¥p ¥Á ˜
Ë 3¯
Gross torque = 1.582 – 0.085 = 1.496 Nm
(c) Gross output = (1.496) (2pn)
= 2(1.496) (2pns) (1 – s)
2p.50
= 1.496 ¥ ¥ (1 – 0.04)
3
= 150.32 W
Net output = (150.32 – 30) = 120.32 W
(d) Input power = 220 ¥ 1.62 ¥ 0.56 = 199.58 W
output 120.32
(e) Efficiency = = = 60.3%.
input 199.58
! Qspcmfn!:/8
B!5.qpmf-!341!W!tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!ibt!gpsxbse.gjfme!bjs.hbq!qpxfs!pg!311!X!boe!cbdl.
xbse.gjfme!bjs.hbq!qpxfs!pg!51!X!bu!b!tqffe!pg!2536!sqn/!Efufsnjof!uif!tibgu!upsrvf!jg!uif!op.mpbe!
mpttft!bsf!61!X/
Solution
Net air-gap power = 200 – 40 = 160 W
Mechanical power developed Pm = (1 – s) ¥ 160 W
120 ¥ 50
Now synchronous speed Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/36
1425
\ slip s = 1 – = 0.05
1500
\ Pm = 0.95 ¥ 160 = 152 W
No-load losses = 90 W
\ shaft power = 152 – 90 = 62 W
62 62
\ shaft torque = =
(1 - s)w s 2f
(1 - 0.95) ¥ 2p
P
62
=
2 ¥ 50
0.95 ¥ 2p ¥
4
62
=
0.95 ¥ p ¥ 50
= 0.4157 Nm.
! Qspcmfn!:/9
B!331!W!tjohmf.qibtf!joevdujpo!npups!hbwf!uif!gpmmpxjoh!uftu!sftvmut;
Cmpdlfe.spups!uftu;! ! 211!W-! ! :!B-! ! 491!X
Op.mpbe!uftu;! ! ! ! !!!331!W-! ! 6!B-! ! 231!X
Gjoe!uif!qbsbnfufst!pg!uif!frvjwbmfou!djsdvju!ofhmfdujoh!uif!dpsf!mptt!sftjtubodf/!Bmtp!gjoe!uif!jspo-!
gsjdujpo!boe!xjoebhf!mptt/
Solution
From Art. 9.4.1,
380
r1 + r¢2 = W = 4.69 W
92
Ê V ˆ 100
Zsc Á = sc ˜ = = 11.11 W
Ë I sc ¯ 9
ÈÊ 2.345 ˆ Ê 5ˆ ˘
220 - 5 – - 83.74∞ ÍÁ 2.345 + ˜¯ + j ÁË 5 + ˜¯ ˙
Xf ÎË 4 2 ˚
\ =
2 5
= 44 – 1.0 ––83.74° (2.93 + j7.5)
= 44 – 1.0 ––83.74° ¥ 8 – 68.66°
= 44 – 8 ––15° = 36.275 + j 2 = 36.33 – 3.156° W.
Hence Xf = 72.66 – 3.156° W
Iron, friction and windage loss (from Fig. 9.8) are given as
Ê r¢ ˆ È 2Ê r2¢ ˆ ˘
= 120 – 52 Á r1 + 2 ˜ Íi.e.,Wolc - I o ÁË r1 + ˜¯ ˙
Ë 4¯ Î 4 ˚
Ê 2.345 ˆ
= 120 – 25 Á 2.345 + ˜ = 46.72 W.
Ë 4 ¯
! Qspcmfn!:/:
B!311!W-!61!I{!dbqbdjups.tubsu!npups!ibt!uif!gpmmpxjoh!jnqfebodft!bu!tuboetujmm;!
Nbjo!xjoejoh![n!>!)9!,!k!4*!W
Bvyjmjbsz!xjoejoh![b!>!)21!,!k!9*!W
Gjoe!uif!wbmvf!pg!dbqbdjubodf!up!cf!dpoofdufe!jo!tfsjft!xjui!bvyjmjbsz!xjoejoh!up!hjwf!qibtf!ejtqmbdf.
nfou!pg!:1¡!cfuxffo!dvssfout!jo!uif!uxp!xjoebht/
Solution
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 9.11(b).
Ê 3ˆ
Phase angle of current in main winding is Á tan -1 ˜ = 20.55°
Ë 8¯
With capacitor C in the auxiliary winding, the phase angle of current in auxiliary winding is
Ê 1 ˆ
8-
Á -1 wC ˜ .
ÁË tan ˜
10 ¯
To give a phase displacement of 90° between the two winding currents, we can write,
1
8-
–tan–1 wC – (–20.55°) = 90°
10
1
8-
i.e. –tan–1 wC = 69.45°
10
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/38
1
or 8– = 10 tan (–69.45°) = –26.67
wC
1
Hence = 34.67 W
wC
1
or C= F = 91.84 mF.
2p ¥ 50 ¥ 34.67
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot
1. Explain why single-phase induction motors do not have self-starting torque.
2. Explain the principle of operation of a capacitor-start capacitor-run induction motor with
suitable diagrams.
3. Draw and explain torque–slip characteristic of a single-phase induction motor on the basis of
double-revolving field theory.
4. Discuss the procedure for determination of the parameters of equivalent circuit of a single-
phase induction motor.
5. What are the different methods of starting of a single-phase induction motor?
6. Explain why the backward flux wave decreases and forward flux wave increases when the
speed of a single-phase induction motor increases.
7. Discuss in brief how the operation of a single-phase induction motor can be explained by
cross-field theory under normal running condition.
8. Write short notes on (a) split-phase induction motor, and (b) shaded-pole induction motor.
9. Discuss the differences between capacitor-start and capacitor-start capacitor-run induction
motors. Why is the auxiliary winding of a capacitor-start motor disconnected after the motor
has picked up speed?
10. What are the disadvantages of a single-phase induction motor in comparison to a three-phase
induction motor?
11. What are the different methods of speed control of a single-phase induction motor?
Qspcmfnt
1
1. A HP, 4-pole, 120 V, 60 Hz, single-phase induction motor has the following equivalent
3
circuit parameters:
r1 = 2.5 W, x1 = 1.25 W, r¢2 = 3.75 W, x¢2 = 1.25 W
! :/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
and Xf = 65 W. The motor has a core loss of 25 W, and friction and windage loss is 2W.
Determine the shaft torque and the efficiency of the motor. The motor runs at 1710 rpm.
[1.295 Nm, 65.86%]
2. A 4-pole, 60 Hz, 115 V, single-phase induction motor is rotating in the clockwise direction at
a speed of 1710 rpm. Determine its per unit slip (a) in the direction of rotation, and (b) in the
opposite direction. Also determine the effective rotor resistance in the forward and backward
branches if rotor resistance at standstill is 12.5 W. [0.05, 1.95, 125 W, 3.205 W]
3. The equivalent circuit parameters of a 4-pole single-phase induction motor are as follows:
r1 = 2.2 W r¢2 = 4.5 W
x1 = 3.1 W x¢2 = 2.6 W
Xf = 80 W
The friction, windage and core loss = 40 W
For a slip of 0.03 pu, determine (a) input current, (b) power factor, (c) developed power,
(d) output power, and (e) efficiency. [5.685 -60.96 , 0.4856 lag, 479.65 W, 439.65 W, 69.2%]
4. The test results of a 220 V, single-phase induction motor are as follows:
Blocked-rotor test: 120 V, 9.6 A, 460 W
No-load test: 220 V, 4.6 A, 125 W
The stator winding resistance is 1.5 W and during the blocked-rotor test, the starting winding
is open. Determine the equivalent circuit parameters. Also find the core, friction and windage
losses. [x1 = x¢2 = 5.73 W, r¢2 = 3.49 W, Xf = 47.46 W, 74.8 W]
5. The following are the equivalent circuit parameters of a single-phase, 4-pole, 230 V, 50 Hz
induction motor:
The stator resistance and leakage reactances are 2.3 W and 3.2 W respectively.
The rotor resistance and leakage reactance referred to the stator are 4.2 W and 3.2 W
respectively.
Magnetizing reactance is 74 W.
Determine the stator current, power factor, power output, torque and efficiency at a slip of 5%
if the core loss is 98 W, and friction and windage loss is 30 W.
[6.95 -50.4∞, 0.637 lag, 637 W, 4.27 Nm, 62.5%]
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. For a single-phase capacitor-start motor, which, of the following statements is valid?
(a) The capacitor is used for power factor improvement.
(b) The direction of rotation can be changed by reversing the main winding terminals.
(c) The direction of rotation cannot be changed.
(d) The direction of rotation can be changed by interchanging the supply terminals.
[GATE 2006]
Tjohmf.qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst :/3:
2. The type of single phase induction motor having the highest power factor at full load is
(a) shaded-pole type (b) split-phase type
(c) capacitor-start type (d) capacitor-run type [GATE 2004]
3. In a single phase induction motor driving a fan load, the reason for having a high resistance
rotor is to achieve
(a) low starting torque (b) quick acceleration
(c) high efficiency (d) reduced size [GATE 2005]
4. A single phase 230 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole, capacitor start induction motor has the following
standstill impedances.
Main winding Zm = 6 + j4 W
Auxiliary winding Za = 8 + j6 W
The value of the starting capacitor required to produce 90° phase difference between the
currents in the main and auxiliary windings will be
(a) 176.84 mF (b) 167.24 mF
(c) 265.26 mF (d) 280.86 mF [GATE 2004]
V 230 0∞
[Hints: Im = = = | IM | -33.7∞
Zm 6 + j 4
1
6-
V 230 0∞ wc
Ia = = = | I a | - tan-1
j j 8
Za - 8 + j6 -
wc wc
1
6-
wc
\ –tan–1 – (–33.7°) = 90°
8
1
6-
wc
or, tan–1 = –56.3°
8
1
or, 6– = –12
wc
1
or, = 18
wc
1
\ C= F = 176.8 mF].
2p ¥ 50 ¥ 18
5. A single-phase induction motor with only the main winding excited would exhibit the
following response at synchronous speed
! :/41 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
M1
rm = 0.1 W
Lm = (0.1/p)H M
ra = 1 W
La = (10/p)H M2 A A¢
S A1 A2
220 V
M¢
50 Hz
Botxfst
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a)
5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (a)
13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (b)
17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (b)
21
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft
VOJWFSTBM!NPUPST! 21/2
A dc series motor can operate under ac supply also, though it does not show good performance
when operated on ac. In a dc series motor, the field winding and the armature winding are in se-
ries and the same current flows through them. The direction of the torque developed in a dc series
motor is determined by both field polarity and the direction of the current through the armature
(T μ f ia). As the direction of the current changes simultaneously in both field and armature wind-
ings, the direction of the torque produced remains same as shown in Fig. 10.1. However, under ac
supply, the motor runs at lower speed and operates at low power factor due to large armature voltage
drop caused by large armature inductive reactance. Also, the efficiency is low due to hysteresis and
eddy-current losses and the sparking at the brushes is excessive. Hence, to make a dc series motor
work efficiently on ac supply, an armature inductance compensating winding is provided in the sta-
tor. Such a motor is called a universal motor. Thus, a universal motor is a dc series motor which can
run on both ac and dc supply. Such motors are also known as ac commutator motors. Figure 10.2
depicts the speed–torque characteristics of a universal motor under dc and ac supplies.
(a) ac current (a) When ac current is positive (c) When ac current is negative
Gjh/!21/2! Efwfmpqnfou!pg!upsrvf!jo!b!vojwfstbm!npups
! 21/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
10000
N in rpm
8000
6000
2000
ac voltage supply
0
1 2 T in Nm
Gjh/!21/3! Pqfsbujoh!dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!b!vojwfstbm!npups
21/2/2! Dpotusvdujpo!
Since the motor is to operate on ac also, the field as well as frame structure are all laminated to
minimize losses and heating, as shown in Fig. 10.3.
The two types of distributed-field universal motors are the single-field compensated motor and
the two-field compensated motor.
Gjh/!21/4! Gjfme!dpsf!pg!b!uxp.qpmf!vojwfstbm!npups
The field winding of a two-pole single-field compensated motor resembles the stator winding
of a two-pole, split-phase induction motor. A two-pole single-field compensated motor has a stator
which contains a main winding and a compensated winding spaced 90 electrical degrees apart. The
compensating winding decreases the reactance voltage developed in the armature by the alternating
flux when the motor is operated from an ac source. Figure 10.4 shows the schematic diagram of a
compensated universal motor. The armature of a typical universal motor resembles the armature of
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/4
a typical dc motor barring the fact that a universal motor armature is slightly larger for the same
horsepower output.
The frames of universal motors are made of aluminium, cast iron and rolled steel. The field poles
are bolted to the frame. The field core consists of laminations pressed together and held by bolts.
The armature core is also laminated and has a commutator and brushes. End plates resemble those
of other motors except that in many universal motors, one end plate is cast as part of the frame. Both
ball and steel bearings are used in universal motors.
Main field Compensating field Armature
Gjh/!21/5! Tdifnbujd!ejbhsbn!pg!b!dpnqfotbufe!vojwfstbm!npups
21/2/3! Tqffe!Dpouspm
Universal motors operate at approximately the same speed on dc or single-phase ac. As these mo-
tors are series wound, they operate at excessive speed under no-load condition. The speed of the
motor is regulated by inserting a resistance in series with the motor. The resistance may be in the
form of tapped resistors, rheostats, or tapped nichrome-wire coils wound over a single field pole.
The speed may also be controlled by varying the inductance through taps on one of the field poles.
Gear boxes are also used. Speed can also be varied over a wide range by varying the voltage with
TRIAC control.
The direction of rotation of a series-wound motor can be reversed by changing the direction of
the current in either the field or the armature circuit. Universal motors are sensitive to brush posi-
tion. When the direction of rotation is changed without shifting the brushes to the neutral plane,
severe arcing at the brushes occurs.
21/2/4! Dpnqfotbujpo!
The ac motors rated at more than ½ horsepower are used to drive loads requiring a high starting
torque. Two methods are used to compensate for excessive armature reaction under loaded condi-
tion.
! 21/5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Inductive
compensating
winding
Gjh/!21/6! Dpoofdujpot!gps!bo!joevdujwfmz!dpnqfotbufe!vojwfstbm!npups
21/2/5! Bqqmjdbujpot!
Typical applications for universal motors are in electrically powered tools, like drills, etc., and in
domestic appliances like mixies, sewing machines, etc.
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/6
SFQVMTJPO!NPUPS! 21/3
21/3/2! Dpotusvdujpo
Repulsion motors have a single-phase stator winding similar to an induction motor (Fig. 10.6). The
armature is like that of a direct-current motor. Carbon brushes, shorted across in pairs to match the
number of pairs of poles, run on the commutator.
220 V, 50 Hz
L
N
Single phase
stator
winding
dc armature
M
winding
(a) (b)
Gjh/!21/7! Sfqvmtjpo!npups
21/3/3! Qsjodjqmft!pg!Pqfsbujpo!boe!Tubsujoh!
Figure 10.7 shows the operation of a repulsion motor. For the sake of simplicity, a ring winding is
chosen for the armature for description. The brushes run directly on the wires of the winding. If an
Gjh/!21/8! Qsjodjqmf!pg!pqfsbujpo!pg!b!sfqvmtjpo!npups
! 21/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
alternating voltage is applied to the field winding terminals, an alternating voltage is induced in the
armature winding, according to the transformer principle. Let us consider a point in time t. Accord-
ing to Lenz’s law, the current and voltage polarities will be as shown in Fig. 10.7.
When the brushes are in the neutral zone [Fig. 10.7(a)], the voltages induced in the top and bot-
tom halves of the armature winding cancel each other. No current flows, and therefore no torque
is developed. If the brushes are now displaced by an angle a [Fig. 10.7(b)], the voltages cannot
cancel each other out. Current flows in both halves of the winding and an alternating magnetic field
is created. This is displaced with respect to the alternating magnetic field of the stator. Magnetic
forces are set up between the two fields. A torque is exerted on the armature, causing it to turn in a
direction opposite to the brush displacement. The polarity of the armature field remains unchanged.
When the brushes are displaced in the opposite direction, the direction of rotation is reversed.
The maximum torque is obtained with a brush-displacement angle of about 70°.
If the brushes are displaced by 90°, the motor acts as a short-circuited transformer. Despite the
large short-circuit current, no torque will be developed. The winding will be damaged and cannot
be repaired.
Therefore, a blocking mechanism is provided to prevent the brush being displaced by an angle
of more than 70°.
It is also essential that the brushes do not remain too long in the zero position, since they short
circuit coils in the armature winding and the resulting currents overheat the motor.
Repulsion motors are used where smooth starting and sensitive speed control is required, for
example in spinning and printing machinery.
21/3/4! Dibsbdufsjtujdt
The repulsion motor has series characteristics as represented in Fig. 10.8. Its speed–torque charac-
teristics are highly drooping. It has quite a high starting torque.
N in
rpm
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
T in Nm
0 1 2
Gjh/!21/9! Pqfsbujoh!dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!b!sfqvmtjpo!npups
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/8
TJOHMF.QIBTF!TFSJFT!NPUPS! 21/4
21/4/2! Dpotusvdujpo!
If an ordinary dc series motor is fed from a single-phase ac supply, the torque which is produced
is always positive though it is pulsating in nature. But the dc series motor does not show good per-
formance when used on alternating current as discussed in Article 10.1. The efficiency is low, the
power factor is poor and there is considerable sparking at the brushes. The sparking at the brushes
is due to poor commutation. The voltage induced by transformer action in the coil undergoing com-
mutation further intensifies commutation difficulties.
Compensating
winding
ac
Armature
Field
Gjh/!21/:! Bo!bd!tfsjft!npups!xjui!dpnqfotbujoh!xjoejoh
To improve the efficiency, both the stator and rotor cores are laminated (the rotor or armature
core is laminated in dc machines also). To reduce the reactance of armature winding, a compensat-
ing winding, is added in the pole faces and connected in series with armature winding, as shown in
Fig. 10.9. The number of turns per pole in the compensating winding is so chosen that the mmf it
produces is equal and opposite to that of the armature, i.e.
Z
Nc = (10.1)
2 PA
where Nc = Number of turns per pole in compensating winding
Z = Number of armature conductors
A = Number of parallel paths in armature
P = Number of poles
The compensating winding cannot neutralize the armature field in the commutation zone, be-
cause its space distribution is not identical with that of armature winding. Thus, there will be re-
sidual armature field owing to the armature conductors lying between the pole tips. To neutralize
this flux in the commutating zone, interpoles are necessary.
! 21/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
The flux which is responsible for the reactance of the field winding is the main flux which is es-
sential for the operation of the motor. Evidently, this flux should not be neutralized. Nevertheless,
the field-winding reactance must be
kept as low as possible, if the power
IR¢ Er
factor is to be maintained reasonably
high. This requirement calls for the lra lrf lrc
V
minimum possible number of field
lxc
turns per pole, which means mini-
mum flux per pole. Since the field
flux is small, the number of armature lxf
IX¢
conductors has to be high to develop
the required torque. Thus, the ratio of lx
a
armature ampere turns per pole to the
field ampere turns per pole is high in
ac series motors. However, there is a
limit to the number of armature am- Ef IX
pere turns, which can be accommo-
dated on a given core, this limit being q
fixed by the consideration of heating.
I fd
The only way to develop the desired
torque in motors of considerable rat- Gjh/!21/21! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg!tjohmf.qibtf!tfsjft!npups
ing is to use numerous poles, thus in-
troducing an additional difference between ac series motor and dc series motor. The use of numer-
ous poles, each with relatively few turns, improves the commutation and reduces the leakage
inductance of the field winding. The power factor, efficiency and commutation are all improved by
lowering the frequency of ac supply.
21/4/3! Qibtps!Ejbhsbn
The current in a series field winding sets up a flux fd in the direct axis. This current also sets up a
quadrature axis fq, but this flux is neutralized by the compensating winding. The current I and flux
fd are in phase. The applied voltage V has to balance the following emfs and voltage drops:
1. The speed emf Er is produced by the flux fd. This emf appears across the brushes which are
in neutral or q-axis. This emf Er is in phase with flux fd.
2. The self-induced emf (or transformer emf) Ef is induced in the field winding by the flux fd.
This emf is induced because flux fd is an alternating flux. If the machine is operated from dc,
this emf is absent. The emf Ef is in quadrature with the flux fd.
3. Voltage drops across ra, rf and rc, i.e. resistance of armature, field and compensating winding
are in phase with the current I.
4. Voltage drops across xa, xf and xc, i.e. leakage reactance of armature, field and compensating
windings are in quadrature with the current.
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/:
Therefore, the phasor sum of Er, Ef and voltage drops in resistances and leakage reactances gives
the applied voltage V. Figure 10.10 shows the approximate phasor diagram. The power factor is cos
q. The effects of iron losses and current in the coil undergoing commutation have been neglected.
21/4/4! Bqqmjdbujpo
The series motor has high starting torque and this feature makes it ideally suited for use in traction.
The speed and torque characteristics are well suited to such a service. The speed is easily and ef-
ficiently regulated by varying the applied voltage. The ac series motors are, therefore, widely used
2
in electric locomotives. In the past, these motors were usually operated at 16 Hz and 25 Hz and
3
the railway electric-distribution network had to be specially supplied at these frequencies through
frequency converters. Modern developments have enabled satisfactory operation at 50 Hz, so that
railway electric networks can be fed directly from the power-system grid. However, the latest trend
is to use dc series motors fed from the power system through solid-state rectifier circuits.
P.F.
h
T, h, p, f, Speed
Spe
ed
Current
Gjh/!21/22! Dibsbdufsjtujdt!pg!bd!npups!tfsjft
TJOHMF.QIBTF!TZODISPOPVT!NPUPST! 21/5
The unique characteristic of a synchronous motor is that its speed remains exactly constant. The
speed depends solely on the frequency of the supply voltage. For small loads, such motors are used
when high running accuracy and extremely precise speed control are required.
! 21/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Figure 10.12 shows the construction of a synchronous fractional horsepower motor. The pole
horns and the yoke are made from core sheet sections. The alternating field is generated in a coil.
The rotor usually consists of soft magnetic iron,
but sometimes of permanent magnets. The pole N Main coils
horns and the rotor have teeth arranged so that a
rotor tooth always exactly faces a pole-horn
tooth. When the motor is switched on, the pole- Pole V
horn teeth attract the rotor teeth. When the rotor horns
is started, it continues to rotate (Fig. 10.13). If
there is a positive current flow in the coil, the
pole-horn teeth (north poles) attract the rotor
S
teeth. While the current is passing through its
Rotor Yoke
zero point (no magnetic field) the rotor contin-
ues to turn due to the fly-wheel effect. When the Gjh/!21/23! Tzodispopvt! gsbdujpobm! ipstfqpxfs!
current flow reverses, the pole horns become npupst
south poles. The next rotor teeth are now attract-
ed. This process is repeated at a frequency f of the applied alternating voltage. The rotor turns at a
speed n = 2 f /z, where z is the number of rotor teeth.
A similar process takes place in a permanent magnet rotor motor. A shaded-pole stator is often
used to generate the rotating field. In permanent magnet synchronous motors the permanent mag-
nets are embedded in the rotor. The rotor is of squirrel cage type. When the motor is connected to
a single phase ac supply it starts as an induction motor, attains synchronous speed and locks into
synchronism and operates as synchronous motor. One example of the use of synchronous fractional
horsepower motors is the motor in an electric clock. It is also used in control apparatus and timing
devices.
i t3
i
t t t
t1
t2
3 2 1 3 2 1
3 2 1 S S S
N N N
3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2
!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!
Gjh/!21/24! Pqfsbujpo!pg!tzodispopvt!gsbdujpobm!ipstfqpxfs!npups
TZODISPOPVT!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS! 21/6
A synchronous induction motor, as the name suggests, can run both as induction motor and a
synchronous motor. This motor works as induction motor during starting and acts as synchronous
motor during running condition.
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/22
If the rotor of a slip ring induction motor is fed from dc supply it is possible to run this motor at
a synchronous speed. The rotor of a slip ring induction motor becomes an electromagnet when it is
fed from dc source. The fixed rotor poles get magnetically locked with the rotating magnetic field
developed by the three phase stator windings carrying ac current and the motor runs at a constant
speed equal to the synchronous speed.
Though larger air gap results in poor power factor in ordinary induction motors, in synchronous
induction motor large air gap is provided as the power factor can be controlled by variation of dc ex-
citation. The larger air gap produces higher peak synchronous torque. These machines are provided
with heavy rotor winding for having low slip which facilitates in pulling it into synchronism. Also
in order that the induced emf in the field is not very high at starting, the field turns are kept few in
number and the excitation voltage is kept low. As the exciter winding serves the purpose of damper
winding, hence there is no need for providing separate damper winding with these machines.
The synchronous induction motor is started as a slip ring induction motor by inserting resis-
tances in the rotor circuit. The additional resistances are slowly cut out and the motor runs at low
slip. The rotor is then disconnected from the starting resistances and connected to the dc excitation
source which is mounted on the same shaft of induction motor. The motor now operates as a syn-
chronous motor.
Synchronous induction motors are used where high starting torque and constant speed operation
is required. They are generally built for ratings above 25 KW because of the high cost of the exciter.
They are used in fans, generators, blowers, pumps, air compressors, machinery and line shafting in
industries such as in cement mills, rolling mills, flour mills, paper mills and textile mills.
MJOFBS!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPS! 21/7
A linear induction motor is a special type of induction motor which gives linear or translational mo-
tion unlike conventional induction motor which gives rotational motion. If a conventional induction
motor is cut and laid flat, a linear induction motor can be obtained. In this motor the stator is termed
as primary and the rotor as secondary. The primary consists of a magnetic core with three phase
winding and the secondary consists of a flat aluminium conductor as shown in Fig. 10.14. When
the primary winding is energized from a three phase ac supply, a travelling flux wave is produced,
like conventional induction motors which travels along the length of the primary. Due to the rela-
tive motion between the travelling flux wave and aluminium conductor, current is induced in the
aluminium conductors. The interaction of the induced currents and the travelling flux produces a
linear force or thurst. If the primary is free to move and the secondary is fixed, the force will move
the primary in the direction of the travelling wave. A linear induction motor may have one or two
primary. The motor shown in Fig. 10.14 contains one primary and is called single sided linear in-
duction motor. The motor shown in Fig. 10.15 has primary on both sides of the secondary and is
known as doubled sided linear induction motor.
! 21/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Primary
The phase winding
Aluminium
conductor
Secondary
Gjh/!21/25! Tjohmf.tjefe!mjofbs!joevdujpo!npups!
Secondary
Primary
Gjh/!21/26! Epvcmf.tjefe!mjofbs!joevdujpo!npups!
In order to maintain a constant force over a considerable distance, one side (either primary or
secondary) is kept shorter than the other. For example in high speed ground transportation, a short
primary and a long secondary is used. The primary forms an integral part of the vehicle, whereas
the secondary forms the track.
The linear synchronous speed
vs = 2f ¥ pole pitch m/s where f is the supply frequency
The linear velocity of the movable secondary
vr = vs (1 – s) where s is the slip of the motor
Air-gap power
The linear force F=
vs
The equivalent circuit of linear induction motor is similar to that of the rotary induction motor.
The force velocity curve as shown in
Fig. 10.16 is also similar to the torque speed
curve of rotary induction motor.
The linear induction motor has larger air
gap than rotary induction motor. Hence it has
larger magnetizing current, poor power fac- Force
tor and lower efficiency than rotary induction
motor. Again in rotary induction motor, the
stator and rotor developments are of same vs
length due to smaller air gap and after one Speed
The advantages of linear induction motor are lower initial cost, low maintenance cost, simplicity,
no limitation of maximum speed due to centrifugal forces and no over heating as the motor moves
continuously over cool rotor plate leaving behind heated rotor portion.
The disadvantages are its poor efficiency and low power factor, high capital cost of reaction rail
fixed along the centre line of the track, difficulties encountered in maintaining adequate clearances
at points and crossings.
The main application of linear induction motor is in transportation. The primary is mounted on
the vehicle and the secondary is laid along the track. It is also used in cranes for material handling,
pumping of liquid metal, actuators for door movement and high voltage circuit breakers.
SFMVDUBODF!NPUPS! 21/8
Reluctance motors are basically synchronous motors, but they do not need dc excitation. They usu-
ally have a single-phase stator but may be polyphase also. They are self-starting and use reluctance
torque for running.
A reluctance torque is the torque produced in a motor in which the reluctance of the air gap is a
function of angular position of the rotor, with respect to stator coils. In a salient-pole synchronous
motor, the torque has two components, and one component is a function of (xd – xq), i.e. difference
in the motor reactance in the direct and quadrature axis. This component is known as the reluctance
torque. A motor which develops torque only due to the difference in reluctance in the two axes is
known as a reluctance motor.
The reluctance is proportional to sin 2d, where d is the angle between the rotor and stator mag-
netic fields. Therefore, reluctance torque is maximum when d = 45°. The reluctance torque develops
due to the tendency of the rotor to align itself in the minimum reluctance position, with respect to
the stator field revolving at synchronous speed.
600
Main and
500 Auxiliary
Winding
400
Percent Torque
Varies with
Position
of Rotor
Starting
Switching
300
Speed
200
100 Main
(a) Rotor punching Winding only
0
20 40 60 80 100
Figure 10.17(a) shows the rotor punching of a self-starting reluctance motor. It is similar to the
punching of a cage rotor, except that some of the teeth have been removed, leaving the bars and end
rings intact. The stator is either single-phase (having main and auxiliary winding as in single-phase
induction motor) or three-phase. The motor starts due to induction motor action. At speeds less than
synchronous speed, the torque alternates in positive and negative half-cycles. If the rotor has small
inertia and the motor is lightly loaded, the rotor will be pulled into synchronism during the positive
half-cycle and continue to run at synchronous speed.
Figure 10.17(b) shows the torque-speed characteristic of a reluctance motor. As mentioned
above, it is basically a salient-pole synchronous motor, but has a split-phase stator winding for pro-
viding the starting torque. The starting torque is a function of the rotor position. This phenomenon
is known as cogging. The starting torque is quite high, because to obtain satisfactory synchronous
motor characteristics, it is necessary to use a frame bigger than that for an induction motor of the
same rating. These motors are used for constant speed application such as electric clock timers,
recording instruments, signalling devices, etc.
TXJUDIFE!SFMVDUBODF!NPUPS! 21/9
The switched reluctance motor is a type of stepper motor that has less number of poles. The stator
poles are wound with excitation windings but has no windings on its rotor which is made of soft
magnetic material. The change in reluctance along the periphery of the stator forces the rotor poles
to align with those of the stator. Hence the torque develops in the motor and the rotation takes place.
These motors have one pole pair less in the rotor than the stator. Both the stator and rotor poles are
projected type. The diametrically opposite stator poles are excited simultaneously in a sequence.
Fig. 10.18 shows the schematic diagram of a switched reluctance motor.
Magnetic axis
or Phase-A
Axis of
rotor
Soft Phase-A
iron
rotor
d
Gjh/!21/29! Tdifnbujd!ejbhsbn!pg!b!txjudife!sfmvdubodf!npups
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/26
Though the construction of switched reluctance motor is very simple, it requires complicated
control mechanism. In order to develop torque in the motor the rotor position should be determined
by sensors so that excitation timing of the phase windings is precise. The developed torque in the
motor is independent of the direction of supply current as the torque is proportional to the square of
the phase currents. The initial position of the rotor has a significant impact on the developed torque.
