The Linux Kernel Module Programming Guide

Peter Jay Salzman, Michael Burian, Ori Pomerantz, Bob Mottram, Jim Huang

August 23, 2021

 Contents

0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.1.1 Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.1.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.1.3 What Is A Kernel Module? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.1.4 Kernel module package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.1.5 What Modules are in my Kernel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.6 Do I need to download and compile the kernel? . . . . . . 3
0.1.7 Before We Begin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.2 Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.4 Hello World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.4.1 The Simplest Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.4.2 Hello and Goodbye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.4.3 The __init and __exit Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.4.4 Licensing and Module Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.4.5 Passing Command Line Arguments to a Module . . . . . 10
0.4.6 Modules Spanning Multiple Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.4.7 Building modules for a precompiled kernel . . . . . . . . . 14
0.5 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.5.1 How modules begin and end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.5.2 Functions available to modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.5.3 User Space vs Kernel Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
0.5.4 Name Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
0.5.5 Code space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
0.5.6 Device Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.6 Character Device drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.6.1 The file_operations Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.6.2 The file structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1
 2

0.6.3 Registering A Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

0.6.4 Unregistering A Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
0.6.5 chardev.c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
0.6.6 Writing Modules for Multiple Kernel Versions . . . . . . . 27
0.7 The /proc File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
0.7.1 The proc_ops Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
0.7.2 Read and Write a /proc File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
0.7.3 Manage /proc file with standard filesystem . . . . . . . . 33
0.7.4 Manage /proc file with seq_file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
0.8 sysfs: Interacting with your module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
0.9 Talking To Device Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
0.10 System Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
0.11 Blocking Processes and threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
0.11.1 Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
0.11.2 Completions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
0.12 Avoiding Collisions and Deadlocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
0.12.1 Mutex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
0.12.2 Spinlocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
0.12.3 Read and write locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
0.12.4 Atomic operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
0.13 Replacing Print Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
0.13.1 Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
0.13.2 Flashing keyboard LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
0.14 Scheduling Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
0.14.1 Tasklets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
0.14.2 Work queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
0.15 Interrupt Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
0.15.1 Interrupt Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
0.15.2 Detecting button presses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
0.15.3 Bottom Half . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
0.16 Crypto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
0.16.1 Hash functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
0.16.2 Symmetric key encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
0.17 Standardizing the interfaces: The Device Model . . . . . . . . . . 88
0.18 Optimizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
0.18.1 Likely and Unlikely conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
0.19 Common Pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
0.19.1 Using standard libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
0.19.2 Disabling interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
0.20 Where To Go From Here? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
0.1. INTRODUCTION 3

0.1 Introduction
The Linux Kernel Module Programming Guide is a free book; you may repro-
duce and/or modify it under the terms of the Open Software License, version
3.0.
This book is distributed in the hope it will be useful, but without any war-
ranty, without even the implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a
particular purpose.
The author encourages wide distribution of this book for personal or com-
mercial use, provided the above copyright notice remains intact and the method
adheres to the provisions of the Open Software License. In summary, you may
copy and distribute this book free of charge or for a profit. No explicit permis-
sion is required from the author for reproduction of this book in any medium,
physical or electronic.
Derivative works and translations of this document must be placed un-
der the Open Software License, and the original copyright notice must remain
intact. If you have contributed new material to this book, you must make
the material and source code available for your revisions. Please make revi-
sions and updates available directly to the document maintainer, Jim Huang
<jserv@ccns.ncku.edu.tw>. This will allow for the merging of updates and
provide consistent revisions to the Linux community.
If you publish or distribute this book commercially, donations, royalties,
and/or printed copies are greatly appreciated by the author and the Linux
Documentation Project (LDP). Contributing in this way shows your support for
free software and the LDP. If you have questions or comments, please contact
the address above.

0.1.1 Authorship
The Linux Kernel Module Programming Guide was originally written for the
2.2 kernels by Ori Pomerantz. Eventually, Ori no longer had time to maintain
the document. After all, the Linux kernel is a fast moving target. Peter Jay
Salzman took over maintenance and updated it for the 2.4 kernels. Eventually,
Peter no longer had time to follow developments with the 2.6 kernel, so Michael
Burian became a co-maintainer to update the document for the 2.6 kernels. Bob
Mottram updated the examples for 3.8+ kernels. Jim Huang upgraded to recent
kernel versions (v5.x) and revised the LATEX document.

0.1.2 Acknowledgements
The following people have contributed corrections or good suggestions: Ignacio
Martin, David Porter, Daniele Paolo Scarpazza, Dimo Velev, Francois Audeon,
Horst Schirmeier, and Roman Lakeev.
 0.1. INTRODUCTION 4

0.1.3 What Is A Kernel Module?

So, you want to write a kernel module. You know C, you have written a few
normal programs to run as processes, and now you want to get to where the
real action is, to where a single wild pointer can wipe out your file system and
a core dump means a reboot.
What exactly is a kernel module? Modules are pieces of code that can be
loaded and unloaded into the kernel upon demand. They extend the function-
ality of the kernel without the need to reboot the system. For example, one
type of module is the device driver, which allows the kernel to access hardware
connected to the system. Without modules, we would have to build monolithic
kernels and add new functionality directly into the kernel image. Besides having
larger kernels, this has the disadvantage of requiring us to rebuild and reboot
the kernel every time we want new functionality.

0.1.4 Kernel module package

Linux distributions provide the commands modprobe, insmod and depmod within
a package.
On Ubuntu/Debian:

1 sudo apt-get install build-essential kmod

On Arch Linux:

1 sudo pacman -S gcc kmod

0.1.5 What Modules are in my Kernel?

To discover what modules are already loaded within your current kernel use the
command lsmod.

1 sudo lsmod

Modules are stored within the file /proc/modules, so you can also see them
with:

1 sudo cat /proc/modules

This can be a long list, and you might prefer to search for something partic-
ular. To search for the fat module:

1 sudo lsmod | grep fat

 0.2. HEADERS 5

0.1.6 Do I need to download and compile the kernel?

For the purposes of following this guide you don’t necessarily need to do that.
However, it would be wise to run the examples within a test distribution running
on a virtual machine in order to avoid any possibility of messing up your system.

0.1.7 Before We Begin

Before we delve into code, there are a few issues we need to cover. Everyone’s
system is different and everyone has their own groove. Getting your first "hello
world" program to compile and load correctly can sometimes be a trick. Rest
assured, after you get over the initial hurdle of doing it for the first time, it will
be smooth sailing thereafter.

1. Modversioning. A module compiled for one kernel will not load if you boot
a different kernel unless you enable CONFIG_MODVERSIONS in the kernel.
We will not go into module versioning until later in this guide. Until we
cover modversions, the examples in the guide may not work if you are
running a kernel with modversioning turned on. However, most stock
Linux distribution kernels come with it turned on. If you are having
trouble loading the modules because of versioning errors, compile a kernel
with modversioning turned off.

2. Using X Window System. It is highly recommended that you extract,

compile and load all the examples this guide discusses. It is also highly
recommended you do this from a console. You should not be working on
this stuff in X Window System.
Modules can not print to the screen like printf() can, but they can log
information and warnings, which ends up being printed on your screen, but
only on a console. If you insmod a module from an xterm, the information
and warnings will be logged, but only to your systemd journal. You will
not see it unless you look through your journalctl. See 0.4 for details.
To have immediate access to this information, do all your work from the
console.

0.2 Headers
Before you can build anything you’ll need to install the header files for your
kernel.
On Ubuntu/Debian:

1 sudo apt-get update

2 apt-cache search linux-headers-`uname -r`

On Arch Linux:
 0.3. EXAMPLES 6

1 sudo pacman -S linux-libre-headers

This will tell you what kernel header files are available. Then for example:

1 sudo apt-get install kmod linux-headers-5.4.0-80-generic

0.3 Examples
All the examples from this document are available within the examples subdi-
rectory.
If there are any compile errors then you might have a more recent kernel
version or need to install the corresponding kernel header files.

0.4 Hello World

0.4.1 The Simplest Module
Most people learning programming start out with some sort of "hello world "
example. I don’t know what happens to people who break with this tradition,
but I think it is safer not to find out. We will start with a series of hello world
programs that demonstrate the different aspects of the basics of writing a kernel
module.
Here is the simplest module possible.
Make a test directory:

1 mkdir -p ~/develop/kernel/hello-1
2 cd ~/develop/kernel/hello-1

Paste this into you favorite editor and save it as hello-1.c:

1 /*
2 * hello-1.c - The simplest kernel module.
3 */
4 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* Needed for pr_info() */
5 #include <linux/module.h> /* Needed by all modules */
6
7 int init_module(void)
8 {
9 pr_info("Hello world 1.\n");
10
11 /* A non 0 return means init_module failed; module can't be loaded. */
12 return 0;
13 }
14
 0.4. HELLO WORLD 7

15 void cleanup_module(void)
16 {
17 pr_info("Goodbye world 1.\n");
18 }
19
20 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

Now you will need a Makefile. If you copy and paste this, change the
indentation to use tabs, not spaces.

1 obj-m += hello-1.o
2
3 all:
4 make -C /lib/modules/$(shell uname -r)/build M=$(PWD) modules
5
6 clean:
7 make -C /lib/modules/$(shell uname -r)/build M=$(PWD) clean

And finally just:

1 make

If all goes smoothly you should then find that you have a compiled hello-1.ko
module. You can find info on it with the command:

1 sudo modinfo hello-1.ko

At this point the command:

1 sudo lsmod | grep hello

should return nothing. You can try loading your shiny new module with:

1 sudo insmod hello-1.ko

The dash character will get converted to an underscore, so when you again
try:

1 sudo lsmod | grep hello

you should now see your loaded module. It can be removed again with:

1 sudo rmmod hello_1

 0.4. HELLO WORLD 8

Notice that the dash was replaced by an underscore. To see what just hap-
pened in the logs:

1 sudo journalctl --since "1 hour ago" | grep kernel

You now know the basics of creating, compiling, installing and removing
modules. Now for more of a description of how this module works.
Kernel modules must have at least two functions: a "start" (initialization)
function called init_module() which is called when the module is insmoded into
the kernel, and an "end" (cleanup) function called cleanup_module() which is
called just before it is removed from the kernel. Actually, things have changed
starting with kernel 2.3.13. You can now use whatever name you like for the
start and end functions of a module, and you will learn how to do this in
Section 0.4.2. In fact, the new method is the preferred method. However, many
people still use init_module() and cleanup_module() for their start and end
functions.
Typically, init_module() either registers a handler for something with the
kernel, or it replaces one of the kernel functions with its own code (usually code
to do something and then call the original function). The cleanup_module()
function is supposed to undo whatever init_module() did, so the module can
be unloaded safely.
Lastly, every kernel module needs to include <linux/module.h>. We needed
to include <linux/kernel.h> only for the macro expansion for the pr_alert()
log level, which you’ll learn about in Section 2.

1. A point about coding style. Another thing which may not be immediately
obvious to anyone getting started with kernel programming is that inden-
tation within your code should be using tabs and not spaces. It is one
of the coding conventions of the kernel. You may not like it, but you’ll
need to get used to it if you ever submit a patch upstream.

2. Introducing print macros. In the beginning there was printk, usually fol-
lowed by a priority such as KERN_INFO or KERN_DEBUG. More recently this
can also be expressed in abbreviated form using a set of print macros,
such as pr_info and pr_debug. This just saves some mindless key-
board bashing and looks a bit neater. They can be found within in-
clude/linux/printk.h. Take time to read through the available priority
macros.
3. About Compiling. Kernel modules need to be compiled a bit differently
from regular userspace apps. Former kernel versions required us to care
much about these settings, which are usually stored in Makefiles. Al-
though hierarchically organized, many redundant settings accumulated in
sublevel Makefiles and made them large and rather difficult to maintain.
Fortunately, there is a new way of doing these things, called kbuild, and
the build process for external loadable modules is now fully integrated into
 0.4. HELLO WORLD 9

the standard kernel build mechanism. To learn more on how to compile

modules which are not part of the official kernel (such as all the examples
you will find in this guide), see file Documentation/kbuild/modules.rst.
Additional details about Makefiles for kernel modules are available in Doc-
umentation/kbuild/makefiles.rst. Be sure to read this and the related files
before starting to hack Makefiles. It will probably save you lots of work.

Here is another exercise for the reader. See that comment above
the return statement in init_module()? Change the return
value to something negative, recompile and load the module
again. What happens?

0.4.2 Hello and Goodbye

In early kernel versions you had to use the init_module and cleanup_module
functions, as in the first hello world example, but these days you can name
those anything you want by using the module_init and module_exit macros.
These macros are defined in include/linux/init.h. The only requirement is that
your init and cleanup functions must be defined before calling the those macros,
otherwise you’ll get compilation errors. Here is an example of this technique:

1 /*
2 * hello-2.c - Demonstrating the module_init() and module_exit() macros.
3 * This is preferred over using init_module() and cleanup_module().
4 */
5 #include <linux/init.h> /* Needed for the macros */
6 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* Needed for pr_info() */
7 #include <linux/module.h> /* Needed by all modules */
8
9 static int __init hello_2_init(void)
10 {
11 pr_info("Hello, world 2\n");
12 return 0;
13 }
14
15 static void __exit hello_2_exit(void)
16 {
17 pr_info("Goodbye, world 2\n");
18 }
19
20 module_init(hello_2_init);
21 module_exit(hello_2_exit);
22
23 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

So now we have two real kernel modules under our belt. Adding another
module is as simple as this:

1 obj-m += hello-1.o
2 obj-m += hello-2.o
 0.4. HELLO WORLD 10

3
4 all:
5 make -C /lib/modules/$(shell uname -r)/build M=$(PWD) modules
6
7 clean:
8 make -C /lib/modules/$(shell uname -r)/build M=$(PWD) clean

Now have a look at drivers/char/Makefile for a real world example. As you

can see, some things get hardwired into the kernel (obj-y) but where are all
those obj-m gone? Those familiar with shell scripts will easily be able to spot
them. For those not, the obj-$(CONFIG_FOO) entries you see everywhere expand
into obj-y or obj-m, depending on whether the CONFIG_FOO variable has been
set to y or m. While we are at it, those were exactly the kind of variables that
you have set in the .config file in the top-level directory of Linux kernel source
tree, the last time when you said make menuconfig or something like that.

0.4.3 The __init and __exit Macros

The __init macro causes the init function to be discarded and its memory freed
once the init function finishes for built-in drivers, but not loadable modules. If
you think about when the init function is invoked, this makes perfect sense.
There is also an __initdata which works similarly to __init but for init
variables rather than functions.
The __exit macro causes the omission of the function when the module
is built into the kernel, and like __init, has no effect for loadable modules.
Again, if you consider when the cleanup function runs, this makes complete
sense; built-in drivers do not need a cleanup function, while loadable modules
do.
These macros are defined in include/linux/init.h and serve to free up kernel
memory. When you boot your kernel and see something like Freeing unused
kernel memory: 236k freed, this is precisely what the kernel is freeing.

1 /*
2 * hello-3.c - Illustrating the __init, __initdata and __exit macros.
3 */
4 #include <linux/init.h> /* Needed for the macros */
5 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* Needed for pr_info() */
6 #include <linux/module.h> /* Needed by all modules */
7
8 static int hello3_data __initdata = 3;
9
10 static int __init hello_3_init(void)
11 {
12 pr_info("Hello, world %d\n", hello3_data);
13 return 0;
14 }
15
16 static void __exit hello_3_exit(void)
17 {
18 pr_info("Goodbye, world 3\n");
 0.4. HELLO WORLD 11

19 }
20
21 module_init(hello_3_init);
22 module_exit(hello_3_exit);
23
24 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

0.4.4 Licensing and Module Documentation

Honestly, who loads or even cares about proprietary modules? If you do then
you might have seen something like this:

$ sudo insmod xxxxxx.ko

loading out-of-tree module taints kernel.
module license 'unspecified' taints kernel.
You can use a few macros to indicate the license for your module. Some ex-
amples are "GPL", "GPL v2", "GPL and additional rights", "Dual BSD/GPL",
"Dual MIT/GPL", "Dual MPL/GPL" and "Proprietary". They are defined
within include/linux/module.h.
To reference what license you’re using a macro is available called MODULE_LICENSE.
This and a few other macros describing the module are illustrated in the below
example.

1 /*
2 * hello-4.c - Demonstrates module documentation.
3 */
4 #include <linux/init.h> /* Needed for the macros */
5 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* Needed for pr_info() */
6 #include <linux/module.h> /* Needed by all modules */
7
8 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
9 MODULE_AUTHOR("LKMPG");
10 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("A sample driver");
11
12 static int __init init_hello_4(void)
13 {
14 pr_info("Hello, world 4\n");
15 return 0;
16 }
17
18 static void __exit cleanup_hello_4(void)
19 {
20 pr_info("Goodbye, world 4\n");
21 }
22
23 module_init(init_hello_4);
24 module_exit(cleanup_hello_4);
 0.4. HELLO WORLD 12

0.4.5 Passing Command Line Arguments to a Module

Modules can take command line arguments, but not with the argc/argv you
might be used to.
To allow arguments to be passed to your module, declare the variables that
will take the values of the command line arguments as global and then use the
module_param() macro, (defined in include/linux/moduleparam.h) to set the
mechanism up. At runtime, insmod will fill the variables with any command line
arguments that are given, like insmod mymodule.ko myvariable=5. The vari-
able declarations and macros should be placed at the beginning of the module
for clarity. The example code should clear up my admittedly lousy explanation.
The module_param() macro takes 3 arguments: the name of the variable,
its type and permissions for the corresponding file in sysfs. Integer types can
be signed as usual or unsigned. If you’d like to use arrays of integers or strings
see module_param_array() and module_param_string().

