MLEP-017

Clinical Course
School of Law
Indira Gandhi
National Open University

Post Graduate Diploma

in
Criminal Justice
(PGDCJ)

PROJECT HANDBOOK
Expert Committee
Justice Y Bhaskar Rao Prof. R.Thilagraj Ms. Maja Daruwala
Member Professor & Head Director
National Human Rights Department of Criminology CHRI New Delhi Office
Commission, New Delhi University of Madras B-117, Second Floor
Prof. N.R. Madhava Menon Sarvodaya Enclave, New Delhi
Dr. Arvind Tiwari
Member, Commission on Department of Criminology Mr. Y.S.R. Murthy
Centre-State Relations, Tata Institute of Social Director (Research)
Government of India Sciences, Mumbai National Human Rights
Prof. B.B. Pande, Former Commission, New Delhi
Mr. Rakesh Jaruhar
Professor of Criminology, Prof. Srikrishna Deva Rao
Director Trainee Bureau of
Delhi University Former Director (2nd May, 2007
Police Research and
Prof. Chandrasekaran Pillai to 1st May 2010), School of
Development
Director, Indian Law Institute Law, IGNOU, New Delhi
New Delhi
Bhagawandas Road Prof. K. Elumalai
New Delhi Dr. D.M.Mitra Director, School of Law
Director IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. R.R. Singh
Lok Nayak Jai Prakash
Former Director Ms. Suneet Kashyap
Narayan National Institute of
Tata Institute of Social Asst. Prof., School of Law
Criminology and Forensic
Sciences, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Science, Delhi
Prof. Balraj Chauhan Ms. Gurmeet Kaur
Director, Dr. Ram Manahar Prof. G.S. Bajpai Asst. Prof., School of Law
Lohiya National Law Centre for Criminal Justice IGNOU, New Delhi
University, UP Administration
Mr. Anand Gupta
National Law Institute
Prof. S.C. Raina Asst. Prof., School of Law
University
Professor In-charge IGNOU, New Delhi
Madhya Pradesh
Campus Law Centre Ms. Mansi Sharma
University of Delhi Asst. Prof., School of Law
IGNOU, New Delhi
Programme Coordinator
Ms. Mansi Sharma
Asst. Professor
School of Law, IGNOU, New Delhi

Material Production
Mr. Yashpal
Section Officer (Publication)
IGNOU, New Delhi

April, 2011
© Indira Gandhi Naitonal Open University, 2011
ISBN:
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without permission in writing from the copyright holder.
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office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in
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 Contents

Page No.

1. Introduction 5

2. Drafting a Synopsis 6

3. Drafting a Research Paper 15

4. Additional Guidelines 17

5. Summary 18
4
1. INTRODUCTION
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analysing information or data in order to
increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested.
Research is not a mere restating of previously known facts. It is a process of obtaining new
knowledge or throwing a new light on already existing knowledge, by searching for information.

The most important characteristic of a formal research is that it involves the interpretation of
data to draw conclusions. A formal research process possesses the following characteristics:

• A research builds on previous research.

• It originates with a question or problem.

• It usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.

• It is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis.

• It requires a clear articulation of a goal.

• It follows a specific plan of procedure.

• It involves the acceptance of certain critical assumptions.

• The process of research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to
resolve the problem that initiated the research.

These characteristics are also known as the Research Methodology.

What is a Legal Research?

Legal research is defined as the process of identifying and retrieving information that is required
for finding a solution to a legal problem. The purpose of legal research is to find “authority” that
will aid in supporting legal decision-making.

In its broadest sense, legal research will include each step of a course of action that begins with
an analysis of the facts of a problem and concludes with the application and communication of
the results of the investigation. However, depending upon the legal system involved, the approch
to performing the research may vary. Though there is no hard and fast rule to be followed while
doing legal research, there is a basic guide that may be generally be followed by researchers.

Research Methodology for conduction a Legal research is as follows:

• Selection of a topic

• Finding primary sources of law – Primary sources are the rules of law that are binding upon
the courts, government, and individuals. For example, the constitution, statutes, regulations,
court orders, court decisions etc. They are generated by legislators, judiciary, administrative
agencies or other such formal agencies of authority.