Common uses of these motors are in the applications where the rotor must be held stationary for
long periods and in potentially explosive environments such as mining as they do not have mechani-
cal commutator. They are also used in some washing machines and control rod drive mechanisms
of nuclear reactors.
TFSWPNPUPS! 21/:
Servomotors are generally known as control motors. Their power ratings vary from a fraction of a
watt to a few hundred watts. They have a high speed of response and generally operate at very low
speeds. Servomotors can operate from both dc and ac supplies. These motors are used in feedback
control systems as output actuators.
The dc servomotors are separately excited dc motors or permanent magnet dc motors. The speeds
of dc servomotors are controlled by varying the armature voltage. The armature resistance is very
high and a step change in armature voltage or current produces a quick change in the position or
speed of the rotor.
The ac servomotors are basically two-phase squirrel-cage induction motors used for low power
applications. The rotor has high resistance and small diameter-to-length ratio to give good acceler-
ating characteristics. They produce high torques at all speeds including zero speed.
FROM CONTROLLER
Control
winding
AMPLIFIER vc
ROTOR
Reference winding
vr
FIXED
ac
VOLTAGE
Gjh/!21/2:! Uxp.qibtf!tfswpnpups
Figure 10.19 shows the connection diagram of a two-phase servomotor. One of the stator wind-
ings, called reference winding, is excited by a fixed ac voltage Vr, while the second winding, known
! 21/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
as control winding, is excited by the voltage VC. The two voltages must be in synchronism, which
is a necessary condition for production of torque. Therefore, the two voltages must be derived
from the same source. The control voltage is fed to the motor through an amplifier. Moreover, the
two voltages must have a phase difference of 90°. This phase shift is usually obtained by using a
phase-shifting network in an amplifier circuit. The 90° phase shift can also be obtained by adding a
capacitor in series with the reference winding. When VC leads Vr by 90°, rotation in one direction is
obtained and when VC lags Vr by 90°, rotation in a reverse direction is obtained. Since the torque is
a function of both Vr and VC, changing the magnitude of VC changes the torque developed.
Esbh.dvq!Spups
When the rating of a servomotor is only a few watts or less, inertia can be decreased by using a
drag-cup rotor. This rotor (Fig. 10.20) is in the form of a thin metallic cup. The iron core is station-
ary. Since only the metallic cup is the rotating member, the inertia is very small.
Stator
Drag cup
rotor
Stationary
Rotor core
Shaft
Gjh/!21/31! Esbh.dvq!spups
UBDIPNFUFS! 21/21
2/!ed!Ubdipnfufs!
In many control systems, it is necessary to feed back a voltage proportional to the speed of the
shaft. In a dc servo mechanism, this can be achieved by using a dc tachometer, which is a permanent
magnet dc generator. The permanent magnet ensures a constant air-gap flux. Therefore, its output
voltage is directly proportional to the speed of the shaft only.
A dc tachometer can be used in ac servo mechanism by converting the dc output voltage to an ac
voltage by using an inverter circuit.
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/28
3/!bd!Ubdipnfufs
An ac tachometer is used in feed back control systems, to feed back and ac voltage proportional to
the speed of the shaft. It is basically a two-phase induction motor as shown in Fig. 10.21. One stator
phase winding, known as reference winding, is excited by a suitable ac voltage of constant magni-
tude and frequency. A voltage of the same frequency is gen-
erated across the other winding known as auxiliary winding r
or control winding. This output voltage is applied to the
Vp
high-impedance input circuit of an amplifier, so that the con-
trol winding can be considered as an open circuit. It is neces-
sary that the voltage developed across the control winding is
linearly proportional to shaft speed and the phase of this Control winding
voltage be fixed with respect to the voltage applied to the
reference winding.
The operation of an ac tachometer can be explained by To
Amplifier
the double revolving field theory. The tachometer is equiva-
lent to a small single-phase induction motor. At standstill, Gjh/!21/32! bd!ubdipnfufs
the forward and backward fields are equal and voltage devel-
oped across the control winding is zero. When the rotor is revolving, the impedance of the forward
field increases and that of the backward field decreases, the difference between them being a func-
tion of speed. Therefore, the voltage developed across the control winding is a function of speed.
Reversal of direction of rotation reverses the phase of output voltage.
For a constant-phase angle of output voltage and linear relationship between output voltage and
speed, the ratio x2/r2 of the rotor (where x2 is rotor reactance and r2 is rotor resistance) should be
either small (i.e. less than 0.1) or high (i.e. more than 10). If x2/r2 is low, the sensitivity (i.e. volts
per revolution per minute) is sacrificed but linear speed range is wide. If x2/r2 is high, the speed
range is limited to a small fraction of synchronous speed to meet the condition of linearity of volt-
age and constancy of phase angle. Generally, an intermediate value of x2/r2 ratio gives satisfactory
performance.
An ac tachometer should have low inertia when rapid speed variations are encountered as in
automatic control systems. The drag-cup construction (Fig. 10.16) gives low inertia and is used
frequently.
IZTUFSFTJT!NPUPS! 21/22
In a hysteresis motor, the torque is produced due to the hysteresis phenomenon. The stator has a
three-phase or permanent split capacitor single-phase winding, thus producing a rotating field. It
is necessary that the stator field has sinusoidal space distribution, so that the losses are minimum.
That rotor is a smooth cylinder of hard steel and does not have any teeth or winding as shown in
Fig. 10.22(a).
! 21/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Axis of Axis of
Stator Field Rotor Field
ws d
Stator
Torque
Rotor 0 100
Percent Synchronous
Speed
(a) (b)
Gjh/!21/33! Iztufsftjt!npups;!)b*!Nbhofujd!gjfmet!)c*!UpsrvfÐtqffe!dvswf
At speeds less than synchronous speed, the torque is partly due to eddy currents, the component
due to hysteresis being much greater than that due to eddy currents. When the magnetic fields of
the stator sweep around the rotor surface, the rotor flux wave lags behind the stator flux wave due
to hysteresis. The angle of lag is d. The greater the intrinsic hysteresis loss of rotor material, the
greater is the angle by which the rotor magnetic field lags the stator field. The torque is proportional
to sin d. In addition, the stator magnetic field induces eddy currents in the rotor. These eddy cur-
rents produce a magnetic field of their own and torque is produced. The greater the relative motion
between the rotor and stator fields, the greater are the eddy-currents and eddy-current torque.
When the motor reaches synchronous speed, the eddy-current torque reduces to zero and only
hysteresis torque is present. The hysteresis torque is constant from zero to synchronous speed.
Since the total torque at any speed less than synchronous speed is slightly more than the torque at
synchronous speed, this motor can accelerate any load up to its full load. After reaching synchro-
nous speed, the motor adjusts its torque angle, so as to develop torque required by the load and
continues to run at synchronous speed. Since the eddy-current torque is much less than hysteresis
torque, the total torque is nearly constant from starting to synchronous speed [Fig. 10.22(b)].
Since the rotor surface is smooth, without any slots the motor does not experience any magnetic
or mechanical vibrations and is, therefore, extremely quite. Hence, it is used for electric clocks and
other timing devices. These motors are also used for driving gyros. As these motors are noiseless,
they are used for sound-playing instruments like record players, tape recorders, etc.
There is a basic difference between hysteresis motor and reluctance motor. The reluctance mo-
tor starts as a single-phase induction motor and the rotor pulls into synchronism under favourable
conditions. In a hysteresis motor, any load gets synchronized with stator poles provided hysteresis
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/2:
torque is able to accelerate it. Hence, in a reluctance motor, there is a tendency for the rotor to oscil-
late before synchronism, but in a hysteresis motor, the rotor and stator poles lock with each other
without any oscillation.
CSVTIMFTT!ED!NPUPST! 21/23
In conventional dc motors, the armature is on the rotor, and the field magnets are placed in the sta-
tor. The construction of modern brushless dc motors is very similar to the ac motor, known as the
permanent magnet synchronous motor (Fig. 10.23). The armature windings are part of the stator,
and the rotor is composed of one or more magnets. The windings in a brushless dc motor are similar
to those in a polyphase ac motor and the most efficient motor has a set of three phase windings and
is operated in bipolar excitation. Brushless dc motors are different from ac synchronous motors in
that the former incorporates some means to detect the rotor position (or magnetic poles) to produce
signals to control the electronic switches. The most common position/pole sensor is the Hall ele-
ment, but some motors use optical sensors.
Winding
Hall elements
Gjh/!21/34! Ejtbttfncmfe!wjfx!pg!b!csvtimftt!ed!npups;!qfsnbofou!nbhofu!spups-!xjoejoh!boe!Ibmm!
fmfnfou
By examining a simple three-phase unipolar operated motor, one can easily understand the basic
principles of brushless dc motors. Figure 10.24 illustrates a motor of this type that uses optical sen-
sors (phototransistors) as position detectors. Three phototransistors PT1, PT2 and PT3 are placed
on the end plate at 120° intervals, and are exposed to light in sequence through a revolving shutter
coupled to the motor shaft.
! 21/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Revolving shutter
I1
Phototransistors
W1 W3
Pt1 Pt3
P1 N P3
Pt2 S P2
I11
E11
W2 I3
Tr1 I2 Tr3
Tr2
Gjh/!21/35! Uisff.qibtf!vojqpmbs!esjwfo!csvtimftt!ed!npups
As shown in Fig. 10.20, when the south pole of the rotor faces the salient pole P2 of the stator, the
phototransistor Pt1 detects the light and turns transistor Tr1 on. In this state, the south pole which is
created at the salient pole P1 by the electrical current flowing through the winding W1 is attracting
the north pole of the rotor to move it in the direction of the arrow. When the south pole comes in
the position to face the salient pole P1, the shutter, which is coupled to the rotor shaft, will shade
Pt1, and Pt2 will be exposed to the light and a current will flow through the transistors Tr2. When a
current flows through the winding W2, and creats a south pole on the salient pole P2, then the north
pole in the rotor will revolve in the direction of the arrow and face the salient pole P2. At this mo-
ment, the shutter shades Pt2, and the phototransistor Pt3 is exposed to the light. These actions steer
the current from the winding W2 to W3. Thus, the salient pole P2 is de-energized, while the salient
pole P3 is energized and creats the south pole. Hence, the north pole on the rotor further travels
from P2 to P3 without stopping. By repeating such a switching action in the sequence given in
Fig. 10.21, the permanent magnetic rotor revolves continuously.
Nfuipe!pg!Sfwfstjoh!uif!Ejsfdujpo!pg!Spubujpo
In order to reverse the direction of rotation of a conventional dc motor, the terminal voltage simply
has to be reversed. However, such an action will not reverse a brushless dc motor which uses semi-
conductor devices like transistors, because most semiconductor devices are unidirectional switches.
Therefore, some additional circuit is necessary when the motor is to be driven in either direction.
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/32
Pt2
Pt3
Output signals from phototransistors
I1
I2
I3
P3
P1
P1
P2
Time
Gjh/!21/36! Txjudijoh!tfrvfodf!boe!spubujpo!pg!tubupsÕt!nbhofujd!gjfme
In Fig. 10.25, the connections between the phototransistors (PT1, PT2, and PT3) and the transis-
tors (Tr1, Tr2 and Tr3) are arranged as
Pt1—Tr1 for controlling current through W1
Pt2—Tr2 for controlling current through W2
Pt3—Tr3 for controlling current through W3
These connections make the motor rotate counter-clockwise. If the connections are changed over
to
Pt1—Tr3
Pt2—Tr1
Pt3—Tr2
the rotational direction will be reversed.
! 21/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
TUFQQFS!NPUPST! 21/24
This type of motor is today one of the most popular small control motors used for accurate position
controls. It is designed to rotate through a specific angle (called a step) for each electrical pulse
received by its control unit.
Stepper motors are controlled by current pulses generated in electronic circuits. The rotor turns
in single steps or at a synchronous speed governed by the pulse frequency. The stator consists of a
large number of independent separately controlled coils. Permanent magnet and soft magnetic iron
rotors (reluctance step motor) are most frequently used.
Stepper motors have wide range of applications. As they are digitally controlled i.e. controlled
by using input pulses they can be used with computer controlled system. They are used in numeri-
cal control of machine tools, tape drivers, line printers, X – Y plotters, other computer peripheral
devices, robotics, electric watches, etc. They are also used in space crafts, science fiction movies,
various commercial, medical and military applications.
Compared with other devices that can perform the same or similar functions, a control system
using a stepper motor (Fig. 10.26) has several sig-
dc power
nificant advantages as follows: supply
1. No feedback is normally required for either
position control or speed control. Integrated
circuits or Transistorized
Motor
driver
2. Positional error is noncumulative. microprocessor
3. Stepping motors are compatible with modern Generation of Switching of
digital equipment. switching signals power circuits
There are three types of stepper motors, per- Gjh/!21/37! Npefso! esjwjoh! tztufn! gps! b!
tufqqfs!npups
manent magnet stepper motor, variable reluctance
stepper motor and hybrid stepper motor
21/24/2! Qfsnbofou!Nbhofu!Tufqqfs!Npups
In permanent magnet stepper motor the stator poles have concentrated winding and they are of sa-
lient type. The rotor is cylindrical and consists of permanent magnet poles made of high retentivity
steel. The concentrated windings on diametrically opposite poles are connected in series to form
two phase winding on the stator. The rotor poles align with the stator teeth (or poles) depending on
the excitation of the winding.
Figure 10.27 explains how a stepper motor with a permanent magnet rotor works. Consider that
1 and 5 are fed from a positive pulse and at the same time coils 3 and 7 are fed from a negative
pulse. The rotor position is shown in Fig. 10.27. Now the positive pulse is fed to coils 2 and 6 and
the negative pulse to coils 4 and 8. The rotor turns through 45°. To make the rotor turn one step
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/34
further, we have to feed a negative pulse to coils 1 and 5 and a positive pulse to coils 3 and 7. By
feeding suitable pulses to coils 2 and 4 and coils 6 and
8, we can make the rotor turn yet another step.
If we feed the coils with pulses which are periodi- 1 1 1¢
2¢ 2
cally repeated, the rotor will turn step by step. If the S 2
8
pulse frequency is high enough, it will turn at a con- 2 2¢
stant synchronous speed of rotation. The speed de- 1¢ 1
7 N N 3
pends on the number of poles and the pulse frequency. 1 1¢
If there are enough coils, high speeds can be achieved.
The residual magnetism in the permanent magnet
2¢ 6 S 4 2
21/24/3! Wbsjbcmf!Sfmvdubodf!Tufqqfs!Npups
In variable reluctance stepper motor the stator and rotor gets aligned in such a way so that the
magnetic reluctance becomes minimum. There are two types of variable reluctance stepper motor,
single stack type and multistack type.
A single stack variable reluctance motor has salient pole stator and concentrated winding. The
rotor is a slotted structure which carries no windings. The exciting current required is very small as
both the stator and rotor are made up of high quality magnetic materials having very high perme-
ability. With the help of semiconductor switches the stator poles are excited from dc source in a
proper sequence to create a magnetic field. The rotor aligns itself to the stator field axis to take the
minimum reluctance position. The angle through which the rotor moves for each change in excita-
tion sequence of the motor is called the step angle which is given by
360∞
Step angle = …(10.2)
Number of stator phases ¥ number of rotor poles or teeth
h
The step angle can also be expressed as
Difference of the stator and rotor poles or teeth
Step angle = 360° ¥ …(10.3)
Number of stator poles or teeth ¥ number of rotor poles or teeth
The cross section of a three phase motor having two stator poles per phase and four rotor poles is
shown in Fig. 10.28. If the phase winding is excited in sequence ABCA the steps are clockwise and
if the excitation sequence is ACBA the steps are anticlockwise
A multistack variable reluctance motor consists of identical single stack reluctance motors with
their rotors mounted on a single shaft. The stator and rotor have the same number of poles or teeth.
For a m stack motor, the stator pole or teeth in all m stacks are aligned. The rotor poles or teeth are
! 21/35 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A A
C C
C C
B B
B B
A A
Gjh/!21/39! Dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!b!tjohmf.tubdl!wbsjbcmf.sfmvdubodf!tufqqfs!npups
1
displaced from each other by of the pole pitch angle. As the stator pole windings in a given stack
m
are excited simultaneously, the stator winding of each stack forms one phase. Hence the motor has
the same number of phases as the number of stacks. The step angle in multistack type stepper mo-
tor is given by
360∞
Step angle = …(10.4)
number of stacks or phase ¥ number of rotor poles or teetth
The cross section of a three stack variable reluctance stepper motor is shown in Fig. 10.29. The
stator teeth in each stack is aligned. When phase winding A is excited rotor teeth of stack A are
aligned with the stator teeth. When phase B is energized and phase A is deenergized the rotor moves
by one step angle and rotor teeth of stack B align with stator teeth.
iB iC Stator
iA
Stator
Gjh/!21/3:! Dsptt!tfdujpo!pg!b!uisff!tubdl!wbsjbcmf!sfmvdubodf!tufqqfs!npups
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/36
21/24/4! Izcsje!Tufqqfs!Npups
This is, in fact, a permanent magnet stepper motor with constructional features of toothed and
stacked rotors adopted from the variable-reluctance motor. The stator has only one set of winding-
excited poles which interact with the two rotor stacks. The permanent magnet is placed axially
along the rotor in the form of an annular cylinder over the motor shaft. The stacks at each end of
the rotor are toothed. So all the teeth on the stack at one end of the rotor acquire the same polarity
while all the teeth of the stack at the other end of the rotor acquire the opposite polarity. The two sets
of teeth are displaced from each other by one half of the tooth pitch (also called pole pitch). These
constructional details are brought out by
Fig .10.30(a) and Fig. 10.30(b) for the case PM
of three teeth on each stack so that tooth
pitch Yt = 360°/3 =120°. This motor has a S
two-phase, four-pole stator.
Consider now that the stator phase a is N
permanent magnet excitation. This fact is in favour of hybrid (also PM) motors. Compared to a
PM motor, finer steps for better resolution are easily obtained in a hybrid motor by increasing the
number of stack teeth and also by adding additional stack pairs on the rotor. For example, for a
seven-teeth stack, the step size is (360°/7)/4 = (90/7)°. Also compared to variable-reluctance motor,
a hybrid motor requires less stator excitation current because of the PM excited rotor.
Half-stepping can be achieved in a hybrid motor by exciting phase ‘a’ and then exciting phase
‘b’ before switching off the excitation of phase ‘a’, and so on. In fact, any fractional step can be
obtained by suitably proportioning the excitation of the two phases. Such stepping is known as
microstepping.
Typical step angles for stepper motors are 15°, 7.5°, 2° and 0.72°. The choice of the angle de-
pends upon the angular resolution required for application.
QFSNBOFOU!NBHOFU!ED!)QNED*!NPUPST! 21/25
The permanent magnet dc (PMDC) motor is a dc motor whose poles are made of permanent mag-
nets. These motors have many advantages compared to dc shunt motors. They do not have field-cir-
cuit copper losses since they do not require external field circuit. This also makes them smaller than
corresponding dc shunt motors and this fact partially offsets the high cost of permanent magnets.
PMDC motors are especially common in smaller fractional and subfractional horsepower sizes.
These motors offer shunt-type characteristics. The risk of permanent magnetism getting destroyed
by armature reaction (at starting/reversing or heavy overloads) has been greatly reduced by the new
PM materials like ceramics and rare-earth magnetic materials.
There are many disadvantages of permanent magnet motors. As they cannot produce high flux
density as an externally supplied shunt field, hence a PMDC motor has lower induced torque per
ampere of armature current than a shunt motor of the same size and construction. Moreover, PMDC
motors suffer from risk of demagnetization. In a dc machine, the net flux produced by the field
poles is reduced due to the magnetic field developed by the armature current which is known as ar-
mature reaction. In PMDC motors, the pole flux is the residual flux in the permanent magnets only.
When the armature current is large, there is some risk that the armature mmf may demagnetize the
poles, permanently reducing and reorienting the residual flux in them. Demagnetization may also
be caused by excessive heating which can occur during prolonged periods of overload.
For normal dc machines, the ferromagnetic materials for stator and rotor should have low values
of residual flux density and coercive, magnetizing intensity since such materials have low hysteresis
losses. On the other hand, in PMDC motors the good materials for the poles are those which have
large residual flux density and large coercive magnetizing intensity. The large residual flux density
produces large flux in the machine and large coercive magnetizing intensity means that a very large
current would be required to demagnetize the poles.
Since the flux in a PMDC motor is fixed, hence it is not possible to control the speed of a PMDC
motor by varying the field current or flux. The only method of speed control for PMDC motors are
armature voltage control and armature resistance control.
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/38
QFSNBOFOU!NBHOFU!HFOFSBUPST! 21/26
A permanent magnet generator is a synchronous generator in which the excitation coil, which is in
the rotor is replaced by a system made up of permanent magnets which provides a constant field
excitation.
The operation of a permanent magnet generator differs synchronous generator in the way that in
normal synchronous generator the voltage is controlled by excitation whereas in permanent mag-
net generator the excitation is constant and hence when it is charged the voltage drops and there is
no provision to regulate the voltage. Hence these generators find their applications where voltage
drop upto a certain degree is allowable. Otherwise a constant voltage output electronic circuit is
connected at the output of the generator which can convert a voltage range into continuous voltage
of constant value and in this way the generator can be used for many purposes. These generators
are used to feed the regulators which provides excitation to large synchronous generators. The ad-
vantage is that when there is a short circuit in the large synchronous generator, they can supply the
energy necessary for the regulator so that it can overexcite the generator and maintain the voltage
for sufficient time before the protection circuits activate. These generators also find their applica-
tions in wind power generation.
The main advantage of permanent magnet generator is its simplicity. The manufacturing and
assembly of the rotor is cheaper. It does not require any maintance as it does not have brushes. It
does not need any excitation system and energy saving upto 20% can be obtained. Being an energy
source independent from the generator, it can serve to supply energy to auxiliary systems of the
main generator.
! Qspcmfn!21/2
Efufsnjof!uif!tufqqjoh!bohmf!gps!b!)b*!uisff!qibtf!uxfouz!qpmf!qfsnbofou!nbhofu!tufqqfs!npups-!
boe!)c*!uisff.tubdl!uxfmwf.uppui!wbsjbcmf!sfmvdubodf!tufqqfs!npups/
Solution
360∞
(a) Stepping angle = = 6° (from eq. 10.2)
3 ¥ 20
360∞
(b) Stepping angle = = 10° (from eq. 10.4).
3 ¥ 12
! Qspcmfn!21/3
B!wbsjbcmf!sfmvdubodf!tufqqfs!npups!ibt!5!qpmft!xjui!21!uffui!jo!fbdi/!Efufsnjof!uif!tufqqjoh!bohmf!
jg!uif!spups!ibt!71!uffui/
Solution
Number of stator teeth = 4 ¥ 10 = 40
Number of rotor teeth = 60
! 21/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
! Qspcmfn!21/4
Uif!sftjtubodf!boe!joevdubodf!pg!b!tjohmf!qibtf!bd!tfsjft!npups!bsf!51!W!boe!1/6!I!sftqfdujwfmz/!
Xifo!dpoofdufe!up!341!W!ed!tvqqmz!uif!mjof!dvssfou!jt!2!B!boe!uif!npups!svot!bu!4111!sqn/!Efufs.
njof!uif!tqffe!boe!qpxfs!gbdups!pg!uif!npups!xifo!dpoofdufe!up!341!W-!61!I{!bd!tvqqmz!boe!ublft!
uif!tbnf!mpbe!dvssfou/
Solution
When connected to dc supply the developed back emf is
Eb = V – IR = 230 – 1 ¥ 20 = 210 V
When connected to ac supply from the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 10.10
V 2 = (IX)2 + (Er + IR)2
where Er is the speed emf
\ Er = V 2 - ( IX ) 2 – IR
! Qspcmfn!21/5
B!vojwfstbm!bd!pqfsbufe!npups!ibt!3!qpmf!bsnbuvsf!xjui!2111!dpoevdupst/!Uif!mpbe!dvssfou!jt!6!B!
xifo!uif!npups!tqffe!jt!4111!sqn/!Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!5!W/!Uif!tvqqmz!wpmubhf!jt!211!W!
boe!uif!joqvu!qpxfs!jt!511!X/!Efufsnjof!uif!fggfdujwf!bsnbuvsf!sfbdubodf!boe!vtfgvm!gmvy!qfs!qpmf/
Solution
P = VI cos q
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/3:
400
\ cos q = = 0.8 or q = 36.87° lag
100 ¥ 5
If Er be the rotational emf then
V - Er
=I
r + jX
Now I and Er are in the same phase and we take I as reference. Hence supply voltage
V = 100 36.87∞
100 36.87∞ - Er
\ = 5 0∞
4 + jX
or, 50 + j60 – Er = 20 + j5X
Equating the real and imaginary terms
80 – Er = 20
and 60 = 5X
Now Er = 60 V and X = 12 W
Pf ZN
\ Er =
60 A
E ¥ 60 A 60 ¥ 60 ¥ 2
or, f= r = = 1.2 mWb
PZN 2 ¥ 1000 ¥ 3000
The maximum value of useful flux is
1.2 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 2 = 1.7 mWb.
! Qspcmfn!21/6
B!qfsnbofou!nbhofu!ed!npups!ibt!op!mpbe!tqffe!pg!4111!sqn!xifo!dpoofdufe!up!211!W!ed!tvqqmz/!
Uif!bsnbuvsf!sftjtubodf!jt!4!W/!Ofhmfdujoh!puifs!mpttft!efufsnjof!uif!tqffe!pg!uif!npups!xifo!ju!jt!
dpoofdufe!up!91!W!tvqqmz!boe!efwfmpqt!b!upsrvf!pg!1/9!On/
Solution
In a permanent magnet motor,
Eb • N since f is constant
Again T • f Ia
or, T • Ia
At no-load, Ebo = 100 V
Speed No = 3000 rpm
Let Iao and Ia1 be the currents at no load and loaded condition.
! 21/41 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
To Ia Ia
\ = o or, To = 0.8 ¥ o
T1 I a1 I a1
Ebo I ao 100 ¥ I ao
Again To = = = 0.3185 Iao
wo 3000
2p ¥
60
Ia
\ To = 0.3185 Iao = 0.8 o
I a1
or, Ia1 = 2.5 A
Ebo No
\ =
Eb1 N1
Eb1 80 - 2.5 ¥ 3
or, N1 = No = 3000 ¥
Ebo 100
= 2175 rpm.
Sfwjfx!Rvftujpot
1. What are the changes made in dc series motor to operate it under ac supply?
2. How does a hysteresis motor differ from a reluctance motor?
3. Discuss the methods of compensation of armature reaction in a universal motor.
4. Describe the construction of a universal motor.
5. Explain the principle of operation of a repulsion motor. What are the uses of a repulsion
motor?
6. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a single-phase series motor.
7. Discuss the principle of operation of a single-phase synchronous motor.
8. What is reluctance torque? Draw the torque–speed characteristic of a reluctance motor.
9. What is a two-phase servomotor? Where is it used? Draw the connection diagram and explain
the principle of operation. What is the advantage of drag-cup rotor?
10. Discuss the principle of operation of an ac tachometer.
11. Describe the torque-producing phenomenon in a hysteresis motor. Why are these motors
noiseless? What are the uses of these motors?
12. What is the difference between a permanent magnet type of stepper motor and a reluctance-
type stepper motor? Describe the operation of each type of stepper motor.
13. Why are stepper motors most popular control motors?
14. Differentiate between brushless dc motor and dc motor. How is the direction of rotation of a
brushless dc motor reversed?
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/42
Nvmujqmf.Dipjdf!Rvftujpot
1. In a stepper motor, the detent torque means
(a) minimum of the static torque with phase winding excited
(b) maximum of the static torque with phase winding excited
(c) minimum of the static torque with phase winding unexcited
(d) maximum of the static torque with phase winding unexcited [GATE 2009]
2. For a given stepper motor which of the following torque has the highest numerical value?
(a) Detent torque (b) Pull-in torque
(c) Pull-out torque (d) Holding torque [GATE 2004]
3. Which of the following motors definitely has a permanent magnet rotor?
(a) DC commutator motor (b) Brushless dc motor
(c) stepper motor (d) reluctance motor [GATE 2004]
4. Match the following List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
List I List II
P. Food mixer 1. Permanent magnet dc motor
Q. Cassette tape recorder 2. Single-phase induction motor
R. Domestic water pump 3. Universal motor
S. Escalator 4. Three phase induction motor
5. DC series motor
6. Stepper motor
P Q R S
(a) 3 6 4 5
(b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 3 1 2 4
(d) 3 2 1 4 [GATE 2003]
5. A 1.8° step, 4 phase stepper motor has a total of 40 teeth on 8 poles of stator. The number of
rotor teeth for this motor will be
(a) 40 (b) 50
(c) 100 (d) 80 [GATE 2000]
[Hints: Number of rotor teeth
360∞
= = 50]
1.8∞ ¥ 4
! 21/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
6. A three phase three stack variable reluctance step motor has 20 poles on each rotor and stator
stack. The step angle of this step motor is
(a) 3° (b) 6°
(c) 9° (d) 18° [GATE 2007]
360∞
[Hints: Step angle = = 6°]
3 ¥ 20
7. For a 1.8°, 2 phase bipolar stepper motor, the stepping rate is 100 step/s. The rotational speed
of the motor in rpm is
(a) 15 (b) 30
(c) 60 (d) 90 [GATE 2004]
360∞
[Hints: Steps for 1 revolution = = 200
1.8∞
1
\ 100 steps is covered in revolution
2
1
Hence in 1 second number of revolution =
2
1
In 60 second or 1 min number of revolution = ¥ 60 = 30]
2
8. A permanent magnet dc commutator motor has a no load speed of 6000 rpm when connected
to a 120 V dc supply. The armature resistance is 2.5 W and other losses may be neglected. The
speed of the motor with supply voltage of 60 V developing a torque of 0.5 Nm is
(a) 3000 rpm (b) 2673 rpm
(c) 2836 rpm (d) 5346 rpm [GATE 2000]
[Hints: Back emf Eb • N, since f is constant
Again Torque T • Ia
At no-load, Ebo = 120 V
To Ia T Ia Ia Eb I a 120 I ao
\ = o or, o = o or, To = 0.5 o = o o =
T1 I a1 0.5 I a1 I a1 wo 6000
2p ¥
60
0.5 120
\ = or, Ia1 = 2.62 A
I a1 200 p
Ebo No
Again =
Eb1 N1
Eb1 60 - 2.62 ¥ 2.5
\ N1 = No = ¥ 6000
Ebo 120
= 2673 rpm]
Tqfdjbm!Nbdijoft 21/44
9. An ac series motor is switched on to dc supply of rated voltage. The speed of motor will be
(a) lower than that under ac operation
(b) higher than that under ac operation
(c) equal or less than that under ac operation
(d) equal to that under ac operation
10. The function of compensating winding in ac series motor is
(a) to improve the efficiency of the machine (b) to convert it into a two phase motor
(c) to provide starting torque
(d) to reduce reactance of armature winding
11. A dc series motor is switched on to ac supply
(a) the motor will not start
(b) the motor will start and run
(c) the motor will start and run but will show poor performance
(d) the motor will be damaged
12. The most common application of a three phase induction generator can be in a
(a) hydro power station (b) wind power station
(c) nuclear power station (d) steam power station
13. Induction generators deliver power at
(a) zero pf (b) lagging pf
(c) leading pf (d) unity pf
14. In a single phase series motor as the load torque increases
(a) both power factor and speed decreases
(b) power factor decreases but speed increases
(c) power factor increases but speed decreases
(d) both power factor and speed increases
15. A single phase repulsion motor with one stator winding is started from
(a) low impedance position and it has shunt type speed torque characteristics
(b) low impedance position and it has series type speed torque characteristics
(c) high impedance position and it has shunt type speed torque characteristics
(d) high impedance position and it has series type speed torque characteristics
Botxfst
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)
22
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!