1 int myint = 3;
2 module_param(myint, int, 0);

Arrays are supported too, but things are a bit different now than they were
in the olden days. To keep track of the number of parameters you need to pass
a pointer to a count variable as third parameter. At your option, you could also
ignore the count and pass NULL instead. We show both possibilities here:

1 int myintarray[2];
2 module_param_array(myintarray, int, NULL, 0); /* not interested in count */
3
4 short myshortarray[4];
5 int count;
6 module_param_array(myshortarray, short, &count, 0); /* put count into "count"
,→ variable */

A good use for this is to have the module variable’s default values set, like
an port or IO address. If the variables contain the default values, then perform
autodetection (explained elsewhere). Otherwise, keep the current value. This
will be made clear later on.
Lastly, there is a macro function, MODULE_PARM_DESC(), that is used to
document arguments that the module can take. It takes two parameters: a
variable name and a free form string describing that variable.

1 /*
2 * hello-5.c - Demonstrates command line argument passing to a module.
3 */
4 #include <linux/init.h>
5 #include <linux/kernel.h>
6 #include <linux/module.h>
7 #include <linux/moduleparam.h>
8 #include <linux/stat.h>
 0.4. HELLO WORLD 13

9
10 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
11
12 static short int myshort = 1;
13 static int myint = 420;
14 static long int mylong = 9999;
15 static char *mystring = "blah";
16 static int myintArray[2] = {420, 420};
17 static int arr_argc = 0;
18
19 /* module_param(foo, int, 0000)
20 * The first param is the parameters name.
21 * The second param is its data type.
22 * The final argument is the permissions bits,
23 * for exposing parameters in sysfs (if non-zero) at a later stage.
24 */
25 module_param(myshort, short, S_IRUSR | S_IWUSR | S_IRGRP | S_IWGRP);
26 MODULE_PARM_DESC(myshort, "A short integer");
27 module_param(myint, int, S_IRUSR | S_IWUSR | S_IRGRP | S_IROTH);
28 MODULE_PARM_DESC(myint, "An integer");
29 module_param(mylong, long, S_IRUSR);
30 MODULE_PARM_DESC(mylong, "A long integer");
31 module_param(mystring, charp, 0000);
32 MODULE_PARM_DESC(mystring, "A character string");
33
34 /* module_param_array(name, type, num, perm);
35 * The first param is the parameter's (in this case the array's) name.
36 * The second param is the data type of the elements of the array.
37 * The third argument is a pointer to the variable that will store the number.
38 * of elements of the array initialized by the user at module loading time.
39 * The fourth argument is the permission bits.
40 */
41 module_param_array(myintArray, int, &arr_argc, 0000);
42 MODULE_PARM_DESC(myintArray, "An array of integers");
43
44 static int __init hello_5_init(void)
45 {
46 int i;
47 pr_info("Hello, world 5\n=============\n");
48 pr_info("myshort is a short integer: %hd\n", myshort);
49 pr_info("myint is an integer: %d\n", myint);
50 pr_info("mylong is a long integer: %ld\n", mylong);
51 pr_info("mystring is a string: %s\n", mystring);
52
53 for (i = 0; i < (sizeof myintArray / sizeof(int)); i++)
54 pr_info("myintArray[%d] = %d\n", i, myintArray[i]);
55
56 pr_info("got %d arguments for myintArray.\n", arr_argc);
57 return 0;
58 }
59
60 static void __exit hello_5_exit(void)
61 {
62 pr_info("Goodbye, world 5\n");
63 }
64
65 module_init(hello_5_init);
 0.4. HELLO WORLD 14

66 module_exit(hello_5_exit);

I would recommend playing around with this code:

1 $ sudo insmod hello-5.ko mystring="bebop" myintArray=-1

2 myshort is a short integer: 1
3 myint is an integer: 420
4 mylong is a long integer: 9999
5 mystring is a string: bebop
6 myintArray[0] = -1
7 myintArray[1] = 420
8 got 1 arguments for myintArray.
9
10 $ sudo rmmod hello-5
11 Goodbye, world 5
12
13 $ sudo insmod hello-5.ko mystring="supercalifragilisticexpialidocious"
,→ myintArray=-1,-1
14 myshort is a short integer: 1
15 myint is an integer: 420
16 mylong is a long integer: 9999
17 mystring is a string: supercalifragilisticexpialidocious
18 myintArray[0] = -1
19 myintArray[1] = -1
20 got 2 arguments for myintArray.
21
22 $ sudo rmmod hello-5
23 Goodbye, world 5
24
25 $ sudo insmod hello-5.ko mylong=hello
26 hello-5.o: invalid argument syntax for mylong: 'h'

0.4.6 Modules Spanning Multiple Files

Sometimes it makes sense to divide a kernel module between several source files.
Here is an example of such a kernel module.

1 /*
2 * start.c - Illustration of multi filed modules
3 */
4
5 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* We are doing kernel work */
6 #include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */
7
8 int init_module(void)
9 {
10 pr_info("Hello, world - this is the kernel speaking\n");
11 return 0;
12 }
13
14 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

The next file:

 0.4. HELLO WORLD 15

1 /*
2 * stop.c - Illustration of multi filed modules
3 */
4
5 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* We are doing kernel work */
6 #include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */
7
8 void cleanup_module()
9 {
10 pr_info("Short is the life of a kernel module\n");
11 }
12
13 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

And finally, the makefile:

1 obj-m += hello-1.o
2 obj-m += hello-2.o
3 obj-m += hello-3.o
4 obj-m += hello-4.o
5 obj-m += hello-5.o
6 obj-m += startstop.o
7 startstop-objs := start.o stop.o
8
9 all:
10 make -C /lib/modules/$(shell uname -r)/build M=$(PWD) modules
11
12 clean:
13 make -C /lib/modules/$(shell uname -r)/build M=$(PWD) clean

This is the complete makefile for all the examples we have seen so far. The
first five lines are nothing special, but for the last example we will need two
lines. First we invent an object name for our combined module, second we tell
make what object files are part of that module.

0.4.7 Building modules for a precompiled kernel

Obviously, we strongly suggest you to recompile your kernel, so that you can
enable a number of useful debugging features, such as forced module unloading
(MODULE_FORCE_UNLOAD): when this option is enabled, you can force the kernel
to unload a module even when it believes it is unsafe, via a sudo rmmod -f module
command. This option can save you a lot of time and a number of reboots dur-
ing the development of a module. If you do not want to recompile your kernel
then you should consider running the examples within a test distribution on a
virtual machine. If you mess anything up then you can easily reboot or restore
the virtual machine (VM).
There are a number of cases in which you may want to load your module
into a precompiled running kernel, such as the ones shipped with common Linux
distributions, or a kernel you have compiled in the past. In certain circumstances
0.4. HELLO WORLD 16

you could require to compile and insert a module into a running kernel which
you are not allowed to recompile, or on a machine that you prefer not to reboot.
If you can’t think of a case that will force you to use modules for a precompiled
kernel you might want to skip this and treat the rest of this chapter as a big
footnote.
Now, if you just install a kernel source tree, use it to compile your kernel
module and you try to insert your module into the kernel, in most cases you
would obtain an error as follows:

insmod: ERROR: could not insert module poet.ko: Invalid module format

Less cryptic information is logged to the systemd journal:

kernel: poet: disagrees about version of symbol module_layout

In other words, your kernel refuses to accept your module because version
strings (more precisely, version magic, see include/linux/vermagic.h) do not
match. Incidentally, version magic strings are stored in the module object in
the form of a static string, starting with vermagic:. Version data are inserted
in your module when it is linked against the kernel/module.o file. To inspect
version magics and other strings stored in a given module, issue the command
modinfo module.ko:

$ modinfo hello-4.ko
description: A sample driver
author: LKMPG
license: GPL
srcversion: B2AA7FBFCC2C39AED665382
depends:
retpoline: Y
name: hello_4
vermagic: 5.4.0-70-generic SMP mod_unload modversions

To overcome this problem we could resort to the --force-vermagic op-

tion, but this solution is potentially unsafe, and unquestionably unacceptable
in production modules. Consequently, we want to compile our module in an
environment which was identical to the one in which our precompiled kernel
was built. How to do this, is the subject of the remainder of this chapter.
First of all, make sure that a kernel source tree is available, having exactly
the same version as your current kernel. Then, find the configuration file which
was used to compile your precompiled kernel. Usually, this is available in your
current boot directory, under a name like config-5.14.x. You may just want
to copy it to your kernel source tree: cp /boot/config-`uname -r` .config.
Let’s focus again on the previous error message: a closer look at the version
magic strings suggests that, even with two configuration files which are exactly
the same, a slight difference in the version magic could be possible, and it
is sufficient to prevent insertion of the module into the kernel. That slight
 0.4. HELLO WORLD 17

difference, namely the custom string which appears in the module’s version
magic and not in the kernel’s one, is due to a modification with respect to the
original, in the makefile that some distributions include. Then, examine your
Makefile, and make sure that the specified version information matches exactly
the one used for your current kernel. For example, you makefile could start as
follows:

VERSION = 5
PATCHLEVEL = 14
SUBLEVEL = 0
EXTRAVERSION = -rc2

In this case, you need to restore the value of symbol EXTRAVERSION

to -rc2. We suggest to keep a backup copy of the makefile used to compile your
kernel available in /lib/modules/5.14.0-rc2/build. A simple command as
following should suffice.

1 cp /lib/modules/`uname -r`/build/Makefile linux-`uname -r`

Here linux-`uname -r` is the Linux kernel source you are attempting to build.
Now, please run make to update configuration and version headers and ob-
jects:

$ make
SYNC include/config/auto.conf.cmd
HOSTCC scripts/basic/fixdep
HOSTCC scripts/kconfig/conf.o
HOSTCC scripts/kconfig/confdata.o
HOSTCC scripts/kconfig/expr.o
LEX scripts/kconfig/lexer.lex.c
YACC scripts/kconfig/parser.tab.[ch]
HOSTCC scripts/kconfig/preprocess.o
HOSTCC scripts/kconfig/symbol.o
HOSTCC scripts/kconfig/util.o
HOSTCC scripts/kconfig/lexer.lex.o
HOSTCC scripts/kconfig/parser.tab.o
HOSTLD scripts/kconfig/conf

If you do not desire to actually compile the kernel, you can interrupt the
build process (CTRL-C) just after the SPLIT line, because at that time, the
files you need will be are ready. Now you can turn back to the directory of your
module and compile it: It will be built exactly according to your current kernel
settings, and it will load into it without any errors.
0.5. PRELIMINARIES 18

0.5 Preliminaries
0.5.1 How modules begin and end
A program usually begins with a main() function, executes a bunch of instruc-
tions and terminates upon completion of those instructions. Kernel modules
work a bit differently. A module always begin with either the init_module or
the function you specify with module_init call. This is the entry function for
modules; it tells the kernel what functionality the module provides and sets up
the kernel to run the module’s functions when they are needed. Once it does
this, entry function returns and the module does nothing until the kernel wants
to do something with the code that the module provides.
All modules end by calling either cleanup_module or the function you spec-
ify with the module_exit call. This is the exit function for modules; it undoes
whatever entry function did. It unregisters the functionality that the entry
function registered.
Every module must have an entry function and an exit function. Since
there’s more than one way to specify entry and exit functions, I will try my best
to use the terms “entry function” and “exit function”, but if I slip and simply
refer to them as init_module and cleanup_module, I think you will know what
I mean.

0.5.2 Functions available to modules

Programmers use functions they do not define all the time. A prime example
of this is printf(). You use these library functions which are provided by the
standard C library, libc. The definitions for these functions do not actually enter
your program until the linking stage, which insures that the code (for printf()
for example) is available, and fixes the call instruction to point to that code.
Kernel modules are different here, too. In the hello world example, you
might have noticed that we used a function, pr_info() but did not include a
standard I/O library. That is because modules are object files whose symbols
get resolved upon insmod’ing. The definition for the symbols comes from the
kernel itself; the only external functions you can use are the ones provided by
the kernel. If you’re curious about what symbols have been exported by your
kernel, take a look at /proc/kallsyms.
One point to keep in mind is the difference between library functions and
system calls. Library functions are higher level, run completely in user space
and provide a more convenient interface for the programmer to the functions
that do the real work — system calls. System calls run in kernel mode on
the user’s behalf and are provided by the kernel itself. The library function
printf() may look like a very general printing function, but all it really does is
format the data into strings and write the string data using the low-level system
call write(), which then sends the data to standard output.
Would you like to see what system calls are made by printf()? It is easy!
Compile the following program:
 0.5. PRELIMINARIES 19

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main(void)
4 {
5 printf("hello");
6 return 0;
7 }

with gcc -Wall -o hello hello.c. Run the executable with strace ./hello.
Are you impressed? Every line you see corresponds to a system call. strace is
a handy program that gives you details about what system calls a program
is making, including which call is made, what its arguments are and what it
returns. It is an invaluable tool for figuring out things like what files a pro-
gram is trying to access. Towards the end, you will see a line which looks
like write(1, "hello", 5hello). There it is. The face behind the printf()
mask. You may not be familiar with write, since most people use library func-
tions for file I/O (like fopen, fputs, fclose). If that is the case, try looking
at man 2 write. The 2nd man section is devoted to system calls (like kill()
and read()). The 3rd man section is devoted to library calls, which you would
probably be more familiar with (like cosh() and random()).
You can even write modules to replace the kernel’s system calls, which we
will do shortly. Crackers often make use of this sort of thing for backdoors or
trojans, but you can write your own modules to do more benign things, like
have the kernel write Tee hee, that tickles! every time someone tries to delete a
file on your system.

0.5.3 User Space vs Kernel Space

A kernel is all about access to resources, whether the resource in question hap-
pens to be a video card, a hard drive or even memory. Programs often compete
for the same resource. As I just saved this document, updatedb started updat-
ing the locate database. My vim session and updatedb are both using the hard
drive concurrently. The kernel needs to keep things orderly, and not give users
access to resources whenever they feel like it. To this end, a CPU can run in
different modes. Each mode gives a different level of freedom to do what you
want on the system. The Intel 80386 architecture had 4 of these modes, which
were called rings. Unix uses only two rings; the highest ring (ring 0, also known
as “supervisor mode” where everything is allowed to happen) and the lowest
ring, which is called “user mode”.
Recall the discussion about library functions vs system calls. Typically, you
use a library function in user mode. The library function calls one or more
system calls, and these system calls execute on the library function’s behalf,
but do so in supervisor mode since they are part of the kernel itself. Once the
system call completes its task, it returns and execution gets transfered back to
user mode.
0.5. PRELIMINARIES 20

0.5.4 Name Space

When you write a small C program, you use variables which are convenient and
make sense to the reader. If, on the other hand, you are writing routines which
will be part of a bigger problem, any global variables you have are part of a
community of other peoples’ global variables; some of the variable names can
clash. When a program has lots of global variables which aren’t meaningful
enough to be distinguished, you get namespace pollution. In large projects,
effort must be made to remember reserved names, and to find ways to develop
a scheme for naming unique variable names and symbols.
When writing kernel code, even the smallest module will be linked against
the entire kernel, so this is definitely an issue. The best way to deal with this
is to declare all your variables as static and to use a well-defined prefix for your
symbols. By convention, all kernel prefixes are lowercase. If you do not want
to declare everything as static, another option is to declare a symbol table and
register it with the kernel. We will get to this later.
The file /proc/kallsyms holds all the symbols that the kernel knows about
and which are therefore accessible to your modules since they share the kernel’s
codespace.

0.5.5 Code space

Memory management is a very complicated subject and the majority of O’Reilly’s
Understanding The Linux Kernel exclusively covers memory management! We
are not setting out to be experts on memory managements, but we do need to
know a couple of facts to even begin worrying about writing real modules.
If you have not thought about what a segfault really means, you may be
surprised to hear that pointers do not actually point to memory locations. Not
real ones, anyway. When a process is created, the kernel sets aside a portion of
real physical memory and hands it to the process to use for its executing code,
variables, stack, heap and other things which a computer scientist would know
about. This memory begins with 0x00000000 and extends up to whatever it
needs to be. Since the memory space for any two processes do not overlap, every
process that can access a memory address, say 0xbffff978, would be accessing
a different location in real physical memory! The processes would be accessing
an index named 0xbffff978 which points to some kind of offset into the region of
memory set aside for that particular process. For the most part, a process like
our Hello, World program can’t access the space of another process, although
there are ways which we will talk about later.
The kernel has its own space of memory as well. Since a module is code
which can be dynamically inserted and removed in the kernel (as opposed to a
semi-autonomous object), it shares the kernel’s codespace rather than having
its own. Therefore, if your module segfaults, the kernel segfaults. And if you
start writing over data because of an off-by-one error, then you’re trampling on
kernel data (or code). This is even worse than it sounds, so try your best to be
careful.
0.5. PRELIMINARIES 21

By the way, I would like to point out that the above discussion is true for
any operating system which uses a monolithic kernel. This is not quite the same
thing as "building all your modules into the kernel", although the idea is the
same. There are things called microkernels which have modules which get their
own codespace. The GNU Hurd and the Zircon kernel of Google Fuchsia are
two examples of a microkernel.