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• Finding secondary sources of law -Secondary authorities are commentaries on the law that
do not have binding effect but aid in explaining what the law is or should be. The resources
available to find legal authority are vast and complicated leading many law schools to require
students to take a class in legal research. Examples are, law reviews, legal dictionaries, legal
treatises, legal encyclopaedias, etc.)

• Finding non-legal sources for supporting or investigative information

• Taking notes

• Conducting a preliminary analysis of facts and start framing questions

• Selecting research question/s from the preliminary analysis and framing a hypothesis

• Consulting secondary sources

• Preparing First Draft of research

• Evaluation of the research

• Locating the primary authority

• Re-evaluation of the research

• Reviewing and updating the research

• Proofreading

2. DRAFTING A SYNOPSIS
1) Select a Research Topic
Find a research topic pursuant to your subject. While selecting a topic, it is always better to
select something that you’ve always wanted to know more about. For instance, if you are interested
in the issue of the practical position of Jail immates, you can choose the topic pursuant to the
same.

A common mistake that people make while choosing a final topic is that they keep it too general.
So one must always be specific and focus on a limited component within the topic to narrow it
down. Let’s take our example of the practical position of Jail immates. The topic chosen could
be narrowed down to condition of Jail Immates in Delhi Here, we have limited our research to
only examining condition of Jail Immates in Delhi.

While finalising a research topic, one must keep in mind the following considerations:
• What is the objective of your research?
• What is the problem/question that your research aims to address?
• What is the hypothesis of your research?
• What would be the scope of your research?

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 What is a Strong Topic?
You’ll be spending a lot of time on a research paper, so it is particularly important to
select a topic that you really enjoy working with. But alas, it’s not that simple!

To make your project a success, you’ll have to ensure that the topic is strong, as well as
enjoyable. Unfortunately, you might find a topic that you like a lot, and go on to develop
a strong thesis with no trouble at all. Then, you find yourself spending your time and
finally realise that you are facing one or two problems.

You realise that very little material is available on your subject. This is a common
hazard that wastes time and disrupts your mental flow and confidence. As much as you
may like your topic, you may want to give it up at the start if you know you’re going to
run into trouble finding information for your paper.

You may find that the research doesn’t support your thesis. This is a common
frustration for people, especially professors, who publish a lot. They often come up
with intriguing and exciting new ideas, only to find that all the research points in a
different direction. Sometimes it’s better not to stick with an idea if you see lots of
evidence that refutes it. However, if you are confident about your ideas even if they are
contrary to popular belief, and also have adequate material to at least hold your ground,
if not prove your point, go ahead!

To avoid those pitfalls, it is important to select more than one topic from the start.
Topics should ideally be interrelated so that you do not work of diametrically different
subjects at the same time. Find three or four topics that interest you, then, go to the
library or an Internet and conduct a preliminary search of each topic.

Determine which project idea can be supported with plenty of published material
(don’t base your research on Google). This way, you will be able to select a final topic
that is both interesting and feasible.

2) Framing the Objective of your Research

The objective defines the purpose of the research. While listing the objective of the research,
one must clearly state the problem that the paper aims to address. The objective may also be
called research problem or research question and it has to be necessarily formulated in the form
of a question as it would serve as the basis or origin from which the hypothesis is derived.

One of the questions will turn into a thesis statement, after a while when some preliminary
research has already been conducted. However, it should be kept in mind that this particular
objective will be converted to a statement form from a question form while framing a Thesis
Statement.

3) Limit the Scope of your Research

As mentioned before, one must narrow down the focus area of one’s research. The rationale and
scope of the research paper must clearly be defined. It is always better to mention in specific
terms as to what is within the purview of the paper and what is its extent/limit.

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4) Frame your Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. After identifying the purpose of the research,
one must focus on a specific question that needs to be answered. For this purpose, a hypothesis,
based on this specific question must be drafted. A hypothesis is a tentative assumption, written
in a clear, concise manner, and made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences. It is your guess as to what you think will happen or what will be the result of your
research.

Hypothesis should be in form of a statement (and not a question) providing your assumption/
interpretation of a practical situation or condition that will be tested throughout the research. A
good hypothesis will provide direction for the project and will help to in keeping the investigation
focused. The hypothesis statement usually appears at the end of the first or second paragraph of
a paper.