Tpmvujpot
TFDUJPO!B;!ED!NBDIJOFT
A1 A 220 V, 15 kW, 1000 rpm shunt motor with armature resistance of 0.25 W, has a rated line
current of 68 A and a rated field current of 2.2 A. The change in field flux required to obtain a speed
of 1600 rpm while drawing a line current of 52.8 A and a field current of 1.8 A is
(a) 18.18% increase (b) 18.18% decrease
(c) 36.36% increase (d) 36.36% decrease [GATE 2012]
Solution
Eb1 = 220 – (68 – 2.2) ¥ 0.25 = 203.55 V
Eb2 = 220 – (52.8 – 1.8) ¥ 0.25 = 207.25 V
Eb1 f1
\ = 1
Eb2 f2 2
203.55 f1 ¥ 1000
or, =
207.25 f2 ¥ 1600
\ f2 = 0.6363 f1
\ field flux should be reduced by (100 – 63.63)% or 36.36%
Ans. (d) 36.36% decrease
A2 A 220 V, dc shunt motor is operating at a speed of 1440 rpm. The armature resistance is 1 W
and armature current is 10 A. If the excitation of the machine is reduced to 10%, the extra resistance
to be put in the armature circuit to maintain the same speed and torque will be
(a) 1.79 W (b) 2.1 W (c) 3.1 W (d) 18.9 W [GATE 2011]
! 22/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
As speed is same, I2
If Ia
Eb1 1 f1 f1
= = Ra = 1 W
2 f2 f2
Eb2 220 V
220 - 10 ¥ 1 f
\ = 1
Eb2 0.9 f1
Gjh/!B!3/2! Npups! djsdvju! pg!
or, Eb2 = 210 ¥ 0.9 = 189 V Qspc/!B3
1
f1 I a1 f1 ¥ 10
= or =1
2 f2 I a2 0.9 f1 I a2
10 100
\ Ia2 = = A
0.9 9
100
\ 220 – (1 + R) = 189
9
or R = 1.79 W
Ans. (a) 1.79 W
A3 A separately excited dc motor runs at 1500 rpm under no-load with 200 V applied to the ar-
mature. The field voltage is maintained at its rated value. The speed of the motor when it delivers a
torque of 5 Nm is 1400 rpm as shown in Fig. A3.1. The rotational losses and armature reaction are
neglected. [GATE 2010]
(i) The armature resistance of the motor is Speed (rpm)
Solution
(i) Eb1 = 200 = K N1 = K ¥ 1500 (E f constant)
Pf Z 200
\ K= =
60 A 1500
Pf ZI a Pf Z 60 200 60
T= = Ia = ¥ Ia = 5
2p A 60 A 2p 1500 2p
\ Ia = 3.925 A
200
Eb2 = 200 – 3.925 R = KN2 = ¥ 1400
1500
200
200 - ¥ 1400
\ R= 1500 = 3.397 W
3.925
/ 3.4 W
Ans. (b) 3.4 W
60 200 60
(ii) T = 2.5 = K Ia¢ = ¥ Ia¢
2p 1500 2p
\ I¢a = 1.9625 A
200
Eb¢ = KN ¢ = ¥ 1400 = V – Ia¢ Ra
1500
2800
\ = V – 1.9625 ¥ 3.4
15
\ V = 193.3 V
Ans. (b) 193.3 V
A4 A 240 V, dc shunt motor draws 15 A while supplying the rated load at a speed of 80 rad/s.
The armature resistance is 0.5 W and the field winding resistance is 80 W.
(i) The net voltage across the armature resistance at the time of plugging will be
(a) 6 V (b) 234 V (c) 240 V (d) 474 V
(ii) The external resistance to be added in the armature circuit to limit the armature current to
125% of its rated value is
(a) 31.1 W (b) 31.9 W (c) 15.1 W (d) 15.9 W [GATE 2008]
Solution
240
(i) Ish = A=3A
80
I2 = 15 A
\ Ia = 15 – 3 A = 12 A
Hence, Eb = V – Ia ra = 240 – 12 ¥ 0.5 = 234 V
! 22/5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
In plugging, the connections to the armature are reversed suddenly. The effective voltage
across the armature initially is Eb + V.
\ the net voltage across the armature resistance at the time of plugging is (240 + 234) V or
474 V
Ans. (d) 474 V
(ii) I a¢ = 1.25 ¥ 12 A = 15 A
During plugging,
–Eb = V – I a¢ (R + 0.5)
or, – 234 = 240 – 15 (R + 0.5)
\ R = 31.1 W
Ans. (a) 31.1 W
A6 A 50 kW dc shunt motor is loaded to draw rated armature current at any given speed. When
driven
(i) at half the rated speed by armature voltage control, and
(ii) at 1.5 times the rated speed by field control, the respective output powers delivered by the
motor are approximately.
(a) 25 kW in (i) and 75 kW in (ii)
(b) 25 kW in (i) and 50 kW in (ii)
(c) 50 kW in (i) and 75 kW in (ii)
(d) 50 kW in (i) and 50 kW in (ii) [GATE 2005]
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/6
Solution
(i) Armature current Ia is constant
Now output power
P = Eb Ia (neglecting mechanical losses)
\ P • Eb
For shunt motor,
Eb • N (in armature voltage control method f is constant)
\ P •N
Hence, output power at half speed will be half of rated power, i.e. 25 kW.
(ii) In field control method, the voltage across the armature is constant.
\ Eb is constant and Ia is also constant (E given)
Hence, though the speed becomes 1.5 times the rated speed, the flux will be decreased by 1.5
times making Eb constant.
\ output power will remain same, i.e. 50 kW
Ans. (b) 25 kW in (i) and 50 kW in (ii)
A7 Match the following List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists.
List I List II
P. Armature emf (E) 1. Flux (f), speed (w) and armature current (Ia)
Q. Developed torque (T) 2. f and w
R. Developed power (P) 3. f and Ia
4. Ia and w
5. Ia only
P Q R
(a) 3 3 1
(b) 2 5 4
(c) 3 5 4
(d) 2 3 1 [GATE 2005]
Solution
Pf ZN
Armature emf E=
60 A
Pf Z w
= = Kfw where K is constant
pA
\ E • fw
! 22/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A8 The armature resistance of a permanent magnet dc motor is 0.8 W. At no load, the motor draws
1.5 A from a supply voltage of 25 V and runs at 1500 rpm. The efficiency of the motor while it is
operating on load at 1500 rpm drawing a current of 3.5 A from the same source will be
(a) 48% (b) 57.1%
(c) 59.2% (d) 88.8% [GATE 2004]
Solution
ra = 0.8 W
At no load, the output is zero
\ Loss = Input = 1.5 ¥ 25 W
\ constant loss = 1.5 ¥ 25 – (1.5)2 ¥ 0.8 = 35.7 W
When Ia = 3.5 A
Loss = (3.5)2 ¥ 0.8 + 35.7 = 45.5 W
Output 3.5 ¥ 25 - 45.5
\ h= = ¥ 100% = 48%
Input 3.5 ¥ 25
Ans. (a) 48%
A9 An 8-pole, dc generator has a simplex wave wound armature containing 32 coils of 6 turns
each. Its flux per pole is 0.06 Wb. The machine is running at 250 rpm. The induced armature volt-
age is
(a) 96 V (b) 192 V (c) 384 V (d) 768 V [GATE 2004]
Solution
P =8
Z = 2 ¥ total number of turns = 2 ¥ 32 ¥ 6
f = 0.06 Wb
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/8
N = 250 rpm
Pf ZN
E=
60 A
For simplex wave wound,
A =2
8 ¥ 0.06 ¥ 2 ¥ 32 ¥ 6 ¥ 250
\ E= = 384 V
60 ¥ 2
A10 To conduct load test on a dc shunt motor, it is coupled to a generator which is identical to
the motor. The field of the generator is also connected to the same supply source as the motor. The
armature of the generator is connected to a load resistance. The armature resistance is 0.02 p.u.
Armature reaction and mechanical losses can be neglected. With rated voltage across the motor, the
load resistance across the generator is adjusted to obtain rated armature current in both motor and
generator. The p.u. value of this load resistance is
(a) 1 (b) 0.98 (c) 0.96 (d) 0.94 [GATE 2003]
Solution
Eb = V – Ia ra = 1 – 1 ¥ 0.02 = 0.98 p.u.
Eg = Eb = 0.98 = V + Ia ra = V + 1 ¥ 0.02
\ V = 0.98 – 0.02 = 0.96 p.u.
V 0.96
\ load resistance R= = = 0.96 p.u.
Ia 1
Ans. (c) 0.96
A11 A dc series motor driving an electric train faces a constant power load. It is running at rated
speed and rated voltage. If the speed has to be brought down to 0.25 p.u., the supply voltage has to
be approximately brought down to
(a) 0.75 p.u. (b) 0.5 p.u. (c) 0.25 p.u. (d) 0.125 p.u. [GATE 2003]
Solution
In series motor
T • f Ia and f • Ia
\ T • Ia2
Power
(Eb Ia) = Tw
1
If speed decreases to 0.25 p.u, w decreases by th and to maintain constant power load, T should
4
be increased by 4 times.
! 22/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A12 A 200 V, 2000 rpm, 10 A, separately excited dc motor has an armature resistance of 2 W.
Rated dc voltage is applied to both the armature and field winding of the motor. If the armature
draws 5 A from the source, the torque developed by the motor is
(a) 4.3 Nm (b) 4.77 Nm (c) 0.45 Nm (d) 0.5 Nm [GATE 2002]
Solution
V = 200 V
N = 2000 rpm
Ia = 10 A
ra =2W
Eb1 = 200 – 10 ¥ 2 = 180 V
Eb I a 180 ¥ 10 180 ¥ 10 ¥ 60
Torque T1 = = Nm = Nm
w 2000 2p ¥ 2000
2p ¥
60
Eb2 = 200 – 5 ¥ 2 = 190 V
Eb1 1
Now =
Eb2 2
Eb2 190
\ N2 = N1 ¥ = 2000 ¥ rpm
Eb1 180
Eb2 I a2 190 ¥ 5 ¥ 60
\ T2 = = = 4.3 Nm
w2 190
2p ¥ 2000 ¥
180
Ans. (a) 4.3 Nm
A13 A 240 V dc series motor takes 40 A when giving its rated output at 1500 rpm. Its resistance
is 0.3 W. The value of resistance which must be added to obtain rated torque at 1000 rpm is
(a) 6 W (b) 5.7 W (c) 2.2 W (d) 1.9 W [GATE 2000]
Solution
V = 240 V
Ia = 40 A
N1 = 1500 rpm
ra + rse = 0.3 W
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/:
Eb1 I a1 N1
=
Eb2 I a2 N 2
A14 A separately excited dc motor with armature resistance of 0.5 W draws an armature current
of 20 A at 1500 rpm when connected to a 250 V supply. The torque developed when the machine
draws an armature current of 10 A for the same field current is
(a) 16.5 Nm (b) 15.28 Nm (c) 17 Nm (d) 30.57 Nm
Solution
V = 250 V
I a1 = 20 A
ra = 0.5 W
N1 = 1500 rpm
(250 - 20 ¥ 0.5) ¥ 20
Eb I a
Torque T1 = = Nm
w 1500
2p ¥
60
= 30.57 Nm
! 22/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A15 An 8-pole dc generator has a lap-wound armature winding containing 60 slots with 15 con-
ductors in each slot. If the flux per pole is 0.01 Wb and it runs with a speed of 1800 rpm, the value
of the generated voltage is
(a) 1080 V (b) 18 V (c) 270 V (d) 4.5 V
Solution
Pf ZN
E=
60 A
Here, P = 8, f = 0.01 Wb, Z = 60 ¥ 15 = 900,
N = 1800 rpm, A = 8 (\ lap wound)
8 ¥ 0.01 ¥ 900 ¥ 1800
\ E= V = 270 V
60 ¥ 8
Ans. (c) 270 V
A16 An 80 kW, 1500 rpm generator operating at rated load has a terminal voltage of 240 V. If the
voltage regulation is 3%, the no-load voltage will be
(a) 247.2 V (b) 232.8 V (c) 247.42 V (d) 240 V
Solution
no load - rated
Voltage regulation =
rated
- 240
\ 0.03 = no load
240
or, Vno load = 240 ¥ 0.03 + 240 = 247.2 V
A17 A 4-pole, wave-wound dc shunt generator supplies 80 lamps, each of 100 W at 240 V. If the
armature and field resistances are 0.3 W and 50 W respectively, the current in each armature con-
ductor is
(a) 16.68 A (b) 38.16 A (c) 33.36 A (d) 19.08 A
Solution
P =4
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/22
A =2
V = 240 V
100
Current drawn by each lamp is A or 0.417 A
240
\ total load current
IL = 0.417 ¥ 80 = 33.36 A
240
Field current Ish = A = 4.8 A
50
\ armature current Ia = IL + Ish = 38.16 A
As there are two parallel paths in a wave-wound machine, the current in each armature conductor
38.16
is A or 19.08 A
2
Ans. (d) 19.08 A
A18 A separately excited dc generator running at a speed of 1200 rpm delivers 150 A at 400 V
to a constant resistive load. The armature resistance is 0.12 W. If the current is reduced to 100 A,
neglecting armature reaction, the generator speed is
(a) 667 rpm (b) 1183 rpm (c) 1200 rpm (d) 800 rpm
Solution
N1 = 1200 rpm, Ia1 = IL1 = 150 A, V = 400 V, ra = 0.12
400
RL = W = 2.67 W
150
E1 = 400 + Ia ra = 400 + 150 (0.12) = 418 V
Now IL2 = Ia2 = 100 A; the terminal voltage Vt = 100 ¥ 2.67 = 267 V
\ E2 = 100 ¥ 0.12 = 279 V
\ 1
= 1
2 2
279
or, N2 = 2
N1 = ¥ 1200 = 800.95 rpm
1 418
Ans. (d) 800 rpm
A19 A shunt generator delivers 100 kW at 240 V at a speed of 750 rpm. The armature and field
resistances are 0.05 W and 50 W respectively. If the machine is operated as a motor and drawing
! 22/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A20 The armature, shunt and series winding resistances of a 150 A, 240 V compound generator
are 0.05 W, 50 W and 0.03 W respectively. The induced emfs of the generator when connected as
long shunt and short shunt are respectively
(a) 252.24 V, 252.38 V (b) 252.38 V, 252.24 V
(c) 245.3 V, 245 V (d) 263.2 V, 265 V
Solution
Ia 150A
When connected as long shunt (Fig. A20.1),
Ish
IL = 150 A
V = 240 V V
240
Ish = A = 4.8 A
50
Ia = IL + Ish = 150 + 4.8 = 154.8 A
\ E = V + Ia (ra + rse) = 240 + 154.8 (0.05 + 0.03) Gjh/!B31/2! Mpoh!tivou!djsdvju
= 252.384 V
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/24
A21 A dc shunt generator delivers 200 A at a terminal voltage of 240 V. If the armature and field
resistances are 0.05 W and 50 W respectively and stray losses are 1000 W, the efficiency of the ma-
chine is
(a) 97.96% (b) 93.66% (c) 91.87% (d) 93.94%
Solution
IL = 200 A
240
Ish = W = 4.8 A
50
\ Ia = 204.8 A
A22 A 25 kW, 125 V separately excited dc machine runs at a constant speed of 3000 rpm. The
field current is maintained constant such that the open-circuit armature voltage is 125 V. The arma-
ture resistance is 0.02 W. If the terminal voltage is equal to 128 V, which of the following is true?
(a) The machine operates as a motor and the electromagnetic torque is equal to 59.7 Nm.
(b) The machine operates as a motor and the electromagnetic torque is equal to 61.1 Nm.
(c) The machine operates as a generator and the electromagnetic torque is equal to 50.3 Nm.
(d) The machine operates as a generator and the electromagnetic torque is equal to 24.8 Nm.
! 22/25 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Open-circuit voltage Eo = 125 V
Terminal voltage V = 128 V
As V > Eo
the machine will operate as a motor.
128 - 125
Ia = = 150 A
0.02
Now Eb = 125 V
Eb I a 125 ¥ 150
\ torque = = Nm = 59.7 Nm
w 3000
2p ¥
60
A23 In the previous problem, if the terminal voltage is 122 V, which of the following is true?
(a) The machine operates as a motor and the electromagnetic torque is 597.13 Nm.
(b) The machine operates as a generator and the electromagnetic torque is 597.13 Nm.
(a) The machine operates as a motor and the electromagnetic torque is 60.7 Nm.
(a) The machine operates as a generator and the electromagnetic torque is 60.7 Nm.
Solution
As Eo > V,
the machine operates as a generator.
125 - 122
Ia = A = 150 A
0.02
Ea I a 125 ¥ 150
T= = Nm = 597.13 Nm
w 3000
2p ¥
60
Ans. (b)
A24 Two shunt generators rated 40 kW, 400 V and 100 kW, 400 V operate in parallel and deliver
a total load current of 300 A. The regulation of generators are 5% and 3%. The currents delivered
by the generators are
(a) 150 A, 150 A (b) 127.8 A, 172.2 A
(c) 62.4 A, 237.6 A (d) 58 A, 242 A
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/26
Solution
Load current of the first generator
40 ¥ 103
ILfl = = 100 A
400
Voltage regulation = 0.05
\ full-load voltage drop = 400 ¥ 0.05 = 20 V
If the load current contributed by the first generator is I1 when both the generators are operating
in parallel then the voltage of the first generator at load current I1
Full load voltage drop 20
V1 = 400 – I1 = 400 – I1
Full load current 100
Similarly, for the second generator,
100 ¥ 103
I Lfl = = 250 A
400
Voltage regulation = 0.03
\ full-load voltage drop = 400 ¥ 0.03 = 12 V
If current contributed is I2 then voltage
12
V2 = 400 – I2
250
For parallel operation,
V1 = V2
20 12
\ 400 – I1 = 400 – I2
100 250
Again, I1 + I2 = 300 A
Solving the above two equations,
I1 = 58 A and I2 = 242 A
Ans. (d) 58 A, 242 A
A25 A 80 kW, 240 V, long shunt compound generator (Fig. A25.1) has armature, shunt field and
series field resistances of 0.06 W, 50 W and 0.04 W respectively. The rotational loss is 3 kW. It sup-
plies a load at its maximum efficiency and rated voltage. The maximum efficiency of the generator
is
(a) 93.2% (b) 95.6% (c) 85.2% (d) 88.3%
Solution
V = 240 V, ra = 0.06 W, rsh = 50 W, rse = 0.04 W
240
Ish = A = 4.8 A
50
! 22/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A26 Two generators with ratings of 300 kW and 600 kW are operated in parallel at a rated voltage
of 220 V for each. The no-load voltage for both the generators is 250 V. If the terminal voltage is
230 V then output of the two generators will be
(a) 200 kW, 400 kW (b) 450 kW, 450 kW
(c) 290 kW, 610 kW (d) 209 kW, 418 kW
Solution
For Generator 1,
Pout = 300 kW
E = 250 V
Vrated = 220 V
300 ¥ 103
\ IL1 = A
220
\ E = V + Ia1 ra
E -V
or, ra = (Neglecting shunt field current)
IL
A27 A 6-pole, 50 kW, dc machine operating at 1180 rpm has a generated emf of 136.8 V. If the
speed is reduced to 75% of its initial value and the flux per pole is doubled then the induced emf is
(a) 205.2 V (b) 102.6 V (c) 364.8 V (d) 136.8 V
Solution
P =6
N1 = 1180 rpm
E1 = 136.8 V
Pf ZN
E=
60 A
f1
\ 1
= 1
2 f2 2
A28 An 8-pole, 240 V dc shunt generator is supplying full-load current when it is running at
1200 rpm. The armature and field resistances are 0.03 W and 200 W respectively. The machine is lap
wound and it has 800 conductors. If the voltage across the armature resistance is 6.7 V, the value of
load current and flux per pole are
(a) 230.5 A, 20 mWb (b) 235 A, 10 mWb
(c) 224.5 A, 15.5 mWb (d) 217.5 A, 12.5 mWb
! 22/29 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
P =8
V = 240 V
N = 1200 rpm
ra = 0.03 W
rsh = 200 W
A =P
Z = 800
Ia ra = 6.7 V
6.7
\ Ia = A = 223.33 A
0.03
240
Ish = = 1.2 A
200
\ I2 = Ia + Ish = 224.53 A
E = V + Ia ra = 240 + 223.33 ¥ 0.03 = 246.7 V
Pf ZN 60 AE 60 ¥ 8 ¥ 246.7
As E = , hence f = = Wb = 0.0154 Wb
60 A PZN 8 ¥ 800 ¥ 1200
Ans. (c) 224.5 A, 15.4 mWb
A29 A 220 V dc generator supplies 8 kW at a terminal voltage of 220 V. The armature resistance
is 0.4 W and when the flux per pole increases by 20% the machine operates as a motor with the same
terminal voltage and armature current. The ratio of generator speed to the motor speed is
(a) 1.175 (b) 1.37 (c) 1.05 (d) 0.913
Solution
For generator,
8 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 36.36 A
220
Eg = V + Ia ra = 220 + 36.36 ¥ 0.4 = 234.54 V
For motor,
Em = V – Ia ra = 220 – 36.36 ¥ 0.4 = 205.456 V
Now, fm = 1.2 fg
Eg fg N g
\ =
Em fm N m
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/2:
Ng Eg fm 234.54
or, = ¥ = ¥ 1.2
Nm Em f g 205.456
= 1.37
Ans. (b) 1.37
A30 Two generators are operating in parallel and deliver a total load current of 60 A. The termi-
nal voltage of the first generator is 280 V on no load and 240 V while supplying 40 A current. The
second generator has a voltage of 300 V when on no load and the terminal voltage is 240 V when it
supplies 50 A current. The output voltage of each generator is
(a) 240 V (b) 271.7 V (c) 256.4 V (d) 238.2 V
Solution
IL = I1 + I2 = 60 A fi I2 = 60 – I1
Vnl1 = 280 V
VL1 = 240 V
IL1 = 40 A
Vnl - VL1 280 - 240
\ ra1 = 1 = =1W
I L1 240
300 - 240
Similarly, ra2 = = 1.2 W
50
If V be the output voltage then
V = Vnl1 – I1 ra1 = Vnl2 – (60 – I1) ra2
or, V = 280 – I1 and V = 300 – (60 – I2) ¥ 1.2
\ I1 = 23.63 A and I2 = 36.37 A
\ V = 280 – 23.63 = 256.37 V
Ans. (c) 256.4 V
A31 In the previous problem, the output power generated by the first and second generators are
respectively
(a) 9.3 kW, 9.3 kW (b) 9.6 kW, 12 kW
(c) 5.6 kW, 8.7 kW (d) 6 kW, 9.3 kW
Solution
V = 256.37 V
I1 = 23.63 A
\ output power of the first generator is 256.37 ¥ 23.63 W or 6 kW
I2 = 36.37 A
! 22/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A32 A 240 V, 15 kW shunt generator is driven by a 25 HP motor to generate the rated output.
The armature circuit resistance is 0.3 W and the field resistance is 100 W. The armature current for
maximum efficiency is
(a) 64.9 A (b) 62.5 A (c) 100 A (d) 84.14 A
Solution
V 240
Shunt field current Ish = = A = 2.4 A
rsh 100
15 ¥ 103
Line current IL = A = 62.5 A
240
\ armature current Ia = IL + Ish = 64.9 A
Generated emf E = 240 + 64.9 ¥ 0.3 = 259.47 V
Power developed in the armature
Pa = E Ia = 259.47 ¥ 64.9 = 16839.6 W
Rotational loss = Input power – Pa = 25 ¥ 735.5 – 16839.6 = 1547.9 W
\ Constant loss = Rotational loss + Shunt field copper loss
= 1547.9 + 576 = 2123.9
If Ia be the armature current under maximum efficiency condition then
I 2a ra = 2123.9
2123.9
or Ia = = 84.14 A
0.3
Ans. (d) 84.14 A
A33 The relation between the induced emf and series field current in the linear region of a series
generator is given as Ea = 0.5 Is. The armature and series field winding resistances are 0.04 W and
0.06 W respectively. The generator is used as a booster between a 300 V station bus bar and a feeder
of 0.5 W resistance. If the current in the feeder is 200 A, the voltage between the far end of the
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/32
A34 A 2-pole wave-wound double-layer dc machine has 24 slots with 18 turns per coil. The ef-
fective length of the machine is 20 cm and the radius of the armature is 10 cm. The magnetic poles
cover 80% of the armature periphery. The average flux density per pole is 1 T and the armature
angular velocity is 183.2 rad/s. The induced emf per coil is
(a) 105 V (b) 52.5 V (c) 230.4 V (d) 630 V
Solution
For double-layer winding, the number of coils is equal to the number of slots.
\ total number of conductors
Z = 2 ¥ 18 ¥ 24 = 864
2p rl 2p ¥ 0.1 ¥ 0.2
Actual pole area = = = 0.0628 sqm
P 2
Effective pole area = 0.8 ¥ 0.0628 = 0.05 sqm
Flux per pole = 1 ¥ 0.05 = 0.05 Wb
Pf ZN 2 ¥ 0.05 ¥ 864 ¥ 183.2 ¥ 60
Induced emf E = = = 1260 V
60 A 2p ¥ 60 ¥ 2
Total number of coils
Since there are two parallel paths, the number of coils in each path =
2
24
= = 12
2
1260
\ emf induced in each coil is V = 105 V
12
Ans. (a) 105 V
! 22/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A35 An 80 kW, 240 V shunt generator with armature and field resistance of 0.03 W and 60 W
respectively is operated at rated voltage. If the generator has a total mechanical and core loss of
2 kW, the output of the prime mover to drive the generator at full load is
(a) 80.75 kW (b) 86.37 kW (c) 85 kW (d) 93.7 kW
Solution
V = 240 V
240
Ish = A=4A
60
80 ¥ 103
IL = A = 333.33 A
240
Ia = Ish + IL = 337.33 A
A36 What is the increase in torque expressed as percentage of initial torque, if the current drawn
by a series motor is increased form 15 A to 20 A? Neglect saturation.
(a) 78% (b) 33.33% (c) 15.47% (d) 5%
Solution
For series motor,
T • I 2a
I a21 Ê 15 ˆ
2
\ 1
= =Á ˜
2 I a22 Ë 20 ¯
2
Ê 20 ˆ
or T2 = Á ˜ T1 = 1.78 T1
Ë 15 ¯
-
\ increase in torque = 2 1
¥ 100%
1
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/34
1.78 - 1
= ¥ 100%
1
= 78%
Ans. (a) 78%
A37 The armature resistance of a permanent magnet dc motor is 3 W and the applied voltage is
10 V. If the motor draws an armature current of 15 mA at no-load speed of 12,000 rpm the motor
torque constant in V/(rad/s) and the no-load rotational losses in mW are respectively.
(a) 0.1321 ¥ 10–3, 149.3 (b) 7.926 ¥ 10–3, 1.5
(c) 0.1321 ¥ 10–3, 1.5 (d) 7.926 ¥ 10–3, 149.3
Solution
Back emf at no load
Eb = V – Ia ra = 10 – 15 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 3 = 9.955 V
Eb 9.955
\ Torque constant = = = 7.926 ¥ 10–3 V/(rad/s)
w 2p ¥ 12 , 000
60
No-load rotational losses = Eb Ia
= 9.955 ¥ 15 ¥ 10–3 = 149.325 mW
–3
Ans. (d) 7.926 ¥ 10 , 149.3
A38 A 230 V, dc shunt motor draws an armature resistance of 0.3 W and armature current of 80 A
while driving constant load torque. An external resistance of 1.5 W is inserted in series with the ar-
mature while the shunt field current is unchanged. The fractional change in motor speed neglecting
the armature reaction and rotational losses is
(a) 0.35 (b) 0.51 (c) 0.27 (d) 0.58
Solution
V = 230 V
Ia1 = 80 A
ra = 0.3 W
\ Eb1 = 230 – 80 ¥ 0.3 = 206 V
For constant load, torque Ia will remain same
\ Eb2 = 230 – 80 (0.3 + 1.5) = 86 V
If N2 be the speed then
Eb2 86
= 2
=
Eb1 1 206
! 22/35 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
86
1-
1-
1
\ change in motor speed = 2
= 206 = 0.58
1 1
A39 A 10 HP, 220 V series motor has armature resistance of 0.5 W, field resistance of 0.25 W and
rotational losses of 1040 W. The armature current when the motor delivers rated load is
(a) 41.88 A (b) 33.81 A (c) 50 A (d) 38.63 A
Solution
Output power Po = 10 ¥ 735.5 = 7355 W
Power developed = 7355 + 1040 = 8395 W
8395
\ Eb Ia = 8395 or, Eb = …(i)
Ia
Back emf Eb = V – Ia (ra + rse)
= 220 – Ia (0.5 + 0.25)
= 220 – 0.75 Ia …(ii)
8395
\ = 220 – 0.75 Ia
Ia
or, 0.75 Ia2 – 220 Ia + 8395 = 0
220 ± (220)2 - 4 ¥ 0.75 ¥ 8395
or, Ia =
2
220 ± 152.36
= = 33.82 A or 186.2 A
2
Ans. (b) 33.8 A
A40 A 250 V, dc shunt motor runs at a speed of 100 rpm under no-load condition. Under no load
condition if an external resistance of 3 W is connected in series with the shunt field, the speed is
observed to be 1100 rpm, the terminal voltage remaining same. The value of series resistance is
(a) 50.3 W (b) 43.2 W (c) 30 W (d) 45.7 W
Solution
V = 250 V
N1 = 1000 rpm
Under no load,
V = Eb
Now Eb • fN
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/36
Eb • Ish N
\ 250 = Eb1 = KIsh1 ¥ 1000
When 3 W is inserted,
250 = Eb2 = KIsh2 ¥ 1100
\ Ish1 ¥ 1000 = Ish2 ¥ 1100
10
or, Ish2 = Ish,
11
As the terminal voltages are same,
Ish1 Rsh = Ish2 (3 + Rsh)
10
or, Ish1 Rsh = Ish (3 + Rsh)
11 1
3 11
or, +1 =
sh 10
3
or, = 0.1
sh
or, Rsh = 30 W
Ans. (c) 30 W
A41 The applied armature voltage to a dc motor is 220 V. At 1500 rpm, it draws full load arma-
ture current of 200 A. If the armature resistance is 0.3 W and rotational loss is 1500 W, the output
torque is
(a) 3.67 Nm (b) 219.75 Nm (c) 1380 Nm (d) 270.7 Nm
Solution
V = 220 V
N = 1500 rpm
Ia = 200 A
ra = 0.2 W
Pr = 1500 W
Eb = V – Ia ra = 220 – 200 ¥ 0.2 = 220 – 40
= 180 V
Power developed Pd = Eb Ia = 180 ¥ 200
= 36,000 W
Power output Po = 36,000 – 1500 = 34500 W
Po 34500
\ Output torque = = Nm = 219.75 Nm
w 2p ¥ 1500
60
Ans. (b) 219.75 Nm
! 22/37 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A42 The armature resistance of a permanent magnet dc motor is 1.5 W. At no load, the speed is
1800 rpm and it draws a current of 1.5 A from 50 V supply. Assuming the rotational loss to be con-
stant, the power output of the motor when it operates at 1500 rpm from a 60 V source is
(a) 535.7 W (b) 232.5 W (c) 464.34 W (d) 375.45 W
Solution
ra = 1.5 W
NNL = 1800 rpm
IaNL = 1.5 A
VNL = 50 V
EbNL = 50 – 1.5 ¥ 1.5 = 47.75 V
Under no-load condition, power developed by the armature is equal to the rotational loss
\ Pr = 47.75 ¥ 1.5 = 71.625 W
Now N = 1500 rpm
V = 60 V
For a permanent magnet dc motor,
Eb • N
EbNL N NL 1800
\ = =
Eb N 1500
47.75 18
or, =
Eb 15
or, Eb = 39.79 V
V - Eb 60 - 39.79
Armature current Ia = =
ra 1.5
= 13.47 A
\ power developed Pd = Eb Ia = 39.79 ¥ 13.47 = 535.97 W
\ power output Po = Pd – Pr = 535.97 – 71.625 = 464.34 W
Ans. (c) 464.34 W
A43 A 230 V, dc series motor draws 100 A at a speed of 1000 rpm. It has armature and series field
resistances of 0.15 W and 0.1 W respectively. Due to saturation, the flux at an armature current of
50 A is 50% of that at armature current of 100 A. The motor speed when the armature voltage is
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/38
A44 The total voltage in the armature circuit at the time of plugging is
(a) 28 V (b) 372 V (c) 400 V (d) 772 V
Solution
V = 400 V
I2 = 30 A
V 400
Ish = = A=2A
rsh 200
ra = 1 W
Eb = V – Ia ra = 400 – (IL – Ish) ¥ 1
= 400 – (30 – 2) = 372 V
Total voltage in the armature circuit at the time of plugging is = V + Eb = 400 + 372 = 772 V
Ans. (d) 772 V
! 22/39 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
A45 The external resistance to be inserted in series with the armature circuit to limit the armature
current of 150% of its rated value when the motor is plugged is
(a) 7.85 (b) 16.15 (c) 12.3 W (d) 17.38 W
Solution
Ia = IL – Ish = 30 – 2 = 28 A
Iamax = 1.5 ¥ 28 = 42 A
50 5
or K= 2
=
(800) 64000
ra = 1.5 W
\ Eb1 = V1 – Ia1 ra = 240 – 50 ¥ 1.5 = 165 V
Now N2 = 1000 rpm
A48 A 240 V, dc series motor operates at full rated load at 800 rpm and draws a current of 220 A.