0.5.6 Device Drivers

One class of module is the device driver, which provides functionality for hard-
ware like a serial port. On Unix, each piece of hardware is represented by a file
located in /dev named a device file which provides the means to communicate
with the hardware. The device driver provides the communication on behalf of
a user program. So the es1370.ko sound card device driver might connect the
/dev/sound device file to the Ensoniq IS1370 sound card. A userspace program
like mp3blaster can use /dev/sound without ever knowing what kind of sound
card is installed.
Let’s look at some device files. Here are device files which represent the first
three partitions on the primary master IDE hard drive:

$ ls -l /dev/hda[1-3]
brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 1 Jul 5 2000 /dev/hda1
brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 2 Jul 5 2000 /dev/hda2
brw-rw---- 1 root disk 3, 3 Jul 5 2000 /dev/hda3

Notice the column of numbers separated by a comma. The first number is

called the device’s major number. The second number is the minor number.
The major number tells you which driver is used to access the hardware. Each
driver is assigned a unique major number; all device files with the same major
number are controlled by the same driver. All the above major numbers are 3,
because they’re all controlled by the same driver.
The minor number is used by the driver to distinguish between the various
hardware it controls. Returning to the example above, although all three devices
are handled by the same driver they have unique minor numbers because the
driver sees them as being different pieces of hardware.
Devices are divided into two types: character devices and block devices. The
difference is that block devices have a buffer for requests, so they can choose
the best order in which to respond to the requests. This is important in the
case of storage devices, where it is faster to read or write sectors which are close
to each other, rather than those which are further apart. Another difference is
that block devices can only accept input and return output in blocks (whose size
can vary according to the device), whereas character devices are allowed to use
as many or as few bytes as they like. Most devices in the world are character,
because they don’t need this type of buffering, and they don’t operate with a
fixed block size. You can tell whether a device file is for a block device or a
character device by looking at the first character in the output of ls -l. If it
0.6. CHARACTER DEVICE DRIVERS 22

is ‘b’ then it is a block device, and if it is ‘c’ then it is a character device. The
devices you see above are block devices. Here are some character devices (the
serial ports):

crw-rw---- 1 root dial 4, 64 Feb 18 23:34 /dev/ttyS0

crw-r----- 1 root dial 4, 65 Nov 17 10:26 /dev/ttyS1
crw-rw---- 1 root dial 4, 66 Jul 5 2000 /dev/ttyS2
crw-rw---- 1 root dial 4, 67 Jul 5 2000 /dev/ttyS3

If you want to see which major numbers have been assigned, you can look
at Documentation/admin-guide/devices.txt.
When the system was installed, all of those device files were created by the
mknod command. To create a new char device named coffee with major/minor
number 12 and 2, simply do mknod /dev/coffee c 12 2. You do not have
to put your device files into /dev, but it is done by convention. Linus put his
device files in /dev, and so should you. However, when creating a device file for
testing purposes, it is probably OK to place it in your working directory where
you compile the kernel module. Just be sure to put it in the right place when
you’re done writing the device driver.
I would like to make a few last points which are implicit from the above
discussion, but I would like to make them explicit just in case. When a device
file is accessed, the kernel uses the major number of the file to determine which
driver should be used to handle the access. This means that the kernel doesn’t
really need to use or even know about the minor number. The driver itself is
the only thing that cares about the minor number. It uses the minor number
to distinguish between different pieces of hardware.
By the way, when I say "hardware", I mean something a bit more abstract
than a PCI card that you can hold in your hand. Look at these two device files:

$ ls -l /dev/sda /dev/sdb
brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 0 Jan 3 09:02 /dev/sda
brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 16 Jan 3 09:02 /dev/sdb

By now you can look at these two device files and know instantly that they
are block devices and are handled by same driver (block major 8). Sometimes
two device files with the same major but different minor number can actually
represent the same piece of physical hardware. So just be aware that the word
“hardware” in our discussion can mean something very abstract.

0.6 Character Device drivers

0.6.1 The file_operations Structure
The file_operations structure is defined in include/linux/fs.h, and holds
pointers to functions defined by the driver that perform various operations on
the device. Each field of the structure corresponds to the address of some func-
tion defined by the driver to handle a requested operation.
 0.6. CHARACTER DEVICE DRIVERS 23

For example, every character driver needs to define a function that reads from
the device. The file_operations structure holds the address of the module’s
function that performs that operation. Here is what the definition looks like for
kernel 5.4:

1 struct file_operations {
2 struct module *owner;
3 loff_t (*llseek) (struct file *, loff_t, int);
4 ssize_t (*read) (struct file *, char __user *, size_t, loff_t *);
5 ssize_t (*write) (struct file *, const char __user *, size_t, loff_t *);
6 ssize_t (*read_iter) (struct kiocb *, struct iov_iter *);
7 ssize_t (*write_iter) (struct kiocb *, struct iov_iter *);
8 int (*iopoll)(struct kiocb *kiocb, bool spin);
9 int (*iterate) (struct file *, struct dir_context *);
10 int (*iterate_shared) (struct file *, struct dir_context *);
11 __poll_t (*poll) (struct file *, struct poll_table_struct *);
12 long (*unlocked_ioctl) (struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long);
13 long (*compat_ioctl) (struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long);
14 int (*mmap) (struct file *, struct vm_area_struct *);
15 unsigned long mmap_supported_flags;
16 int (*open) (struct inode *, struct file *);
17 int (*flush) (struct file *, fl_owner_t id);
18 int (*release) (struct inode *, struct file *);
19 int (*fsync) (struct file *, loff_t, loff_t, int datasync);
20 int (*fasync) (int, struct file *, int);
21 int (*lock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *);
22 ssize_t (*sendpage) (struct file *, struct page *, int, size_t, loff_t *,
,→ int);
23 unsigned long (*get_unmapped_area)(struct file *, unsigned long, unsigned
,→ long, unsigned long, unsigned long);
24 int (*check_flags)(int);
25 int (*flock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *);
26 ssize_t (*splice_write)(struct pipe_inode_info *, struct file *, loff_t *,
,→ size_t, unsigned int);
27 ssize_t (*splice_read)(struct file *, loff_t *, struct pipe_inode_info *,
,→ size_t, unsigned int);
28 int (*setlease)(struct file *, long, struct file_lock **, void **);
29 long (*fallocate)(struct file *file, int mode, loff_t offset,
30 loff_t len);
31 void (*show_fdinfo)(struct seq_file *m, struct file *f);
32 ssize_t (*copy_file_range)(struct file *, loff_t, struct file *,
33 loff_t, size_t, unsigned int);
34 loff_t (*remap_file_range)(struct file *file_in, loff_t pos_in,
35 struct file *file_out, loff_t pos_out,
36 loff_t len, unsigned int remap_flags);
37 int (*fadvise)(struct file *, loff_t, loff_t, int);
38 } __randomize_layout;

Some operations are not implemented by a driver. For example, a driver

that handles a video card will not need to read from a directory structure. The
corresponding entries in the file_operations structure should be set to NULL.
There is a gcc extension that makes assigning to this structure more conve-
nient. You will see it in modern drivers, and may catch you by surprise. This
is what the new way of assigning to the structure looks like:
 0.6. CHARACTER DEVICE DRIVERS 24

1 struct file_operations fops = {

2 read: device_read,
3 write: device_write,
4 open: device_open,
5 release: device_release
6 };

However, there is also a C99 way of assigning to elements of a structure,

designated initializers, and this is definitely preferred over using the GNU ex-
tension. You should use this syntax in case someone wants to port your driver.
It will help with compatibility:

1 struct file_operations fops = {

2 .read = device_read,
3 .write = device_write,
4 .open = device_open,
5 .release = device_release
6 };

The meaning is clear, and you should be aware that any member of the
structure which you do not explicitly assign will be initialized to NULL by gcc.
An instance of struct file_operations containing pointers to functions
that are used to implement read, write, open, . . . system calls is commonly
named fops.
Since Linux v5.6, the proc_ops structure was introduced to replace the use
of the file_operations structure when registering proc handlers.

0.6.2 The file structure

Each device is represented in the kernel by a file structure, which is defined in
include/linux/fs.h. Be aware that a file is a kernel level structure and never
appears in a user space program. It is not the same thing as a FILE, which is
defined by glibc and would never appear in a kernel space function. Also, its
name is a bit misleading; it represents an abstract open ‘file’, not a file on a
disk, which is represented by a structure named inode.
An instance of struct file is commonly named filp. You’ll also see it referred
to as a struct file object. Resist the temptation.
Go ahead and look at the definition of file. Most of the entries you see, like
struct dentry are not used by device drivers, and you can ignore them. This is
because drivers do not fill file directly; they only use structures contained in file
which are created elsewhere.

0.6.3 Registering A Device

As discussed earlier, char devices are accessed through device files, usually lo-
cated in /dev. This is by convention. When writing a driver, it is OK to put
 0.6. CHARACTER DEVICE DRIVERS 25

the device file in your current directory. Just make sure you place it in /dev for
a production driver. The major number tells you which driver handles which
device file. The minor number is used only by the driver itself to differentiate
which device it is operating on, just in case the driver handles more than one
device.
Adding a driver to your system means registering it with the kernel. This
is synonymous with assigning it a major number during the module’s initial-
ization. You do this by using the register_chrdev function, defined by in-
clude/linux/fs.h.

1 int register_chrdev(unsigned int major, const char *name, struct

,→ file_operations *fops);

where unsigned int major is the major number you want to request, const char *name
is the name of the device as it will appear in /proc/devices and struct file_operations *fops
is a pointer to the file_operations table for your driver. A negative return
value means the registration failed. Note that we didn’t pass the minor number
to register_chrdev. That is because the kernel doesn’t care about the minor
number; only our driver uses it.
Now the question is, how do you get a major number without hijacking one
that’s already in use? The easiest way would be to look through Documentation/admin-
guide/devices.txt and pick an unused one. That is a bad way of doing things
because you will never be sure if the number you picked will be assigned later.
The answer is that you can ask the kernel to assign you a dynamic major num-
ber.
If you pass a major number of 0 to register_chrdev, the return value will
be the dynamically allocated major number. The downside is that you can not
make a device file in advance, since you do not know what the major number
will be. There are a couple of ways to do this. First, the driver itself can print
the newly assigned number and we can make the device file by hand. Second,
the newly registered device will have an entry in /proc/devices, and we can
either make the device file by hand or write a shell script to read the file in and
make the device file. The third method is that we can have our driver make the
device file using the device_create function after a successful registration and
device_destroy during the call to cleanup_module.

0.6.4 Unregistering A Device

We can not allow the kernel module to be rmmod’ed whenever root feels like it.
If the device file is opened by a process and then we remove the kernel module,
using the file would cause a call to the memory location where the appropriate
function (read/write) used to be. If we are lucky, no other code was loaded
there, and we’ll get an ugly error message. If we are unlucky, another kernel
module was loaded into the same location, which means a jump into the middle
of another function within the kernel. The results of this would be impossible
to predict, but they can not be very positive.
 0.6. CHARACTER DEVICE DRIVERS 26

Normally, when you do not want to allow something, you return an error
code (a negative number) from the function which is supposed to do it. With
cleanup_module that’s impossible because it is a void function. However, there
is a counter which keeps track of how many processes are using your module.
You can see what its value is by looking at the 3rd field with the command
cat /proc/modules or sudo lsmod. If this number isn’t zero, rmmod will fail.
Note that you do not have to check the counter within cleanup_module because
the check will be performed for you by the system call sys_delete_module,
defined in include/linux/syscalls.h. You should not use this counter directly,
but there are functions defined in include/linux/module.h which let you increase,
decrease and display this counter:

• try_module_get(THIS_MODULE): Increment the reference count of current

module.
• module_put(THIS_MODULE): Decrement the reference count of current
module.
• module_refcount(THIS_MODULE): Return the value of reference count of
current module.

It is important to keep the counter accurate; if you ever do lose track of

the correct usage count, you will never be able to unload the module; it’s now
reboot time, boys and girls. This is bound to happen to you sooner or later
during a module’s development.

0.6.5 chardev.c
The next code sample creates a char driver named chardev. You can cat its
device file.

1 cat /proc/devices

(or open the file with a program) and the driver will put the number of times
the device file has been read from into the file. We do not support writing to
the file (like echo "hi" > /dev/hello), but catch these attempts and tell the
user that the operation is not supported. Don’t worry if you don’t see what we
do with the data we read into the buffer; we don’t do much with it. We simply
read in the data and print a message acknowledging that we received it.

1 /*
2 * chardev.c: Creates a read-only char device that says how many times
3 * you have read from the dev file
4 */
5
6 #include <linux/cdev.h>
7 #include <linux/delay.h>
8 #include <linux/device.h>
 0.6. CHARACTER DEVICE DRIVERS 27

9 #include <linux/fs.h>
10 #include <linux/init.h>
11 #include <linux/irq.h>
12 #include <linux/kernel.h>
13 #include <linux/module.h>
14 #include <linux/poll.h>
15
16 /* Prototypes - this would normally go in a .h file */
17 static int device_open(struct inode *, struct file *);
18 static int device_release(struct inode *, struct file *);
19 static ssize_t device_read(struct file *, char *, size_t, loff_t *);
20 static ssize_t device_write(struct file *, const char *, size_t, loff_t *);
21
22 #define SUCCESS 0
23 #define DEVICE_NAME "chardev" /* Dev name as it appears in /proc/devices */
24 #define BUF_LEN 80 /* Max length of the message from the device */
25
26 /* Global variables are declared as static, so are global within the file. */
27
28 static int major; /* major number assigned to our device driver
,→ */
29 static int open_device_cnt = 0; /* Is device open?
30 * Used to prevent multiple access to device
,→ */
31 static char msg[BUF_LEN]; /* The msg the device will give when asked */
32 static char *msg_ptr;
33
34 static struct class *cls;
35
36 static struct file_operations chardev_fops = {
37 .read = device_read,
38 .write = device_write,
39 .open = device_open,
40 .release = device_release,
41 };
42
43 static int __init chardev_init(void)
44 {
45 major = register_chrdev(0, DEVICE_NAME, &chardev_fops);
46
47 if (major < 0) {
48 pr_alert("Registering char device failed with %d\n", major);
49 return major;
50 }
51
52 pr_info("I was assigned major number %d.\n", major);
53
54 cls = class_create(THIS_MODULE, DEVICE_NAME);
55 device_create(cls, NULL, MKDEV(major, 0), NULL, DEVICE_NAME);
56
57 pr_info("Device created on /dev/%s\n", DEVICE_NAME);
58
59 return SUCCESS;
60 }
61
62 static void __exit chardev_exit(void)
63 {
 0.6. CHARACTER DEVICE DRIVERS 28

64 device_destroy(cls, MKDEV(major, 0));

65 class_destroy(cls);
66
67 /* Unregister the device */
68 unregister_chrdev(major, DEVICE_NAME);
69 }
70
71 /* Methods */
72
73 /* Called when a process tries to open the device file, like
74 * "sudo cat /dev/chardev"
75 */
76 static int device_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
77 {
78 static int counter = 0;
79
80 if (open_device_cnt)
81 return -EBUSY;
82
83 open_device_cnt++;
84 sprintf(msg, "I already told you %d times Hello world!\n", counter++);
85 msg_ptr = msg;
86 try_module_get(THIS_MODULE);
87
88 return SUCCESS;
89 }
90
91 /* Called when a process closes the device file. */
92 static int device_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
93 {
94 open_device_cnt--; /* We're now ready for our next caller */
95
96 /* Decrement the usage count, or else once you opened the file, you will
97 * never get get rid of the module.
98 */
99 module_put(THIS_MODULE);
100
101 return SUCCESS;
102 }
103
104 /* Called when a process, which already opened the dev file, attempts to
105 * read from it.
106 */
107 static ssize_t device_read(struct file *filp, /* see include/linux/fs.h */
108 char *buffer, /* buffer to fill with data */
109 size_t length, /* length of the buffer */
110 loff_t *offset)
111 {
112 /* Number of bytes actually written to the buffer */
113 int bytes_read = 0;
114
115 /* If we are at the end of message, return 0 signifying end of file. */
116 if (*msg_ptr == 0)
117 return 0;
118
119 /* Actually put the data into the buffer */
120 while (length && *msg_ptr) {
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 29

121 /* The buffer is in the user data segment, not the kernel
122 * segment so "*" assignment won't work. We have to use
123 * put_user which copies data from the kernel data segment to
124 * the user data segment.
125 */
126 put_user(*(msg_ptr++), buffer++);
127
128 length--;
129 bytes_read++;
130 }
131
132 /* Most read functions return the number of bytes put into the buffer. */
133 return bytes_read;
134 }
135
136 /* Called when a process writes to dev file: echo "hi" > /dev/hello */
137 static ssize_t device_write(struct file *filp,
138 const char *buff,
139 size_t len,
140 loff_t *off)
141 {
142 pr_alert("Sorry, this operation is not supported.\n");
143 return -EINVAL;
144 }
145
146 module_init(chardev_init);
147 module_exit(chardev_exit);
148
149 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

0.6.6 Writing Modules for Multiple Kernel Versions

The system calls, which are the major interface the kernel shows to the processes,
generally stay the same across versions. A new system call may be added, but
usually the old ones will behave exactly like they used to. This is necessary for
backward compatibility – a new kernel version is not supposed to break regular
processes. In most cases, the device files will also remain the same. On the
other hand, the internal interfaces within the kernel can and do change between
versions.
There are differences between different kernel versions, and if you want to
support multiple kernel versions, you will find yourself having to code con-
ditional compilation directives. The way to do this to compare the macro
LINUX_VERSION_CODE to the macro KERNEL_VERSION. In version a.b.c of the
kernel, the value of this macro would be 216 a + 28 b + c.