Practically speaking, a research topic itself may change as the work on the reserch progresses.
Hence, one may need keep revising the hypothesis to reflect exactly what is discussed in the
paper. It should also be kept in mind that a hypothesis is not a known fact but only a practical
assumption made by the researcher. However, a paper can have more than one hypothesis
statements.

It is critical that a research hypothesis that can be put to test exists in a paper. The result, however,
may vary. Ultimately a researcher may either accept or reject the hypothesis by the end of the
research.

5) Find your Sources

To conduct legal research, an individual can refer to primary or secondary sources. Primary
sources are those sources that will be binding in a court, such as references to case law or to a
statute. While the statutes and formal bills are codified in code books, case laws, i.e. judgments
of courts, are found in the context of legal case transcripts that are published in numerous court
reports. The body of law is constantly evolving and changing, as judges decide new cases, setting
new precedent, and legislatures pass new laws.

Secondary sources are resources that are not binding and that cannot be referenced in court
documents, but which provide a person with a good idea of where to look to find binding sources.
A secondary source might be a book or a journal published by legal experts that collects all the
important decisions and rules on a given legal issue, or might be a law review article, which is an
article published in a scholarly journal.

‘Sources of law’ is a legal term that refers to the authorities by which law is made. There are
several different sources of law, though not all are used equally to define the creation and force
of law. Some examples of sources of law include legislation, government regulation, court
decisions, and custom.

Constitutions are a legislative document that are a primary source or law in many regions. These
constitutions are typically the highest law of the land, meaning that state laws cannot conflict
with a constitutional statute. States may also have constitutions, with which local laws cannot
conflict. Most modern countries have a written constitution, though some, like New Zealand

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and the United Kingdom, do not have a codified constitution. One common concept in the
Common Law system is the precedent, which suggests that future courts follow the rulings of
prior courts on specific issues.

In addition to constitutions, the legislature or the government creates legislation and statutes.
Even local organisations such as city councils have the power to create ordinances that affect
citywide behaviour. These statutes and ordinances are often recognised as sources of laws.

Although discussions of sources of law generally revolve around regional law, there are other
types of rule systems and guidelines that cite specific sources of law. Religion, for instance,
often draws on texts of importance and laws handed down by elders in the organisation to create
codes of behavior and permitted actions Natural Laws and Custom-based sources of law generally
rely on an existing behaviour in a population.

Searching secondry sources are easier. Make the most of a library. You’ll want to make sure that
the books, magazine articles, or journal entries that you do find are available at your local library.
Use your favorite Internet search engine as well, but do not rely heavily on the internet. Utilise
your local library as well as there may be many publications not available on the web.

6) Determine your Methodology

Methodology refers to the actual process research. The two generally defined types of research
methodology are the quantitative or qualitative techniques to collect and analyse data. Qualitative
method relates to the quality or character of something, often as opposed to its size or quantity.
Quantitative method, on the other hand, is related to or expressed in terms of measured numeric
values, quantity or statistical comparison derived from systematic survey, observation or analysis
of a subject. The data used for research may be primary or secondary.

7) Taking Notes
As you scan your sources, you will begin to zero in on a thesis. Several sub-topics will also
begin to emerge. Start taking notes from your sources. Use innovative methods like filing
separately or by colour coding the sub-topics. You may find it necessary to photocopy articles or
encyclopedia entries so you can take them home. If you do this, use the highlighters to mark the
useful passages in the relevant colors.

Every time you take a note, be sure to write down all bibliographical information to include
author, book title, article title, page numbers, volume number, publisher name and dates. Write
this information on each and every index card and photocopy. This is absolutely critical. Once
you have taken the notes, sorting them out is very essential.

8) Starting Writing a Synopsis

By this time, one would start to have a good comprehension of the topic that chosen. You must
now start writing a synopsis. Keep in mind the following steps while doing so:

a) Title
Make the title as informative and as precise as possible. Convey the main idea of the paper
in the title itself. However, it is recommended not to have a long title and confine it to just
one. At the stage of writing a synopsis, the paper title may be tentative and subject to change.