The armature and field resistances are 0.15 W and 0.05 respectively. If the line current drops to
120 A, the new developed torque is
(a) 280.9 Nm (b) 153.2 Nm (c) 118.3 Nm (d) 227.6 Nm
Solution
V = 240 V
Ia1 = 220 A
N1 = 800 rpm
ra = 0.15 W
rse = 0.05 W
Eb1 = V – Ia1 (ra + rse) = 240 – 220 (0.15 + 0.05)
= 196 V
! 22/41 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
43120 43120
Developed torque T1 = = = 514.97 Nm
w1 2p ¥ 800
60
Now Ia2 = 120 A
In a series motor,
T • I a2
2
Ê Ia ˆ
\ 1
=Á 1˜
2 Ë I a2 ¯
2
Ê 120 ˆ
or, T2 = Á ¥ 514.97 = 153.21 Nm
Ë 220 ˜¯
Ans. (b) 153.2 Nm
A49 A 400 V, dc shunt motor drives a load whose torque varies as the cube of the speed. The
armature resistance is 0.4 W and the motor draws 50 A at a certain speed. The additional resistance
required to be connected in series with the armature to reduce the speed to 60% of the original
speed is
(a) 15.3 W (b) 28 W (c) 40.7 W (d) 17 W
Solution
T • N3
ra = 0.4 W
IL1 = 50 A
As Ish is very small in shunt motors, Ia / IL and hence Ia1 = 50 A
N2 = 0.6 N1
In a shunt motor,
T • Ia
3
I a1 50 N13 Ê N1 ˆ 1
\ 1
= = = 3 =Á ˜ =
2 I a2 I a2 N 2 Ë 0.6 N1 ¯ 0.216
Eb1 1
=
Eb2 2
0.6
\ E b2 = 1
¥ Eb1 = 1
¥ 420
2 1
A50 A 15 kW, 240 V shunt generator is delivering full load rated voltage at 1000 rpm. The arma-
ture and field resistance is 0.3 W and 300 W respectively. If the machine now runs as a motor taking
12 kW at 240 V, the speed of the motor is
(a) 1200 rpm (b) 870 rpm (c) 850 rpm (d) 900 rpm
Solution
Generator
15 ¥ 103
IL = A = 62.5 A
240
N1 = 1000 rpm
ra = 0.3 W
rsh = 300 W
240
Ish = A = 0.8 A
300
\ Ia = IL + Ish = 63.3 A
Eg = V + Ia ra = 240 + 63.3 ¥ 0.3 = 259 V
Motor
12 ¥ 103
IL = A = 50 A
240
Ia = IL – Ish = 50 – 0.8 = 49.2 A
Eb = V – Ia ra = 240 – 49.2 ¥ 0.3 = 225.24
Eb Eb 225.24
\ = 2
or N2 = N1 = 1000 ¥ = 870 rpm
Eg 1 Eg 259
Ans. (b) 870 rpm
A51 A 230 V, dc shunt motor running at 800 rpm draws 20 A current at rated voltage. The arma-
ture and field resistances are 0.2 W and 150 W respectively. An additional resistance is connected in
! 22/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
series with the armature circuit to reduce the speed to 700 rpm. If the load torque is independent of
speed, the value of the external resistance is
(a) 3 W (b) 2.7 W (c) 1.3 W (d) 1.53 W
Solution
V = 230 V
N1 = 800 A
IL1 = 20 A
230
Ish = A = 1.53 A
150
Ia1 = IL1 – Ish = 18.47 A
As the load torque is independent of speed, the torque remains constant at both speeds.
T • f1 Ia1 • f2 Ia2
As f is constant,
Ia1 = Ia2 = 18.47
Eb1 = 230 – 18.47 ¥ 0.2 = 226.306
Eb2 = 230 – 18.47 (0.2 + R) = 226.306 – 18.47 R
700
\ Eb2 = Eb1 ¥ 2
= 226.306 ¥ = 198 V
1 800
\ 226.306 – 18.47 R = 198
or, R = 1.53 W
Ans. (d) 1.53 W
A52 A dc shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.8 W. Under no-load condition, it draws an
armature current of 1.5 A from 240 V supply and runs at 1500 rpm. A load is applied to the motor
shaft which causes armature current to rise to 50 A and the speed falls to 1400 rpm. The percentage
reduction in the flux per pole due to armature reduction is
(a) 10.2% (b) 3.5% (c) 11.3% (d) 4.5%
Solution
V = 240 V
ra = 0.8 W
Ia1 = 1.5 A
N1 = 1500 rpm
Eb1 = 240 – 1.5 ¥ 0.8 = 238.8 V
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/44
Ia2 = 50 A
N2 = 1400 rpm
Eb2 = 240 – 50 ¥ 0.8 = 200 V
Eb1 f1 1
=
Eb2 f2 2
238.8 f1 1500
or, = ¥
200 f2 1400
f1
or, = 1.1144
f2
f1 - f2 1.1144 f2 - f2
\ Reduction in flux = = = 0.102 = 10.2%
f1 1.1144 f2
Ans. (a) 10.2%
A53 A 220 V shunt motor draws an armature current of 30 A and the armature resistance is
0.3 W. If the developed torque is constant, by how much should the main flux be reduced to raise
the speed by 60%?
(a) 40% (b) 60% (c) 39% (d) 52.5%
Solution
V = 220 V
Ia1 = 30 A
ra = 0.3 W
Torque T • f Ia
T1 = K f1 Ia1
T2 = K f2 Ia2
N2 = 1.6 N1
As T1 = T2
f1 Ia1 = f2 Ia2
f1 Ia Ia
or, = 2 = 2
f2 I a1 30
220 - 0.3 I a2 30
= ¥ 1.6
211 I a2
or, 220 Ia2 – 0.3 I a22 = 10128
or, 0.3 Ia2 – 220 Ia2 + 10128 = 0
A54 A 240 V, dc shunt motor takes 8 A current on no load while running at a speed of 1200 rpm.
The armature and field resistances are 0.5 W and 100 W respectively. The motor is now driving a
load drawing 50 A from the supply. If the armature reaction weakens the field by 3%. What would
be the speed of the motor?
(a) 1437 rpm (b) 1128 rpm (c) 1500 rpm (d) 900 rpm
Solution
V = 240 V
I L1 = 8 A
N1 = 1200 rpm
ra = 0.5 W
rsh = 100 W
240
Ish = A = 2.4 A
100
\ Ia1 = 8 – 2.4 = 5.6 A
Eb1 = 240 – 5.6 ¥ 0.5 = 237.2 V
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/46
I L2 = 50 A
\ Ia2 = 50 – 2.4 = 47.6 A
Eb2 = 240 – 47.6 ¥ 0.5 = 216.2 V
Now f2 = 0.97 f1
Eb2 216.2 f2 0.9 ¥
\ = = 2
= 2
Eb1 237.2 f1 1 1200
\ N2 = 1128 rpm
Ans. (b) 1128 rpm
A55 A 220 V, dc shunt motor is running at 800 rpm with an armature current of 60 A. The arma-
ture resistance of the motor is 0.3 W. If the torque is doubled while the flux remains constant, the
speed of the motor will be
(a) 815 rpm (b) 750 rpm (c) 729 rpm (d) 825 rpm
Solution
V = 220 V
N1 = 800 rpm
Ia1 = 60 A
ra = 0.3 W
Torque T • Ia in shunt motor
Hence, if torque is doubled, the armature current will also be doubled.
\ T2 = 2T1 and Ia2 = 2Ia1 = 2 ¥ 60 = 120 A
Eb1 = V – Ia1 ra = 220 – 60 ¥ 0.3 = 202 V
Eb2 = V – Ia2 ra = 220 – 120 ¥ 0.3 = 184 V
Eb2
\ = 2
Eb1 1
Eb2 184
or, N2 = N1 ¥ = 800 ¥ = 729 rpm
Eb1 202
Ans. (c) 729 rpm
TFDUJPO!C;!USBOTGPSNFST
B1 A single-phase 10 kVA, 50 Hz transformer with 1 kV primary winding draws 0.5 A and
55 W at rated voltage and frequency on no load. A second transformer has a core with all its linear
dimension times the corresponding dimensions of the first transformer. The core material and
lamination thickness are the same in both transformers. The primary windings of both the trans-
! 22/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
formers have the same number of turns. If a rated voltage of 2 kV at 50 Hz is applied to the primary
of the second transformer then the no-load current and power respectively are
(a) 0.7 A, 77.8 W (b) 0.7 A, 155.6 W
(c) 1 A, 110 W (d) 1 A, 220 W [GATE 2012]
Solution
m AN
Inductance L =
l
For first transformer, no-load current is 0.5.
V 1 ¥ 103
\ 0.5 = =
X m1 m AN 2
2p f
l
m AN 103 103
\ = =
l 2p ¥ 0.5 p
For second transformer,
Length l¢ = l
Area A¢ = ¥ A=2A
\ no-load current
V V
Io = = (E number of turns are same)
Xm m A¢ N
pf
l¢
V 2 ¥ 103 2 1
\ Io¢ = 2
= 3
= = = 0.7 A
m 2 AN 10 2 2 2
2p f 2p f 2 ¥
2l pf
For first transformer,
No-load power V1 Io cos q = 55
3
or 1 ¥ 10 ¥ 0.5 cos q = 55
55
or cos q =
0.5 ¥ 103
For second transformer,
No-load power
55 1
= 2 ¥ 103 ¥ ¥
0.5 ¥ 10 3
2
55
= 2¥ = 155.56 W
0.5
Ans. (b)
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/48
\ I1 = m + ¢
2 f
Ê N ˆ Im
2
= 1 + Á I2 2 ˜
Ë N1 ¯
V2, I2
= 12 + (1 ¥ 2)2 = 5 = 2.236 A
Ans. (c) 2.24 A Gjh/!C3/3! Qibtps!ejbhsbn!pg
Qspc/!C3
B3 The single-phase, 50 Hz iron-core transformer in the circuit (Fig. B3.1) has both the vertical
arms of 20 cm2 cross-sectional area and both the horizontal arms of 10 cm2 cross-sectional area. If
the two windings shown were wound instead on opposite horizontal arms, the mutual inductance
will
(a) double (b) remain same
(c) be halved (d) become one quarter
[GATE 2009]
Solution
N f NBA
Self-inductance L = = Gjh/!C4/2! Jspo! dpsf! usbotgpsnfs! pg!
I I
Qspc/!C4
When wound on vertical arms
NB ¥ 20 ¥ 10-4
L= , or L • A
I
Mutual inductance M= L1 L2 = A1 A2
20 ¥ 20 20
\ 1
= =
2 10 ¥ 10 10
1
or M2 = M1
2
! 22/49 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
B5 Three single-phase transformers are connected to form a three-phase transformer bank. The
transformers are connected in the following manner (Fig. B5.1). The transformer connection will
be represented by [GATE 2009]
(a) Yd0 (b) Yd1 (c) Yd6 (d) Yd11
A2 a2 a1
A1
B2 b2 b1
B1
C2
C1 c1
c2
Gjh/!C6/2! Uisff.qibtf!usbotgpsnfs!cbol!pg!Qspc/!C6
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/4:
Solution
A2
A2 a2
c1
a 2,
A1 b1
C1 ,c N
B1 2
N a1
a1 , A1
b2 N
C2 B2
Gjh/!C6/3! Wfdups!ejbhsbn!gps!Qspc/!C6
The vector diagrams are shown above which indicates that the connection is Yd1.
Ans. (b) Yd1
B6 A 500 kVA, three-phase transformer has iron losses of 300 W and full load copper losses of
600 W. The percentage load at which the transformer is expected to have maximum efficiency is
(a) 50% (b) 70.7% (c) 141.4% (d) 200% [GATE 2004]
Solution
Maximum efficiency occurs when in a transformer,
Copper loss = Iron loss
Let at x fraction, the full load copper loss becomes equal to iron loss
\ x2 ¥ 600 = 300
3 1
or, x= = = 0.707
6 2
\ percentage load is 70.7%
Ans. (b) 70.7%
B7 A single-phase transformer has a maximum efficiency of 90% at full load and unity power
factor efficiency at half load at the same power factor is
(a) 86.7% (b) 88.26% (c) 88.9% (d) 87.8% [GATE 2003]
Solution
Let at maximum efficiency condition,
Iron loss = copper loss = x
VI cos q VI
\ hmax = = (E cos q = 1)
VI cos q + 2 x VI + 2 x
VI
or, = 0.9
VI + x
! 22/51 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
400 V
50 Hz
V
Gjh/!C9/2! Uisff.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!pg!Qspc/!C9
Solution
The voltages in the three windings are 400 V, 200 V and 200 V.
The two 200 V winding are connected in additive polarity and 400 V winding in subtractive
polarity.
\ reading of voltmeter is 400 – (200 + 200) or 0 V
Ans. (a) zero
B9 A balanced star-connected and purely resistive load is connected at the secondary of a star-
delta transformer as shown in Fig. B9.1. The line-to-line voltage rating of the transformer is
110 V/200 V. Neglecting the non-idealities of the transformer, the impedance Z of the equivalent
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/52
4W
4W 4W
(110/220) V
Gjh/!C:/2!Usbotgpsnfs!dpoofdujpo!pg!Qspc/!C:
Solution
The secondary load of 4 W when transferred to the primary side is
2
Ê 110 ˆ 1
4¥Á = 4 ¥ = 1 W or (1 + j 0) W
Ë 220 ˜¯ 4
Ans. (d) (1 + j 0) W
B10 The circuit diagram shows a two-winding loss-less transformer with no leakage flux, excited
from a current source I (t) whose waveform is also shown. The transformer has a magnetising in-
400
ductance of mH.
p
! 22/53 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
1:1 A I(t)
10 A
S
I(t) N2 O 5ms 30ms
10ms 15ms 20ms 25ms t
30 W
10 A
B
Gjh/!C21/2! Uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!boe!uif!dvssfou!tpvsdf!pg!Qspc/!C21
B11 Figure B11.1 shows coils 1 and 2 with dot markings as shown, having 4000 and 6000 turns
respectively. Both coils have a rated current of 25 A. Coil 1 is excited with a single phase, 400 V,
50 Hz supply. [GATE 2009]
A C
(i) The coils are to be connected to obtain a single-phase
400/1000 V autotransformer to drive a load of 10 kVA. Which
of the options given should be exercised to realize the required Coil 1 Coil 2
autotransformer?
(a) Connect A and D; Common B B D
(b) Connect B and D; Common C
Gjh/!C22/2! Usbotgpsnfs! pg!
(c) Connect A and C; Common B Qspc/!C22
(d) Connect A and C; Common D
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/54
(ii) In the autotransformer obtained in Question (i), the currents in Coil 1 and Coil 2 respectively
are
(a) 25 A and 10 A (b) 10 A and 25 A
(c) 10 A and 15 A (d) 15 A and 10 A
Solution
(i) The connection will be as follows and the machine will act as a step-up autotransformer
(Fig. B11.2). C
Here, A and D are connected and the terminal B is common.
AB acts as the primary with applied voltage 400 V. The voltage
across windings C and D is 600 V (E AB and CD have 4000
and 6000 turns respectively). Hence, voltage across CB is (400
+ 600) V = 1000 V. The autotransformer will have a rating of A
D
400/1000 V.
Ans. (a) connect A and D, common B
(ii) Current in winding AB is 25 A (given).
Output of the autotransformer is 10 kVA.
B
10 ¥ 103
\ current in coil 2 is A or 10 A Gjh/!C22/3! Tufq.vq!
1000 bvupusbotgpsnfs!
Ans. (a) 25 A and 10 A pg!Qspc/!C22
B12 The core of a two-winding transformer is subjected to a magnetic flux variation as indicated
in Fig. B12.1.
p f r f(Wb)
+ +
epq 100 200 ers 0.12
– –
q s
O 1 2 2.5 t(s)
Gjh/!C23/2! Uxp.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!boe!hsbqi!pg!gmvy!wbsjbujpo!pg!Qspc/!C23
The induced emf (ers) in the secondary winding is a function of time and will be of the form
(a) ers
24 V
2 2.5
O
1 t(s)
–48 V
! 22/55 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
ers
(b)
48 V
1 2 2.5 t(s)
–24 V
ers
(c)
48 V
24 V
1 2 2.5 t(s)
(d) ers
Solution
df
e = –N
dt
Here, N = N2 = 200
From 0 to 1 s,
d f 0.12
= Wb/s
dt 1
\ ers = – 200 ¥ 0.12 = –24 V
From 1 to 2 s,
df
=0
dt
\ ers = 0
From 2 to 2.5 s,
df 0.12
=– Wb/s = – 0.24 Wb/s
dt 0.5
\ ers = – 200 ¥ (– 0.24) = 48 V
\ the waveform of the secondary induced voltage will follow Figure (b).
Ans. (b)
B13 A single-phase 50 kVA, 250 V/500 V two-winding transformer has an efficiency of 95% at
full load, unity power factor. If it is reconfigured as a 500 V/750 V autotransformer, its efficiency at
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/56
50 ¥ 103
0.95 =
50 ¥ 103 + Losses
Ê 50 ¥ 103 ˆ
\ Losses = Á - 50 ¥ 103 ˜ W = 2632 W
Ë 0.95 ¯
For a step-up autotransformer
kVA of autotransformer
=
kVA of two winding transformer -a
500 2
where a= 1
= =
2 750 3
1
\ kVA of autotransformer = 50 ¥ = 150
2
1-
3
150
\ efficiency of autotransformer = = 0.9827
150 + 2.632
Ans. (c) 98.276%
B14 Two transformers are to be operated in parallel such that they share load in proportion to
their kVA ratings. The rating of the first transformer is 500 kVA and its p.u. leakage impedance is
0.05 p.u. If the rating of the second transformer is 250 kVA then its p.u. leakage impedance is
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.1 (c) 0.05 (d) 0.025 [GATE 2006]
Solution
\
1 p.u.
=
kVA 2
2 p.u. kVA1
\ Z2 p.u. = Z1 p.u.
kVA1 = 0.05 ¥ 500 = 0.1
kVA 2 250
Ans. (b) 0.1
! 22/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
B15 A 300 kVA transformer has 95% efficiency at full load 0.8 power factor lagging and 96%
efficiency at half load, unity power factor.
(i) The iron loss (Pi) and copper loss (Pc) in kW, under full load operation are
(a) Pc = 4.12, Pi = 8.51 (b) Pc = 6.59, Pi = 9.21
(c) Pc = 8.51, Pi = 4.12 (a) Pc = 12.72, Pi = 3.07
(ii) What is the maximum efficiency (in %) at unity power factory load?
(a) 95.1 (b) 96.2 (c) 96.4 (d) 98.1 [GATE 2006]
Solution
300 ¥ 0.8
(i) 0.95 =
300 ¥ 0.8 + Pi + Pc
or, Pi + Pc = 12.63 …(i)
1
300 ¥ ¥1
0.96 = 2
2
1 Ê 1ˆ
300 ¥ ¥ 1 + Pi + Á ˜ Pc
2 Ë 2¯
1
or, Pi + Pc = 6.25 …(ii)
4
Subtracting Eq. (ii) from Eq. (i),
3
Pc = 6.36
4
\ Pc = 8.51 kW and Pi = 4.12 kW
Ans. (c) Pc = 8.51, Pi = 4.12
(ii) Maximum efficiency occurs when copper loss is equal to iron loss. Let at x fraction of full
load, maximum efficiency occurs.
\ x2 Pc = Pi
or x2 ¥ 8.51 = 4.12
4.12
or, x= = 0.696
8.51
\ maximum efficiency
300 ¥ 0.696 ¥ 1
hmax = = 0.962 or 96.2%
300 ¥ 0.696 ¥ 1 + 2 ¥ 4.12
Ans. (b) 96.2
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/58
N2
Vni = 3300 V N1
Gjh/!C27/2! Usbotgpsnfs!dpoofdujpo!pg!Qspc/!C27
B17 The resistance and reactance of a 100 kVA, 11000/400 V, DY distribution transformer are
0.02 and 0.07 p.u. respectively. The phase impedance of the transformer referred to the primary is
(a) (0.02 + j 0.07) W (b) (0.55 + j 1.925) W
(c) (15.125 + j 52.94) W (d) (72.6 + j 254.1) W [GATE 2004]
Solution
If R be the resistance referred to the primary
R R R
0.02 = = 2
=
Z base primary (Base KV) (11) 2
MVA per phase 100 ¥ 10-3
3
! 22/59 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(11)2
or, R = 0.02 ¥ = 72.6 W
100 ¥ 10-3
3
Similarly, reactance referred to the primary is
(11)2
X = 0.07 ¥ = 254.1 W
100 ¥ 10-3
3
Ans. (d) (72.6 + j 254.1) W
B18 Figure B18.1 shows an ideal three-winding transformer. The three windings 1, 2, 3 of the
transformer are wound on the same core as shown. The turns ratio N1 : N2 : N3 is 4 : 2 : 1. A resistor
of 10 W is connected across the winding 2. A capacitor of 2.5 W reactance is connected across the
winding 3. Winding 1 is connected across a 400 V ac supply. If the supply voltage phasor V1 = 400
∞ , the supply current phasor I1 is given by
(a) (–10 + j 10) A (b) (–10 – j 10) A
(c) (10 + j 10) A (d) (10 – j 10) A [GATE 2003]
I1 I2
V1
1 N1 N2 2 R = 10 W
N3
3
I3
Xc = 2.5 W
Gjh/!C29/2! Uisff.xjoejoh!usbotgpsnfs!pg!Qspc/!C29
Solution
1 1
=
2 2
Ê 2ˆ Ê 1ˆ
\ E2 = E1 ¥ Á ˜¯ = 400 ¥ ÁË 2 ˜¯ = 200 V
Ë 1
Ê 3ˆ Ê 1ˆ
Similarly, E3 = E1 ¥ Á ˜¯ = 400 ¥ ÁË 4 ˜¯ = 100 V
Ë 1
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/5:
E2 200
I2 = = = 20 A
R 10
E 100
I3 = 3 = = j 40 A
- jXc - j 2.5
When referred to the primary,
Ê 2ˆ 2
I¢2 = I2 ¥ Á ˜¯ = 20 ¥ 4 = 10 A
Ë 1
ÊN ˆ 1
I¢3 = –I3 ¥ Á 3 ˜ = - j 40 ¥ = –j 10 A
Ë N1 ¯ 4
\ primary current
I1 = I 2¢ + I 3¢ = (10 – j 10) A
Ans. (d)
B19 The hysteresis loop of a magnetic material has an area of 5 cm2 with the scales given as 1 cm
= 2 AT and 1 cm = 50 mW. At 50 Hz, the total hysteresis loss is
(a) 15 W (b) 20 W (c) 25 W (d) 50 W [GATE 2001]
Solution
Hysteresis loss
= 5 ¥ 2 ¥ 50 ¥ 10–3 f
= 5 ¥ 2 ¥ 50 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 50
= 25 W
Ans. (c) 25 W
B20 A three-phase delta/star transformer is supplied at 6000 V on the delta-connected side. The
terminal voltage on the secondary side when supplying full load at 0.8 lagging power factor is
415 V. The equivalent resistance and reactance drops for the transformer are 1% and 5% respec-
tively. The turns ratio of the transformer is
(a) 14 (b) 24 (c) 42 (d) 20 [GATE 2000]
Solution
E -V
= Er cos q2 + Ex sin q2
V
E
or, – 1 = 0.01 ¥ 0.8 + 0.05 ¥ 0.6
V
2
or, = 1 + (0.008 + 0.03) = 1.038
415
! 22/61 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
6000 6000 ¥ 3
\ turns ratio = = 24
430.77 430.77
3
Ans. (b) 24
B21 A three-phase transformer has rating of 20 MVA, 220 kV (star) –33 kV (delta) with leakage
reactance of 12%. The transformer reactance (in ohm) referred to each phase of the LV delta con-
nected side is
(a) 23.5 (b) 19.6 (c) 18.5 (d) 8.7 [GATE 2001]
Solution
Base impedance of low voltage side
(Base kV)2
Zbase =
Base MVA
(33)2 Ê 2 3 ˆ
= = Á 33 ¥ ˜
(20 / 3) Ë 20 ¯
Xp.u. = 0.12
\ transformer reactance referred to low voltage side is
(33)2 ¥ 3
0.12 ¥ = 19.6 W
20
Ans. (b) 19.6 W
B22 A 2500/250 V, 100 kVA, Y–D distribution transformer bank delivers 200 A at 0.8 p.f. lagging
to an industrial load from its secondary side. The power consumed by the load and the primary line
current drawn by each transformer are respectively
(a) 40 kW, 200 A (b) 69.28 kW, 20 A
(c) 23.1 kW, 11.55 A (d) 86.6 kW, 34.64 A
Solution
Power consumed by load
= ¥ 250 ¥ 200 ¥ 0.8 = 69.281 kW
I1 ph 2
=
I 2 ph 1
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/62
200 250
\ I1ph = I2ph 2
= ¥ = 20 A
1 3 2500
3
Ans. (b) 69.28 kW, 20 A
B23 An impedance of 3 + j 5 is connected in series with the secondary winding of an ideal trans-
former as shown in Fig. B23.1
When referred to the primary side, the value of the se- 2W j5W
+ 3:1
ries impedance is +
= (2 + j 5) ¥ 32 = (18 + j 45) W
Ans. (a) (18 + j 45) W
B25 A 4.4 kV/440 V, 100 kVA single-phase transformer has a series reactance of 0.15 p.u. The
reactance in ohms referred to LV and HV sides are to be
(a) 290.4 W, 29 kW (b) 0.2904 W, 29.04 W
(c) 0.077 W, 0.75 mW (d) 0.66 W, 6.6 W
! 22/63 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
Reactance in W ¥ MVA
Per unit reactance =
(kV)2
When referred to LV side,
(440 ¥ 10-3 ) 2
Reactance = 0.15 ¥ W = 0.2904 W
100 ¥ 10-3
When referred to HV side,
(4.4) 2
Reactance = 0.15 ¥ W = 29.04 W
100 ¥ 10-3
Ans. (b) 0.2904 W, 29.04 W
B26 A 40 kVA, single-phase step-down transformer has a full load secondary current of 200 A.
The effective resistance referred to secondary is 0.008 W and the iron loss of the transformer is
190 W.
(i) The efficiency of the transformer at full load, 0.8 p.f. is
(a) 98.74% (b) 96.50%
(c) 99.4% (d) 98.43%
3
(ii) The efficiency of the transformer at th of the full load, unity power factor will be
4
(a) 99.08% (b) 98.78%
(c) 96.5% (d) 98.48%
Solution
(i) Full-load copper loss I 22 re2 = (200)2 ¥ 0.008 W = 320 W
Iron loss = 190 W
Total loss at full load = 320 W + 190 W = 510 W
Output power at full load = 40 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 W = 32000 W
32000
Efficiency at full load and 0.8 p.f. = % = 98.43%
32000 + 510
Ans. (d) 98.43%
3
(ii) At th of full load, the copper loss
4
2
Ê 3ˆ
= Á ˜ ¥ 320 W = 180 W
Ë 4¯
3
Total loss at th of full load = 190 + 180 = 370 W
4
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/64
3
¥ 40 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
3 4
\ efficiency at th of full load and unity power factor =
4 3
¥ 40 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 + 370
4
= 98.78%
Ans. (b) 98.78%
B27 A transformer under no-load condition draws a current of 4.5 A at a power factor of 0.25 lag-
ging when connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The number of turns of the primary winding is 250.