0.7 The /proc File System

In Linux, there is an additional mechanism for the kernel and kernel modules
to send information to processes — the /proc file system. Originally designed
to allow easy access to information about processes (hence the name), it is now
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 30

used by every bit of the kernel which has something interesting to report, such
as /proc/modules which provides the list of modules and /proc/meminfo which
gathers memory usage statistics.
The method to use the proc file system is very similar to the one used with
device drivers — a structure is created with all the information needed for the
/proc file, including pointers to any handler functions (in our case there is
only one, the one called when somebody attempts to read from the /proc file).
Then, init_module registers the structure with the kernel and cleanup_module
unregisters it.
Normal file systems are located on a disk, rather than just in memory (which
is where /proc is), and in that case the inode number is a pointer to a disk
location where the file’s index-node (inode for short) is located. The inode
contains information about the file, for example the file’s permissions, together
with a pointer to the disk location or locations where the file’s data can be
found.
Because we don’t get called when the file is opened or closed, there’s nowhere
for us to put try_module_get and module_put in this module, and if the file
is opened and then the module is removed, there’s no way to avoid the conse-
quences.
Here a simple example showing how to use a /proc file. This is the Hel-
loWorld for the /proc filesystem. There are three parts: create the file /proc/helloworld
in the function init_module, return a value (and a buffer) when the file /proc/helloworld
is read in the callback function procfile_read, and delete the file /proc/helloworld
in the function cleanup_module.
The /proc/helloworld is created when the module is loaded with the func-
tion proc_create. The return value is a struct proc_dir_entry, and it will
be used to configure the file /proc/helloworld (for example, the owner of this
file). A null return value means that the creation has failed.
Every time the file /proc/helloworld is read, the function procfile_read
is called. Two parameters of this function are very important: the buffer (the
second parameter) and the offset (the fourth one). The content of the buffer will
be returned to the application which read it (for example the cat command).
The offset is the current position in the file. If the return value of the function
is not null, then this function is called again. So be careful with this function,
if it never returns zero, the read function is called endlessly.

$ cat /proc/helloworld
HelloWorld!

1 /*
2 * procfs1.c
3 */
4
5 #include <linux/kernel.h>
6 #include <linux/module.h>
7 #include <linux/proc_fs.h>
8 #include <linux/uaccess.h>
9 #include <linux/version.h>
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 31

10
11 #if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0)
12 #define HAVE_PROC_OPS
13 #endif
14
15 #define procfs_name "helloworld"
16
17 struct proc_dir_entry *Our_Proc_File;
18
19
20 ssize_t procfile_read(struct file *filePointer,
21 char *buffer,
22 size_t buffer_length,
23 loff_t *offset)
24 {
25 char s[13] = "HelloWorld!\n";
26 int len = sizeof(s);
27 ssize_t ret = len;
28
29 if (*offset >= len || copy_to_user(buffer, s, len)) {
30 pr_info("copy_to_user failed\n");
31 ret = 0;
32 } else {
33 pr_info("procfile read %s\n",
,→ filePointer->f_path.dentry->d_name.name);
34 *offset += len;
35 }
36
37 return ret;
38 }
39
40 #ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS
41 static const struct proc_ops proc_file_fops = {
42 .proc_read = procfile_read,
43 };
44 #else
45 static const struct file_operations proc_file_fops = {
46 .read = procfile_read,
47 };
48 #endif
49
50 static int __init procfs1_init(void)
51 {
52 Our_Proc_File = proc_create(procfs_name, 0644, NULL, &proc_file_fops);
53 if (NULL == Our_Proc_File) {
54 proc_remove(Our_Proc_File);
55 pr_alert("Error:Could not initialize /proc/%s\n", procfs_name);
56 return -ENOMEM;
57 }
58
59 pr_info("/proc/%s created\n", procfs_name);
60 return 0;
61 }
62
63 static void __exit procfs1_exit(void)
64 {
65 proc_remove(Our_Proc_File);
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 32

66 pr_info("/proc/%s removed\n", procfs_name);

67 }
68
69 module_init(procfs1_init);
70 module_exit(procfs1_exit);
71
72 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

0.7.1 The proc_ops Structure

The proc_ops structure is defined in include/linux/proc_fs.h in Linux v5.6+.
In older kernels, it used file_operations for custom hooks in /proc file system,
but it contains some members that are unnecessary in VFS, and every time
VFS expands file_operations set, /proc code comes bloated. On the other
hand, not only the space, but also some operations were saved by this structure
to improve its performance. For example, the file which never disappears in
/proc can set the proc_flag as PROC_ENTRY_PERMANENT to save 2 atomic ops,
1 allocation, 1 free in per open/read/close sequence.

0.7.2 Read and Write a /proc File

We have seen a very simple example for a /proc file where we only read the
file /proc/helloworld. It is also possible to write in a /proc file. It works the
same way as read, a function is called when the /proc file is written. But there
is a little difference with read, data comes from user, so you have to import data
from user space to kernel space (with copy_from_user or get_user)
The reason for copy_from_user or get_user is that Linux memory (on Intel
architecture, it may be different under some other processors) is segmented. This
means that a pointer, by itself, does not reference a unique location in memory,
only a location in a memory segment, and you need to know which memory
segment it is to be able to use it. There is one memory segment for the kernel,
and one for each of the processes.
The only memory segment accessible to a process is its own, so when writing
regular programs to run as processes, there is no need to worry about segments.
When you write a kernel module, normally you want to access the kernel memory
segment, which is handled automatically by the system. However, when the
content of a memory buffer needs to be passed between the currently running
process and the kernel, the kernel function receives a pointer to the memory
buffer which is in the process segment. The put_user and get_user macros
allow you to access that memory. These functions handle only one character,
you can handle several characters with copy_to_user and copy_from_user. As
the buffer (in read or write function) is in kernel space, for write function you
need to import data because it comes from user space, but not for the read
function because data is already in kernel space.

1 /*
2 * procfs2.c - create a "file" in /proc
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 33

3 */
4
5 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* We're doing kernel work */
6 #include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */
7 #include <linux/proc_fs.h> /* Necessary because we use the proc fs */
8 #include <linux/uaccess.h> /* for copy_from_user */
9 #include <linux/version.h>
10
11 #if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0)
12 #define HAVE_PROC_OPS
13 #endif
14
15 #define PROCFS_MAX_SIZE 1024
16 #define PROCFS_NAME "buffer1k"
17
18 /* This structure hold information about the /proc file */
19 static struct proc_dir_entry *Our_Proc_File;
20
21 /* The buffer used to store character for this module */
22 static char procfs_buffer[PROCFS_MAX_SIZE];
23
24 /* The size of the buffer */
25 static unsigned long procfs_buffer_size = 0;
26
27 /* This function is called then the /proc file is read */
28 ssize_t procfile_read(struct file *filePointer,
29 char *buffer,
30 size_t buffer_length,
31 loff_t *offset)
32 {
33 char s[13] = "HelloWorld!\n";
34 int len = sizeof(s);
35 ssize_t ret = len;
36
37 if (*offset >= len || copy_to_user(buffer, s, len)) {
38 pr_info("copy_to_user failed\n");
39 ret = 0;
40 } else {
41 pr_info("procfile read %s\n",
,→ filePointer->f_path.dentry->d_name.name);
42 *offset += len;
43 }
44
45 return ret;
46 }
47
48 /* This function is called with the /proc file is written. */
49 static ssize_t procfile_write(struct file *file,
50 const char *buff,
51 size_t len,
52 loff_t *off)
53 {
54 procfs_buffer_size = len;
55 if (procfs_buffer_size > PROCFS_MAX_SIZE)
56 procfs_buffer_size = PROCFS_MAX_SIZE;
57
58 if (copy_from_user(procfs_buffer, buff, procfs_buffer_size))
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 34

59 return -EFAULT;
60
61 procfs_buffer[procfs_buffer_size] = '\0';
62 return procfs_buffer_size;
63 }
64
65 #ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS
66 static const struct proc_ops proc_file_fops = {
67 .proc_read = procfile_read,
68 .proc_write = procfile_write,
69 };
70 #else
71 static const struct file_operations proc_file_fops = {
72 .read = procfile_read,
73 .write = procfile_write,
74 };
75 #endif
76
77 static int __init procfs2_init(void)
78 {
79 Our_Proc_File = proc_create(PROCFS_NAME, 0644, NULL, &proc_file_fops);
80 if (NULL == Our_Proc_File) {
81 proc_remove(Our_Proc_File);
82 pr_alert("Error:Could not initialize /proc/%s\n", PROCFS_NAME);
83 return -ENOMEM;
84 }
85
86 pr_info("/proc/%s created\n", PROCFS_NAME);
87 return 0;
88 }
89
90 static void __exit procfs2_exit(void)
91 {
92 proc_remove(Our_Proc_File);
93 pr_info("/proc/%s removed\n", PROCFS_NAME);
94 }
95
96 module_init(procfs2_init);
97 module_exit(procfs2_exit);
98
99 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

0.7.3 Manage /proc file with standard filesystem

We have seen how to read and write a /proc file with the /proc interface. But
it is also possible to manage /proc file with inodes. The main concern is to use
advanced functions, like permissions.
In Linux, there is a standard mechanism for file system registration. Since
every file system has to have its own functions to handle inode and file op-
erations, there is a special structure to hold pointers to all those functions,
struct inode_operations, which includes a pointer to struct proc_ops.
The difference between file and inode operations is that file operations deal
with the file itself whereas inode operations deal with ways of referencing the
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 35

file, such as creating links to it.

In /proc, whenever we register a new file, we’re allowed to specify which
struct inode_operations will be used to access to it. This is the mechanism
we use, a struct inode_operations which includes a pointer to a struct proc_ops
which includes pointers to our procf_read and procfs_write functions.
Another interesting point here is the module_permission function. This
function is called whenever a process tries to do something with the /proc file,
and it can decide whether to allow access or not. Right now it is only based on
the operation and the uid of the current user (as available in current, a pointer
to a structure which includes information on the currently running process), but
it could be based on anything we like, such as what other processes are doing
with the same file, the time of day, or the last input we received.
It is important to note that the standard roles of read and write are reversed
in the kernel. Read functions are used for output, whereas write functions are
used for input. The reason for that is that read and write refer to the user’s
point of view — if a process reads something from the kernel, then the kernel
needs to output it, and if a process writes something to the kernel, then the
kernel receives it as input.

1 /*
2 * procfs3.c
3 */
4
5 #include <linux/kernel.h>
6 #include <linux/module.h>
7 #include <linux/proc_fs.h>
8 #include <linux/sched.h>
9 #include <linux/uaccess.h>
10 #include <linux/version.h>
11
12 #if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0)
13 #define HAVE_PROC_OPS
14 #endif
15
16 #define PROCFS_MAX_SIZE 2048
17 #define PROCFS_ENTRY_FILENAME "buffer2k"
18
19 struct proc_dir_entry *Our_Proc_File;
20 static char procfs_buffer[PROCFS_MAX_SIZE];
21 static unsigned long procfs_buffer_size = 0;
22
23 static ssize_t procfs_read(struct file *filp,
24 char *buffer,
25 size_t length,
26 loff_t *offset)
27 {
28 static int finished = 0;
29 if (finished) {
30 pr_debug("procfs_read: END\n");
31 finished = 0;
32 return 0;
33 }
34 finished = 1;
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 36

35 if (copy_to_user(buffer, procfs_buffer, procfs_buffer_size))

36 return -EFAULT;
37 pr_debug("procfs_read: read %lu bytes\n", procfs_buffer_size);
38 return procfs_buffer_size;
39 }
40 static ssize_t procfs_write(struct file *file,
41 const char *buffer,
42 size_t len,
43 loff_t *off)
44 {
45 if (len > PROCFS_MAX_SIZE)
46 procfs_buffer_size = PROCFS_MAX_SIZE;
47 else
48 procfs_buffer_size = len;
49 if (copy_from_user(procfs_buffer, buffer, procfs_buffer_size))
50 return -EFAULT;
51 pr_debug("procfs_write: write %lu bytes\n", procfs_buffer_size);
52 return procfs_buffer_size;
53 }
54 int procfs_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
55 {
56 try_module_get(THIS_MODULE);
57 return 0;
58 }
59 int procfs_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
60 {
61 module_put(THIS_MODULE);
62 return 0;
63 }
64
65 #ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS
66 static struct proc_ops File_Ops_4_Our_Proc_File = {
67 .proc_read = procfs_read,
68 .proc_write = procfs_write,
69 .proc_open = procfs_open,
70 .proc_release = procfs_close,
71 };
72 #else
73 static const struct file_operations File_Ops_4_Our_Proc_File = {
74 .read = procfs_read,
75 .write = procfs_write,
76 .open = procfs_open,
77 .release = procfs_close,
78 };
79 #endif
80
81 static int __init procfs3_init(void)
82 {
83 Our_Proc_File = proc_create(PROCFS_ENTRY_FILENAME, 0644, NULL,
84 &File_Ops_4_Our_Proc_File);
85 if (Our_Proc_File == NULL) {
86 remove_proc_entry(PROCFS_ENTRY_FILENAME, NULL);
87 pr_debug("Error: Could not initialize /proc/%s\n",
88 PROCFS_ENTRY_FILENAME);
89 return -ENOMEM;
90 }
91 proc_set_size(Our_Proc_File, 80);
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 37

92 proc_set_user(Our_Proc_File, GLOBAL_ROOT_UID, GLOBAL_ROOT_GID);

93
94 pr_debug("/proc/%s created\n", PROCFS_ENTRY_FILENAME);
95 return 0;
96 }
97
98 static void __exit procfs3_exit(void)
99 {
100 remove_proc_entry(PROCFS_ENTRY_FILENAME, NULL);
101 pr_debug("/proc/%s removed\n", PROCFS_ENTRY_FILENAME);
102 }
103
104 module_init(procfs3_init);
105 module_exit(procfs3_exit);
106
107 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

Still hungry for procfs examples? Well, first of all keep in mind, there are
rumors around, claiming that procfs is on its way out, consider using sysfs in-
stead. Consider using this mechanism, in case you want to document something
kernel related yourself.

0.7.4 Manage /proc file with seq_file

As we have seen, writing a /proc file may be quite “complex”. So to help people
writting /proc file, there is an API named seq_file that helps formating a
/proc file for output. It is based on sequence, which is composed of 3 functions:
start(), next(), and stop(). The seq_file API starts a sequence when a
user read the /proc file.
A sequence begins with the call of the function start(). If the return is
a non NULL value, the function next() is called. This function is an iterator,
the goal is to go through all the data. Each time next() is called, the function
show() is also called. It writes data values in the buffer read by the user. The
function next() is called until it returns NULL. The sequence ends when next()
returns NULL, then the function stop() is called.
BE CAREFUL: when a sequence is finished, another one starts. That means
that at the end of function stop(), the function start() is called again. This
loop finishes when the function start() returns NULL. You can see a scheme of
this in the Figure 1.
The seq_file provides basic functions for proc_ops, such as seq_read,
seq_lseek, and some others. But nothing to write in the /proc file. Of course,
you can still use the same way as in the previous example.

1 /*
2 * procfs4.c - create a "file" in /proc
3 * This program uses the seq_file library to manage the /proc file.
4 */
5
6 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* We are doing kernel work */
7 #include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */
0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 38

start() treatment

return is NULL? Yes

No

next() treatment

No

return is NULL?