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b) Background
You must briefly present a broad framework of the research problem.

c) Definition, Rationale and Scope of the Study

You should clearly define the issue that your research pertains to and also explain the rationale
of your study. You must clearly define the limits of your research. In this section, you must
clearly list out the objectives of your study.

d) Review of the Literature

One of the most important steps while writing a summary is conducting the literature review.
Based on the scope and objective of study you must conduct a review of the literature that
you will investigate in the course of your research. The literature should be organised in a
thematic structure and not as a listing of summaries of important references. You must
structure the literature review in a manner which highlights the issues relevant to your thesis
and identify the gaps within. Try to move from more general concerns to concerns more
specific to your problem. The end of your literature review should lead to the hypothesis (or
hypotheses) for your study.

e) Research Problem and Hypothesis

You must present a clear statement of your research problem followed by a crisp and cogent
statement forming the hypothesis. You can have more than one hypothesis.

f) Research Methods
You must mention the process of your research in this section. Whatever measures and
procedures that you wish to employ in you research must be clearly mentioned along with
the samples used, if any. You must also mention the sources of data and information required
for the study.

g) Tentative Chapters
You must give a list of tentative chapter headings with a brief description, not exceeding
one paragraph, of the content of each chapter. The first and the last chapter must be called
Introduction and Expected Conclusion respectively. The last chapter must briefly explain
the conclusion that you expect to derive from your study and also mention why you anticipate
coming to this particular conclusion.

h) Bibliography
All sources that may be relevant to your research should be listed in the same style as that of
citing the references.

9) Referencing your Sources

There are two parts of citing a reference in your paper. First is the way you cite the item within
the body of the paper when you are discussing it. Second is the way you list the complete
reference at the end of the paper. Citations are a way of giving credit to the source of the information
or quote you have used in your paper. The purpose of citation is to indicate clearly the sources
from which:

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• You rely on factual information or data.
• You need to quote verbatim.
• You use others’ ideas, interpretations, analyses or conclusions even if you summarise or
paraphrase in your own language.
• You organise or structure your argument using somebody else’s distinctive structure, style
or method.
• You state in passing another person’s work.
When in doubt, over-citation is better than under-citation.

A) References within the Text

For quoting a reference within a text, you must make use of footnotes. You can also use footnotes
when you wish to express something that neither directly advances your argument nor
acknowledges or documents a source. You must use a discursive footnote.

Example
It has often been argued that economic reforms in India have been carried out within the framework
of long drawn democratic processes.1

.....................................
1 There is, however, a minority view that Indian economic reforms have scuttled democratic
processes by adopting tactical and clandestine, though legitimate, strategies. (Jenkins 1999)

You may also use a footnote to elaborate the nuances of an argument without disrupting the flow
in the main text.

Example
The tightening of monetary policy and reduction of the fiscal deficit through strict control of
expenditures required under the IMF structural adjustment programme are deflationary.1

.....................................
1 While the programmes of the IMF are only applicable to countries borrowing from it,
developing and transitional economies, there has been a broad move towards restricting
fiscal deficits, e.g., the Maastricht Treaty requirements, and increasingly independence of
the Central Banks, with very often the sole specified goal of reducing inflation.

While citing your references, the format that you are required to follow is as follows:

Surname, First Names/Initials (year), Title in italics, Place: Publisher, p.no.

For instance
Abraham, I. (1999), The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and the Postcolonial
State, New Delhi: Orient Longman, p.456.

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If a source has more than two authors, use the first surname with et al. in your citation.