The magnetizing current (Im) and iron loss (Pi) are
(a) Im = 1.125 A, Pi = 1 kW (b) Im = 4.35 A, Pi = 1 kW
(c) Im = 4.5 A, Pi = 259 W (d) Im = 4.22 A, Pi = 259 W
Solution
cos qo = 0.25
Io = 4.5 A
Im = Io sin qo = 4.5 ¥ 1 - (0.25)2 = 4.22 A
Pi = V1 Io cos qo = 230 ¥ 4.5 ¥ 0.25 W = 258.75 W
10 ¥ 2
1
IL = 2
A
3 Ê 2ˆ
2 ¥ 1 ¥ 10 ¥ Á ˜
Ë 1¯
! 22/65 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
100 ¥ 103 1
= = = 0.025 W
4 ¥ 10 6
40
Ans. (b) 25 mN
Vin + Load
N2 Load Vin N2
– –
)b*! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! )c*
Gjh/!C3:/2! Ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!C3:
(a) 264 kVA, 264 kVA (b) 26.4 kVA, 264 kVA
(c) 26.4 kVA, 26.4 kVA (d) 26.4 kVA, 290.4 kVA
Solution
In Fig. B29.1(a),
Vin = 2400 V + 240 V = 2640 V
24 ¥ 103
I1 = A = 10 A
2400
Vin I1 2640 ¥ 10
\ Input kVA = 3
= = 26.4.
10 103
In Fig. B29.1(b),
Vin = 2400 V
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/66
B30 A single-phase 480 kVA, 480 V/8 kV two-winding transformer has an efficiency of 97.8% at
full-load unity power factor. If it is connected as an 8000 V/9000 V autotransformer then what is its
rated kVA and efficiency at full load and unity p.f.?
(a) 8 MVA, 88.9% (b) 8 MVA, 99.8%
(c) 9 MVA, 99.8% (d) 10.125 MVA, 86.9%
Solution
For a two-winding transformer,
480 ¥ 103
I1 = = 1000 A
480 +
I2a
480 ¥ 103 N1
I2 = = 60 A
8 ¥ 103 I1a
+ V2a
For a 8000/9000 V autotransformer
V1a = 8000 V V2a = 9000 V V1a N2
As full-load loss remains same in the autotransformer, the efficiency of the autotransformer is
9 ¥ 106 ¥ 1
h= = 99.88%
9 ¥ 106 + 10800
Ans. (c) 9 MVA, 99.8%
B31 A single-phase transformer has 400 and 600 turns in the primary and secondary windings.
If the primary is connected to 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and the net cross-sectional area of the core is
80 cm2, the maximum flux density in the core is
(a) 2.75 T (b) 137.5 T (c) 220 T (d) 2.75 ¥ 10–4 T
Solution
E1 = 4.44 f N1 fm = 4.44 f N1 Bm A
440
\ Bm = Wb/m2
50 ¥ 400 ¥ 80 ¥ 10-4
= 2.75 Wb/m2 = 2.75 T
Ans. (a) 2.75 T
B32 A single-phase transformer takes a no-load current of 1.5 A when high-voltage winding is
kept open. If the core loss component of no-load current is 0.8 A, the magnetizing component of
no load current is
(a) 1 A (b) 0.7 A (c) 1.27 A (d) 2.3 A
Solution
Io = 1.5 A Ic = 0.8 A
0.8
cos qo = = 0.53 \ sin qo = 0.85
1.5
Im = Io sin qo = 1.27 A
Ans. (c) 1.27 A
B33 A 400/2400 V transformer has a series leakage reactance of 40 W referred to the high voltage
side. A load connected to the low voltage side absorbs 30 kW at unity power factor. If the voltage
on the low voltage side is 420 V then the voltage and power factor at the high voltage side is
(a) 2520 V, 1 (b) 2569 V, 1 (c) 2520 V, 0.8 (d) 2569 V, 0.98
Solution
30 ¥ 103
IL = A = 75 A
400
NL 400
IH = IL = ¥ 75 A = 12.5 A
NH 2400
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/68
2400
when VL = 420 V, VH = 420 ¥ V = 2520 V
400
Considering the impedance drop voltage on the high voltage side is 2520 + j 40 ¥ 12.5
= 2569 11.22∞ V
Power factor is cos 11.22° or 0.98
Ans. (d) 2569 V, 0.98
B34 A 25 kVA, single-phase transformer has core loss of 300 W and full-load copper loss of
600 W respectively. If the maximum efficiency occurs at 90% of full load, the new iron loss and
copper loss under full load assuming that full load is constant is
(a) 450 W, 450 W (b) 300 W, 600 W
(c) 402.76 W, 497.24 W (d) 300 W, 486 W
Solution
Pc = 300 W
Pcu = 600 W
Let the new losses be P¢c and P¢cu under maximum efficiency condition
\ (0.9)2 ¥ P¢cu = Pc¢
Again, as full load is constant
Pc¢ + P¢cu = 600 + 300 = 900 W
or, (0.9)2 P¢cu + P¢cu = 900 W
or, P¢cu = 497.24 W
\ P¢c = 900 – 497.24 = 402.76 W
Ans. (c) 402.76 W, 497.24 W
B35 A 4400/440 V, single-phase transformer has primary and secondary resistances of 0.3 W and
0.02 W respectively. The iron loss in the transformer is equal to 300 W. The value of secondary cur-
rent at which efficiency is maximum is
(a) 114.21 A (b) 100 A (c) 300 A (d) 1000 A
Solution
Equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side
2
Ê 440 ˆ
0.3 ¥ Á + 0.02 = 0.023 W
Ë 4400 ˜¯
At maximum efficiency, iron loss is equal to the copper loss.
If I2 be the secondary current,
I 22 ¥ 0.023 = 300
! 22/69 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
\ I2 = 114.21 A
Ans. (a) 114.21 A
B36 Refer to the previous problem. What is the maximum efficiency at a lagging power factor of
0.85?
(a) 99.3% (b) 98.6% (c) 90% (d) 93.7%
Solution
At 0.85 power factor, the output under maximum efficiency
Po = V2 I2 cos q2 = 440 ¥ 114.21 ¥ 0.85 = 42714.5 W
Total loss = 2 ¥ Iron loss = 2 ¥ 300 = 600 W
42714.5
\ maximum efficiency hmax = = 0.9861 or 98.61%
42714.5 + 600
Ans. (b) 98.6%
B37 A single-phase, 300 kVA transformer has an efficiency of 97% at full load on 0.9 power fac-
tor. Same efficiency is achieved on half load 0.9 power factor lagging. The copper loss and iron loss
in kW under full-load operation respectively are
(a) 4.56 kW, 3.78 kW (b) 4.17 kW, 4.17 kW
(c) 5.56 kW, 2.78 kW (d) 6.56 kW, 1.78 kW
Solution
300 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.9
0.97 =
300 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.9 + Pc + Pcu
Ê 1 ˆ
\ Pc + Pcu = 300 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.9 Á - 1 = 8350.515 W
Ë 0.97 ˜¯
1
300 ¥ 103 ¥ ¥ 0.9
0.97 = 2
1 1
300 ¥ 103 ¥ ¥ 0.9 + Pc + Pcu
2 4
1 1 Ê 1 ˆ
\ Pc + Pcu = 300 ¥ 103 ¥ ¥ 0.9 Á -1
4 2 Ë 0.97 ˜¯
= 4175.26 W
3
Pcu = 4175.255
4
or, Pcu = 5567 W = 5.567 kW
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/6:
\ Pc = 2783.51 W = 2.78 kW
Ans. (c) 5.56 kW, 2.78 kW
B38 A 10 kVA transformer has an efficiency of 97% at full load and also at 70% of full load and
3
unity power factor. The efficiency of the transformer at th of full load and 0.8 power factor is
4
(a) 91% (b) 95% (c) 98% (d) 97%
Solution
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
0.97 =
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 + Pc + Pcu
\ Pc + Pcu = 309.28 W
where Pc and Pcu are the core and copper losses respectively at full load.
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.7
Again, 0.97 =
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.7 + Pc + (0.7) 2 Pcu
\ Pc + 0.49 Pcu = 216.5 W
\ 0.51 Pcu = 92.785
or, Pcu = 181.93 W
and Pc = 309.28 – 181.93 = 127.35 W
3
10 ¥ 103 ¥¥1
3 4
\ efficiency at th of full load is 2
or, 97%
4 3 Ê 3ˆ
10 ¥ 10 ¥ ¥ 1 + 127.35 + Á ˜ ¥ 181.93
3
4 Ë 4¯
Ans. (d) 97%
B39 A 500 kVA, 50 Hz transformer having 3.3 kV in the primary winding draws a current of
6 A at no load, at rated voltage and frequency. Another transformer having core with all its linear
dimensions times of the first transformer has 6.6 kV at 50 Hz applied to its primary winding.
The primary winding of both the transformers have same number of turns. The no load current
drawn by the second transformer is
(a) 8.48 A (b) 4.24 A (c) 12 A (d) 3 A
Solution
As the linear dimensions of the second transformer is times that of the first, the core area of
the second transformer is twice that of the first.
\ Ac2 = 2 Ac1
! 22/71 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
m AN
Now, magnetizing inductance L =
l
Ac
\ L1 = K
l
Ac
and L2 = K
l
2 Ac1 Ac1
\ L2 = K =K 2
2 l1 Ac2
\ L2 = 2L1
V
No-load current Io •
L
\ no-load current in the second transformer
V
Io2 •
L
2V1
\ Io2 •
2 L1
or, Io2 = Io1
\ Io2 = ¥ 6 A = 8.485 A
Ans. (a) 8.48 A
B40 A single-phase, 250 kVA transformer has primary and secondary voltage of 11 kV and 440 V
respectively. The resistance of primary and secondary windings 0.5 W and 0.005 W respectively. If
the iron loss is 5 kW, the efficiency on full load at 0.8 power factor lagging is
(a) 92.3% (b) 95.7% (c) 98.7% (d) 96.7%
Solution
250
Primary current I1 = A = 22.73 A
11
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/72
250 ¥ 103
Secondary current I2 = A = 568.18 A
440
0.0024 + 0.0032
1.936
or, (0.00124 + j 0.00165)
Ans. (b) 0.00124 + j 0.00165
! 22/73 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
B42 A 230/115 kV, delta delta, 100 MVA three-phase transformer has a per unit resistance of 0.02
and a per unit reactance of 0.055. What is the percentage regulation of a transformer if it supplies a
load of 80 MVA at 0.85 p.f. lagging?
(a) 3.7% (b) 5.7%
(c) 4.6% (d) 2.1%
Solution
The line current on the high-voltage side when it supplies a load of 80 MVA
100 ¥ 106
IH = W = 401.65 A
3 ¥ 115 ¥ 103
The base value of current on the high voltage side
100 ¥ 106
IH base = A = 502.06 A
3 ¥ 115 ¥ 103
\ per unit current
401.65
IH p.u. = = 0.8
502.06
Per unit voltage on the primary side
1.037 - 1
Voltage regulation = = 0.037 or 3.7%
1
Ans. (a) 3.7%
B43 The core of a two-winding transformer is subjected to a magnetic flux variation as shown in
Fig. B43.1.
a c f
+ –
eab 400 1000 ecd 0.009
– +
b d
O 0.06 0.1 0.12 t
Gjh/!C54/2! Usbotgpsnfs!boe!gmvy!wbsjbujpo!hsbqi!pg!Qspc/!C54
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/74
eab eab
(c) (d)
150 180
0.1 0.12
0 t
0.06
0.06
0 t
0.1 0.12
–450 –60
Solution
For time between 0 s and 0.06 s,
0.009
f= t = 0.15 t Wb
0.06
df
\ eab = – Nab = –400 ¥ 0.15 = –60 V
dt
Between 0.06 s and 0.1 s, the flux f is constant.
df
Induced emf being proportional to , eab is 0 between 0.06 s and 0.1 s.
dt
Between 0.1s and 0.12s
0.009
f =– t = –0.45 t
0.02
\ eab = –400 ¥ (0.45 t) = 180 V
Ans. (d)
B44 In the previous problem, the induced emf ecd in the secondary winding will follow the curve
ecd ecd
(a) (b)
90
150
0.1 0.12
0 t
0.06 0.06
0 t
0.1 0.12
–60
–450
! 22/75 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
ecd ecd
(c) (d)
450 60
0.1 0.12
0 t
0.06
0.06
0 t
0.1 0.12
–150 –90
Solution
For time between 0 s and 0.06 s,
Ê df ˆ
ecd = –edc = – Á - N cd
Ë ˜ = 1000 ¥ 0.15 V = 150 V
dt ¯
Between 0.06 s and 0.1 s, the emf is zero.
For time between 0.1 s and 0.012 s,
ecd = –edc = –{–1000 ¥ (–0.45)}
= –450 V
Ans. (a)
B45 A three-winding transformer with turns ratio of 9 : 3 : 5 has resistive loads of 50 W and
20 W connected to the second and third windings respectively. What is the power drawn by the pri-
mary at unity power factor?
N2 50 W
240 V N1
N3 20 W
Gjh/!C56/2! Usbotgpsnfs!dpoofdujpo!pg!Qspc/!C56
B46 A 50 kVA, 13.8 kV/208 V, delta star distribution transformer has per unit resistance of 1%
and per unit reactance of 7%. The transformer’s impedance referred to the high voltage side is
(a) (0.036 + j 0.25) W (b) (38 + j 266.6) W
(c) (0.026 + j 0.18) W (d) (114.2 + j 800) W
Solution
The base impedance referred to the high-voltage side is
(13.8) 2
ZH base = W = 11426 W
0.05
3
Impedance in ohms referred to high-voltage side
ZH = 11426 (0.01 + j 0.07) = (114.2 + j 800) W
Ans. (d) (114.2 + j 800) W
B47 Referring to the previous question, the voltage regulation at full load and 0.8 p.f. lagging is
(a) 5.1% (b) 1.24%
(c) 4.85% (d) 3.3%
Solution
Considering the per unit quantities,
the output voltage is 1 ∞
the output current is 1 - cos -1 0.8 or 1 -36.87°
the input voltage
V1 = 1 ∞ + (0.01 + j 0.07) ¥ 1 -36.87∞
= 1 + 0.071 21.87∞ ¥ 1 -36.87∞ = 1 + 0.071 45∞ = 1.05 + j 0.05 = 1.051 2.726∞
1.051 - 1
\ voltage regulation = or 0.051 or 5.1%
1
Ans. (a) 5.1%
! 22/77 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
B48 A single-phase transformer having 150 turns in the primary and 750 turns in the secondary
is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply on its primary side. The secondary winding supplies a load of
4 A at a lagging power factor of 0.08. The maximum flux in the core and power supplied to the
load is
(a) 7.21 mWb, 3840 W (b) 7.21 Wb, 3.8 kW
(c) 3.840 mW, 7.21 kW (d) 3.840 W, 7 kW
Solution
E1 240
Maximum flux fm = = Wb
4.44 fN1 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 150
= 7.21 ¥ 10–3 Wb = 7.21 mWb
Power supplied to the load is
750
V2 I2 cos q2 = 240 ¥ ¥ 4 ¥ 0.8 W = 3840 W
150
(a) 7.21 mWb, 3840 W (b) 7.21 mWb, 153.6 W
(c) 1.44 mWb, 153.6 W (d) 36 mWb, 3840 W
Ans. (a) 7.21 mWb, 3840 W
VH 13.8 / 3
(As the transformer has YY connection = )
VL 13.2 / 3
B50 A single-phase transformer operating at no load draws an exciting current Io = 6 A when the
primary is connected to 240 V, 50 Hz supply. If the core loss is 200 W, the magnetizing reactance is
(a) 288 W (b) 50 W (c) 100 W (d) 40.4 W
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/78
Solution
If the no-load p.f. is cos qo then
240 ¥ 6 ¥ cos qo = 200
\ cos qo = 0.14
\ sin qo = 0.99
TFDUJPO!D;!JOEVDUJPO!NPUPST
C1 If a 400 V, 50 Hz, star-connected, three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor is operated from
a 400 V, 75 Hz supply, the torque that the motor can now provide while drawing rated current from
the supply
(a) reduces
(b) increases
(c) remains the same
(d) increases or reduces depending upon the rotor resistance [GATE 2002]
Solution
r2
3I 22
Torque Te = s
ws
ÊN ˆ Êw ˆ
Slip (s) = 1 – Á r ˜ = - Á r ˜
Ë s¯
N Ë ws ¯
3 I 22 r2 3 I 22 r2
\ Te = =
Ê wr ˆ ws - wr
ÁË1 - w ˜¯ w s
s
Ê fˆ
Now if frequency increases, ws increases, as ws = 2p Á ˜
Ë P¯
Hence, the denominator ws – wr increases and Te reduces.
Ans. (a) reduces
! 22/79 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
C3 A 400 V, 50 Hz, 4-pole, 1400 rpm, star-connected squirrel-cage induction motor has the fol-
lowing parameters referred to the stator:
R¢r = 1 W, Xr = X r¢ = 1.5 W
Neglect stator resistance and core and rotational losses of the motor. The motor is controlled
from a 3-phase voltage source inverter with constant (V/f ) control. The stator line-to-line voltage
(rms) and frequency to obtain the maximum torque at starting will be
(a) 20.6 V, 2.7 Hz (b) 133.3 V, 16.7 Hz
(c) 266.6 V, 33.3 Hz (d) 323.3 V, 40.3 Hz [GATE 2008]
Solution
V V
=
f f
f2 Ê 400 ˆ
or, V2 = ¥ V1 = f 2 Á = 8f2
f1 Ë 50 ˜¯
Ê 50 ˆ
Ns = 120 ¥ Á ˜ = 1500 rpm
Ë 4¯
Nr = 1400 rpm
Ê 1400 ˆ
\ s = Á1 - = 0.067
Ë 1500 ˜¯
given, r¢r = 1
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/7:
x¢r = 1.5 W
or, 2p ¥ 50 ¥ L¢r = 1.5 W
1.5
\ L¢r = = (4.777 ¥ 10–3) H
100 p
\ Ls = L¢r = (4.777 ¥ 10–3) H
Now if Tst = Tm,
Tst 2
=1= ; or, sm = 1
Tm 1
sm +
sm
rs + rr¢
At max torque, r2 = sx2: sm =
xs + xr¢
rr
sm = (Neglecting stator resistance)
xr¢ + xs
1
i.e., =1
2p f 2 ( Lr¢ + Ls )
1
\ =1
2p 2 ( 4.777 ¥ 10-3 + 4.777 ¥ 10-3 )
or, f2 = 16.67 Hz.
\ V2 = 8 f2 = 8 ¥ 16.67 = 133.36 V
Ans. (b) 133.3 V, 16.7 Hz.
C4 A 400 V, 50 Hz, 30 HP, three-phase induction motor is drawing 50 A current at 0.8 power fac-
tor lagging. The stator and rotor copper losses are 1.5 kW and 900 W respectively. The friction and
windage losses are 1050 W and the core losses are 1200 W. The air-gap power of the motor will be
(a) 23.06 kW (b) 24.11 kW (c) 25.01 kW (d) 26.21 kW [GATE 2008]
Solution
Input power (Pin) = ¥ 400 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.8 W
= 27712.81 W
3-phase,
50 Hz, Supply
+ 220 V –
Autotransformer
Gjh/!D6/2! Ejbhsbn!gps!Qspcmfnt!D6-!D7
The motor is coupled to a 220 V, separately excited dc generator feeding power to fixed resistance
of 10 W. The two-wattmeter method is used to measure the input power to induction motor. The
variable resistance is adjusted such that the motor runs at 1410 rpm and the following readings were
recorded W1 = 1800 W, W2 = – 200 W.
C5 The speed of rotation of stator magnetic field with respect to rotor structure will be
(a) 90 rpm in the direction of rotation
(b) 90 rpm in the opposite direction of rotation
(c) 1500 rpm in the direction of rotation
(d) 1500 rpm in the opposite direction of rotation [GATE 2008]
Solution
Speed of stator magnetic field
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
Speed of rotor = 1410 rpm
\ speed of rotation of stator magnetic field with respect to rotor structure is Ns – Nr or (1500 –
1410), or 90 rpm in the direction of rotation as the rotor rotates in the direction of stator magnetic
field.
Ans. (a) 90 rpm in the direction of rotation
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/82
C6 Neglecting all losses of both the machines, the dc generator power output and the current
through resistance (Rex) will respectively be
(a) 96 W, 3.10 A (b) 120 W, 3.46 A
(c) 1504 W, 12.26 A (d) 1880 W, 13.71 A [GATE 2008]
Solution
From wattmeter readings, input to the induction motor
Pin = 1800 – 200 = 1600 W
Neglecting stator losses, the air-gap power
Pg = 1600 W
If Pm be the power developed by the motor then Pm = (1 – s) Pg
1410
Now s =1– = 0.06
1500
\ Pm = (1 – 0.06) ¥ 1600 = 1504 W.
Neglecting the friction and windage losses, output power Po = Pm = 1504 W.
\ Input to the dc generator is 1504 W
Neglecting generator losses, output of generator is 1504 W which is dissipated in a 10 W resistor.
If I be the current in the resistor then
I 2 ¥ 10 = 1504 or, I = 12.26 A
Ans. (c) 1504 W, 12.26 A
C7 A three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor has a starting torque of 150% and a maximum
torque of 300% with respect to rated torque at rated voltage and rated frequency. Neglect the stator
resistance and rotational losses. The value of slip for maximum torque is
(a) 13.48% (b) 16.24% (c) 18.92% (d) 26.79% [GATE 2007]
Solution
Tst
= 1.5
Tfl
Tm
=3
Tfl
Tst 1.5
\ = = 0.5
Tm 3
Tfl 2
Now =
Tm sm sfl
+
sfl sm
! 22/83 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Tst 2
and = = 0.5
Tm 1
sm +
sm
or, sm2 – 4sm + 1 = 0
sm = 0.2679, neglecting the negative value
or sm = 26.79%
Ans. (d) 26.79%
Common Data for Problems C8, C9 and C10
A three-phase squirrel cage induction motor has a starting current of seven times the full-load cur-
rent and full-load slip of 5%. [GATE 2007]
C8 If an autotransformer is used for reduced voltage starting to provide 1.5 p.u. starting torque,
the autotransformer ratio should be
(a) 57.77% (b) 72.56% (c) 78.25% (d) 81.33%
Solution
Ist = 7 Ifl = Isc, when directly switched on to the supply
sfl = 0.05
If x be the autotransformer tapping,
2
Tst Ê xI ˆ
= Á sc ˜ sfl
Tfl Ë I fl ¯
or, 1.5 = x2 (7)2 ¥ 0.05
or, x = 0.7825 or 78.25%
Ans. (c) 78.25%
C9 If a star-delta starter is used to start this induction motor, the per unit starting torque will be
(a) 0.607 (b) 0.816 (c) 1.225 (d) 1.616
Solution
For the star-delta starter,
sc
Ist =
3
2 2
Tst ÊI ˆ Ê I ˆ
\ = Á st ˜ sfl = Á sc ˜ ¥ sfl
Tfl Ë I fl ¯ Ë 3 I fl ¯
2
Tst Ê 7 ˆ
\ = Á ˜ ¥ 0.05 = 0.816
Tfl Ë 3¯
Ans. (b) 0.816
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/84
C10 If a starting torque of 0.5 p.u. is required then the per unit starting current should be
(a) 4.65 (b) 3.75 (c) 3.16 (d) 2.13
Solution
Tst
= 0.5
Tfl
2
Tst ÊT ˆ
As = Á st ˜ sfl
Tfl Ë Tfl ¯
Tst 0.5
\ = = 10 = 3.16
Tfl 0.05
Ans. (c) 3.16
C11 The speed of a 4-pole induction motor is controlled by varying the supply frequency while
maintaining the ratio of supply voltage to supply frequency (V/f ) constant. At rated frequency of
50 Hz and rated voltage of 400 V, its speed is 1440 rpm. Find the speed at 30 Hz, if the load torque
is constant.
(a) 882 rpm (b) 864 rpm (c) 840 rpm (d) 828 rpm [GATE 2006]
Solution
f1 = 50 Hz.
120 ¥ 50
Ns1 = = 1500 rpm
4
Nr1 = 1440 rpm
1440
\ s1 = 1 – = 0.04
1500
f2 = 30 Hz
120 ¥ 30
Ns2 = = 900 rpm
4
If the load torque is constant, s is constant
\ Nr2 = (1 – s) Ns2 = (1 – 0.04) ¥ 900 = 864 rpm
Ans. (b) 864 rpm
C12 A three-phase, 4-pole, 400 V, 50 Hz star-connected induction motor has the following circuit
parameters r1 = 1 W, r¢2 = 0.5 W, x1 = x¢2 = 1.2 W, xm = 35 W. The starting torque when the motor is
started direct online is (use approximate equivalent circuit model)
(a) 63.6 Nm (b) 74.3 Nm
(c) 190.8 Nm (d) 222.9 Nm [GATE 2006]
! 22/85 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
r2¢
Pg 3I 2¢ 2
T= = s
ws ws
2
Ï ¸
Ô Ô
Ô V1 Ô r2¢
= Ì ˝ ¥
Ô Ê r2¢ ˆ
2
Ô sw s
Ô Ë 1 s ¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
+ 2
Á r ˜ Ô
Ó ˛
At starting s = 1,
2
Ê 400 ˆ
3¥Á
Ë 3 ˜¯ 0.5
\ Tst = ¥
(1 + 0.5) + (1.2 + 1.2)
2 2 2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
= 63.61 Nm 4
Ans. (a) 63.6 Nm
C14 A three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor is started by direct online switching at the rated
voltage. If the starting current drawn is 6 times the full load current and the full load slip is 4% then
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/86
C15 A 400 V, 15 kW, 4-pole, 50 Hz, Y-connected induction motor has full slip of 4%. The output
torque of the machine at full load is
(a) 1.66 Nm (b) 95.5 Nm (c) 99.47 Nm (d) 624.73 Nm [GATE 2004]
Solution
sfl = 0.04
Neglecting the frictional and windage losses
Pm = 15 kW
Pm 15 ¥ 103 15 ¥ 103
\ T= = =
wr N 2p
2p r (1 - sfl ) N s
60 60
15 ¥ 103
=
2p 120 ¥ 50
(1 - 0.04) ¥
60 4
= 99.5 Nm
Ans. (c) 99.5 Nm
C16 The rotor of a three-phase, 5 kW, 400 V, 50 Hz, slip-ring induction motor is wound for 6
poles while its stator is wound for 4 poles. The approximate average no-load steady-state speed
when this motor is connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz supply is
(a) 1500 rpm (b) 500 rpm (c) zero (d) 1000 rpm [GATE 2002]
Solution
In a three-phase induction motor, the rotor will rotate when the number of stator and rotor poles
are equal. Here, as the stator and rotor poles are not equal, the rotor will not rotate and the speed
will be 0.
Ans. (c) zero
! 22/87 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
C17 The power input to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor running at 975 rpm is
40 kW. The stator losses are 1 kW and friction and windage losses total 2 kW. The efficiency of the
motor is
(a) 92.5% (b) 98% (c) 90% (d) 88% [GATE 2000]
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
Nr = 975 rpm
975
s =1– = 0.025
1000
Pin = 40 kW
Pg = 40 ¥ 103 – 1 ¥ 103 = 39 ¥ 103 W
\ Pm = (1 – s) Pg = (1 – 0.025) ¥ 39 ¥ 103 = 38025 W
\ Power output = Pm – Friction and windage losses
= 38025 – 2000 = 36025 W
36025
h= ¥ 100% = 90.06%
40, 000
Ans. (c) 90%
C18 A three-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz induction motor runs at a speed of 1440 rpm. The stator wind-
ing resistance is 0.3 W per phase. The terminal current is 10 A and the input power is 12 kW. The
power dissipated in the rotor is
(a) 90 W (b) 1 kW (c) 842 W (d) 476 W
Solution
Stator copper loss = 3 ¥ (10)2 ¥ 0.3 = 90 W
Neglecting stator core loss, the air-gap power
Pag = 12 ¥ 103 – 90 = 11910 W
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Synchronous speed Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
Rotor speed = 1440 rpm
1440
\ slip s = 1 – = 0.04
1500
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/88
C19 A 440 V, 50 Hz, three-phase induction motor has line current of 40 A at 0.8 p.f. lagging. The
stator and rotor copper losses are 3000 W and 1000 W respectively. The friction and windage losses
are 800 W and core losses are 200 W. The air-gap power is
(a) 21.2 kW (b) 21.39 kW (c) 24.2 kW (d) 23.38 kW
Solution
Power input Pin = ¥ 440 ¥ 40 ¥ 0.8 = 24387 W
Air-gap power
Pag = Pin – Stator core loss – stator copper loss
= 24387 – 200 – 3000 = 21187 W = 21.2 kW
Ans. (a) 21.2 kW
C20 A 220 V, 50 Hz, 4-pole delta-connected three-phase induction motor operates at a full load
speed of 1400 rpm. The output power is 500 W at this speed. If the supply voltage decreases by
10%, the output torque of the motor is
(a) 3 Nm (b) 2.76 Nm (c) 4.12 Nm (d) 3.41 Nm
Solution
Full-load output torque
500
Tfl = Nm = 3.41 Nm
1400
2p ¥
60
Now T • V 2
If voltage decreases by 10%,
V2 = 0.9 V1
2
Ê 2ˆ 2
\ Torque T2 = T1 ¥ Á ˜¯ = 3.41 ¥ (0.9) = 2.762 Nm
Ë 1
C21 A 3-phase six-pole wound rotor induction motor is rotating in the direction opposite to the
direction of the rotating magnetic field at a speed of 800 rpm. The frequency of the rotor current at
this condition is
(a) 10 Hz (b) 5 Hz (c) 50 Hz (d) 90 Hz
! 22/89 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Speed of the rotating magnetic field = = 1000 rpm
6
The rotor speed with respect to the rotating magnetic field is 1000 + 800 = 1800 rpm
Relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field
\ Slip =
Synnchronous speed
1800
= = 1.8
1000
\ frequency of rotor current is
s f = 1.8 ¥ 50 Hz = 90 Hz
Ans. (d) 90 Hz.
C22 A three-phase squirrel-cage induction has starting current five times that of full-load current
and the full-load slip is 3%. The ratio of starting torque to full-load torque is
(a) 0.75 (b) 0.8 (c) 1 (d) 0.3
Solution
Ist = 5 Ifl
sfl = 0.03
sst = 1
R2
3I 22
T= s
ws
2
Tst ÊI ˆ s 0.03
\ = Á st ˜ fl = (5)2 ¥ = 0.75
Tfl Ë I fl ¯ sst 1
C23 Assuming negligible stator resistance in the previous problem, the slip at which maximum
torque occurs is
(a) 0.03 (b) 0.05 (c) 0.04 (d) 0.02
Solution
Under the condition for maximum power transfer,
R
smax = neglecting stator resistance
X
V12
I=
R2
+ X2
s
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/8:
V1
\ Ifl =
2
Ê R2 ˆ
ÁË 0.03 ˜¯ + X 2
2
V1
Ist =
R22 + X 22
2
Ê R2 ˆ
ÁË 0.03 ˜¯ + X 2
2
2
Ê I st ˆ
ÁË I ˜¯ = R22 + X 22
= 25
fl
2
\ 2
+ X22 = 25 R22 + 25 X22
0.0009
R22 (1111.11 – 25) = X22 (25 – 1)
or, R2 = 0.0221 X2
\ smax = 0.0221
Ans. (d) 0.02
C24 A three-phase, 6-pole, 50 Hz star-connected induction motor has rotor resistance and re-
actance of 0.04 W and 0.6 W per phase respectively. Neglecting the stator resistance, the speed at
maximum torque is equal to
(a) 900 rpm (b) 1000 rpm (c) 933 rpm (d) 960 rpm
Solution
r2 = 0.04 W
x2 = 0.6 W
Slip at maximum torque
r2 0.04
sm = = = 0.067
x2 0.6
\ rotor speed at maximum torque
120 ¥ 50
N = (1 – sm) Ns = (1 – 0.067) ¥
60
= 933 rpm
Ans. (c) 933 rpm
C25 A 440 V, 50 Hz, three-phase induction motor is drawing 80 A at 0.85 p.f. lagging from the
supply. The stator and rotor copper losses are 1800 W and 1100 W respectively. The core losses are
1000 W and friction and windage losses are 900 W. How much power is converted from electrical
to mechanical form?