Yes

stop() treatment

Figure 1: How seq_file works

 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 39

8 #include <linux/proc_fs.h> /* Necessary because we use proc fs */

9 #include <linux/seq_file.h> /* for seq_file */
10 #include <linux/version.h>
11
12 #if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0)
13 #define HAVE_PROC_OPS
14 #endif
15
16 #define PROC_NAME "iter"
17
18 /* This function is called at the beginning of a sequence.
19 * ie, when:
20 * - the /proc file is read (first time)
21 * - after the function stop (end of sequence)
22 */
23 static void *my_seq_start(struct seq_file *s, loff_t *pos)
24 {
25 static unsigned long counter = 0;
26
27 /* beginning a new sequence? */
28 if (*pos == 0) {
29 /* yes => return a non null value to begin the sequence */
30 return &counter;
31 }
32 /* no => it is the end of the sequence, return end to stop reading */
33 *pos = 0;
34 return NULL;
35 }
36
37 /* This function is called after the beginning of a sequence.
38 * It is called untill the return is NULL (this ends the sequence).
39 */
40 static void *my_seq_next(struct seq_file *s, void *v, loff_t *pos)
41 {
42 unsigned long *tmp_v = (unsigned long *) v;
43 (*tmp_v)++;
44 (*pos)++;
45 return NULL;
46 }
47
48 /* This function is called at the end of a sequence. */
49 static void my_seq_stop(struct seq_file *s, void *v)
50 {
51 /* nothing to do, we use a static value in start() */
52 }
53
54 /* This function is called for each "step" of a sequence. */
55 static int my_seq_show(struct seq_file *s, void *v)
56 {
57 loff_t *spos = (loff_t *) v;
58
59 seq_printf(s, "%Ld\n", *spos);
60 return 0;
61 }
62
63 /* This structure gather "function" to manage the sequence */
64 static struct seq_operations my_seq_ops = {
 0.7. THE /PROC FILE SYSTEM 40

65 .start = my_seq_start,
66 .next = my_seq_next,
67 .stop = my_seq_stop,
68 .show = my_seq_show,
69 };
70
71 /* This function is called when the /proc file is open. */
72 static int my_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
73 {
74 return seq_open(file, &my_seq_ops);
75 };
76
77 /* This structure gather "function" that manage the /proc file */
78 #ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS
79 static const struct proc_ops my_file_ops = {
80 .proc_open = my_open,
81 .proc_read = seq_read,
82 .proc_lseek = seq_lseek,
83 .proc_release = seq_release,
84 };
85 #else
86 static const struct file_operations my_file_ops = {
87 .open = my_open,
88 .read = seq_read,
89 .llseek = seq_lseek,
90 .release = seq_release,
91 };
92 #endif
93
94 static int __init procfs4_init(void)
95 {
96 struct proc_dir_entry *entry;
97
98 entry = proc_create(PROC_NAME, 0, NULL, &my_file_ops);
99 if (entry == NULL) {
100 remove_proc_entry(PROC_NAME, NULL);
101 pr_debug("Error: Could not initialize /proc/%s\n", PROC_NAME);
102 return -ENOMEM;
103 }
104
105 return 0;
106 }
107
108 static void __exit procfs4_exit(void)
109 {
110 remove_proc_entry(PROC_NAME, NULL);
111 pr_debug("/proc/%s removed\n", PROC_NAME);
112 }
113
114 module_init(procfs4_init);
115 module_exit(procfs4_exit);
116
117 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

If you want more information, you can read this web page:
• https://lwn.net/Articles/22355/
 0.8. SYSFS: INTERACTING WITH YOUR MODULE 41

• https://kernelnewbies.org/Documents/SeqFileHowTo

You can also read the code of fs/seq_file.c in the linux kernel.

0.8 sysfs: Interacting with your module

sysfs allows you to interact with the running kernel from userspace by reading or
setting variables inside of modules. This can be useful for debugging purposes,
or just as an interface for applications or scripts. You can find sysfs directories
and files under the /sys directory on your system.

1 ls -l /sys

An example of a hello world module which includes the creation of a variable

accessible via sysfs is given below.

1 /*
2 * hello-sysfs.c sysfs example
3 */
4 #include <linux/fs.h>
5 #include <linux/init.h>
6 #include <linux/kobject.h>
7 #include <linux/module.h>
8 #include <linux/string.h>
9 #include <linux/sysfs.h>
10
11 static struct kobject *mymodule;
12
13 /* the variable you want to be able to change */
14 static int myvariable = 0;
15
16 static ssize_t myvariable_show(struct kobject *kobj,
17 struct kobj_attribute *attr,
18 char *buf)
19 {
20 return sprintf(buf, "%d\n", myvariable);
21 }
22
23 static ssize_t myvariable_store(struct kobject *kobj,
24 struct kobj_attribute *attr,
25 char *buf,
26 size_t count)
27 {
28 sscanf(buf, "%du", &myvariable);
29 return count;
30 }
31
32
33 static struct kobj_attribute myvariable_attribute =
34 __ATTR(myvariable, 0660, myvariable_show, (void *) myvariable_store);
35
36 static int __init mymodule_init(void)
 0.8. SYSFS: INTERACTING WITH YOUR MODULE 42

37 {
38 int error = 0;
39
40 pr_info("mymodule: initialised\n");
41
42 mymodule = kobject_create_and_add("mymodule", kernel_kobj);
43 if (!mymodule)
44 return -ENOMEM;
45
46 error = sysfs_create_file(mymodule, &myvariable_attribute.attr);
47 if (error) {
48 pr_info(
49 "failed to create the myvariable file "
50 "in /sys/kernel/mymodule\n");
51 }
52
53 return error;
54 }
55
56 static void __exit mymodule_exit(void)
57 {
58 pr_info("mymodule: Exit success\n");
59 kobject_put(mymodule);
60 }
61
62 module_init(mymodule_init);
63 module_exit(mymodule_exit);
64
65 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

Make and install the module:

1 make
2 sudo insmod hello-sysfs.ko

Check that it exists:

1 sudo lsmod | grep hello_sysfs

What is the current value of myvariable ?

1 cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable

Set the value of myvariable and check that it changed.

1 echo "32" > /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable

2 cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 43

Finally, remove the test module:

1 sudo rmmod hello_sysfs

0.9 Talking To Device Files

Device files are supposed to represent physical devices. Most physical devices are
used for output as well as input, so there has to be some mechanism for device
drivers in the kernel to get the output to send to the device from processes. This
is done by opening the device file for output and writing to it, just like writing
to a file. In the following example, this is implemented by device_write.
This is not always enough. Imagine you had a serial port connected to a
modem (even if you have an internal modem, it is still implemented from the
CPU’s perspective as a serial port connected to a modem, so you don’t have
to tax your imagination too hard). The natural thing to do would be to use
the device file to write things to the modem (either modem commands or data
to be sent through the phone line) and read things from the modem (either
responses for commands or the data received through the phone line). However,
this leaves open the question of what to do when you need to talk to the serial
port itself, for example to configure the rate at which data is sent and received.
The answer in Unix is to use a special function called ioctl (short for Input
Output ConTroL). Every device can have its own ioctl commands, which can
be read ioctl’s (to send information from a process to the kernel), write ioctl’s
(to return information to a process), both or neither. Notice here the roles of
read and write are reversed again, so in ioctl’s read is to send information to
the kernel and write is to receive information from the kernel.
The ioctl function is called with three parameters: the file descriptor of the
appropriate device file, the ioctl number, and a parameter, which is of type long
so you can use a cast to use it to pass anything. You will not be able to pass a
structure this way, but you will be able to pass a pointer to the structure.
The ioctl number encodes the major device number, the type of the ioctl,
the command, and the type of the parameter. This ioctl number is usually
created by a macro call (_IO, _IOR, _IOW or _IOWR — depending on the type)
in a header file. This header file should then be included both by the programs
which will use ioctl (so they can generate the appropriate ioctl’s) and by the
kernel module (so it can understand it). In the example below, the header file
is chardev.h and the program which uses it is ioctl.c.
If you want to use ioctls in your own kernel modules, it is best to receive an
official ioctl assignment, so if you accidentally get somebody else’s ioctls, or if
they get yours, you’ll know something is wrong. For more information, consult
the kernel source tree at Documentation/userspace-api/ioctl/ioctl-number.rst.

1 /*
2 * chardev2.c - Create an input/output character device
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 44

3 */
4
5 #include <linux/cdev.h>
6 #include <linux/delay.h>
7 #include <linux/device.h>
8 #include <linux/fs.h>
9 #include <linux/init.h>
10 #include <linux/irq.h>
11 #include <linux/kernel.h> /* We are doing kernel work */
12 #include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */
13 #include <linux/poll.h>
14
15 #include "chardev.h"
16 #define SUCCESS 0
17 #define DEVICE_NAME "char_dev"
18 #define BUF_LEN 80
19
20 /* Is the device open right now? Used to prevent concurrent access into
21 * the same device
22 */
23 static int Device_Open = 0;
24
25 /* The message the device will give when asked */
26 static char Message[BUF_LEN];
27
28 /* How far did the process reading the message get? Useful if the message
29 * is larger than the size of the buffer we get to fill in device_read.
30 */
31 static char *Message_Ptr;
32
33 /* Major number assigned to our device driver */
34 static int Major;
35 static struct class *cls;
36
37 /* This is called whenever a process attempts to open the device file */
38 static int device_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
39 {
40 pr_info("device_open(%p)\n", file);
41
42 /* We don't want to talk to two processes at the same time. */
43 if (Device_Open)
44 return -EBUSY;
45
46 Device_Open++;
47 /* Initialize the message */
48 Message_Ptr = Message;
49 try_module_get(THIS_MODULE);
50 return SUCCESS;
51 }
52
53 static int device_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
54 {
55 pr_info("device_release(%p,%p)\n", inode, file);
56
57 /* We're now ready for our next caller */
58 Device_Open--;
59
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 45

60 module_put(THIS_MODULE);
61 return SUCCESS;
62 }
63
64 /* This function is called whenever a process which has already opened the
65 * device file attempts to read from it.
66 */
67 static ssize_t device_read(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h */
68 char __user *buffer, /* buffer to be filled */
69 size_t length, /* length of the buffer */
70 loff_t *offset)
71 {
72 /* Number of bytes actually written to the buffer */
73 int bytes_read = 0;
74
75 pr_info("device_read(%p,%p,%ld)\n", file, buffer, length);
76
77 /* If at the end of message, return 0 (which signifies end of file). */
78 if (*Message_Ptr == 0)
79 return 0;
80
81 /* Actually put the data into the buffer */
82 while (length && *Message_Ptr) {
83 /* Because the buffer is in the user data segment, not the kernel
84 * data segment, assignment would not work. Instead, we have to
85 * use put_user which copies data from the kernel data segment to
86 * the user data segment.
87 */
88 put_user(*(Message_Ptr++), buffer++);
89 length--;
90 bytes_read++;
91 }
92
93 pr_info("Read %d bytes, %ld left\n", bytes_read, length);
94
95 /* Read functions are supposed to return the number of bytes actually
96 * inserted into the buffer.
97 */
98 return bytes_read;
99 }
100
101 /* called when somebody tries to write into our device file. */
102 static ssize_t device_write(struct file *file,
103 const char __user *buffer,
104 size_t length,
105 loff_t *offset)
106 {
107 int i;
108
109 pr_info("device_write(%p,%s,%ld)", file, buffer, length);
110
111 for (i = 0; i < length && i < BUF_LEN; i++)
112 get_user(Message[i], buffer + i);
113
114 Message_Ptr = Message;
115
116 /* Again, return the number of input characters used. */
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 46

117 return i;
118 }
119
120 /* This function is called whenever a process tries to do an ioctl on our
121 * device file. We get two extra parameters (additional to the inode and file
122 * structures, which all device functions get): the number of the ioctl
called
123 * and the parameter given to the ioctl function.
124 *
125 * If the ioctl is write or read/write (meaning output is returned to the
126 * calling process), the ioctl call returns the output of this function.
127 */
128 long device_ioctl(struct file *file, /* ditto */
129 unsigned int ioctl_num, /* number and param for ioctl */
130 unsigned long ioctl_param)
131 {
132 int i;
133 char *temp;
134 char ch;
135
136 /* Switch according to the ioctl called */
137 switch (ioctl_num) {
138 case IOCTL_SET_MSG:
139 /* Receive a pointer to a message (in user space) and set that to
140 * be the device's message. Get the parameter given to ioctl by
141 * the process.
142 */
143 temp = (char *) ioctl_param;
144
145 /* Find the length of the message */
146 get_user(ch, temp);
147 for (i = 0; ch && i < BUF_LEN; i++, temp++)
148 get_user(ch, temp);
149
150 device_write(file, (char *) ioctl_param, i, 0);
151 break;
152
153 case IOCTL_GET_MSG:
154 /* Give the current message to the calling process - the parameter
155 * we got is a pointer, fill it.
156 */
157 i = device_read(file, (char *) ioctl_param, 99, 0);
158
159 /* Put a zero at the end of the buffer, so it will be properly
160 * terminated.
161 */
162 put_user('\0', (char *) ioctl_param + i);
163 break;
164
165 case IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE:
166 /* This ioctl is both input (ioctl_param) and output (the return
167 * value of this function).
168 */
169 return Message[ioctl_param];
170 break;
171 }
172
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 47

173 return SUCCESS;

174 }
175
176 /* Module Declarations */
177
178 /* This structure will hold the functions to be called when a process does
179 * something to the device we created. Since a pointer to this structure
180 * is kept in the devices table, it can't be local to init_module. NULL is
181 * for unimplemented functions.
182 */
183 struct file_operations Fops = {
184 .read = device_read,
185 .write = device_write,
186 .unlocked_ioctl = device_ioctl,
187 .open = device_open,
188 .release = device_release, /* a.k.a. close */
189 };
190
191 /* Initialize the module - Register the character device */
192 static int __init chardev2_init(void)
193 {
194 /* Register the character device (atleast try) */
195 int ret_val = register_chrdev(MAJOR_NUM, DEVICE_NAME, &Fops);
196
197 /* Negative values signify an error */
198 if (ret_val < 0) {
199 pr_alert("%s failed with %d\n",
200 "Sorry, registering the character device ", ret_val);
201 return ret_val;
202 }
203
204 Major = ret_val;
205
206 cls = class_create(THIS_MODULE, DEVICE_FILE_NAME);
207 device_create(cls, NULL, MKDEV(Major, MAJOR_NUM), NULL, DEVICE_FILE_NAME);
208
209 pr_info("Device created on /dev/%s\n", DEVICE_FILE_NAME);
210
211 return 0;
212 }
213
214 /* Cleanup - unregister the appropriate file from /proc */
215 static void __exit chardev2_exit(void)
216 {
217 device_destroy(cls, MKDEV(Major, 0));
218 class_destroy(cls);
219
220 /* Unregister the device */
221 unregister_chrdev(Major, DEVICE_NAME);
222 }
223
224 module_init(chardev2_init);
225 module_exit(chardev2_exit);
226
227 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

1 /*
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 48

2 * chardev.h - the header file with the ioctl definitions.

3 *
4 * The declarations here have to be in a header file, because they need
5 * to be known both to the kernel module (in chardev.c) and the process
6 * calling ioctl (ioctl.c).
7 */
8
9 #ifndef CHARDEV_H
10 #define CHARDEV_H
11
12 #include <linux/ioctl.h>
13
14 /* The major device number. We can not rely on dynamic registration
15 * any more, because ioctls need to know it.
16 */
17 #define MAJOR_NUM 100
18
19 /* Set the message of the device driver */
20 #define IOCTL_SET_MSG _IOW(MAJOR_NUM, 0, char *)
21 /* _IOW means that we are creating an ioctl command number for passing
22 * information from a user process to the kernel module.
23 *
24 * The first arguments, MAJOR_NUM, is the major device number we are using.
25 *
26 * The second argument is the number of the command (there could be several
27 * with different meanings).
28 *
29 * The third argument is the type we want to get from the process to the
30 * kernel.
31 */
32
33 /* Get the message of the device driver */
34 #define IOCTL_GET_MSG _IOR(MAJOR_NUM, 1, char *)
35 /* This IOCTL is used for output, to get the message of the device driver.
36 * However, we still need the buffer to place the message in to be input,
37 * as it is allocated by the process.
38 */
39
40 /* Get the n'th byte of the message */
41 #define IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE _IOWR(MAJOR_NUM, 2, int)
42 /* The IOCTL is used for both input and output. It receives from the user
43 * a number, n, and returns Message[n].
44 */
45
46 /* The name of the device file */
47 #define DEVICE_FILE_NAME "char_dev"
48
49 #endif

1 /*
2 * ioctl.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/cdev.h>
5 #include <linux/fs.h>
6 #include <linux/init.h>
7 #include <linux/ioctl.h>
8 #include <linux/module.h>
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 49

9 #include <linux/slab.h>
10 #include <linux/uaccess.h>
11
12 struct ioctl_arg {
13 unsigned int reg;
14 unsigned int val;
15 };
16
17 /* Documentation/ioctl/ioctl-number.txt */
18 #define IOC_MAGIC '\x66'
19
20 #define IOCTL_VALSET _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 0, struct ioctl_arg)
21 #define IOCTL_VALGET _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 1, struct ioctl_arg)
22 #define IOCTL_VALGET_NUM _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 2, int)
23 #define IOCTL_VALSET_NUM _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 3, int)
24
25 #define IOCTL_VAL_MAXNR 3
26 #define DRIVER_NAME "ioctltest"
27
28 static unsigned int test_ioctl_major = 0;
29 static unsigned int num_of_dev = 1;
30 static struct cdev test_ioctl_cdev;
31 static int ioctl_num = 0;
32
33 struct test_ioctl_data {
34 unsigned char val;
35 rwlock_t lock;
36 };
37
38 static long test_ioctl_ioctl(struct file *filp,
39 unsigned int cmd,
40 unsigned long arg)
41 {
42 struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data;
43 int retval = 0;
44 unsigned char val;
45 struct ioctl_arg data;
46 memset(&data, 0, sizeof(data));
47
48 switch (cmd) {
49 case IOCTL_VALSET:
50 if (copy_from_user(&data, (int __user *) arg, sizeof(data))) {
51 retval = -EFAULT;
52 goto done;
53 }
54
55 pr_alert("IOCTL set val:%x .\n", data.val);
56 write_lock(&ioctl_data->lock);
57 ioctl_data->val = data.val;
58 write_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock);
59 break;
60
61 case IOCTL_VALGET:
62 read_lock(&ioctl_data->lock);
63 val = ioctl_data->val;
64 read_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock);
65 data.val = val;
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 50