For instance
Wasserstein, Zappulla, Rosen, Gerstman and Rock (1994)……….. [first time you cite in text]
AND Wasserstein et al. (1994)………… [subsequent times you cite in text]
B) References at the end of the Paper
You must mention all references in text citations at the end of the paper in an alphabetical
manner under a heading known as ‘References’. Note that it is a list of all the sources used by
you (also known as Bibliography); hence, it should include every single source that you have
depended upon for your research. You must start your references on a new page, after the last
page of your text.
Books
• Surname, First Names/Initials (year), Title in italics, Place: Publisher.
Eg: Abraham, I. (1999), The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and the
Postcolonial State, New Delhi: Orient Longman.
Some other examples:
• Books with two authors
Bhagwati, J and P. Desai (1970), India: Planning for Industrialisation, London: Oxford
University press.
• Three or more authors
Judge, G.G. et al. (1985), The Theory and Practice of Econometrics, New York: John Wiley
& Sons.
• Reprinted book
Schumpeter, J.A. (1954), History of Economic Analysis, New York: Oxford University Press,
reprinted 1976.
• Book with several volumes
Chenery, H. and T.N. Srinivasan (ed.) (1988), Handbook of Development Economics, Vol. I,
Amsterdam: North Holland.
Articles or other work in a journal
• Surname, First Names/Initials (year), “Title of the article in inverted commas”, Name of
Journal in italics, vol (no): page numbers.
• Arrow, K.J. (1962), “The Economic Implications of Learning by Doing”, Review of Economic
Studies, 29 (3): 155-173.
Article, chapter, or work in an edited volume
• Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), “Title of the article in inverted commas”, in Names of
Editors (ed.) Title of the edited volume, Place: Publisher.

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• Cox, Robert (1992), “Towards a Post-Hegemonic Conceptualisation of World Order:
Reflections on the Relevancy of Ibn Khaldun”, in James N. Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel
(eds.) Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Article in a newspaper or magazine

• Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), “Title of the article”, Newspaper, Place, Exact date [dd
Month yyyy].

• Chatterjee, Partha (1999), “Fragile Distinctions: Between Good and Bad Nationalism”, The
Times of India, New Delhi, 20 August 1999.

Unpublished dissertation or paper

• Surname, First Names/Initials (year), Title of thesis, Ph.D Thesis, Place: University.
• Bhattacharya, Abanti (2004), Chinese Nationalism: The Impact on Policy, Ph.D. Thesis,
New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University.
Translated book
• Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), Title of the Translated work, Name of Editor (ed.) if
any, Translated by Names of the Translators, Place:Publisher.
• Borges, Jorge Luis (1999), Selected Non-Fictions, Elliot Weinberger (ed), Translated by E.
Allen, S.J. Levine and E. Weinberger, New York: Penguin.
Government, International Organisations and NGO publications
• Name of the Government/ International Organisation (year), Title, Publication Details
(number etc) if any, Place.
• Government of India (2005), Economic Survey 2004-2005, Ministry of Finance, New Delhi.

Legal case
• List cases by title; volume number and abbreviated name of reporting service, starting page-
number in the volume, court that decided the case, and year.

• Lallubhai Chakubhai Jariwalala vs. Samaldas Sankalchand Shah, AIR, 1934 Bom. 407.

Internet Sources
• Brin, D. (1993), “The good and the bad: Outlines of tomorrow”, [Online: web] Accessed 5
Sept. 2009 URL: http://kspace.com/KM/spot.sys/Brin/pages/piece1.html.

• Harvey, G. (1995), Writing with Sources: A Guide for Harvard Students, Gordon Expository
Writing Program, Harvard University, [Online: web] Accessed 15 Nov 2009, URL: http://
www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources/

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C) Use of Tables and Figures
A Table should have a heading with ‘Table __’ (where __ is the table number); followed by the
title for the heading that describes concisely what is contained in the table. Similarly if you wish
to insert figures, you should a heading with ‘Figure __’ followed by the title of the figure. Tables
and figures can either be a part of the body of your text or can be typed on separate sheets at the
end of the paper after the References and before the Appendices.

D) Use of Appendices
Appendices should be used only when absolutely necessary. If you include appendices in your
paper, you should briefly describe the relevant material in the body and give an accurate citation
to the appropriate appendix

10) Deriving an Expected Conclusion/Predicting Opportunities from the paper you are
going to write
Based on one’s first impression and initial analysis of the topic, one can fairly guess what the
conclusion of the research would be.

However, there are some hazards of drafting an expected conclusion before conducting a
preliminary research. Some people select their topics based on what they know will be the
research paper conclusion. For example, if a student of biology wants to prove that all plants and
animals have similar metabolic processes, he/she may begin his/her research process with the
conclusion. In such a case, once the student has the conclusion in mind, the student would look
for supporting research. Secondly, a person may start conducting a research with a pre-judgmental
stance.