! 22/91 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
C26 A 100 kW, 4-pole induction motor has full load slip of 5%. At full-load, the friction and
windage losses are 500 W and the core losses are 800 W. The load torque is
(a) 670.5 Nm (b) 637 Nm (c) 650 Nm (d) 720 Nm
Solution
Pout = 100 kW
120 ¥ 50
Nr = (1 – s) Ns = (1 – 0.05) ¥ = 1425 rpm
4
100 ¥ 103
\ Load torque = out
= Nm = 670.5 Nm
w 1425
2p ¥
60
Ans. (a) 670.5 Nm
Solution
Developed power in the rotor = 100 ¥ 103 + 500 = (100500) W
100500
\ Developed torque = = 673.8 Nm
1425
2p ¥
60
Ans. (a) 673.8 Nm
C28 A three-phase star-connected induction motor has rotor resistance and standstill reactance of
0.06 W and 0.2 W respectively per phase. When the rotor is at standstill, the induced emf between
the slip ring terminals is 150 V. The value of the rotor current at standstill is
(a) 624.5 A (b) 718.37 A (c) 414.75 A (d) 400.8 A
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/92
Solution
r2 = 0.06 W
x2 = 0.2 W
150 150
3 3
Rotor current I2 = = = 414.75 A
2 2
Ê r2 ˆ Ê 0.06 ˆ
˜ + (0.2)
1
ÁË s ˜¯ + x2
2
ÁË
1 ¯
C29 In the previous problem, the phase angle between rotor voltage and rotor current at 5% slip is
(a) 36.86° (b) 9.6° (c) 78° (d) 60°
Solution
r
s r2
Phase angle cos q2 = =
Êr ˆ r22 + ( sx2 )2
ÁË s ˜¯ + x
0.06
= = 0.986
(0.06)2 + (0.05 ¥ 0.2) 2
\ q2 = cos–1 0.986 = 9.6°
Ans. (b) 9.6°
C30 A 230 V, 60 Hz, 6-pole, three-phase induction motor driving a constant load torque at rated
voltage and frequency has speed of 1175 rpm. If the system disturbance causes 10% drop in volt-
age and 6% drop in frequency assuming constant friction and windage losses, the new operating
speed is
(a) 1101 rpm (b) 1128 rpm (c) 1200 rpm (d) 1170 rpm
Solution
Vs
T•
Ns
V2 = 0.9 V1
120 ¥ 60
N s1 = = 1200 rpm
6
1175
s1 = 1 – = 0.021
1200
! 22/93 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
f2 = 60 – 60 ¥ 0.06 = 56.4 Hz
120 ¥ 56.4
\ N s2 = = 1128 rpm
6
As torque is constant,
V12 s1 V s
=
N s1 Ns
2
Ê V ˆ Ns
s2 = Á 1 ˜ 2
¥ s1
Ë V2 ¯ Ns1
2
Ê 1 ˆ 1128
=Á ˜ ¥ ¥ 0.021 = 0.024
Ë 0.9 ¯ 1200
New operating speed is (1 – 0.024) ¥ 1128 = 1101 rpm
Ans. (a) 1101 rpm
C31 A 12-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz, 440 V star-connected induction motor has rotor resistance
and standstill reactance of 0.02 W and 0.4 W respectively. If the motor speed is 495 rpm, the ratio
of full load torque to maximum torque is
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.38 (c) 0.5 (d) 1
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 500 rpm
12
r2 = 0.02 W
x2 = 0.4 W
\ slip at maximum torque
r2 0.02
sm = = = 0.05
x2 0.4
Nr = 495 rpm at full load
\ full-load slip
495
sfl = 1 – = 0.01
500
Te fl 2 2
Now = = = 0.38
Tem sm sfl 0.05 0.01
+ +
sfl sm 0.01 0.05
C32 A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase slip-ring induction motor has rotor resistance of 0.1 W per phase.
The speed under maximum torque condition is 1400 rpm. How much resistance must be inserted
in the rotor phase to obtain the maximum torque at starting? Ignore magnetizing current and stator
leakage impedance.
(a) 1.49 W (b) 0.75 W (c) 1.39 W (d) 0.23 W
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
Speed at maximum torque Nm = 1400 rpm
1400
\ sm = 1 – = 0.067
1500
r
Now sm =
x
As r2 = 0.1 W
r 0.1
x2 = 2 = = 1.49 W
sm 0.067
Now, Test = Tem
Let at slip s¢m, maximum torque occurs at starting and let r¢2 be the resistance inserted to obtain
maximum torque at starting.
Test 2 2
\ =1= =
Tem s ¢ s 1
m
+ st sm¢ +
sst sm¢ sm¢
or, s¢m2 – 2s¢m + 1 =0
or, s¢m =1
r + r¢
Now =1
x
0.1 + r2¢
or, =1
x2
or, r¢2 = 1.49 – 0.1 = 1.39 W
Ans. (c) 1.39 W
C33 An 8-pole, 50 Hz, three-phase induction motor running on full load develops useful torque
of 100 Nm when the rotor emf makes 120 complete cycles per minute. The friction and windage
losses are 1 kW. Determine the air-gap power and the full-load copper loss.
(a) 8536 W, 356 W (b) 7536 W, 1000 W
(c) 8892 W, 1000 W (d) 8892 W, 356 W
! 22/95 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 750 rpm
8
120
sf = =2
60
2
\ s= = 0.04 at full load
50
\ rotor speed Nr = (1 – 0.04) ¥ 750 = 720 rpm
Tsh = 100 Nm
2p ¥ 720
\ Psh = 100 ¥ = 7536 W
60
\ mechanical power developed
Pm = 7536 + 1000 = 8536 W
Now if Pag is the air-gap power
Pm = (1 – s) Pag
8536
or Pag = = 8892 W
1 - 0.04
The rotor copper loss = sPag = 0.04 ¥ 8892 = 356 W
Ans. (d) 8892 W, 356 W
Common Data for Problems C34, C35 and C36
A squirrel-cage induction motor has a starting current five times the full load current at slip 0.06.
Determine starting torque in p.u. of full load values in the following methods of starting.
C37 A 4-pole, 50 Hz, slip-ring induction motor has rotor resistance of 0.3 W and rotor reactance
of 1 W. It runs at 1440 rpm at full load. The external resistance per phase to be inserted in the rotor
circuit to lower the speed to 1300 rpm, the torque remaining same is
(a) 2.5 W (b) 1.3 W (c) 0.3 W (d) 3 W
Solution
r
T•
Êr ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + x
r2 = 0.3 W
! 22/97 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
x2 = 1 W
N1 = 1440 rpm
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
1440
s1 = 1 – = 0.04
1500
N2 = 1300 rpm
1300
s2 = 1 – = 0.133
1500
As T1 = T2
r2 r + r¢
2
=
Ê r2 ˆ Ê r + r¢ ˆ
ÁË s ˜¯ + x2
2
ÁË s ˜¯ + x
1
where r¢ is the external resistance per phase inserted in the rotor circuit
0.3 0.3 + ¢
\ 2
=
Ê 0.3 ˆ (0.3 + ¢ ) 2
ÁË ˜ +1
2 + 12
0.04 ¯ (0.133) 2
0.3 + ¢
or, 5.24 ¥ 10–3 =
918.27 (0.3 + ¢ ) 2 + 1
or, 918.27 (0.3 + r¢)2 + 1 = 190.84 (0.3 + r¢)
\ r¢ = 0.028 W or 3 W
Ans. (d) 3 W
C38 An induction motor delivering an output of 40 kW has an efficiency of 90%. At this load, the
stator copper loss and rotor copper loss each equals the iron loss. The mechanical losses are one
third of the no-load loss. The mechanical loss is
(a) 1269 W (b) 634 W (c) 4440 W (d) 440 W
Solution
Po = 40 kW
h = 90%
40
\ Input = kW = 44.44 kW
0.9
Total losses = 4.44 kW
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/98
or, x=
7
\ Total loss = P + P + P + = = 4440
2 2
or, P = 1268.57 W
1268.57
\ Mechanical loss = W = 634.3 W
2
Ans. (b) 634 W
\ developed torque
Pg 13333.33
T= = Nm = 84.92 Nm
ws 1500
2p ¥
60
C41 The full-load shaft torque of a three-phase, 6-pole, 50 Hz induction motor is 200 Nm. If the
rotor emf makes 90 cycles per minute, the motor output is
(a) 20.3 kW (b) 200 kW (c) 50.4 kW (d) 20.9 kW
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
Frequency of rotor emf fr = sf
90
f r 60 1.5
\ s= = = = 0.03
f 50 50
Tsh = 200 Nm
Motor output Po = Tsh ¥ wr
Now, Nr = (1 – s) Ns = (1 – 0.03) ¥ 1000 = 970 rpm
970
\ Po = 200 ¥ 2p ¥ W = 20305 W = 20.305 kW
60
Ans. (a) 20.3 kW
C42 A three-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz, 240 V star-connected induction motor has rotor resistance and
standstill reactance of 0.15 W and 1 W respectively. If the ratio of stator to rotor turns is 5, the air-
gap power at 5% slip is
(a) 300 W (b) 109 W (c) 440 W (d) 623.8 W
Solution
240
Stator emf E1 = V
3
240
Standstill rotor emf E2 = 1
= = 27.71 V
5 5 3
sE2 0.05 ¥ 27.71
Rotor current I2 = = = 3.48 A
R22 + ( sX 2 )2 (0.15) 2 + (0.05 ¥ 1) 2
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/9:
C43 A six-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a rotor resistance and rotor reactance of
0.025 W and 0.12 W respectively at standstill. The external resistance to be added in the rotor circuit
to get 70% of maximum torque at starting is
(a) 0.05 W (b) 0.12 W (c) 0.035 W (d) 0.085 W
Solution
Tst = 0.7 Tm
Tst 2
= = 0.7
Tm 1
sm +
sm
2 sm
\ = 0.7
sm2 + 1
or, sm2 – 2.857 sm + 1 = 0
or sm = 0.4
If R is the external resistance,
0.025 +
0.4 =
0.12
or, R = 0.023 W
Ans. (c) 0.023 W
C44 A 240 V, 6-pole, 50 Hz three-phase star-connected wound rotor induction motor has a rotor
impedance of 0.03 + j 0.1 W per phase and negligible stator impedance at standstill. Consider the
following statements:
(i) The slip at which maximum torque occurs is 0.04.
(ii) The starting torque is 55% of the maximum torque.
(iii) The maximum torque developed by the motor is 2742.85 Nm.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) only (c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (i), (ii) and (iii)
Solution
r2 0.03
sm = = = 0.3
x2 0.1
! 22/:1 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
ÔÓË sm ¯ Ô˛
2
Ê 240 ˆ 0.03
3¥Á ¥
Ë 3 ˜¯ 0.3
=
ÏÔÊ 0.03 ˆ 2 ¸
2Ô
ÌÁË ˜¯ + (0.1) ˝ ¥ 104.67
ÔÓ 0.3 Ô˛
5760
= Nm = 2742.85 Nm
2.1
Hence, the statement (iii) is correct.
Ans. (c) (ii) and (iii)
C45 A 15 HP, 6-pole, 50 Hz, three-phase induction motor is operating at 950 rpm on full load.
The stator loss is 300 W and the rotational loss is 400 W. The efficiency of the motor is
(a) 87.3% (b) 91.67% (c) 93.7% (d) 89.5%
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/:2
950
\ s =1– = 0.05
1000
Pout = 15 ¥ 735.5 = 11032.5 W
Power developed by rotor
Pm = Pout + Rotational losses = 11032.5 + 400 = 11432.5 W
Pm 11432.5
\ air-gap power Pg = = = 12034.2 W
- s 1 - 0.05
C46 A 240 V, 4-pole, 50 Hz delta-connected three-phase induction motor has stator impedance
of 0.3 + j 0.5 W per phase and an equivalent rotor impedance of 0.5 + j 0.8 W per phase at standstill.
The motor speed at which the developed power is maximum is
(a) 938 rpm (b) 1440 rpm (c) 875 rpm (d) 1275 rpm
Solution
Considering both the stator and rotor impedance,
r2 0.5
sm = = = 0.375
2
r1 + ( x1 + x2 ) 2
(0.3) + (0.5 + 0.8) 2
2
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
\ motor speed at maximum torque
Nr = (1 – sm) Ns = (1 – 0.375) ¥ 1500 = 938 rpm
Ans. (a) 938 rpm
C47 A three-phase, 6-pole, 50 Hz, 440 V, 12 kW, slip-ring induction motor has full load slip of
4%. The starting torque is equal to the full-load torque. If the applied voltage is reduced to 400 V,
the new value of starting torque is
(a) 120 Nm (b) 98.7 Nm (c) 100 Nm (d) 90.3 Nm
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
! 22/:3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
s = 0.04
Nr = (1 – s) Ns = 960 rpm
Po 12 ¥ 103
\ Tfl = = Nm = 119.43 Nm
wr 960
2p ¥
60
Tst = Tfl = 119.43 Nm
As T • V12
C48 A 6-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has maximum torque of 250 Nm which occurs
at a speed of 865 rpm. Neglecting stator resistance, the torque at 3% slip is
(a) 237.6 Nm (b) 105.9 Nm (c) 157.4 Nm (d) 250 Nm
Solution
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1000 rpm
6
r2 = 0.5
Nr = 865 rpm
865
\ sm = 1 – = 0.135
1000
If torque at slip s = 0.03 is T then
T 2 2
= =
Tm s s 0. 03 0.135
+ m +
sm s 0.135 0.03
2
or, T = 250 ¥ = 105.9 Nm
0.222 + 4.5
Ans. (b) 105.9 Nm
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/:4
TFDUJPO!E;!TZODISPOPVT!HFOFSBUPS
D1 The direct-axis and quadrature-axis reactances of a salient-pole alternator are 1.2 p.u. and
1 p.u. respectively. The armature resistance is negligible. If this alternator is delivering rated kVA
at unity power factor and at rated voltage then its power angle is
(a) 30° (b) 45° (c) 60° (d) 90° [GATE 2011]
Solution
Xd = 1.2 p.u.
Xq = 1 p.u.
Ia = 1 p.u.
Vt = 1 p.u.
cos q =1
I a X q cos q + I a ra sin q ¥ ¥
tan d = = =1
Vt + I a X q sin q - I a ra cos q
\ d = 45°
Ans. (b) 45°
D2 A 100 kVA, 415 V (line) star-connected synchronous machine generates rated open-circuit
voltage of 415 V at a field current of 15 A. The short-circuit armature current at a field current of
10 A is equal to the rated armature current. The per unit saturated synchronous reactance is
(a) 1.731 (b) 1.5 (c) 0.666 (d) 0.577 [GATE 2007]
Solution
Synchronous impedance
Open-circuit phase voltage for a particular field current
=
Sh
hort-circuit phase current for same field current
415
3
= W = 1.148 W
100 ¥ 103 15
¥
3 ¥ 415 10
15
(Short-circuit current for 15 A field current = ¥ Rated current)
10
Neglecting armature resistance, synchronous reactance is 1.148 W
\ synchronous reactance
1.148 ¥ 0.1
= p.u. = 0.666 p.u.
(0.415) 2
Ans. (c) 0.666
! 22/:5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
D5 A 400 V, 50 kVA, 0.8 p.f. leading D connected, 50 Hz synchronous machine has a synchronous
reactance of 2 W and negligible armature resistance. The friction and windage losses are 2 kW and
the core loss is 0.8 kW. The shaft is supplying 9 kW load at a power factor of 0.8 leading. The line
current drawn is [GATE 2004]
(a) 12.29 A (b) 16.24 A (c) 21.29 A (d) 36.88 A
Solution
Power input Pin = (9 + 2 + 0.8) kW = 11.8 kW
If I1 be the input current then
VL IL cos q = 11.8 ¥ 103
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/:6
D6 Two three-phase, Y connected alternators are to be paralleled to a set of common busbars. The
armature has a per phase synchronous reactance of 1.7 W and negligible armature reactance. The
line voltage of the first machine is adjusted to 3300 V and that of the second machine is adjusted to
3200 V. The machine voltages are in phase at the instant they are paralleled. Under this condition,
the synchronizing current per phase will be
(a) 16.98 A (b) 29.41 A (c) 33.96 A (d) 58.82 A [GATE 2004]
Solution
3300 3200
-
Synchronizing current = 3 3 A
1.7 + 1.7
= 16.98 A
Ans. (a) 16.98
D7 A 500 MW, 3-phase Y connected synchronous generator has a rated voltage of 21.5 kV at 0.85
p.f. The line current when operating at full load rated conditions will be
(a) 13.43 KA (b) 15.79 KA (c) 23.25 KA (d) 27.36 KA [GATE 2004]
Solution
P = 500 ¥ 106 W
VL = 21.5 ¥ 103 V
cos q = 0.85
If IL be the line current then
3 VL IL cos q = P
P 500 ¥ 106
\ IL = = A = 15796 A
3 VL cos q 3 ¥ 21.5 ¥ 0.85
= 15.79 KA
Ans. (b) 15.79 KA
Solution
2000
Synchronous impedance = W=5W
400
\ internal voltage drop at a load current of 200 A is
5 ¥ 200 or, 1000 V
Ans. (d) 1000 V
E = Vt 2 + ( I a xs )2
E - Vt
\ xs =
Ia
208 192
E= V and Vt = V
3 3
(208) 2 - (192) 2
\ xs = W = 3.41 W
3 ¥ 13.53
Ans. (d) 3.41 W
D10 What is the maximum per unit reactive power that can be supplied by a synchronous ma-
chine operating at its rated terminal voltage whose synchronous reactance is 1.6 per unit and whose
maximum field current is limited to 2.4 times that required to achieve rated terminal voltage under
open-circuit conditions?
(a) 1.4 p.u. (b) 1.5 p.u. (c) 0.875 p.u. (d) 1 p.u.
Solution
Vt = 1 p.u.
Emax = 2.4 p.u.
xs = 1.6 p.u.
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/:8
Emax - Vt 2.4 - 1
\ maximum reactive power = = = 0.875 p.u.
xs 1.6
Ans. (c) 0.875 p.u.
D11 The manufacturer’s data sheet for a 26 kV, 750 MVA, 60 Hz, three-phase synchronous gen-
erator indicates that it has a synchronous reactance xs = 2.04 and leakage reactance xal = 0.18, both
in per unit on the generator base. The synchronous inductance and armature leakage inductance are
(a) 1.838 H, 0.43 H (b) 4.88 mH, 0.43 mH
(c) 4.88 mH, 0.162 H (d) 0.901 H, 0.162 H
Solution
(Base kV)2 (26) 2
Zbase = = = 0.901 W
Base MVA 750
\ xs = 2.04 ¥ 0.901 W = 1.838 W
1.838
or, synchronous inductance = H = 4.88 mH
2p ¥ 60
Similarly, xal = 0.18 ¥ 0.901 W = 0.162
0.162
\ armature leakage inductance = H
2p ¥ 60
= 0.43 mH
Ans. (b) 4.88 mH, 0.43 mH
202
Vag = = 116.7 V
3
For the same field current, the armature current on short circuit is
Isc = 118 A
Hence, unsaturated synchronous reactance
116.7
xs unsaturated = = 0.987 W
118
Saturated synchronous reactance
220
xs saturated = 3 W = 0.836 W
152
2.84
Short-circuit ratio = = 1.29
2.20
Ans. (b) 0.987 W, 0.836 W, 1.29
Solution
D14
If applied voltage is reduced by 10% then
P = K(0.9 Vt) sin d …(ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii),
K Vt sin 35° = K(0.9 Vt) sin d
sin 35∞
or, sin d =
0.9
or, d = 39.59°
Ans. (a) 39.6°
Solution
D15
Po P
To = • o
ws f
Vt sin d V sin 35∞
\ To • or To • t …(iii)
f f
If frequency is reduced by 10% then
Vt sin d
T• …(iv)
0.9 f
From Eq. (iii) and Eq. (iv),
Vt sin d Vt sin 35∞
=
0.9 f f
sin d = 0.9 sin 35° or, d = 31.07°
Ans. (c) 31.07°
Solution
D16
If both frequency and applied voltage is reduced by 10% then
0.9Vt sin d
T•
0.9 f
Vt sin d
or T•
f
Hence, d remains unchanged at 35 electrical degrees.
Ans. (d) 35°
! 22/211 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Generated voltage E = Vt + j Ia xs
460
= + 73.83 - cos -1 0.85 ¥ 4.15
3
= 265.58 + 306.39 58.21∞
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/212
= 426.99 + j 260.43
= 500 31.38∞ V
The field current can be calculated from the magnitude of generator voltage.
E
If = where Laf is the armature to field mutual inductance
w Laf
2 ¥ 500
\ If = A = 22.6 A
2p ¥ 60 ¥ 0.083
Ans. (a) 500 V, 22.6 A
Solution
D19
50 ¥ 103
Ia = = 62.755 A
3 ¥ 460 ¥ 1
460
E= + j 62.755 ∞ ¥ j 4.15
3
= 265.58 + 260.433 90∞ = 371.96 44.44∞ V
2 ¥ 371.96
If = A = 16.81 A
2p ¥ 60 ¥ 0.083
Ans. (c) 371.96 A, 16.81 A
Solution
D20
50 ¥ 103
Ia = A = 73.83 A
3 ¥ 460 ¥ 0.85
460
E= + j 73.83 cos -1 0.85 ¥ 4.15
3
= 265.58 + 306.39 121.788∞
= 104.18 + j 260.43 = 280.49 68.2∞ V
2 ¥ 280.49
If = A = 12.68 A
2p ¥ 60 ¥ 0.083
Ans. (b) 280.5 V, 12.68 A
Generated voltage
E = Vt + j Ia xs = 1 + j 0.972 -25.84∞ ¥ 0.268
= 1.14 11.89∞ p.u.
The field current required to achieve rated open-circuit armature voltage of 1 p.u. is 842 A.
Hence, field current required to achieve 1.14 p.u. voltage is 842 ¥ 1.14 A or 960 A.
Solution
D26
If field current is 842 A then
E = 1 d p.u.
P = 0.875 p.u.
EV
\ sin d = 0.875
xs
0.875 ¥ 0.268
or, sin d =
1¥1
or, d = 13.56°
\ E = 1 13.56∞
E - Vt 1 13.56∞ - 1
\ Ia = =
jxs ¥ 0.268
= 3.73 -76.44∞ + 3.73 90∞ = 0.875 – j 3.63 + j 3.73
Solution
2
Ê 0.5 ˆ
Vt = 1 - Á ¥ 1˜ = 0.968 p.u.
Ë 2 ¯
D29 A three-phase synchronous generator has a direct-axis synchronous reactance of 0.8 p.u. and
a quadrature-axis synchronous reactance of 0.5 p.u. The generator is supplying full load at 0.8 lag-
ging power factor at 1 p.u. terminal voltage. The power angle and the no-load voltage if the excita-
tion remains unchanged are
(a) 36.8°, 1 p.u. (b) 17.17°, 1 p.u.
(c) 17.17°, 1.6 p.u. (d) 36.8°, 1.6 p.u.
Solution
Vt = 1 p.u.
Ia = 1 -36.8∞ p.u.
Xd = 0.8 p.u. and Xq = 0.5 p.u.
! 22/217 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Vt sin q + I a X q
Power angle d = tan–1 –q
Vt cos q + I a ra
1 ¥ 0.6 + 1 ¥ 0.5
= tan–1 – 36.8° = 17.17°
1 ¥ 0.8
Ê 1 ¥ 0.6 + 1 ¥ 0.5 ˆ
E = Vt cos d + Id Xd = Vt cos d + Ia sin Á tan -1 ˜¯ Xd
Ë 1 ¥ 0.8
= 1 cos 17.17° + 1 ¥ sin 54° ¥ 0.8 = 1.6 p.u.
Ans. (c) 17.17°, 1.6 p.u.
D32 A three-phase 12-pole alternator has star-connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conduc-
tors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb and speed of the machine is 500 rpm. The line induced
emf is
(a) 4420 V (b) 2552 V (c) 4615 V (d) 2665 V
Solution
120 f
Ns =
P
12 ¥ 500
\ f= = 50 Hz
120
144
Slots per pole per phase q= =4
12 ¥ 3
180∞ 180∞
Slot angle (g) = = = 15°
Slots/pole 144 /12
g 4 ¥ 15∞
sin sin
Distribution factor Kd = 2 = 2 = 0.9577
g 15∞
sin 4 sin
2 2
Number of turns per phase
144 ¥ 10
N= = 240
2¥3
Emf = pf f N Kd = ¥ p ¥ 0.05 ¥ 50 ¥ 240 ¥ 0.9577
= 2551.67 V
Line value of induced emf = ¥ 2551.67 V = 4419.6 V / 4420 V
Ans. (a) 4420 V
! 22/219 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
D33 1200 kVA, 11 kV, three-phase star-connected synchronous generator delivers full-load cur-
rent at 0.8 power factor lagging. The armature resistance is 0.6 W and synchronous reactance is 8 W
per phase. The terminal voltage for same excitation and load current at 0.8 power factor leading is
(a) 6694 V (b) 11594.6 V (c) 11000 V (d) 12042 V
Solution
1200
Ia = = 62.98 A
3 ¥ 11
2 2
Ê 11000 ˆ Ê 11000 ˆ
E= Á ¥ 0.8 + 62.98 ¥ 0.6˜ + Á ¥ 0.6 + 62.98 ¥ 8˜
Ë 3 ¯ Ë 3 ¯
= 6694.19 V
As excitation is constant, E remains constant.
If the terminal voltage at 0.8 power factor leading is Vt then
TFDUJPO!F;!TZODISPOPVT!NPUPS
E2 Keeping the excitation voltage same, the load on the motor is increased such that the motor
current increases by 20%. The operating power factor will become
(a) 0.995 lagging (b) 0.995 leading
(c) 0.791 lagging (d) 0.848 leading
Solution
Ia = 12 ¥ 0.6 = 0.72 p.u.
E2 + Vt2 – 2EVt cos d = (Ia xs)2
\ (1.17)2 + 12 – 2 ¥ 1.17 ¥ 1 cos d = (0.72 ¥ 1)2
or, cos d = 0.79
\ sin d = 0.6123
Vt E
sin d = Vt Ia cos q
xs
1.17 ¥ 0.6123
\ cos q = = 0.995
1 ¥ 0.72
E cos d = 1.17 ¥ 0.79 = 0.924
\ Vt > E cos d
Hence power factor is lagging i.e., power factor is 0.995 lagging
Ans. (a) 0.995 lagging
E3 A three-phase, 400 V, 5 kW, star connected synchronous motor having an internal reactance of
10 W is operating at 50% load, unity power factor. Now the excitation is increased by 1%. What will
be the new load in per cent if the power factor is to be kept same? Neglect all losses and consider
linear magnetic circuit. [GATE 2006]
(a) 67.9% (b) 56.9% (c) 51% (d) 50%
Solution
5000
Ia = = 7.217 0∞ A
3 ¥ 400 ¥ 1
E = (Vt cos q - I a ra ) 2 + (Vt sin q - I a xs ) 2
2 2
Ê 400 ˆ Ê 400 7.217 ˆ
= Á ¥ 1 - 0˜ + Á ¥0- ¥ 10˜
Ë 3 ¯ Ë 3 2 ¯
= 53333.33 + 1302.13 = 233.74 V
E = 1.01 ¥ 233.74 = 236 V
\ E2 = (Vt cos q – Ia ra)2 + (Vt sin q – Ia xs)2
! 22/221 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
E4 A three-phase star connected synchronous motor has power input of 5000 W at rated voltage.
The synchronous reactance is 12 W and armature resistance is negligible. If the excitation voltage
is adjusted equal to the rated voltage of 400 V, the power angle is
(a) 7.18° (b) 30° (c) 22° (d) 10°
Solution
400
E =V=
3
3VE
sin d = 5000
xs
5000 ¥ 12
or, sin d = = 0.375
400 400
¥ ¥3
3 3
d = 22°
E5 A 2 MVA, 6.6 KV, 50 Hz, 6 pole, 3-phase synchronous motor has a per unit resistance of 0.02
and per unit synchronous reactance of 0.8. If the excitation voltage is 1.5 p.u. the value of maxi-
mum power input is
(a) 3.8 MW (b) 0.6 MW (c) 6.2 MW (d) 2.5 MW
Solution
( Base kV ) 2 (6.6) 2
Base impedance = =
Base MVA 2
= 21.78
Armature resistance ra = 0.02 ¥ 21.78 = 0.4356 W
Synchronous reactance xs = 0.8 ¥ 21.78 = 17.424 W
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/222
E6 A 400 V, 3-phase system feeds a 500 KVA load at 0.8 lagging p.f. A synchronous motor sup-
plying 100 H.P. mechanical load is connected to improve the power factor. If the synchronous motor
is operating at 0.8 p.f. leading, the total KVA and overall power factor is
(a) 495, 0.91 lead (b) 495, 0.91 lag
(c) 544.25, 0.91 lead (d) 544.25, 0.91 lag
Solution
System
cos q1 = 0.8 lag KW1 = 500 ¥ 0.8 = 400
sin q1 = 0.6 KVAR1 = 500 ¥ 0.6 = 300
Motor
100 ¥ 0.746
cos q2 = 0.8 lead KW2 = = 93.25
0.8
93.25
sin q2 = 0.6 KVA2 = = 116.56
0.8
KVAR2 = –116.56 ¥ 0.6 = –69.93
\ Total KW = 400 + 93.25 = 493.25
Total KVAR = 300 – 69.93 = 230
\ Total KVA = ( 493.25) 2 + ( 230) 2 = 544.24
493.25
Overall power factor = = 0.906 lag
544.24
Ans. (a)
! 22/223 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
E7 A 6.6 kV, 3-phase star connected synchronous motor draws a full load current of 100 A at 0.8
power factor leading. The armature resistance is 3 W. If the stray loss is 3000 W, the output power is
(a) 93 kW (b) 435 kW (c) 400 kW (d) 530 kW
Solution
6600
Power input = 3 Vt Ia cos q = 3 ¥ ¥ 100 ¥ 0.8
3
= 528000 W = 528 kW
Total copper loss = 3 Ia2 ra = 3 ¥ (100)2 ¥ 3
= 90000 W = 90 kW
Total loss = 90 + 3 = 93 kW
\ Output power = 528 – 93 = 435 kW
Ans. (b)
0.8 p.u.
0.8 p.u.