66
67 if (copy_to_user((int __user *) arg, &data, sizeof(data))) {
68 retval = -EFAULT;
69 goto done;
70 }
71
72 break;
73
74 case IOCTL_VALGET_NUM:
75 retval = __put_user(ioctl_num, (int __user *) arg);
76 break;
77
78 case IOCTL_VALSET_NUM:
79 ioctl_num = arg;
80 break;
81
82 default:
83 retval = -ENOTTY;
84 }
85
86 done:
87 return retval;
88 }
89
90 ssize_t test_ioctl_read(struct file *filp,
91 char __user *buf,
92 size_t count,
93 loff_t *f_pos)
94 {
95 struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data;
96 unsigned char val;
97 int retval;
98 int i = 0;
99 read_lock(&ioctl_data->lock);
100 val = ioctl_data->val;
101 read_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock);
102
103 for (; i < count; i++) {
104 if (copy_to_user(&buf[i], &val, 1)) {
105 retval = -EFAULT;
106 goto out;
107 }
108 }
109
110 retval = count;
111 out:
112 return retval;
113 }
114
115 static int test_ioctl_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp)
116 {
117 pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__);
118
119 if (filp->private_data) {
120 kfree(filp->private_data);
121 filp->private_data = NULL;
122 }
 0.9. TALKING TO DEVICE FILES 51

123
124 return 0;
125 }
126
127 static int test_ioctl_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp)
128 {
129 struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data;
130 pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__);
131 ioctl_data = kmalloc(sizeof(struct test_ioctl_data), GFP_KERNEL);
132
133 if (ioctl_data == NULL) {
134 return -ENOMEM;
135 }
136
137 rwlock_init(&ioctl_data->lock);
138 ioctl_data->val = 0xFF;
139 filp->private_data = ioctl_data;
140 return 0;
141 }
142
143 struct file_operations fops = {
144 .owner = THIS_MODULE,
145 .open = test_ioctl_open,
146 .release = test_ioctl_close,
147 .read = test_ioctl_read,
148 .unlocked_ioctl = test_ioctl_ioctl,
149 };
150
151 static int ioctl_init(void)
152 {
153 dev_t dev = MKDEV(test_ioctl_major, 0);
154 int alloc_ret = 0;
155 int cdev_ret = 0;
156 alloc_ret = alloc_chrdev_region(&dev, 0, num_of_dev, DRIVER_NAME);
157
158 if (alloc_ret) {
159 goto error;
160 }
161
162 test_ioctl_major = MAJOR(dev);
163 cdev_init(&test_ioctl_cdev, &fops);
164 cdev_ret = cdev_add(&test_ioctl_cdev, dev, num_of_dev);
165
166 if (cdev_ret) {
167 goto error;
168 }
169
170 pr_alert("%s driver(major: %d) installed.\n", DRIVER_NAME,
171 test_ioctl_major);
172 return 0;
173 error:
174
175 if (cdev_ret == 0) {
176 cdev_del(&test_ioctl_cdev);
177 }
178
179 if (alloc_ret == 0) {
 0.10. SYSTEM CALLS 52

180 unregister_chrdev_region(dev, num_of_dev);

181 }
182
183 return -1;
184 }
185
186 static void ioctl_exit(void)
187 {
188 dev_t dev = MKDEV(test_ioctl_major, 0);
189 cdev_del(&test_ioctl_cdev);
190 unregister_chrdev_region(dev, num_of_dev);
191 pr_alert("%s driver removed.\n", DRIVER_NAME);
192 }
193
194 module_init(ioctl_init);
195 module_exit(ioctl_exit);
196
197 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
198 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("This is test_ioctl module");

0.10 System Calls

So far, the only thing we’ve done was to use well defined kernel mechanisms to
register /proc files and device handlers. This is fine if you want to do something
the kernel programmers thought you’d want, such as write a device driver. But
what if you want to do something unusual, to change the behavior of the system
in some way? Then, you are mostly on your own.
If you are not being sensible and using a virtual machine then this is where
kernel programming can become hazardous. While writing the example below, I
killed the open() system call. This meant I could not open any files, I could not
run any programs, and I could not shutdown the system. I had to restart the
virtual machine. No important files got annihilated, but if I was doing this on
some live mission critical system then that could have been a possible outcome.
To ensure you do not lose any files, even within a test environment, please run
sync right before you do the insmod and the rmmod.
Forget about /proc files, forget about device files. They are just minor
details. Minutiae in the vast expanse of the universe. The real process to kernel
communication mechanism, the one used by all processes, is system calls. When
a process requests a service from the kernel (such as opening a file, forking to a
new process, or requesting more memory), this is the mechanism used. If you
want to change the behaviour of the kernel in interesting ways, this is the place
to do it. By the way, if you want to see which system calls a program uses, run
strace <arguments>.
In general, a process is not supposed to be able to access the kernel. It can
not access kernel memory and it can’t call kernel functions. The hardware of
the CPU enforces this (that is the reason why it is called “protected mode” or
“page protection”).
System calls are an exception to this general rule. What happens is that the
0.10. SYSTEM CALLS 53

process fills the registers with the appropriate values and then calls a special
instruction which jumps to a previously defined location in the kernel (of course,
that location is readable by user processes, it is not writable by them). Under
Intel CPUs, this is done by means of interrupt 0x80. The hardware knows that
once you jump to this location, you are no longer running in restricted user
mode, but as the operating system kernel — and therefore you’re allowed to do
whatever you want.
The location in the kernel a process can jump to is called system_call.
The procedure at that location checks the system call number, which tells
the kernel what service the process requested. Then, it looks at the table
of system calls (sys_call_table) to see the address of the kernel function
to call. Then it calls the function, and after it returns, does a few system
checks and then return back to the process (or to a different process, if the
process time ran out). If you want to read this code, it is at the source file
arch/$(architecture)/kernel/entry.S, after the line ENTRY(system_call).
So, if we want to change the way a certain system call works, what we need
to do is to write our own function to implement it (usually by adding a bit of our
own code, and then calling the original function) and then change the pointer at
sys_call_table to point to our function. Because we might be removed later
and we don’t want to leave the system in an unstable state, it’s important for
cleanup_module to restore the table to its original state.
The source code here is an example of such a kernel module. We want to
“spy” on a certain user, and to pr_info() a message whenever that user opens
a file. Towards this end, we replace the system call to open a file with our own
function, called our_sys_open. This function checks the uid (user’s id) of the
current process, and if it is equal to the uid we spy on, it calls pr_info() to
display the name of the file to be opened. Then, either way, it calls the original
open() function with the same parameters, to actually open the file.
The init_module function replaces the appropriate location in sys_call_table
and keeps the original pointer in a variable. The cleanup_module function uses
that variable to restore everything back to normal. This approach is dangerous,
because of the possibility of two kernel modules changing the same system call.
Imagine we have two kernel modules, A and B. A’s open system call will be
A_open and B’s will be B_open. Now, when A is inserted into the kernel, the
system call is replaced with A_open, which will call the original sys_open when
it is done. Next, B is inserted into the kernel, which replaces the system call
with B_open, which will call what it thinks is the original system call, A_open,
when it’s done.
Now, if B is removed first, everything will be well — it will simply restore
the system call to A_open, which calls the original. However, if A is removed
and then B is removed, the system will crash. A’s removal will restore the
system call to the original, sys_open, cutting B out of the loop. Then, when
B is removed, it will restore the system call to what it thinks is the original,
A_open, which is no longer in memory. At first glance, it appears we could
solve this particular problem by checking if the system call is equal to our open
function and if so not changing it at all (so that B won’t change the system
 0.10. SYSTEM CALLS 54

call when it is removed), but that will cause an even worse problem. When
A is removed, it sees that the system call was changed to B_open so that it is
no longer pointing to A_open, so it will not restore it to sys_open before it is
removed from memory. Unfortunately, B_open will still try to call A_open which
is no longer there, so that even without removing B the system would crash.
Note that all the related problems make syscall stealing unfeasible for pro-
duction use. In order to keep people from doing potential harmful things
sys_call_table is no longer exported. This means, if you want to do some-
thing more than a mere dry run of this example, you will have to patch your
current kernel in order to have sys_call_table exported. In the example di-
rectory you will find a README and the patch. As you can imagine, such
modifications are not to be taken lightly. Do not try this on valuable systems
(ie systems that you do not own - or cannot restore easily). You will need to
get the complete sourcecode of this guide as a tarball in order to get the patch
and the README. Depending on your kernel version, you might even need to
hand apply the patch.

1 /*
2 * syscall.c
3 *
4 * System call "stealing" sample.
5 *
6 * Disables page protection at a processor level by changing the 16th bit
7 * in the cr0 register (could be Intel specific).
8 *
9 * Based on example by Peter Jay Salzman and
10 * https://bbs.archlinux.org/viewtopic.php?id=139406
11 */
12
13 #include <linux/delay.h>
14 #include <linux/kernel.h>
15 #include <linux/module.h>
16 #include <linux/moduleparam.h> /* which will have params */
17 #include <linux/unistd.h> /* The list of system calls */
18 #include <linux/version.h>
19
20 /* For the current (process) structure, we need this to know who the
21 * current user is.
22 */
23 #include <linux/sched.h>
24 #include <linux/uaccess.h>
25
26 /* The in-kernel calls to the ksys_close() syscall were removed in Linux
,→ v5.11+.
27 */
28 #if (LINUX_VERSION_CODE < KERNEL_VERSION(5, 11, 0))
29 #include <linux/syscalls.h> /* ksys_close() wrapper for backward compatibility
,→ */
30 #define close_fd ksys_close
31 #else
32 #include <linux/fdtable.h> /* For close_fd */
33 #endif
34
 0.10. SYSTEM CALLS 55

35 unsigned long **sys_call_table;

36 unsigned long original_cr0;
37
38 /* UID we want to spy on - will be filled from the command line. */
39 static int uid;
40 module_param(uid, int, 0644);
41
42 /* A pointer to the original system call. The reason we keep this, rather
43 * than call the original function (sys_open), is because somebody else
44 * might have replaced the system call before us. Note that this is not
45 * 100% safe, because if another module replaced sys_open before us,
46 * then when we are inserted, we will call the function in that module -
47 * and it might be removed before we are.
48 *
49 * Another reason for this is that we can not get sys_open.
50 * It is a static variable, so it is not exported.
51 */
52 asmlinkage int (*original_call)(const char *, int, int);
53
54 /* The function we will replace sys_open (the function called when you
55 * call the open system call) with. To find the exact prototype, with
56 * the number and type of arguments, we find the original function first
57 * (it is at fs/open.c).
58 *
59 * In theory, this means that we are tied to the current version of the
60 * kernel. In practice, the system calls almost never change (it would
61 * wreck havoc and require programs to be recompiled, since the system
62 * calls are the interface between the kernel and the processes).
63 */
64 asmlinkage int our_sys_open(const char *filename, int flags, int mode)
65 {
66 int i = 0;
67 char ch;
68
69 /* Report the file, if relevant */
70 pr_info("Opened file by %d: ", uid);
71 do {
72 get_user(ch, filename + i);
73 i++;
74 pr_info("%c", ch);
75 } while (ch != 0);
76 pr_info("\n");
77
78 /* Call the original sys_open - otherwise, we lose the ability to
79 * open files.
80 */
81 return original_call(filename, flags, mode);
82 }
83
84 static unsigned long **aquire_sys_call_table(void)
85 {
86 unsigned long int offset = PAGE_OFFSET;
87 unsigned long **sct;
88
89 while (offset < ULLONG_MAX) {
90 sct = (unsigned long **) offset;
91
 0.10. SYSTEM CALLS 56

92 if (sct[__NR_close] == (unsigned long *) close_fd)

93 return sct;
94
95 offset += sizeof(void *);
96 }
97
98 return NULL;
99 }
100
101 static int __init syscall_start(void)
102 {
103 if (!(sys_call_table = aquire_sys_call_table()))
104 return -1;
105
106 original_cr0 = read_cr0();
107
108 write_cr0(original_cr0 & ~0x00010000);
109
110 /* keep track of the original open function */
111 original_call = (void *) sys_call_table[__NR_open];
112
113 /* use our open function instead */
114 sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *) our_sys_open;
115
116 write_cr0(original_cr0);
117
118 pr_info("Spying on UID:%d\n", uid);
119
120 return 0;
121 }
122
123 static void __exit syscall_end(void)
124 {
125 if (!sys_call_table)
126 return;
127
128 /* Return the system call back to normal */
129 if (sys_call_table[__NR_open] != (unsigned long *) our_sys_open) {
130 pr_alert("Somebody else also played with the ");
131 pr_alert("open system call\n");
132 pr_alert("The system may be left in ");
133 pr_alert("an unstable state.\n");
134 }
135
136 write_cr0(original_cr0 & ~0x00010000);
137 sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *) original_call;
138 write_cr0(original_cr0);
139
140 msleep(2000);
141 }
142
143 module_init(syscall_start);
144 module_exit(syscall_end);
145
146 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
 0.11. BLOCKING PROCESSES AND THREADS 57

0.11 Blocking Processes and threads

0.11.1 Sleep
What do you do when somebody asks you for something you can not do right
away? If you are a human being and you are bothered by a human being, the
only thing you can say is: "Not right now, I’m busy. Go away! ". But if you are
a kernel module and you are bothered by a process, you have another possibility.
You can put the process to sleep until you can service it. After all, processes
are being put to sleep by the kernel and woken up all the time (that is the way
multiple processes appear to run on the same time on a single CPU).
This kernel module is an example of this. The file (called /proc/sleep) can
only be opened by a single process at a time. If the file is already open, the
kernel module calls wait_event_interruptible. The easiest way to keep a file
open is to open it with:

1 tail -f

This function changes the status of the task (a task is the kernel data struc-
ture which holds information about a process and the system call it is in, if
any) to TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE, which means that the task will not run until it is
woken up somehow, and adds it to WaitQ, the queue of tasks waiting to access
the file. Then, the function calls the scheduler to context switch to a different
process, one which has some use for the CPU.
When a process is done with the file, it closes it, and module_close is
called. That function wakes up all the processes in the queue (there’s no mech-
anism to only wake up one of them). It then returns and the process which
just closed the file can continue to run. In time, the scheduler decides that
that process has had enough and gives control of the CPU to another process.
Eventually, one of the processes which was in the queue will be given control
of the CPU by the scheduler. It starts at the point right after the call to
module_interruptible_sleep_on.
This means that the process is still in kernel mode - as far as the process is
concerned, it issued the open system call and the system call has not returned
yet. The process does not know somebody else used the CPU for most of the
time between the moment it issued the call and the moment it returned.
It can then proceed to set a global variable to tell all the other processes
that the file is still open and go on with its life. When the other processes get
a piece of the CPU, they’ll see that global variable and go back to sleep.
So we will use tail -f to keep the file open in the background, while trying
to access it with another process (again in the background, so that we need not
switch to a different vt). As soon as the first background process is killed with
kill %1 , the second is woken up, is able to access the file and finally terminates.
To make our life more interesting, module_close does not have a monopoly
on waking up the processes which wait to access the file. A signal, such as
 0.11. BLOCKING PROCESSES AND THREADS 58

Ctrl +c (SIGINT) can also wake up a process. This is because we used

module_interruptible_sleep_on. We could have used module_sleep_on in-
stead, but that would have resulted in extremely angry users whose Ctrl+c’s
are ignored.
In that case, we want to return with -EINTR immediately. This is important
so users can, for example, kill the process before it receives the file.
There is one more point to remember. Some times processes don’t want to
sleep, they want either to get what they want immediately, or to be told it cannot
be done. Such processes use the O_NONBLOCK flag when opening the file. The
kernel is supposed to respond by returning with the error code -EAGAIN from
operations which would otherwise block, such as opening the file in this example.
The program cat_nonblock, available in the examples/other directory, can be
used to open a file with O_NONBLOCK.