Many people are unaware of their research paper conclusions until they actually perform a great
deal of research on a given topic. This is absolutely normal. One of the most important parts of
research is looking at primary resources with the same effort as one may look at secondary
resources. The resources that one uses will often direct a different conclusion altogether. Hence,
it is very normal in case the expected conclusion written in the synopsis is different from derived
conclusion at the end to the paper.

It is very crucial at this stage to be non-judgmental of the topic and present all possible the
avenues of the research. One should write impartially the opportunities presented by the paper in
analysis of the chosen topic. In our illustration for instance, the expected conclusion can be as
follows:

‘With the possibilities opened up by the World Wide Web, it has become a strong medium
aiding wildlife trafficking. Although individual bans have been imposed by online marketplaces
like eBay, enforcement of these bans and other regulations is minimal. Stronger legislations at
especially at a national level, and even stronger enforcement mechanisms must be put in place to
fight this environmental crime’.

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3. DRAFTING A RESEARCH PAPER
All the steps mentioned in ‘Drafting a synopsis’ must be followed while drafting a the research
paper as well. However, there are certain additional steps involved.

1) Writing a First Draft

Develop a strong thesis statement and introductory paragraph. Follow through with your sub-
topics. Finalise the chapterisation and arrange your tentative chapters properly. Your paper may
not flow very well on the first try. Read it over and re-arrange paragraphs, add paragraphs, and
omit information that doesn’t seem to belong. Keep editing and re-writing until you’re happy.

Although you will never have the feeling that you have finished your note-taking to your
satisfaction and you will never lose the feeling that you could do a much better job, you must
determine where to limit your research.
a) Check your hypothesis and be sure that it states as specifically as possible in a simple
declarative sentence exactly what the material you have gathered adds up to.
b) Check your paper outline for consistency.
c) Do not begin by writing your introduction. Wait to write that when your paper is completed
and you can see what you are introducing. Start now by putting on paper as quickly as
possible the overall information you wish to convey about your major points and their
subdivisions. Save the fun of polishing your style until later; first you must capture your
ideas on paper so you can think about them.
d) The complete thesis should appear early in the paper so that your reader knows where you
are going. Topic sentences generally come at the beginning of paragraphs and then they are
developed by giving examples, descriptions, and facts and figures taken from your research.
Be sure that all the quoted or paraphrased material is carefully analysed so that the reader
knows how and why you are using the particular material to make your point.
e) Try to use direct quotations very sparingly in your paper. Use them only when there is no
other way the material can be stated and when the exact words of the author must be used to
make your point. Copy the quotations very carefully, using identical punctuation and wording
of the original. As you are writing, check carefully to see whether:
– You are not merely “stringing quotes” together without enough of your own wording;
– You have introduced each quoted passage with an appropriate transition;
– You have analysed your source material to make it work for you in your paper by
showing your reader specifically how it applied to your argument. Don’t just cite a
quotation and run off. You have just stated that someone said something; now answer
the question, “So what?” Why are you telling this to your reader?
f) Develop each section of your outline considering each as a separate essay for the time being.
Just as you could not expect to write five essays in one day, so you cannot hope to develop
more than one section of a longer paper at a time.

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2) Writing an Introduction
Now that it is known exactly what the whole thesis topic is all about, you can write an introductory
section. Here are some guidelines for doing so:
- point out the timeliness or value of your research;
- define an abstract or special term used in your thesis;
- explain why you have taken this particular aspect of your topic;
- inform your reader of the various aspects of your topic other than the one you have chosen;
- give pertinent anecdote that provides a direct means of leading into your topic;
- Summarise how you have approached your topic.
Whatever your approach, your introduction should be relevant; it should gain the immediate
attention of your reader, and it should clarify your thesis in some way.

3) Writing the Conclusion and giving Recommendations

The conclusion of the paper is the result of your research. It is the most valuable single part of it.
All the material you have gathered would mean nothing to the reader until the conclusion is
presented properly. Restate your thesis and show what the material you have presented adds up
to. Analyse and evaluate your main points again in brief and also consider the consequences and
general implications of them to your conclusion. The conclusion, most of the times, is the only
“original” contribution of the researcher, hence, it needs to be drafted with utmost caution. It
manifests the value of your research as well as your understanding of the material presented. It
should be a strong recapitulation of your major ideas.