Vt
Eg +
– +
– Em
Now Pe = Vt Ia cos q
\ 0.8 = 1 ¥ Ia ¥ 0.8 or, Ia = 1 36.87∞ p.u.
\ Em = 1 – 1 36.87∞ Xj 0.8 = 1 – j 0.8 36.87∞
= 1 + 0.8 -53.13∞
= 1.48 – j 0.64
= 1.612 -23.38∞ p.u.
Ans. (b) 0.61 p.u.
E10 The minimum value of the induced emf Em for the machine to remain in synchronism is
(a) 300 V (b) 358 V (c) 400 V (d) 256 V
Solution
For stability maximum value of d is 90°
0.8 ¥ 0.8
Minimum value of Em = = 0.64 p.u.
1
= 0.64 ¥ 400
= 256 V
Ans. (d)
E11 If the excitation voltage is increased by 50% by raising the field excitation, developed power
remaining same, the new value of torque angle will be
(a) 20.7° (b) 15.9° (c) 11.9° (d) 30°
! 22/225 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
240
Vt = V
3
8000
Ia = A = 13.89 A
3 ¥ 240 ¥ 0.8
E = (Vt cos q - I a ra ) 2 + (Vt sin q - I a xs ) 2
2 2
Ê 240 ˆ Ê 240 ˆ
= Á ¥ 0.8˜ + Á ¥ 0.6 - 13.89 ¥ 2˜
Ë 3 ¯ Ë 3 ¯
Ans. (a)
E13 A 440 V, 50 Hz. six-pole synchronous motor is drawing 80 A of current at full load and unity
power factor. Assuming the motor to be lossless, the output torque of the motor is
(a) 735 Nm (b) 185.7 Nm (c) 384.2 Nm (d) 582.5 Nm
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/226
Solution
Input power Pi = 3 Vt Ia cos q = 3 ¥ 440 ¥ 80 ¥ 1
= 60968.2 W
As the motor is lossless, output power = Pi = 60968.2 W
120 ¥ 50
Speed of motor = Synchronous speed =
6
= 1000 rpm
60968.2
Hence output torque = Nm = 582.5 Nm
1000
2p ¥
60
Ans. (d) 582.5 Nm
E14 A plant operates at 0.8 lagging power factor and takes 3000 kW. A synchronous capacitor is
used to raise the overall power factor to unity. The synchronous capacitor losses are 300 kW. The
KVA rating and power factor of the synchronous capacitor are respectively
(a) 3750, 0.8 (b) 2270, 0.132 (c) 2250, 0.25 (d) 3000, 0.6
Solution
kW rating of the plant = 3000
Power factor = 0.8 lag
3000
KVAR rating of the plant = ¥ 0.6
0.8
= 2250
kW rating of the capacitor = 300
To make the overall power factor unity, the KVAR of the capacitor should be –2250
Hence KVA rating of the capacitor
= 300 – j 2250 KVA = 2270 -824∞ KVA
\ Power factor = cos 82.4° = 0.132 leading
Ans. (b)
E15 A 3-phase, 6.6 kV, 300 rpm, 50 Hz. star connected motor has a synchronous reactance of 1.5
W. The generated voltage is equal to 3600 V. At full load the rotor poles are displaced by a mechani-
cal angle of 2° from the no load position. The total developed mechanical power is
(a) 27435 kW (b) 7825 kW (c) 9384 kW (d) 30 kW
! 22/227 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Solution
120 ¥ 50
300 =
P
Number of poles
120 ¥ 50
P= = 20
300
The electrical torque angle is
Pa 20 ¥ 2∞
d= = = 20°
2 2
6600
Vt = V
3
Mechanical power developed
3Vt E
P= sin d
xs
6600
3¥ ¥ 3600
= 3 sin 20°
1.5
= 9383556.8 W
= 9383.5 kW
Ans. (c)
E16 A 440 V, three-phase, star connected salient pole synchronous motor is drawing 80 A current
at full load unity power factor. The d axis and q axis reactance per phase are 3 W and 2 W respec-
tively.
The power angle is equal to
(a) 32.2° (b) 25.1° (c) 16.9° (d) 0°
Solution
440
Vt =
3
Ia = 80 0∞ A
E = Vt – Ia ra – j Ia Xq
440
= – 80 ¥ 0 – j 80 ¥ 2
3
Sfwjfx!Qspcmfnt!)NDRt*!xjui!Tpmvujpot 22/228
440
= – j 160 = 300 -32.2∞
3
Ans. (a)
Ans. (d)
E18 Keeping the output voltage same the power angle is now reduced to 25°. The value of the
equivalent reactance which connects the machine to the bus will be
(a) 1.69 p.u. (b) 0.19 p.u. (c) 1 p.u. (d) 3.2 p.u.
Solution
d = 25°
0.8 = Pmax sin 25°
\ Pmax = 1.89
EVt 3.2 ¥ 1
1.89 = =
x¢ x¢
3.2
\ x¢ = = 1.69
1.89
Hence equivalent reactance which connects the machine to the bus is 1.69 – 1.5 = 0.19 p.u.
Ans. (b)
! 22/229 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
E19 A factory has a load of 1500 kW at power factor of 0.75 lagging. It is derived to improve the
factory power factor to 0.9 lagging with the installation of a synchronous condenstor. The kVAR
rating of the synchronous condenser is
(a) 1322.87 (b) 726.5 (c) 924 (d) 596.4
Solution
1500
Factory kVA = = 2000
0.75
Factory kVAR = 2000 sin (cos–1 0.75) = 1322.87
Final power factor = 0.9
\ combined kVAR = 1500 tan (cos–1 0.9)
= 726.48
VA
0 0K 1322.87 KVAR
20
–1 0.75
cos
cos–1 0.9
1500 kW
E20 A 440 V, 100 KW, 50 Hz. star connected synchronous motor operating at 0.8 power factor
leading has full load efficiency of 90%. The armature resistance is 0.1 W. How much electrical
power is connected to mechanical power?
(a) 10 kW (b) 9.96 kW (c) 101.15 kW (d) 111.11 kW
Solution
100
Pin = = 111.11 kW
0.9
111.11 ¥ 103
Ia = = 182.24 A
3 ¥ 440 ¥ 0.8
Copper losses Pcu = 3 Ia2 ra = 3 ¥ (182.24)2 ¥ 0.1
= 9963.42 W
Neglecting other losses the power converted from electrical to mechanical form is
Pin – Pcu = 111.11 – 9.963 = 101.147 kW.
Ans. (c)
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm
Dibqufs!2
Gvoebnfoubm!Dpodfqut!jo!Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
1. I =5A
B = 1 Wb/m2
l = 10 cm = 0.1 m
sin q = sin 90° = 1
Force on the conductor = B I l sin q
= 1 ¥ 5 ¥ 0.1 ¥ 1
= 0.5 N
2. l = 10 cm = 0.1 m
A = 10 cm2 = 10 ¥ 10–4 m2
NA = 100
NB = 500
mr = 300
Coefficient of mutual inductance
N1 N 2
M=
l /mo m r A
100 ¥ 500 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 300 ¥ 10 -3
= = 0.1884 H
0.1
Change in current di = 10 A
! 2/3 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Time dt = 0.1 s
Hence emf induced in coil B is
di 10
M = 0.1884 ¥ V = 18.84 V
dt 0.1
3. f = 5 ¥ 10–4 Wb
I = 10 A
N = 150
Self inductance
N f 150 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -4
L= = H = 7.5 mH
I 10
Change of current di = 10 – (– 10) = 20 A
Time dt = 0.2 s
di 20
Hence induced emf e = L = 7.5 ¥ 10–3 ¥ = 0.75 V
dt 0.2
4. N = 300
L = 8 cm = 0.08 m
r = 2 cm = 0.02 m
B = 1.1 Wb/m2
I =2A
Force experienced by the coil
F =2NBIl
= 2 ¥ 300 ¥ 1.1 ¥ 2 ¥ 0.08 N = 105.6 N
\ Torque T = F ¥ r = 105.6 ¥ 0.02 Nm = 2.112 Nm
5. N = 500
d = 300 mm = 300 ¥ 10–3 m = 0.3 m
(50) 2 p
A =p¥ sqmm = ¥ 2500 ¥ 10–6 sqm
4 4
\ l = p ¥ 0.3 m
Inductance
-7 p -6
m AN 2 4p ¥ 10 ¥ 4 ¥ 2500 ¥ 10 ¥ (500)
2
L= =
l p ¥ 0.3
p ¥ 10 -7 ¥ 2500 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 250000
=
0.3
= 0.654 mH
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/4
6. f1 = 600 Hz
Bm1 = 0.6 Wb/m2
Pe1 = 16 W
f2 = 800 Hz
Bm2 = 0.5 Wb/m2
Pe • f 2 Bm2
f 22 Bm2 2 (800) 2 ¥ (0.5) 2
\ Pe2 = Pe1 ¥ = 16 ¥
f12 Bm21 (600) 2 ¥ (0.6) 2
= 19.75 W
7. Output power = 100 ¥ 0.7 kW = 70 kW
Core loss = 800 W
Copper loss = 1000 W
Output Output
Efficiency = =
Input Output + Loss
70 ¥ 103
= ¥ 100%
70 ¥ 103 + 1800
= 97.49%
8. P = 8
Ns = 1500 rpm
120 f
Ns =
P
PN s 8 ¥ 1500
\ f= = = 100 Hz
120 120
9. P = 6
Output = (35 – 3) HP = 32 HP = 32 ¥ 735.5 W
= 23.536 kW
Total loss = (3 ¥ 735.5 ¥ 10–3 + 3 + 1.07) kW
= 6.2765
Output 23.536
m= = ¥ 100% = 78.95%
Output + Loss 23.536 + 6.2765
10. V = 400 V
N = 795 rpm
Ia =8A
ra = 0.3 W
Eb = V – Ia ra = 400 – 8 ¥ 0.3 = 397.6 V
! 2/5 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Eb I a Eb I a
Torque T = =
w 2p N
60
397.6 ¥ 8
= Nm
795
2p ¥
60
= 38.23 Nm
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/6
Dibqufs!3
Ejsfdu!Dvssfou!)ed*!Nbdijoft
1. V = 250 V
Ia = 100 A
ra = 0.2 W
Z = 272
Brush drop = 2 V
f = 0.05 Wb
For lap winding
A=P
(a) For generator, generated emf
E = V + Ia ra + Brush drop
= 250 + 100 ¥ 0.2 + 2 = 272 V
If N be the speed in rpm then
Pf ZN
E=
60 A
60 AE 60 ¥ P ¥ 272
or, N= = = 1200 rpm
Pf Z P ¥ 0.05 ¥ 272
(b) For motor, back emf
E = V – Ia ra – Brush drop
= 250 – 100 ¥ 0.2 – 2 = 228 V
P ¥ 0.05 ¥ 272 N
\ 228 =
60 P
228 ¥ 60
or, N= = 1006 rpm
272 ¥ 0.05
2. E1 = 400 V
Let initial flux be f1 and initial speed be N1
E2 f 2
(a) =
E1 f1
f2 = 0.8 f1
f2
\ E2 = E1 = 400 ¥ 0.8 = 320 V
f1
! 2/7 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
(b) N2 = 1.25 N1
E2 N 2
=
E1 N1
E2 f 2 N 2
=
E1 f1 N1
60 AE 60 ¥ 2 ¥ 1030
or, f= = = 4.12 ¥ 10–3 Wb
PZN 10 ¥ 2000 ¥ 1500
= 0.004 Wb
EIa E Ia 1030 ¥ 20
(c) Torque = = = = 131 Nm
w N 1500
2p 2p ¥
60 60
4. rsh = 40 W
Rse = 0.03 W
ra = 0.06 W
V = 250 V
IL = 100 A
V 250
(a) Ish = = = 6.25 A
rsh 40
\ Ia = 100 + 6.25 = 106.25 A
\ E = V + Ia ra = 250 + 106.25 ¥ 0.06
= 256.375
(b) Voltage across shunt winding is V + IL rse = 250 + 100 ¥ 0.03 = 253 V
253
Ish = A = 6.325 A
40
\ Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 6.325 = 106.325 A
\ E = 253 + 106.325 ¥ 0.06 + 2 = 261.38 V
250
(c) Ish = A = 6.25 A
40
\ Ia = 100 + 6.25 = 106.25 A
\ E = V + Ia (ra + rse) = 250 + 106.25 (0.03 + 0.06) + 2 = 261.56 V
5. V = 240 V
2.5
Voltage regulation =
100
Vnl - V 2.5
\ =
V 100
! 2/9 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Vnl 2.5
–1 =
V 100
Ê 2.5 ˆ
Vnl = 240 Á1 + = 246 V
Ë 100 ˜¯
6. V = 240 V
N1 = 850 rpm
I L1 = 72 A
ra = 0.242 W
rsh = 95.2 W
240
Ish = A = 2.52
95.2
I a1 = 72 – 2.52 = 69.48 A
Eb1 = V – I a1 ra = 240 – 69.48 ¥ 0.242 = 223.18 V
N2 = 1650 rpm
I a2 = 50.4 A
Eb2 = V – I a2 ra = 240 – 50.4 ¥ 0.242 = 227.8 V
Eb2 f2 N 2
=
Eb1 f1 N1
f2 Eb2 N1 227.8 850
\ = ¥ = ¥ = 0.5258
f1 Eb1 N 2 223.18 1650
f1 - f2
Reduction in flux = ¥ 100%
f1
Ê f ˆ
= Á1 - 2 ˜ ¥ 100%
Ë f1 ¯
= (1 – 0.5258) ¥ 100% = 47.4%
7. V = 240 V
N1 = 850 rpm
IL = 91 A
N2 = 634 rpm
ra = 0.221 W
rsh = 120 W
Resistance in series with armature R = 2.14 W
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/:
240
Ish = = 2 A; I a1 = 91 – 2 = 89 A
120
Eb1 = V – I a1 ra = 240 – 89 ¥ 0.221 = 220.331
Eb2 = V – I a2 (ra + R) = 240 – I a2 (0.221 + 2.14) = 240 – 2.36 Ia2
Eb1 N1
= fi Eb2 = Eb1 ¥ N 2
Eb2 N2 N1
634
\ 240 – 2.36 I a2 = 220.331 ¥ = 164.34
850
or, I a2 = 32.05 A
8. V = 240 V
N = 2500 rpm
IL = 140 A
ra = 0.0873 W
rsh = 95.3 W
240
Ish = A
95.3
240
Ia = IL – Ish = 140 – = 137.48 A
95.3
Eb = V – Ia ra = 240 – 137.48 ¥ 0.0873 = 228 V
Eb I a 228 ¥ 137.48
Torque = = Nm = 119.8 Nm
w 2500
2p ¥
60
9. Area of pole face = Pole arc ¥ axial length
Pole arc
= 0.7
Pole pitch
Length of pole shoe = 0.2 m
Diameter of pole shoe circle = 0.35 m
p ¥ 0.35
Area of pole face = 0.7 ¥ ¥ 0.2 = 0.03846 m2
4
Flux
Flux density =
area of pole shoe
! 2/21 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Pf ZN 60 AE 60 ¥ P ¥ 250
E= fif= =
60 A PZN P ¥ 1200 ¥ 500
= 0.025 Wb
0.025
\ Flux density = Wb/m2 = 0.65 Wb/m2
0.03846
10. P = 50 kW
V = 250 V
N = 400 rpm
50, 000
IL = = 200 A
250
ra = 0.02 W
rsh = 50 W
250
Ish = =5A
50
Ia = IL + Ish = 205 A
E1 = V + Ia ra + 2 = 250 + 205 ¥ 0.02 + 2 = 256.1 V
When the machine runs as motor
50, 000
IL = A = 200 A
250
Ia = IL – Ish = 195 A
E2 = V – Ia ra – 2 = 250 – 195 ¥ 0.02 – 2 = 244.1 V
E2 N 2
=
E1 N1
E2 244.1
or, N2 = N1 ¥ = 400 ¥ = 381.3 rpm
E1 256.1
11. r = 0.5 W
Ia = 60 A
V = 500 V
I • N3
If N1 = N then N2 = 0.75 N
T2 N 23 (0.75 N )3
= = = 0.4218
T1 N13 N3
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/22
T2 I a22 I a22
= 2 = = 0.4218
T1 I a1 (60) 2
I a2 = 60 0.4218 = 38.97 A
E2 N 2 f2 N 2 I a2
= = (E f • Ia in series motor)
E1 N1 f1 N1 I a1
Now, E1 = V – Ia r = 500 – 60 ¥ 0.5 = 470 V
E2 = 500 – 38.97 ¥ (0.5 + R)
500 – 38.97( R + 0.5) 0.75 ¥ 38.97
\ =
470 60
R + 0.5 = 6.955
or, R = 6.455 W
12. V = 250
P =4
A =2
ra = 0.25 W
rsh = 125 W
Z = 500
f = 0.02 Wb
IL = 14 A
Rotational loss = 300 W
Ê 250 ˆ
Eb = V – Ia ra = 250 – Á14 – ¥ 0.25
Ë 125 ˜¯
= 250 – 12 ¥ 0.25 = 247 V
Pf ZN 247 ¥ 60 ¥ 2
Eb = fiN= = 741 rpm
60 A 4 ¥ 0.02 ¥ 500
Eb I a 247 ¥ 12
\ T= = Nm = 38.2 Nm
w 741
2p ¥
60
Output = Eb Ia – 300 = 247 ¥ 12 – 300 = 2664 W
2664
\ Efficiency = ¥ 100% = 76.11%
250 ¥ 14
! 2/23 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
13. P = 10 kW
V = 250 V
Rotational loss = 400 W
ra = 0.5 W
rsh = 250 W
10, 000
IL = A = 40 A
250
250
Ish = A=1A
250
Ia = IL + Ish = 41 A
N N
fi Eb = Eb nl = ¥ 247
N nl 1000
100 ¥ 2p N N
\ = ¥ 247
60 I a 1000
100 ¥ 2p ¥ 1000
or, Ia = = 42.37 A
60 ¥ 247
100 ¥ 2p ¥ N
Now Eb = = V – Ia ra = 250 – 42.37 ¥ 0.6
60 ¥ 42.37
= 224.578
\ N = 909 rpm
Now P = 10 kW
N = 1200 rpm
10,000 = Eb Ia = (V – Ia ra) Ia = (250 – Ia ¥ 0.6) Ia
I sh ¥ 1200
\ Eb = 247 ¥ = 223.105
250
¥ 1000
150
250 1
\ Ish = 223.105 ¥ ¥ 1000 ¥
150 247 ¥ 1200
= 1.2545 A
If R is the external resistance then
250
1.2545 =
150 + R
250
or, R= – 150 = 49 W
1.2545
! 2/27 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
18. V = 200 V
T • N2
N1 = 600 rpm
I L1 = 30 A
Neglecting field current
I a1 = 30 A
Now, for shunt motor T • Ia
I a1 T1 N12
= =
I a2 T2 N 22
30 (600) 2
\ =
I a2 N 22
30
\ I a2 = N2 …(i)
3600 2
Eb1 200
= (Neglecting ra)
Eb2 200 – I a2 ¥ 20
200 600
\ = …(ii)
200 - 20 I a2 N2
Solving Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii)
N = 33.65 rpm Ia = 9.436 A
19. V = 250 V
P = 15 kW
hmax = 0.88
N = 700 rpm
At maximum efficiency output power
Pmax = 0.8 ¥ 15 kW = 12 kW
rsh = 100 W
Under maximum efficiency
12
0.88 =
12 + Loss
12
\ Loss = – 12 = 1.636 kW = 1636 W
0.88
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/28
1636
Constant loss = Variable loss = W = 818 W
2
\ Ia2 ra = 818
Dibqufs!4
Tjohmf.Qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst
1. f = 50 Hz
E1 = 440 V
N1 = 200
(a) If fm is the peak value of flux then
E1 = 4.44 f fm N1
440
or fm = Wb = 0.0099 Wb.
4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 200
(b) N2 = 50
Voltage induced in the secondary
E2 = 4.44 f fm N2 = 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.0099 ¥ 50 V = 110 V.
2. A = 100 ¥ 10–4 m2 = 0.01 m2
E1 = 200 V; E2 = 50 V; Bm = 1 Wb/m2
Assuming 9% loss of area, net area of core = 0.01 ¥ 0.9 m2 = 0.009 m2
E1 200
Primary turns N1 = = = 100
4.44 f Bm A 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 1 ¥ 0.009
E2 50
Secondary turns N2 = N1 = ¥ 100 = 25
E1 200
E1 N1 100
Transformer ratio = = = 4.
E2 N 2 25
3. Number of turns of primary winding N1 = 100
Number of turns of secondary winding N2 = 200
Resistance of primary winding R1 = 0.05 W
Resistance of secondary winding R2 = 0.3 W
(a) Resistance of primary winding referred to secondary
2 2
ÊN ˆ Ê 200 ˆ
R1¢ = R1 ¥ Á 2 ˜ = 0.05 ¥ Á = 0.05 ¥ 4 = 0.2 W.
Ë N1 ¯ Ë 100 ˜¯
(b) Resistance of secondary winding referred to the primary
2 2
Ê N1 ˆ Ê 100 ˆ 0.3
R2¢ = R2 ¥ Á ˜ = 0.3 ¥ Á ˜ = W = 0.075 W
Ë N2 ¯ Ë 200 ¯ 4
! 2/31 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
N1 1000
=
N2 200
1 Ê 1 ˆ
or Pc + Pcu = 150 + 0.03 Á Pc + Pcu ˜
4 Ë 4 ¯
1 150
or Pc + Pcu = = 154.693 W (ii)
4 0.97
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii),
Pcu = 206.185 W
and Pc = 103.1 W.
6. Iron loss = 200 W
Copper loss at a load of 20 kVA is = 180 W
(a) Output at 0.81 p.f. (lag) = 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.81 = 16200 W
Total losses = 200 + 180 = 380 W
Input = Output + Losses = 16200 + 380 = 16580 W
Output 16200
Efficiency = = = 0.977 = 97.7%
Input 16580
(b) New load is 30 kVA at 0.91 p.f. (lag)
Output = 30 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.91 = 27300 W
2
Ê 30 ˆ 9
Copper losses at a load of 30 kVA is, Pcu = 180 ¥ Á ˜ = 180 ¥ = 405 W
Ë 20 ¯ 4
Input = Output + Losses = 27300 + 200 + 405 = 27905 W
27300
Efficiency = = 0.978 = 97.8%.
27905
50, 000
7. Primary full-load current = A = 15.15 A
3300
4.2 I1Zo1
Now, =
100 V1
15.15 Zo1
or 0.042 =
300
or Zol = 9.148 W
where Zo1 = equivalent impedance referred to the primary.
I12 Ro1 I1 Ro1 15.15 Ro1
Again, 0.018 = = =
V1 I1 V1 3300
or Ro1 = 3.92 W,
! 2/33 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
È 76.5 ˘
\ Losses = Í - 76.5˙ = 4.026 kW
Î 0.95 ˚
At maximum efficiency, core losses = copper losses
\ core losses = copper losses = 2.013 kW
2.013 kW is the copper losses at 90% of full-load.
2
Ê 1 ˆ
So full-load ohmic losses = 2.013 ¥ Á = 2.485 kW
Ë 0.9 ˜¯
If I2 be the full-load secondary current,
( I 22 RO 2 ) = 2485, where RO2 is the equivalent resistance referred to as the secondary.
ÊI R ˆ
\ I2 V2 Á 1 O 2 ˜ = 2485
Ë V2 ¯
or 100 ¥ 103 ¥ Rp.u. = 2485, where Rp.u. is the p.u. resistance
or Rp.u. = 0.02485
Now Zp.u. = 0.05
\ Xp.u. = (0.05) 2 - (0.02485) 2 = 0.04338
Voltage regulation = (Rp.u. cos q2 + Xp.u. sin q2) = 0.02485 ¥ 0.8 + 0.04338 ¥ 0.6
= 0.0459 or, 4.59%.
12. Core loss = 50 W; full-load ohmic loss = 120 W
From 6 a.m. to 12 noon,
Output = 5 ¥ 6 = 30 kWh
5
kVA load = = 7.143
0.7 2
Ê 7.143 ˆ
Ohmic losses for 6 hours = Á ¥ 120 = 61.22 W
Ë 10 ˜¯
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/36
100 ¥ 103
Full-load current at secondary side = = 9.09 A
11000
267.3
At maximum efficiency, I2M = 9.09 A = 4.82 A.
950.7
V2 I 2 cos f2
19. h(f – L) =
V2 I 2 cos f2 + Pi + Pc ( f - L )
\ Pi + Pc (f – L) = 55.56 (i)
ÊI ˆ
V2 Á 2 ˜ cos f2
Ë 2¯
hÊ 1 ˆ
= 2
ÁË 2 f - L˜¯ ÊI ˆ Ê 1ˆ
V2 Á 2 ˜ cos f2 + Pi + Á ˜ Pc ( f - L )
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯
\ Pi + 0.25 Pc (f – L) = 27.78 (ii)
18.52
Output at maximum efficiency = 500 = 353.55 W
37.04
\ at maximum efficiency Pc = Pi
353.55
Maximum efficiency = = 0.9051 p.u.
353.55 + 18.52 + 18.52
20. hmax = 0.98
\ iron loss (Pi) = 653 W
Pi
At maximum efficiency, x = = 0.8
Pc ( f - L )
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/3:
\ Pc (f – L) = 1020 W
Pc ( f - L )
\ Rep.u. = = 0.0102
d
5
Zep.u. = = 0.05
100
Xep.u. = 0.04895
I2
Approximate voltage regulation = [R2 cos f + Xe2 sin f]
V2
= 0.0862 p.u. = 8.62%.
23. For a two winding transformer,
VH IH = VL IL = Sin = Sout
\ 400 IH = 5 ¥ 103 or, IH = 12.5 A
Similarly, IL = 50 A
Figure 3.60 shows the winding diagram of two-winding transformer working as an auto-
transformer.
IH
500 A
IL = 62.5 A
VH = 500 V
Gjh/! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!34
For an auto-transformer,
VH 500
aA = = = 1.25
VL 400
IL I
\ IH = = L
a A 1.25
Current through 400 V winding
IL
I = IL – IH = IL – = 0.2 IL
1.25
Since the current rating of 400 V winding is 12.5 A
0.2 IL = 12.5
or IL = 62.5
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/42
12 È V1 ˘
fmax = ÍE = 12˙
4.44 ¥ 50 Î N1 ˚
= 0.054 Wb
f max
\ cross-sectional area = = 0.036 m2.
Bmax
È Ê 1100 ˆ
2 ˘ È Ê 1100 ˆ
2 ˘
Z(HV) = Í0.1 + Á ˜ 0.006 ˙ + j Í0.4 + Á ˜ 0.01˙
ÍÎ Ë 230 ¯ ˙˚ ÍÎ Ë 230 ¯ ˙˚
= [0.237 + j 0.629] W
ÈÊ 230 ˆ 2 ˘ ÈÊ 230 ˆ 2 ˘
Z(LV) = ÍÁ ˜ 0.1 + 0.006 ˙ + j ÍÁ ˜ 0.4 + 0.01˙
ÍÎË 1100 ¯ ˙˚ ÍÎË 1100 ¯ ˙˚
= [0.0104 + j 0.0275] W
( kV ) 2 (1.1) 2
ZB (HV) = = = 12.1 W
( MVA ) 100 ¥ 10 -3
! 2/43 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
0.237 + j 0.629
Zp.u. (HV) = = (0.019 + j 0.052)
12.1
È (0.23)2 ˘
Zp.u. (LV) = 0.0196 + j 0.052. Íwhere Z B ( LV) = -3
= 0.529˙
Î 100 ¥ 10 ˚
26. Impedance referred to LV side.
È Ê 1ˆ ˘
2 È Ê 1ˆ
2 ˘
Z(LV) = Í0.05 + Á ˜ 3˙ + j Í0.05 + Á ˜ 5.3˙
ÍÎ Ë 10 ¯ ˙ ÍÎ Ë 10 ¯ ˙˚
˚
= 0.08 + j 0.103 W
20 ¥ 103
\ I2 = = 100 A
200
(a) Voltage drop at 0.8 p.f. lagging = 100 [0.08 ¥ 0.8 + 0.103 ¥ 0.6] = 12.58 V
12.58
\ voltage regulation = ¥ 100 = 6.29%
200
Voltage drop at unity p.f. = 100 [0.08 ¥ 1] = 8 V
\ voltage regulation = 4%
Voltage drop at 0.707 leading p.f. = 100 [0.08 ¥ 0.707 – 0.103 ¥ 0.707] = – 1.63 V
\ voltage regulation = –0.815%
(b) Secondary terminal voltage at 0.8 p.f. lagging
V2 = (200 – 12.58) = 187.4 V
V2 (at) unity p.f. = (200 – 8) = 192 V
V2 (at) 0.707 leading p.f. (200 + 1.63) = 201.63 V.
Z HV (W) I HV ( rated )
27. = 0.10
VHV ( rated )
ZHV (W) IHV (rated) = 0.10 VHV (rated)
= 0.10 ¥ 4000 = 400 V = Vsc.
25 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
28. h(fL, up.f.) = = 97.08%
25 ¥ 103 + 350 + 400
25 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 / 2
hÊ 1 ˆ
= = 96.5%
ÁË 2 fL, upf ˜¯ 1 1
25 ¥ 103 ¥ + 350 + ¥ 400
2 4
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/44
350
(a) K = = 0.935
400
Load for max. h = 25 ¥ 0.935 = 23.385 kVA
Pi = 350 W. Pc = (0.935)2 ¥ 400 = 350 W.
4071
and K= = 0.71
8079
1000 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.71
hmax = = 98.9%.
1000 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.71 + 2 ¥ 4071
20 ¥ 103 ¥ 1
30. hmax = = 0.98
20 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 + 2 Pi
È Ê 22.22 ˆ 2 ˘
200 Í1 + Á ˜ ˙ ¥ 6 = 2.68 kWh (loss)
ÍÎ Ë 20 ¯ ˙˚
204
\ h(all day energy) = = 96.77%.
204 + 6.82
! 2/45 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
31.
I1
100
I2
V1 = 500 V
V2 = 400 V
I2 – I1
Gjh/! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!42
1000
I1 = 10 ¥ = 100 A
100
500 ¥ 100
(kVA)auto = = 50
1000
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.85
hTW = = 0.97
10 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.85 + PL
PL = 262.9 W
\ full-load output as auto (0.85 p.f.) = 50 ¥ 0.85 = 42.4 kW
42.5
hauto = = 99.38%.
42.5 + 0.2629
32.
I1
I2
V1 = 600 V
N2 V2 = 200 V
I2 – I1
Gjh/! Djsdvju!ejbhsbn!pg!Qspc/!43
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/46
20 ¥ 103
I1 = = 50 A
400
600 ¥ 50
(KVA)auto = = 30
1000
20 ¥ 103
I2 = = 100 A
200
\ I2 – I1 = 50 A.
Z2 0.015
33. S1 = SL = ¥ 25 = 15 kVA
Z1 + Z 2 0.025
Z1 0.01
S2 = SL = 25 = 10 kVA
Z1 + Z 2 0.025
15 ¥ 1000 10 ¥ 1000
(a) I1 = = 68.2 A. I2 = = 45.6 A
220 220
15
(b) Percentage rated capacity used in transformer 1 = = 75%
20
10
Percentage rated capacity used in transformer 2 = = 66.7%.