$ sudo insmod sleep.ko

$ cat_nonblock /proc/sleep
Last input:
$ tail -f /proc/sleep &
Last input:
Last input:
Last input:
Last input:
Last input:
Last input:
Last input:
tail: /proc/sleep: file truncated
[1] 6540
$ cat_nonblock /proc/sleep
Open would block
$ kill %1
[1]+ Terminated tail -f /proc/sleep
$ cat_nonblock /proc/sleep
Last input:
$

1 /*
2 * sleep.c - create a /proc file, and if several processes try to open it
3 * at the same time, put all but one to sleep.
4 */
5
6 #include <linux/kernel.h> /*
We're doing kernel work */
7 #include <linux/module.h> /*
Specifically, a module */
8 #include <linux/proc_fs.h> /*
Necessary because we use proc fs */
9 #include <linux/sched.h> /*
For putting processes to sleep and
10 waking them up */
11 #include <linux/uaccess.h> /* for get_user and put_user */
12 #include <linux/version.h>
13
14 #if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0)
 0.11. BLOCKING PROCESSES AND THREADS 59

15 #define HAVE_PROC_OPS
16 #endif
17
18 /* Here we keep the last message received, to prove that we can process our
19 * input.
20 */
21 #define MESSAGE_LENGTH 80
22 static char Message[MESSAGE_LENGTH];
23
24 static struct proc_dir_entry *Our_Proc_File;
25 #define PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME "sleep"
26
27 /* Since we use the file operations struct, we can't use the special proc
28 * output provisions - we have to use a standard read function, which is this
29 * function.
30 */
31 static ssize_t module_output(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h */
32 char *buf, /* The buffer to put data to
33 (in the user segment) */
34 size_t len, /* The length of the buffer */
35 loff_t *offset)
36 {
37 static int finished = 0;
38 int i;
39 char message[MESSAGE_LENGTH + 30];
40
41 /* Return 0 to signify end of file - that we have nothing more to say
42 * at this point.
43 */
44 if (finished) {
45 finished = 0;
46 return 0;
47 }
48
49 sprintf(message, "Last input:%s\n", Message);
50 for (i = 0; i < len && message[i]; i++)
51 put_user(message[i], buf + i);
52
53 finished = 1;
54 return i; /* Return the number of bytes "read" */
55 }
56
57 /* This function receives input from the user when the user writes to the
58 * /proc file.
59 */
60 static ssize_t module_input(struct file *file, /* The file itself */
61 const char *buf, /* The buffer with input */
62 size_t length, /* The buffer's length */
63 loff_t *offset) /* offset to file - ignore */
64 {
65 int i;
66
67 /* Put the input into Message, where module_output will later be able
68 * to use it.
69 */
70 for (i = 0; i < MESSAGE_LENGTH - 1 && i < length; i++)
71 get_user(Message[i], buf + i);
 0.11. BLOCKING PROCESSES AND THREADS 60

72 /* we want a standard, zero terminated string */

73 Message[i] = '\0';
74
75 /* We need to return the number of input characters used */
76 return i;
77 }
78
79 /* 1 if the file is currently open by somebody */
80 int Already_Open = 0;
81
82 /* Queue of processes who want our file */
83 DECLARE_WAIT_QUEUE_HEAD(WaitQ);
84
85 /* Called when the /proc file is opened */
86 static int module_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
87 {
88 /* If the file's flags include O_NONBLOCK, it means the process does not
89 * want to wait for the file. In this case, if the file is already open,
90 * we should fail with -EAGAIN, meaning "you will have to try again",
91 * instead of blocking a process which would rather stay awake.
92 */
93 if ((file->f_flags & O_NONBLOCK) && Already_Open)
94 return -EAGAIN;
95
96 /* This is the correct place for try_module_get(THIS_MODULE) because if
97 * a process is in the loop, which is within the kernel module,
98 * the kernel module must not be removed.
99 */
100 try_module_get(THIS_MODULE);
101
102 /* If the file is already open, wait until it is not. */
103 while (Already_Open) {
104 int i, is_sig = 0;
105
106 /* This function puts the current process, including any system
107 * calls, such as us, to sleep. Execution will be resumed right
108 * after the function call, either because somebody called
109 * wake_up(&WaitQ) (only module_close does that, when the file
110 * is closed) or when a signal, such as Ctrl-C, is sent
111 * to the process
112 */
113 wait_event_interruptible(WaitQ, !Already_Open);
114
115 /* If we woke up because we got a signal we're not blocking,
116 * return -EINTR (fail the system call). This allows processes
117 * to be killed or stopped.
118 */
119 for (i = 0; i < _NSIG_WORDS && !is_sig; i++)
120 is_sig = current->pending.signal.sig[i] &
,→ ~current->blocked.sig[i];
121
122 if (is_sig) {
123 /* It is important to put module_put(THIS_MODULE) here, because
124 * for processes where the open is interrupted there will never
125 * be a corresponding close. If we do not decrement the usage
126 * count here, we will be left with a positive usage count
127 * which we will have no way to bring down to zero, giving us
 0.11. BLOCKING PROCESSES AND THREADS 61

128 * an immortal module, which can only be killed by rebooting

129 * the machine.
130 */
131 module_put(THIS_MODULE);
132 return -EINTR;
133 }
134 }
135
136 /* If we got here, Already_Open must be zero. */
137
138 /* Open the file */
139 Already_Open = 1;
140 return 0; /* Allow the access */
141 }
142
143 /* Called when the /proc file is closed */
144 int module_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
145 {
146 /* Set Already_Open to zero, so one of the processes in the WaitQ will
147 * be able to set Already_Open back to one and to open the file. All
148 * the other processes will be called when Already_Open is back to one,
149 * so they'll go back to sleep.
150 */
151 Already_Open = 0;
152
153 /* Wake up all the processes in WaitQ, so if anybody is waiting for the
154 * file, they can have it.
155 */
156 wake_up(&WaitQ);
157
158 module_put(THIS_MODULE);
159
160 return 0; /* success */
161 }
162
163 /* Structures to register as the /proc file, with pointers to all the relevant
164 * functions.
165 */
166
167 /* File operations for our proc file. This is where we place pointers to all
168 * the functions called when somebody tries to do something to our file. NULL
169 * means we don't want to deal with something.
170 */
171 #ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS
172 static const struct proc_ops File_Ops_4_Our_Proc_File = {
173 .proc_read = module_output, /* "read" from the file */
174 .proc_write = module_input, /* "write" to the file */
175 .proc_open = module_open, /* called when the /proc file is opened */
176 .proc_release = module_close, /* called when it's closed */
177 };
178 #else
179 static const struct file_operations File_Ops_4_Our_Proc_File = {
180 .read = module_output,
181 .write = module_input,
182 .open = module_open,
183 .release = module_close,
184 };
 0.11. BLOCKING PROCESSES AND THREADS 62

185 #endif
186
187 /* Initialize the module - register the proc file */
188 static int __init sleep_init(void)
189 {
190 Our_Proc_File =
191 proc_create(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, 0644, NULL,
,→ &File_Ops_4_Our_Proc_File);
192 if (Our_Proc_File == NULL) {
193 remove_proc_entry(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, NULL);
194 pr_debug("Error: Could not initialize /proc/%s\n",
,→ PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME);
195 return -ENOMEM;
196 }
197 proc_set_size(Our_Proc_File, 80);
198 proc_set_user(Our_Proc_File, GLOBAL_ROOT_UID, GLOBAL_ROOT_GID);
199
200 pr_info("/proc/%s created\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME);
201
202 return 0;
203 }
204
205 /* Cleanup - unregister our file from /proc. This could get dangerous if
206 * there are still processes waiting in WaitQ, because they are inside our
207 * open function, which will get unloaded. I'll explain how to avoid removal
208 * of a kernel module in such a case in chapter 10.
209 */
210 static void __exit sleep_exit(void)
211 {
212 remove_proc_entry(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, NULL);
213 pr_debug("/proc/%s removed\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME);
214 }
215
216 module_init(sleep_init);
217 module_exit(sleep_exit);
218
219 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

1 /*
2 * cat_nonblock.c - open a file and display its contents, but exit rather
,→ than
3 * wait for input.
4 */
5 #include <errno.h> /* for errno */
6 #include <fcntl.h> /* for open */
7 #include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */
8 #include <stdlib.h> /* for exit */
9 #include <unistd.h> /* for read */
10
11 #define MAX_BYTES 1024 * 4
12
13 int main(int argc, char *argv[])
14 {
15 int fd; /* The file descriptor for the file to read */
16 size_t bytes; /* The number of bytes read */
17 char buffer[MAX_BYTES]; /* The buffer for the bytes */
18
 0.11. BLOCKING PROCESSES AND THREADS 63

19 /* Usage */
20 if (argc != 2) {
21 printf("Usage: %s <filename>\n", argv[0]);
22 puts("Reads the content of a file, but doesn't wait for input");
23 exit(-1);
24 }
25
26 /* Open the file for reading in non blocking mode */
27 fd = open(argv[1], O_RDONLY | O_NONBLOCK);
28
29 /* If open failed */
30 if (fd == -1) {
31 puts(errno == EAGAIN ? "Open would block" : "Open failed");
32 exit(-1);
33 }
34
35 /* Read the file and output its contents */
36 do {
37 /* Read characters from the file */
38 bytes = read(fd, buffer, MAX_BYTES);
39
40 /* If there's an error, report it and die */
41 if (bytes == -1) {
42 if (errno = EAGAIN)
43 puts("Normally I'd block, but you told me not to");
44 else
45 puts("Another read error");
46 exit(-1);
47 }
48
49 /* Print the characters */
50 if (bytes > 0) {
51 for (int i = 0; i < bytes; i++)
52 putchar(buffer[i]);
53 }
54
55 /* While there are no errors and the file isn't over */
56 } while (bytes > 0);
57
58 return 0;
59 }

0.11.2 Completions
Sometimes one thing should happen before another within a module having
multiple threads. Rather than using /bin/sleep commands, the kernel has
another way to do this which allows timeouts or interrupts to also happen.
In the following example two threads are started, but one needs to start
before another.

1 /*
2 * completions.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/completion.h>
 0.11. BLOCKING PROCESSES AND THREADS 64

5 #include <linux/init.h>
6 #include <linux/kernel.h>
7 #include <linux/kthread.h>
8 #include <linux/module.h>
9
10 static struct {
11 struct completion crank_comp;
12 struct completion flywheel_comp;
13 } machine;
14
15 static int machine_crank_thread(void *arg)
16 {
17 pr_info("Turn the crank\n");
18
19 complete_all(&machine.crank_comp);
20 complete_and_exit(&machine.crank_comp, 0);
21 }
22
23 static int machine_flywheel_spinup_thread(void *arg)
24 {
25 wait_for_completion(&machine.crank_comp);
26
27 pr_info("Flywheel spins up\n");
28
29 complete_all(&machine.flywheel_comp);
30 complete_and_exit(&machine.flywheel_comp, 0);
31 }
32
33 static int completions_init(void)
34 {
35 struct task_struct *crank_thread;
36 struct task_struct *flywheel_thread;
37
38 pr_info("completions example\n");
39
40 init_completion(&machine.crank_comp);
41 init_completion(&machine.flywheel_comp);
42
43 crank_thread = kthread_create(machine_crank_thread, NULL, "KThread
,→ Crank");
44 if (IS_ERR(crank_thread))
45 goto ERROR_THREAD_1;
46
47 flywheel_thread = kthread_create(machine_flywheel_spinup_thread, NULL,
48 "KThread Flywheel");
49 if (IS_ERR(flywheel_thread))
50 goto ERROR_THREAD_2;
51
52 wake_up_process(flywheel_thread);
53 wake_up_process(crank_thread);
54
55 return 0;
56
57 ERROR_THREAD_2:
58 kthread_stop(crank_thread);
59 ERROR_THREAD_1:
60
 0.12. AVOIDING COLLISIONS AND DEADLOCKS 65

61 return -1;
62 }
63
64 void completions_exit(void)
65 {
66 wait_for_completion(&machine.crank_comp);
67 wait_for_completion(&machine.flywheel_comp);
68
69 pr_info("completions exit\n");
70 }
71
72 module_init(completions_init);
73 module_exit(completions_exit);
74
75 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Completions example");
76 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

The machine structure stores the completion states for the two threads. At
the exit point of each thread the respective completion state is updated, and
wait_for_completion is used by the flywheel thread to ensure that it does not
begin prematurely.
So even though flywheel_thread is started first you should notice if you
load this module and run dmesg that turning the crank always happens first
because the flywheel thread waits for it to complete.
There are other variations upon the wait_for_completion function, which
include timeouts or being interrupted, but this basic mechanism is enough for
many common situations without adding a lot of complexity.

0.12 Avoiding Collisions and Deadlocks

If processes running on different CPUs or in different threads try to access the
same memory, then it is possible that strange things can happen or your system
can lock up. To avoid this, various types of mutual exclusion kernel functions
are available. These indicate if a section of code is "locked" or "unlocked" so
that simultaneous attempts to run it can not happen.

0.12.1 Mutex
You can use kernel mutexes (mutual exclusions) in much the same manner that
you might deploy them in userland. This may be all that is needed to avoid
collisions in most cases.

1 /*
2 * example_mutex.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/init.h>
5 #include <linux/kernel.h>
6 #include <linux/module.h>
7 #include <linux/mutex.h>
 0.12. AVOIDING COLLISIONS AND DEADLOCKS 66

8
9 DEFINE_MUTEX(mymutex);
10
11 static int example_mutex_init(void)
12 {
13 int ret;
14
15 pr_info("example_mutex init\n");
16
17 ret = mutex_trylock(&mymutex);
18 if (ret != 0) {
19 pr_info("mutex is locked\n");
20
21 if (mutex_is_locked(&mymutex) == 0)
22 pr_info("The mutex failed to lock!\n");
23
24 mutex_unlock(&mymutex);
25 pr_info("mutex is unlocked\n");
26 } else
27 pr_info("Failed to lock\n");
28
29 return 0;
30 }
31
32 static void example_mutex_exit(void)
33 {
34 pr_info("example_mutex exit\n");
35 }
36
37 module_init(example_mutex_init);
38 module_exit(example_mutex_exit);
39
40 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Mutex example");
41 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

0.12.2 Spinlocks
As the name suggests, spinlocks lock up the CPU that the code is running on,
taking 100% of its resources. Because of this you should only use the spinlock
mechanism around code which is likely to take no more than a few milliseconds
to run and so will not noticeably slow anything down from the user’s point of
view.
The example here is "irq safe" in that if interrupts happen during the
lock then they will not be forgotten and will activate when the unlock happens,
using the flags variable to retain their state.

1 /*
2 * example_spinlock.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/init.h>
5 #include <linux/interrupt.h>
6 #include <linux/kernel.h>
7 #include <linux/module.h>
 0.12. AVOIDING COLLISIONS AND DEADLOCKS 67

8 #include <linux/spinlock.h>
9
10 DEFINE_SPINLOCK(sl_static);
11 spinlock_t sl_dynamic;
12
13 static void example_spinlock_static(void)
14 {
15 unsigned long flags;
16
17 spin_lock_irqsave(&sl_static, flags);
18 pr_info("Locked static spinlock\n");
19
20 /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this
21 * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run.
22 */
23
24 spin_unlock_irqrestore(&sl_static, flags);
25 pr_info("Unlocked static spinlock\n");
26 }
27
28 static void example_spinlock_dynamic(void)
29 {
30 unsigned long flags;
31
32 spin_lock_init(&sl_dynamic);
33 spin_lock_irqsave(&sl_dynamic, flags);
34 pr_info("Locked dynamic spinlock\n");
35
36 /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this
37 * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run.
38 */
39
40 spin_unlock_irqrestore(&sl_dynamic, flags);
41 pr_info("Unlocked dynamic spinlock\n");
42 }
43
44 static int example_spinlock_init(void)
45 {
46 pr_info("example spinlock started\n");
47
48 example_spinlock_static();
49 example_spinlock_dynamic();
50
51 return 0;
52 }
53
54 static void example_spinlock_exit(void)
55 {
56 pr_info("example spinlock exit\n");
57 }
58
59 module_init(example_spinlock_init);
60 module_exit(example_spinlock_exit);
61
62 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Spinlock example");
63 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
 0.12. AVOIDING COLLISIONS AND DEADLOCKS 68

0.12.3 Read and write locks

Read and write locks are specialised kinds of spinlocks so that you can exclu-
sively read from something or write to something. Like the earlier spinlocks
example, the one below shows an "irq safe" situation in which if other functions
were triggered from irqs which might also read and write to whatever you are
concerned with then they would not disrupt the logic. As before it is a good
idea to keep anything done within the lock as short as possible so that it does
not hang up the system and cause users to start revolting against the tyranny
of your module.

1 /*
2 * example_rwlock.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/interrupt.h>
5 #include <linux/kernel.h>
6 #include <linux/module.h>
7
8 DEFINE_RWLOCK(myrwlock);
9
10 static void example_read_lock(void)
11 {
12 unsigned long flags;
13
14 read_lock_irqsave(&myrwlock, flags);
15 pr_info("Read Locked\n");
16
17 /* Read from something */
18
19 read_unlock_irqrestore(&myrwlock, flags);
20 pr_info("Read Unlocked\n");
21 }
22
23 static void example_write_lock(void)
24 {
25 unsigned long flags;
26
27 write_lock_irqsave(&myrwlock, flags);
28 pr_info("Write Locked\n");
29
30 /* Write to something */
31
32 write_unlock_irqrestore(&myrwlock, flags);
33 pr_info("Write Unlocked\n");
34 }
35
36 static int example_rwlock_init(void)
37 {
38 pr_info("example_rwlock started\n");
39
40 example_read_lock();
41 example_write_lock();
42
43 return 0;
44 }
 0.12. AVOIDING COLLISIONS AND DEADLOCKS 69

45
46 static void example_rwlock_exit(void)
47 {
48 pr_info("example_rwlock exit\n");
49 }
50
51 module_init(example_rwlock_init);
52 module_exit(example_rwlock_exit);
53
54 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Read/Write locks example");
55 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

Of course, if you know for sure that there are no functions triggered by
irqs which could possibly interfere with your logic then you can use the simpler
read_lock(&myrwlock) and read_unlock(&myrwlock) or the corresponding
write functions.