One should always keep in mind that the conclusion of your research maybe very different of
your hypothesis. It may entirely negate your hypothesis itself. This is absolutely normal.
Depending on the topic of your research, you can also include your recommendations for
improvement or amendment in the issues addressed by you in the paper. It must be kept in mind
though that your recommendations must always be in line with the conclusion you have arrived
at. Your sugessions and recommendations can stand independently after the conclusion or may
be a part of your conclusion text itself (this would depend upon the topic of your research).

4) Proofread
Proofreading is also one of the most important parts of the paper as it reflects your sincerity with
the research. Make sure the paper is free of spelling, grammatical, or typographical errors. Also,
check to make sure you’ve included every source in your bibliography.
Finally, check the original instructions from your teacher to make sure you are following all
assigned preferences, like title page directions and placement of page numbers.

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4. ADDITIONAL GUIDELINES
Please refer to the Programme Guide for details of how to write your Term End Paper for this
course. Some important points for writing the Term End Paper are reproduced below:

• WRITING THE TERM END PAPER

The ideal length of your term end paper must be approximately between forty to fifty pages.
Your paper must be in the following format:

1) Title page
The title page must have the following format:

TITLE OF THE THESIS

Term End Paper submitted to IGNOU
for partial fulfillment for the award of the certificate of
PG DIPLOMA IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE

Enrollment Number: _____

Date/Month/Year
IGNOU
School of Law
Maidan Garhi
New Delhi – 110 068

2) Declaration page
The declaration page must have the following format:

Date

DECLARATION

I declare that the paper entitled “……….” submitted by me for partial fulfillment for the
award of the certificate of PG Diploma in Criminal Justice, IGNOU.

This project has not been submitted for any other degree/certificate in any Institute/University,
whatsoever.

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATE

3) Acknowledgement
4) Contents page

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5) List of tables, figures, abbreviations (if applicable)
6) Chapters of the paper
Chapter 1 should be called ‘Introduction’ and must state the purpose of your paper clearly. You
must explain briefly the major issues you plan to cover in your paper and why readers should be
interested in your topic. You must also state your research problem and hypothesis while
introducing your paper.

Chapter 2 should ideally consist of a detailed review of relevant theoretical and empirical literature.
Thereafter, you can continue with the rest of the chapters which would form the body of your
paper. This is where you should present all your arguments to support your hypothesis.

The final chapter should be called ‘Conclusion’. The conclusion of the paper is the most valuable
part as it is the only original contribution you offer in your paper. It manifests the value of your
research as well as your understanding of the material that you have presented. Hence, it must
briefly restate the research problem and summarise the main findings and implications of the
study. You must explain why you have come to this particular conclusion.

7) References
As explained earlier

8) Tables and figures (if not a part of your text itself )

As explained earlier

9) Appendices
As explained earlier

5. SUMMARY
To sum it up, a research paper is a substantial piece of investigative material that involves a
pursuit of systematic procedures involving legal and social research methods. A good paper
must incorporate all the principles of legal research and the methods used in carrying out an
appropriate and feasible study.

It is very important for a legal researcher to not only be proficient in legal research methodologies,
but also be familiar in other allied disciplines such as sociology, political science, economics,
psychology, education, etc., or any branch of knowledge that requires a study of people, society
or culture so as to understand the applicability and practicality of the research topic.

The need for empirical focus in legal research is now more expressed than was it ever before.
The legal research in this country has always been dominated by doctrinal method. This has
served only limited objectives. The development of empirical traditions in legal research in
India could not take place effectively. The research lacking empirical focus has not been able to
contribute significantly for policy purposes or programme devising. Hence, it is very essential to
provide a proper research training for law scholars and students. Thankfully, the legal scene in
the recent past has drastically changed. It now involves the knowledge and methods of parallel
social sciences.

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 MLEP-017
Clinical Course
School of Law
Indira Gandhi National Open University

Post Graduate Diploma

in
Criminal Justice
(PGDCJ)

PROJECT HANDBOOK
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