15
34. S1 (rated) = 1000 kVA S2 (rated) = 500 kVA
Z1 = 0.02 + j 0.07 = 0.0728 –74°
Z2 = (0.025 + j 0.0875) ¥ 2 = 0.182 –74°
Z2 Z1
S1 = SL S2 = SL
Z1 + Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
SL = 1400KVA S2 = 3500KVA
As total load is increased the 1000KVA transformer will be the first to reach its full value.
SL (max) = 1400KVA.
! 2/47 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Dibqufs!5
Uisff.qibtf!Usbotgpsnfst
1. V1L = 6600 V
N1
= 12
N2
I1L = 20 A
(a) For YY connection
6600
V1P = V
3
V1P N
= 1 = 12
V2 P N2
6600
\ V2P = V
12 3
6600
Hence V2L = 3 V2P = = 550 V
12
I1P = I1L = 20 A
I1P N
= 2
I 2P N1
N1
or, I2P = I1P = 20 ¥ 12 = 240 A
N2
I2L = I2P = 240 A
I1L = IIP = 20 A
N
\ I2P = I1P ¥ 1 = 20 ¥ 12 A
N2
I2L = 3I2P = 3 ¥ 240 = 415.69 A
1000 ¥ 103
I2P = I2L = A
3 ¥ 400
400
1000 ¥ 103
The secondary current referred to the primary I ¢2 = ¥ 3
3 ¥ 400 6600
3
1000 ¥ 103
= A = 87.47 A
3 ¥ 6600
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/4:
200 ¥ 103
Tertiary line current I3L = A
3 ¥ 110
Since the tertiary is delta connected, phase current
I 3 L 200 ¥ 103
I3P = = A
3 3 ¥ 110
Tertiary current referred to the primary
Primary current = 87.47 – cos -1 0.8 + 17.49 cos -1 0.5 + 5.5 90∞
= 78.721 – j 42.832
= 90 -28.55∞ A
Dibqufs!6
Gvoebnfoubmt!pg!bd!Spubujoh!Nbdijoft
1. P = 4
f = 50 Hz
Number of slots S = 36
Number of conductors per slot = 30
\ Number of conductors = 36 ¥ 30 = 1080
1080
Total Number of turns = = 540
2
540
\ Number of turns per phase N = = 180
3
36
Number of slots per pole per phase q = =3
4¥3
180∞ 180∞
Slot angle y = = = 20°
Slots per pole 36/4
Hence, distribution factor
qy 3 ¥ 20∞
sin sin
Kd = 2 = 2 = 0.9598
y 20∞
q sin 3 sin
2 2
Phase voltage
E = 4.44 Kd f f N
= 4.44 ¥ 0.9598 ¥ 0.05 ¥ 50 ¥ 180
= 1917.68 V
180∞ 180∞
Slot angle r = = = 30°
Slots per pole 2 ¥ 3
qy 2 ¥ 30∞
sin sin
2 = 2 0.5
\ Kd = = = 0.966
y 30∞ 0.5176
q sin 2 sin
2 2
As coil span is 150°, chording angle
a = 180° – 150° = 30°
30∞
\ KP cos = 0.9659
2
\ Phase voltage E = 4.44 Kd KP f f N
= 4.44 ¥ 0.966 ¥ 0.9659 ¥ 0.06 ¥ 50 ¥ 64
= 795.4 V
4. P = 6
Ns = 1000
120 f
Ns =
P
P N s 6 ¥ 1000
\ f= = = 50 Hz.
120 120
Number of slots per pole per phase q = 3
Slots angle y = 20°
qy 3 ¥ 20∞
sin sin
\ Kd = 2 = 2 = 0.9598
y 20∞
q sin 3 sin
2 2
Number of slots in each phase S = 3 ¥ 6 = 18
Conductors per slot = 10
\ Total number of conductor in each phase = 18 ¥ 10 = 180
180
Number of turns per phase N =
2
Phase voltage
180
E = 4.44 f f N Kd = 4.44 ¥ 20 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 50 ¥ ¥ 0.9598
2
= 383.5 V
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/54
5. No. of poles P = 10
Slots per pole = 16
\ Total number of slots = 16 ¥ 10 = 160
1
In single layer winding machine the number of coils = (number of slots)
2
1
\ Total number of coils = ¥ 160 = 80
2
Each coil has 20 turns
\ Total number of turns = 80 ¥ 20 = 1600
1600
Number of turns per phase N = = 533
3
16
Number of slots per pole per phase q =
3
180∞ 180∞
Slot angle y = = = 11.25°
Slots/pole 16
16 11.25∞
sin ¥
\ Kd = 3 2 = 0.5 = 0.9566
16 11.25∞ 0.5227
sin
3 2
Phase voltage E = 4.44 Kd f f N
= 4.44 ¥ 0.9566 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.025 ¥ 533
= 2829.77 V
Total KVA = 3 ¥ 2829.77 ¥ 75 ¥ 10–3
= 636.5
400
6. Phase voltage E1 = V
3
If E3 be the third harmonic voltage component then
Dibqufs!7
Tzodispopvt!Hfofsbups
1500
1. IL = = 131.2 A
3 ¥ 6.6
E2 = (3810 ¥ 0.8 + 131.2 ¥ 0.5)2 + (3810 ¥ 0.6 + 131.2 ¥ 5)2
or E = 4283.6 V/phase or 7419 V line to line
7419 - 6600
% Rise in voltage = ¥ 100 = 12.4%.
6600
25 ¥ 103
2. Ia = = 36 A
3 ¥ 400
E2 = (231 ¥ 0.8)2 + (231 ¥ 0.6 + 432)2 = 598.8 V
138.6 + 432
tan (d + q) = = 3.09
184.8
q = 36.87°, d = 35.1°, E = 3 ¥ 598.8 = 1037 V
Now, E = 1.25 ¥ 598.8 = 748.5 V
EVt
Po = sin d = 231 ¥ 36 ¥ 0.8
xs
748.5 ¥ 231
or sin d = 231 ¥ 36 ¥ 0.8
12
d = 27.52°
748.5 ¥ 231
Maximum power = sin 90° = 14 kW/ph
12
\ total power = 14 ¥ 3 = 42 kW.
3. Vt = 1 p.u.
1 ¥ 1.2
\ Pm = = 0.857 p.u. = 0.857 ¥ 100 = 85.7 MW
1.4
60 1.2 ¥ 1
= sin d
100 1.4
6600
4. Vt = = 3810.5 V
3
500
Ia = = 43.73
3 ¥ 66
= 9586 V
(a) P = 3 ¥ 11000 ¥ 4000 ¥ 0.8 = 60.97 MW
1100
¥ 9586
(b) Pm = 3 3 W = 169 MW
1.08
11000
9586 ¥
(c) 100 ¥ 106 = 3 ¥ 3 sin d
1.08
\ d = 36.28°.
! 2/57 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
200 ¥ 103
6. I = = 192.45 A
3 ¥ 6000
6000
E= + 192.45 -36.87∞ ¥ j 6 = 4258.32 12.53∞ V
3
6000
3¥ ¥ 4258.32
3 4p
Ps = cos12.53∞ ¥
6 180
= 502.8 kW/mech. degree
502.8 ¥ 1000
Ts = = 6400 Nm/mech. degree
750
2p ¥
60
7. P = 9.5 kW + 500 W = 10,000 W
È ( 400) 2 2
1 Ê 400 ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ ˘
10,000 = 3 Í sin d + Á - sin 2
d ˙
ÍÎ 3 ¥ 5 2 Ë 3 ˜¯ ÁË 3.2 5 ˜¯ ˙˚
Ia = I d2 + I q2 = 14.572 A
Iq = Ia cos (d + q)
Iq
d + q = cos–1 = 3.738°
Ia
\ q = –7.885 \ p.f. = cos 7.885° = 0.99 lag
or, d = 67°
Maximum power developed
3 ¥ ( 400) 2 ( 400) 2
= sin 67∞ + 3 sin 134° = 35.93 kW
3¥5 3¥ 2
Maximum power output
500
= 35.93 – = 35.43 kW
1000
500
8. Ia = = 26.244 A
3 ¥ 11
2
Ê 26.244 ˆ
(a) Armature coper loss = 3 ¥ Á ¥4
Ë 2 ˜¯
= 2066.24 W
Total loss at half load = 1500 + 2500 + 2066.24 + 1000
= 7066.24 W
Ê ˆ
Á 7066.24 ˜
\ h = Á1 - ˜ ¥ 100% = 96.587%
1
ÁË 500, 000 ¥ ¥ 0.8 + 7066.24 ˜¯
2
(b) For maximum h, variable loss = constant loss
\ 3I m2 ¥ 4 = 1500 + 2500 + 1000 = 5000 W
\ Im = 20.412 A
11000
Output at maximum efficiency = 3 ¥ ¥ 20.412 ¥ 0.8
3
= 311,111.54 W
Total loss = 2 ¥ 5000 = 10,000 W
Ê 10, 000 ˆ
\ Max h = Á1 - ¥ 100 = 96.886%.
Ë 311,111.54 + 10, 000 ˜¯
70 ¥ 106
9. Ia = = 2928.59 A
3 ¥ 13800
2928.59 ¥ 1.21 ¥ 0.8
tan d = = 0.28
13800
+ 2928.59 ¥ 1.21 ¥ 0.6
3
! 2/59 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
\ d = 15.69°
Id = Ia sin (36.87° + 15.69°) = 2325.27 –74.31∞ A
13800 13800
E= + 2325.27 –74.31∞ ¥ 1.83 + 1569∞
3 3
= 11925.8 15.69∞ V
11925.8 - 7967.43
\ regulation = ¥ 100% = 49.68%
7967.43
13800
P =3¥ ¥ 2928.59 ¥ 0.8 = 56 mW
3
320
Number of turns per phase = = 160
2
Generated voltage per phase
2300
1631 -
\ regulation = 3 ¥ 100% = 22.8%
2300
3
13. P = 8000 kW
cos q = 0.8
8000
Q= ¥ 0.6 = 6000 KVAR
0.8
PA = 5000 kW
cos qA = 0.9
5000
QA = sin (cos–1 0.9) = 2421.6 KVAR
0.9
! 2/61 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
\ PB = P – PA = 3000 W
QB = Q – QA = 3578.4 KVAR
3578.4
\ tan qB = = 1.1928
3000
\ cos qB = 0.64.
633.1
\ tan q2 = or, cos q2 = 0.568 lag.
437.4
1.5 ¥ 1
15. 0.6 = sin d
1.2
sin d = 0.48, d = 28.68°
dP = 1% of 0.6 = 0.006 p.u.
EVt V2
Q= cos d - t
xs xs
dQ -EVt
\ = sin d
dd xs
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/62
dP EVt
Also = cos d
dd xs
dQ
\ = –tan d = –tan 28.68° = –0.547
dd
or, dQ = –0.547 ¥ 0.006 = –0.328 ¥ 10–3
\ % decrease change in Q
0.328 ¥ 10 -3
= ¥ 100% = 0.125%.
1.5 ¥ 1 12
cos 28.68 -
1.2 1.2
! 2/63 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Dibqufs!8
Tzodispopvt!Npups
kW 222.2
kVA of motor = = = 277.75]
cos q 2 0.8
2500 ¥ 735.5
2. Total output = kW = 1838.75 kW
1000
1838.75 ¥ 103
Ia = = 461.5 A
3 ¥ 2300 ¥ 1
2
Ê 2300 ˆ
E= Á + ( 461.5 ¥ 1.85) 2 = 1578.7 V
Ë 3 ˜¯
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/64
2300
3¥ ¥ 1578.7
3Vt E 3
Maximum power output = = = 3399.5 ¥ 103 W
xs 1.85
3399.5 ¥ 103
Maximum torque = Nm = 108.26 ¥ 103 Nm]
2 ¥ 50
2p ¥
20
1000 ¥ 103
3. Ia = A = 109.35 A
3 ¥ 6.6 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8
When p.f. is 0.8 leading,
Ia = 109.35 (0.8 + j 0.6) = 87.47 + j 656 A
6600
\ = E -d ∞ + Ia (2 + j 20)
3
E sin d = 1880.6
E cos d = 4947.66
\ d = 20.8° and E = 5293.4 V
When input is 1500 kW,
6600
- 5293.4 -d ¢
I¢a = 3
2 + j 20
I¢a cos q¢ = 18.86 – 263.35 cos (d ¢ + 84.29°)
Again, 3 ¥ 6600 ¥ Ia¢ cos q¢ = 1500 ¥ 103
1500 ¥ 103
\ Ia¢ cos q¢ = A = 131.21 A
3 ¥ 6600
\ d¢ = 30.96°
Now Vt = E -d ¢ + (I¢ cos q ¢ + j I¢ sin q¢) ¥ (2 + j 20)
\ I¢ sin q¢ = 49.565
49.565
or, tan q¢ = = 0.377
131.2
Power factor cos q¢ = 0.935 lead]
! 2/65 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
EVt Vt 2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
4. P= sin d + Á - ˜ sin 2d
Xd 2 Ë Xq Xd ¯
1.2 ¥ 1 1 Ê 1 1 ˆ
= + Á - sin 2d
0.85 2 Ë 0.55 0.85 ˜¯
= 1.412 sin d + 0.321 sin 2d
dP
For maximum power, =0
dd
dP
\ = 1.412 cos d + 2 ¥ 0.321 cos 2d = 0
dd
\ d = 69.764°
6. Ia = 50 0∞ A
Ia X q 50 ¥ 2.5
d = tan–1 = tan -1 = 26.37°
Vt - I a ra 480
- 50 ¥ 0.5
3
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/66
480
E= cos 26.37° + 50 ¥ 3.5 sin 26.37° = 326 V
3
Zs = 2 + j 20 = 20.1 84.3∞
2
Ê 6.6 ˆ 6.6
Á ˜ ¥ cos 84.3∞ ¥ 4.96
1200 Ë 3 ¯ 3
Now = - cos (84.3° + d)
3 20.1 20.1
\ d = 26.1°
6.6
- 4.96 -26.1∞
Ia = 3 = 113 22.1∞
20.1 84.3∞
cos q = cos 22.1° = 0.9265 lead]
d = 26.2°
Power developed = 3 ¥ 1.42 ¥ 160 cos (–36.87° + 26.2°) = 670 kW
Shaft power output = 670 – 30 = 640 kW
Input power = 3 ¥ 3.3 ¥ 160 ¥ 0.8 = 731.5 kW
640
h= ¥ 100% = 87.5%]
731.5
! 2/67 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Dibqufs!9
Uisff!Qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npups
120 ¥ 60
1. Ns = = 1200 rpm
6
\ Stator field rotates at 1200 rpm. Rotor field rotates in the air gap in the same speed.
N(rotor speed) = Ns (1 – s) = 1200 (1 – 0.03) = 1164 rpm
The rotor speed is then 1164 rpm.
If frequency of rotor current is fr,
fr = sfs = 0.03 ¥ 60 = 1.8 Hz
Since rotor rotates at 1164 rpm while the speed of the rotor field is 1200 rpm, hence, the field
speed with respect to the rotor is (Ns – N) i.e., 36 rpm].
2. Pag = Pin – Pscu – Psc
= 50 – 2 – 0.5 = 47.5 kW
Pag 47.5 ¥ 103
\ T= = = 605 Nm.
ws 120 ¥ 50
2p ¥
8 ¥ 60
3. Pin = 50 kW; s = 0.04; Pscu = 1 kW
\ Pag = Pin – Pscu = 49 kW
Ê 1.96 ˆ
Prcu = s ¥ Pag = 0.04 ¥ 49 = 1.96 kW Á = kW per phase˜
Ë 3 ¯
Ê 49 ˆ 1.93
\ Pm = Pag – Prcu = Á ˜ - = 15.68 kW.
Ë 3¯ 3
snew R2 + r
If r be the additional resistance per phase in rotor circuit, we can write = .
sfl R2
Since the power input to the rotor and rotor current remain constant for constant torque and
hence, from the relation,
Rotor Cu loss
Slip = , we have
Rotor input
snew 3I 22 ( R2 + r ) R2 + r
= = .
sfl 3I 22 R2 R2
Substitution of the values of sfl = 0.04
1000 - 800
Snew = = 0.2 and R2 = 0.3, yields r = 1.2 W
1000
500 ¥ 746
6. Ifl = = 76.78 A
3 ¥ 3300 ¥ 0.85
\ Ino-load = 0.3 ¥ 76.78 = 23.03 A
E Ilock rotor ∫ Istart
Hence, Istart = 6 ¥ Ifl = 460.68 A
Apparent power drawn during locked rotor condition is
7. With reference to the equivalent circuit of the induction motor, the input impedance looking
from the input side is
jX o ( R2¢ + jX 2¢ )
Zin = (Rs + jXs) +
R2¢ + jX 2¢ + jX o
È j 65.6(0.742 + j 2.41) ˘
= Í(1.21 + j 3.1) + W = 5.75 –70.72° W
Î 0.742 + j 2.41 + j 65.6 ˙˚
At start, s = 1.0. This means the load resistor in equivalent circuit is shorted, since 1 – s = 0
VL – L
\ Ist = = 46.15 ––70.67° A
3 Zin
At no-load, s = 0, i.e., the load element in the equivalent circuit is open.
\ Zin (no-load) = (Rs + jXs) + jX0 = (1.21 + j68.7) W = 68.71 –89° W
VL – L 460 –0∞
\ INL = = = 3.87 ––89° A
3 Zin (NL) 3 (68.71 –89∞)
! 2/69 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
Ns - N
8. Ns = 1000 rpm; s = = 0.04
Ns
s
E rotor copper loss = ¥ Gross mechanical power developed in rotor hence, we can write
1- s
for this problem,
0.04
3I22 R2 + 200 = (30 ¥ 746 + 1000)
1 - 0.04
or, 3 ¥ 302 ¥ R2 = 774.17
or, R2 = 0.287 W
10 ¥ 746
9. Ifl = = 15 A
3 ¥ 400 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 0.9
Is/c at 160 V input = 7.0 A
400
\ Is/c at 400 V(L – L) is ¥ 7.0 = 17.5 A
160
With star-delta starter,
1 1
Istarting = ¥ I s/cf = ¥ 17.5 = 5.833 A
3 3
I starting 5.833
\ = = 0.39
I fl 15
10. (a) Pin = 70 kW; Pscu (stator Cu loss)
= 3Ifl2 ¥ Rs = 3 ¥ 802 ¥ 0.2 = 3.84 kW
Psc (core loss in stator) = 2 kW
\ Pag = Pin – Pscu – Psc = 64.16 kW
120 f
11. Ns = = 1500 rpm
P
N = 1440 rpm
N -N
\ s= s = 0.04 = smax
Ns
R
But smax = 2
X2
R2 0.5
\ X2 = = = 12.5 W
smax 0.04
If s be the required slip (5%) then from the relation,
T 2 ◊ s ◊ smax 2 ¥ 0.05 ¥ 0.04
= = = 0.9756
Tmax s + smax (0.05) 2 + (0.04) 2
2 2
\ T = 0.9756 ¥ 20 = 19.51 Nm
P0 50 ¥ 746
12. Tsh = = = 201.91 Nm
w 2p ¥ 1765
60
Pm = P0 + Mechanical loss in rotor
= 50 ¥ 746 ¥ 10–3 + 500 ¥ 10–3 = 37.8 kW
Pm 37.8 ¥ 103
Tm = = = 204.62 Nm
w 2p ¥ 1765
60
Pag = Pm + Rotor copper loss
= 37.8 ¥ 103 + 800 = 38600 W = 38.6 kW
Pag 38.6 ¥ 103 Ê 120 ¥ 60 ˆ
T= = = 204.89 Nm ÁËE N s = 1800 rpm˜
ws 1800 4 ¯
2p ¥
60
E stator copper loss is 1 kW
\ Pin = 1 + Pag = 1 + 38.6 = 39.6 kW
13. Ns = 1500 rpm; N = Ns (1 – s) = 1440 rpm (E s = 0.04)
25 ¥ 735.5 25 ¥ 735.5
T(full-load) = = = 0.122 Nm
w 1440
2p ¥ ¥ 103
60
! 2/71 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
ÁË X ˜¯ + s 2
ÁË 4 ˜¯ + (0.04)
2
Ts R22 + ( sX 2 ) 2 2
= = = = 1.51
T s[ R2 + X 2 ]
2 2
È Ê R2 ˆ
2 ˘ ÈÊ 1 ˆ 2 ˘
s ÍÁ + 1˙ 0.04 ÍÁ ˜ + 1˙
ÍË X 2 ˜¯ ˙ ÍÎË 4 ¯ ˙˚
Î ˚
R2 0.01
14. smax = = = 0.2.
X 2 0.05
The speed at a slip of 0.2 would then be 800 rpm as Ns = 1000 rpm.
T 2 ◊ s ◊ smax
E =
Tmax s 2 + smax
2
T 2 ¥ 0.04 ¥ 0.2
For this problem, = = 0.385
Tmax (0.04) 2 + (0.2) 2
15. Rs = 0.5 W.
W0 1500
cos q0 = = = 0.13
3V0 I 0 3 ¥ 440 ¥ 15
3
Ic = I0 cos q0 = 15 ¥ 0.13 = 1.95 A
If = I0 sin q0 = 15 ¥ 0.99 = 14.873 A
V0 440 / 3
\ R0 = = = 130.27 W
Ic 1.95
V0 440 / 3
X0 = = = 17.08 W
Ic 14.873
Next, from locked rotor test,
Ws/c 7000
cos qs/c = = = 0.421
3(Vs/c )(I s/c ) 3 ¥ 160
¥ 60
3
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/72
Vs/c 160 / 3
\ Rs + R¢2 = cos qs/c = 0.421 = 0.648
I s/c 60
or R¢ = 0.648 – Rs = 0.148 W
Vs/c 160 / 3
Xs + X2¢ = sin qs/c = 0.91 = 1.4 W
I s/c 60
1.4
Since Xs = X2¢, hence, Xs = X 2¢ = = 0.7 W.
2
The approximate equivalent circuit is shown below.
R0 = 130.27 W; X0 = 17.08 W; Rs = 0.5 W, R¢2 = 0.148 W, Xs = 0.7 W; X 2¢ = 0.7 W
16. We have
2
Ts Ê I s ˆ
= ◊s
Tfl ÁË I fl ˜¯ fl
Ê 1 ˆ
(a) For Y-D starting: At start, winding is placed in star and only Á ˜ of normal voltage is
Ë 3¯
applied. Again, short-circuit current being 6 times the full-load current (winding in delta
connection), we can write short-circuit phase current as
6 ¥ f.l. current
Is/c =
3
1
\ Istarting/phse = ¥ Is/c(ph)
3
1
as of normal voltage is applied per phase,
3
1 6
i.e., Ist/ph = ¥ ¥ Ifl
3 3
I st 1 6
\ = ¥ =2
I fl 3 3
Ts
Hence, = (2)2 ¥ 0.05 = 0.2
Tfl
(b) Auto-transformer starting with 60% tapping: At start, stator winding remain in delta
connection. However, only 60% voltage is made available at stator.
! 2/73 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
60
\ Is = ¥ 6 Ifl = 3.6 Ifl
100
Ts
Hence, = (3.6)2 ¥ 0.05 = 0.648
Tfl
N1
17. P = 4 f = 50 Hz r2 = 0.2 W N1 = 1440 rpm s1 = 1 –
Ns
120 ¥ 50
Ns = = 1500 rpm
4
1440
\ s1 = 1 – = 0.04
1500
If Pag is the air gap power and I2 the rotor current then
s1 Pag = I22 r2
I 22 ¥ 0.2
\ Pag = = 5I22
0.04
New speed N2 = 1200 rpm
1200
New slip s2 = 1 – = 0.2
1500
Let R be the total resistance of the rotor circuit
As torque is same Pag will have the same value
\ s2 Pag = I22 R
0.2 ¥ 5 I22 = I22 R
or, R =1
Hence external resistance is (1 – 0.2) W or 0.8 W
18. r1 = 0.13 W x1 = 0.6 W r2 = 0.035 ¥ 22 = 0.14 W
x2 = 0.15 ¥ 4 = 0.6
(a) Slip at maximum torque
r2 0.14
sm = =
r12 + ( x2 + x1 ) 2 (0.13) 2 + (0.6 + 0.6) 2
0.14
=
1.21
= 0.1157
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/74
3 ¥ ( 400) 2
2p 120 ¥ 50
¥
60 8 0.14
= 2
¥
Ê 0.14 ˆ 0.1157
ÁË 0.13 + 0.1157 ˜¯ + (0.6 + 0.6)
2
3 ¥ ( 400) 2
= ¥ 0.373 = 2280 Nm
25p
(b) If Test be the starting torque then
Test 2
=
Tem s + 1
m
sm
2 ¥ 2280
\ Test = = 520.62 Nm
1
0.1157 +
0.1157
19. P = 8 r2 = 0.03 W x2 = 0.15 W
(a) Slip at maximum torque
r2 0.03
sm = = = 0.2
x2 0.15
Hence speed at maximum torque
120 ¥ 50
N = (1 – sm) Ns = (1 – 0.2) ¥ = 600 rpm
8
(b) If Ts and Tm are the starting and maximum torque then
Ts 2 3
= =
Tm 1 4
sm¢ +
sm¢
! 2/75 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
3s¢m2 – 8s¢m + 3 = 0
s¢m = 0.4517
26662
\ h= ¥ 100% = 87.28%
30548
Tpmvujpo!Nbovbm 2/76
Dibqufs!:
Tjohmf!Qibtf!Joevdujpo!Npupst
120
Input current I1 = = 4.277 -46.69∞
19.247 + j 20.414
j 65
I2f = ¥ 4.277 = 2.778
3.75
+ j (1.25 + 65)
0.05
j 65
I2b = ¥ 4.277 = 4.195
3.75
+ j (1.25 + 65)
1.95
3.75
Pag f = (2.778)2 ¥ = 289.4 W
2 ¥ 0.05
3.75
Pag b = (4.195)2 ¥ = 16.9 W
2 ¥ 1.95
! 2/77 Fmfdusjdbm!Nbdijoft
230 0∞
(a) Input current I1 = = 5.685 -60.96∞
40.457 60.96∞
(b) Power factor = cos (–60.956°) = 0.4856 lagging
(c) Developed power = I12 (Rf – Rb) (1 – s)
= (5.685)2 (16.37 – 1.07) (1 – 0.03)
= 479.65 W
Ê r¢ ˆ Ê 3.49 ˆ
= Pnl – Inl2 Á r1 + 2 ˜ = 125 – (4.6)2 Á1.5 + = 74.8 W
Ë 4 ¯ Ë 4 ˜¯
37 Ê 4.2 3.2 ˆ
j Á + j
2 Ë 2 ¥ 0.05 2 ˜¯
= = 27.23 49.64
4.2 3.2 74
+ j + j
2 ¥ 0.05 2 2
= 17.66 + j20.75 W.
Backward field impedance is
X m Ï r2¢ x¢ ¸
Ì
j + j 2˝
2 Ó 2( 2 - s) 2˛
Zb = Rb + jXb =
r2¢ x2¢ Xm
+ j + j
2( 2 - s) 2 2
37 Ï 4.2 3.2 ¸
j Ì + j ˝
2 Ó 2 ( 2 0.05) 2 ˛
=
4.2 3.2 74
+ j + j
2 ( 2 - 0.05) 2 2
= 1.85 57.6∞ = 0.99 + j 1.562 W
230
Stator current I1 = A = 6.95 –50.4∞ A
33.1 50.4∞
Power factor cos 50.4° = 0.637 lagging
Power input = V1 I1 cos q = 230 ¥ 6.95 ¥ 0.637
= 1020 W
Power delivered to forward field
Pgf = I12 Rf = (6.95)2 ¥ 17.66 = 854 watts
Power delivered to the backward field
Pgb = I12 Rb = (6.95)2 ¥ 0.99 = 47.8 watts
A B
Accelerated commutation 2.47 Back pitch 2.9, 2.14
ac commutator motors 10.1 Back-to-back 2.178
ac excitation system 6.6 Back to back test 3.107
Air-gap power 8.20, 8.28, 8.40, 8.41, 8.44 Backward field 9.3, 9.4, 9.6, 9.7, 9.9, 9.12, 9.22–
All-day efficiency 3.108 9.24, 9.30, 9.32
Alternator 1.4, 6.1, 6.6, 6.11, 6.13, 6.16, 6.17, 6.20, Belt harmonics 5.10
6.22, 6.24, 6.27, 6.29–6.31, 6.33–6.35, 6.41, Blocked-rotor test 8.83
6.43, 6.44, 6.59, 6.78, 6.97, 6.98, 6.106, 6.109, Blocked-rotor test 8.84, 9.10
6.111, 6.114, 6.118–6.122 Brake test 2.180
Amortisseur winding 6.91 Breadth factor 5.7, 5.8, 5.23
Ampere-turn method 6.24 Breadth factor 5.7, 5.12
Armature 1.2–1.4, 1.8, 1.46–1.50, 2.5–2.27, Breakdown torque 8.55, 8.57, 8.58
2.29–2.44, 2.48–2.55, 2.57, 2.58, 2.60–2.63, Breathers 3.153
2.65–2.67, 2.69–2.94 Bright-lamp method 6.59
Armature control method 2.96 Brushless dc motors 10.19
Armature reaction 6.17–6.20, 6.24–6.26, 6.34, Brushless excitation system 6.7
6.36, 6.40, 6.69, 6.71, 6.77, 6.78, 6.109, 6.122 Brush shifting 2.42
Armature reaction 2.37, 2.39–2.41, 2.55
Armature winding 6.1, 6.4, 6.5, 6.17, 6.22, 6.24, C
6.30, 6.80, 6.81, 6.92–6.94, 6.96
Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor 9.14, 9.17
Asynchronous motors 8.1
Capacitor-start motor 9.16
Audio frequency transformer 4.52
Cascade connection 8.106
Auto-transformer 3.139, 3.143–3.146
Change of slip 8.104
Autotransformers 4.47
Change of supply frequency 8.102
Auto-transformer starter 8.90
Chorded coil 5.3, 5.9
Auxiliary windings 9.14, 9.22, 9.29
Chording angle 5.3, 5.9, 5.10, 5.12, 5.13, 5.45–5.47
! J/3 Joefy
U W
Under-compounded generator 2.19 Ward leonard method 2.102
Under-excited 6.68–6.70, 6.72 Wave winding 2.5, 2.10, 2.12–2.16, 2.20, 2.24,
Universal motors 10.1, 10.3 2.25, 2.72
Wave winding 2.14, 2.15
V Welding transformer 3.147
Variable reluctance stepper motor 10.23 Windage losses 1.60
V curve 7.25 Wound-type rotor 8.2
V curves 6.72, 6.73, 6.74
Voltage commutation 2.50 Y
Voltage regulation 6.20, 6.26, 6.29, 6.30, 6.33, Yoke 2.6
6.34, 6.37, 6.97
Voltage regulation 2.58, 3.63, 3.64, 4.51 Z
Voltage regulation down 3.64 Zero power-factor method 6.24
Voltage regulation up 3.64
V–V connection 4.10