0.12.4 Atomic operations

If you are doing simple arithmetic: adding, subtracting or bitwise operations,
then there is another way in the multi-CPU and multi-hyperthreaded world
to stop other parts of the system from messing with your mojo. By using
atomic operations you can be confident that your addition, subtraction or bit
flip did actually happen and was not overwritten by some other shenanigans.
An example is shown below.

1 /*
2 * example_atomic.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/interrupt.h>
5 #include <linux/kernel.h>
6 #include <linux/module.h>
7
8 #define BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN "%c%c%c%c%c%c%c%c"
9 #define BYTE_TO_BINARY(byte) \
10 (byte & 0x80 ? '1' : '0'), (byte & 0x40 ? '1' : '0'), \
11 (byte & 0x20 ? '1' : '0'), (byte & 0x10 ? '1' : '0'), \
12 (byte & 0x08 ? '1' : '0'), (byte & 0x04 ? '1' : '0'), \
13 (byte & 0x02 ? '1' : '0'), (byte & 0x01 ? '1' : '0')
14
15 static void atomic_add_subtract(void)
16 {
17 atomic_t debbie;
18 atomic_t chris = ATOMIC_INIT(50);
19
20 atomic_set(&debbie, 45);
21
22 /* subtract one */
23 atomic_dec(&debbie);
24
25 atomic_add(7, &debbie);
26
27 /* add one */
 0.13. REPLACING PRINT MACROS 70

28 atomic_inc(&debbie);
29
30 pr_info("chris: %d, debbie: %d\n", atomic_read(&chris),
31 atomic_read(&debbie));
32 }
33
34 static void atomic_bitwise(void)
35 {
36 unsigned long word = 0;
37
38 pr_info("Bits 0: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word));
39 set_bit(3, &word);
40 set_bit(5, &word);
41 pr_info("Bits 1: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word));
42 clear_bit(5, &word);
43 pr_info("Bits 2: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word));
44 change_bit(3, &word);
45
46 pr_info("Bits 3: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word));
47 if (test_and_set_bit(3, &word))
48 pr_info("wrong\n");
49 pr_info("Bits 4: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word));
50
51 word = 255;
52 pr_info("Bits 5: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word));
53 }
54
55 static int example_atomic_init(void)
56 {
57 pr_info("example_atomic started\n");
58
59 atomic_add_subtract();
60 atomic_bitwise();
61
62 return 0;
63 }
64
65 static void example_atomic_exit(void)
66 {
67 pr_info("example_atomic exit\n");
68 }
69
70 module_init(example_atomic_init);
71 module_exit(example_atomic_exit);
72
73 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Atomic operations example");
74 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

0.13 Replacing Print Macros

0.13.1 Replacement
In Section 2, I said that X Window System and kernel module programming
do not mix. That is true for developing kernel modules. But in actual use, you
 0.13. REPLACING PRINT MACROS 71

want to be able to send messages to whichever tty the command to load the
module came from.
"tty" is an abbreviation of teletype: originally a combination keyboard-
printer used to communicate with a Unix system, and today an abstraction
for the text stream used for a Unix program, whether it is a physical terminal,
an xterm on an X display, a network connection used with ssh, etc.
The way this is done is by using current, a pointer to the currently running
task, to get the current task’s tty structure. Then, we look inside that tty
structure to find a pointer to a string write function, which we use to write a
string to the tty.

1 /*
2 * print_string.c - Send output to the tty we're running on, regardless if
3 * it is through X11, telnet, etc. We do this by printing the string to the
4 * tty associated with the current task.
5 */
6 #include <linux/init.h>
7 #include <linux/kernel.h>
8 #include <linux/module.h>
9 #include <linux/sched.h> /* For current */
10 #include <linux/tty.h> /* For the tty declarations */
11
12 static void print_string(char *str)
13 {
14 struct tty_struct *my_tty;
15 const struct tty_operations *ttyops;
16
17 /* The tty for the current task, for 2.6.6+ kernels */
18 my_tty = get_current_tty();
19 ttyops = my_tty->driver->ops;
20
21 /* If my_tty is NULL, the current task has no tty you can print to (i.e.,
22 * if it is a daemon). If so, there is nothing we can do.
23 */
24 if (my_tty) {
25 /* my_tty->driver is a struct which holds the tty's functions,
26 * one of which (write) is used to write strings to the tty.
27 * It can be used to take a string either from the user's or
28 * kernel's memory segment.
29 *
30 * The function's 1st parameter is the tty to write to, because the
31 * same function would normally be used for all tty's of a certain
32 * type.
33 * The 2nd parameter is a pointer to a string.
34 * The 3rd parameter is the length of the string.
35 *
36 * As you will see below, sometimes it's necessary to use
37 * preprocessor stuff to create code that works for different
38 * kernel versions. The (naive) approach we've taken here does not
39 * scale well. The right way to deal with this is described in
40 * section 2 of
41 * linux/Documentation/SubmittingPatches
42 */
43 (ttyops->write)(my_tty, /* The tty itself */
44 str, /* String */
 0.13. REPLACING PRINT MACROS 72

45 strlen(str)); /* Length */
46
47 /* ttys were originally hardware devices, which (usually) strictly
48 * followed the ASCII standard. In ASCII, to move to a new line you
49 * need two characters, a carriage return and a line feed. On Unix,
50 * the ASCII line feed is used for both purposes - so we can not
51 * just use \n, because it would not have a carriage return and the
52 * next line will start at the column right after the line feed.
53 *
54 * This is why text files are different between Unix and MS Windows.
55 * In CP/M and derivatives, like MS-DOS and MS Windows, the ASCII
56 * standard was strictly adhered to, and therefore a newline requirs
57 * both a LF and a CR.
58 */
59 (ttyops->write)(my_tty, "\015\012", 2);
60 }
61 }
62
63 static int __init print_string_init(void)
64 {
65 print_string("The module has been inserted. Hello world!");
66 return 0;
67 }
68
69 static void __exit print_string_exit(void)
70 {
71 print_string("The module has been removed. Farewell world!");
72 }
73
74 module_init(print_string_init);
75 module_exit(print_string_exit);
76
77 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

0.13.2 Flashing keyboard LEDs

In certain conditions, you may desire a simpler and more direct way to commu-
nicate to the external world. Flashing keyboard LEDs can be such a solution:
It is an immediate way to attract attention or to display a status condition.
Keyboard LEDs are present on every hardware, they are always visible, they do
not need any setup, and their use is rather simple and non-intrusive, compared
to writing to a tty or a file.
The following source code illustrates a minimal kernel module which, when
loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded.

1 /*
2 * kbleds.c - Blink keyboard leds until the module is unloaded.
3 */
4
5 #include <linux/init.h>
6 #include <linux/kd.h> /* For KDSETLED */
7 #include <linux/module.h>
8 #include <linux/tty.h> /* For fg_console, MAX_NR_CONSOLES */
 0.13. REPLACING PRINT MACROS 73

9 #include <linux/vt.h>
10 #include <linux/vt_kern.h> /* for fg_console */
11
12 #include <linux/console_struct.h> /* For vc_cons */
13
14 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Example module illustrating the use of Keyboard LEDs.");
15
16 struct timer_list my_timer;
17 struct tty_driver *my_driver;
18 char kbledstatus = 0;
19
20 #define BLINK_DELAY HZ / 5
21 #define ALL_LEDS_ON 0x07
22 #define RESTORE_LEDS 0xFF
23
24 /* Function my_timer_func blinks the keyboard LEDs periodically by invoking
25 * command KDSETLED of ioctl() on the keyboard driver. To learn more on
,→ virtual
26 * terminal ioctl operations, please see file:
27 * drivers/tty/vt/vt_ioctl.c, function vt_ioctl().
28 *
29 * The argument to KDSETLED is alternatively set to 7 (thus causing the led
30 * mode to be set to LED_SHOW_IOCTL, and all the leds are lit) and to 0xFF
31 * (any value above 7 switches back the led mode to LED_SHOW_FLAGS, thus
32 * the LEDs reflect the actual keyboard status). To learn more on this,
33 * please see file: drivers/tty/vt/keyboard.c, function setledstate().
34 */
35
36 static void my_timer_func(unsigned long ptr)
37 {
38 unsigned long *pstatus = (unsigned long *) ptr;
39 struct tty_struct *t = vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty;
40
41 if (*pstatus == ALL_LEDS_ON)
42 *pstatus = RESTORE_LEDS;
43 else
44 *pstatus = ALL_LEDS_ON;
45
46 (my_driver->ops->ioctl)(t, KDSETLED, *pstatus);
47
48 my_timer.expires = jiffies + BLINK_DELAY;
49 add_timer(&my_timer);
50 }
51
52 static int __init kbleds_init(void)
53 {
54 int i;
55
56 pr_info("kbleds: loading\n");
57 pr_info("kbleds: fgconsole is %x\n", fg_console);
58 for (i = 0; i < MAX_NR_CONSOLES; i++) {
59 if (!vc_cons[i].d)
60 break;
61 pr_info("poet_atkm: console[%i/%i] #%i, tty %lx\n", i,
,→ MAX_NR_CONSOLES,
62 vc_cons[i].d->vc_num, (unsigned long) vc_cons[i].d->port.tty);
63 }
 0.14. SCHEDULING TASKS 74

64 pr_info("kbleds: finished scanning consoles\n");

65
66 my_driver = vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty->driver;
67 pr_info("kbleds: tty driver magic %x\n", my_driver->magic);
68
69 /* Set up the LED blink timer the first time. */
70 timer_setup(&my_timer, (void *) &my_timer_func,
71 (unsigned long) &kbledstatus);
72 my_timer.expires = jiffies + BLINK_DELAY;
73 add_timer(&my_timer);
74
75 return 0;
76 }
77
78 static void __exit kbleds_cleanup(void)
79 {
80 pr_info("kbleds: unloading...\n");
81 del_timer(&my_timer);
82 (my_driver->ops->ioctl)(vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty, KDSETLED,
83 RESTORE_LEDS);
84 }
85
86 module_init(kbleds_init);
87 module_exit(kbleds_cleanup);
88
89 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

If none of the examples in this chapter fit your debugging needs, there might
yet be some other tricks to try. Ever wondered what CONFIG_LL_DEBUG in
make menuconfig is good for? If you activate that you get low level access to
the serial port. While this might not sound very powerful by itself, you can
patch kernel/printk.c or any other essential syscall to print ASCII characters,
thus making it possible to trace virtually everything what your code does over
a serial line. If you find yourself porting the kernel to some new and former
unsupported architecture, this is usually amongst the first things that should
be implemented. Logging over a netconsole might also be worth a try.
While you have seen lots of stuff that can be used to aid debugging here,
there are some things to be aware of. Debugging is almost always intrusive.
Adding debug code can change the situation enough to make the bug seem to
dissappear. Thus you should try to keep debug code to a minimum and make
sure it does not show up in production code.

0.14 Scheduling Tasks

There are two main ways of running tasks: tasklets and work queues. Tasklets
are a quick and easy way of scheduling a single function to be run. For example,
when triggered from an interrupt, whereas work queues are more complicated
but also better suited to running multiple things in a sequence.
 0.14. SCHEDULING TASKS 75

0.14.1 Tasklets
Here is an example tasklet module. The tasklet_fn function runs for a few
seconds and in the mean time execution of the example_tasklet_init function
continues to the exit point.

1 /*
2 * example_tasklet.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/delay.h>
5 #include <linux/interrupt.h>
6 #include <linux/kernel.h>
7 #include <linux/module.h>
8
9 /* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibiity.
10 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/
11 */
12 #ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD
13 #define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L)
14 #endif
15
16 static void tasklet_fn(unsigned long data)
17 {
18 pr_info("Example tasklet starts\n");
19 mdelay(5000);
20 pr_info("Example tasklet ends\n");
21 }
22
23 DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(mytask, tasklet_fn);
24
25 static int example_tasklet_init(void)
26 {
27 pr_info("tasklet example init\n");
28 tasklet_schedule(&mytask);
29 mdelay(200);
30 pr_info("Example tasklet init continues...\n");
31 return 0;
32 }
33
34 static void example_tasklet_exit(void)
35 {
36 pr_info("tasklet example exit\n");
37 tasklet_kill(&mytask);
38 }
39
40 module_init(example_tasklet_init);
41 module_exit(example_tasklet_exit);
42
43 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Tasklet example");
44 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

So with this example loaded dmesg should show:

tasklet example init

Example tasklet starts
 0.14. SCHEDULING TASKS 76

Example tasklet init continues...

Example tasklet ends

Although tasklet is easy to use, it comes with several defators, and developers
are discussing about getting rid of tasklet in linux kernel. The tasklet callback
runs in atomic context, inside a software interrupt, meaning that it cannot sleep
or access user-space data, so not all work can be done in a tasklet handler. Also,
the kernel only allows one instance of any given tasklet to be running at any
given time; multiple different tasklet callbacks can run in parallel.
In recent kernels, tasklets can be replaced by workqueues, timers, or threaded
interrupts.1 While the removal of tasklets remains a longer-term goal, the cur-
rent kernel contains more than a hundred uses of tasklets. Now developers are
proceeding with the API changes and the macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists
for compatibiity. For further information, see https://lwn.net/Articles/
830964/.

0.14.2 Work queues

To add a task to the scheduler we can use a workqueue. The kernel then uses
the Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS) to execute work within the queue.

1 /*
2 * sched.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/init.h>
5 #include <linux/module.h>
6 #include <linux/workqueue.h>
7
8 static struct workqueue_struct *queue = NULL;
9 static struct work_struct work;
10
11 static void work_handler(struct work_struct *data)
12 {
13 pr_info("work handler function.\n");
14 }
15
16 static int __init sched_init(void)
17 {
18 queue = alloc_workqueue("HELLOWORLD", WQ_UNBOUND, 1);
19 INIT_WORK(&work, work_handler);
20 schedule_work(&work);
21
22 return 0;
23 }
24
25 static void __exit sched_exit(void)
26 {
27 destroy_workqueue(queue);
1 The goal of threaded interrupts is to push more of the work to separate threads, so that

the minimum needed for acknowledging an interrupt is reduced, and therefore the time spent
handling the interrupt (where it can’t handle any other interrupts at the same time) is reduced.
See https://lwn.net/Articles/302043/
 0.15. INTERRUPT HANDLERS 77

28 }
29
30 module_init(sched_init);
31 module_exit(sched_exit);
32
33 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
34 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Workqueue example");

0.15 Interrupt Handlers

0.15.1 Interrupt Handlers
Except for the last chapter, everything we did in the kernel so far we have
done as a response to a process asking for it, either by dealing with a special
file, sending an ioctl(), or issuing a system call. But the job of the kernel
is not just to respond to process requests. Another job, which is every bit as
important, is to speak to the hardware connected to the machine.
There are two types of interaction between the CPU and the rest of the com-
puter’s hardware. The first type is when the CPU gives orders to the hardware,
the order is when the hardware needs to tell the CPU something. The second,
called interrupts, is much harder to implement because it has to be dealt with
when convenient for the hardware, not the CPU. Hardware devices typically
have a very small amount of RAM, and if you do not read their information
when available, it is lost.
Under Linux, hardware interrupts are called IRQ’s (Interrupt ReQuests).
There are two types of IRQ’s, short and long. A short IRQ is one which is
expected to take a very short period of time, during which the rest of the
machine will be blocked and no other interrupts will be handled. A long IRQ is
one which can take longer, and during which other interrupts may occur (but
not interrupts from the same device). If at all possible, it is better to declare
an interrupt handler to be long.
When the CPU receives an interrupt, it stops whatever it is doing (unless
it is processing a more important interrupt, in which case it will deal with this
one only when the more important one is done), saves certain parameters on
the stack and calls the interrupt handler. This means that certain things are
not allowed in the interrupt handler itself, because the system is in an unknown
state. The solution to this problem is for the interrupt handler to do what
needs to be done immediately, usually read something from the hardware or
send something to the hardware, and then schedule the handling of the new
information at a later time (this is called the "bottom half") and return. The
kernel is then guaranteed to call the bottom half as soon as possible – and when
it does, everything allowed in kernel modules will be allowed.
The way to implement this is to call request_irq() to get your interrupt
handler called when the relevant IRQ is received.
In practice IRQ handling can be a bit more complex. Hardware is often
designed in a way that chains two interrupt controllers, so that all the IRQs from
 0.15. INTERRUPT HANDLERS 78

interrupt controller B are cascaded to a certain IRQ from interrupt controller

A. Of course, that requires that the kernel finds out which IRQ it really was
afterwards and that adds overhead. Other architectures offer some special, very
low overhead, so called "fast IRQ" or FIQs. To take advantage of them requires
handlers to be written in assembler, so they do not really fit into the kernel.
They can be made to work similar to the others, but after that procedure, they
are no longer any faster than "common" IRQs. SMP enabled kernels running
on systems with more than one processor need to solve another truckload of
problems. It is not enough to know if a certain IRQs has happened, it’s also
important to know what CPU(s) it was for. People still interested in more
details, might want to refer to "APIC" now.
This function receives the IRQ number, the name of the function, flags, a
name for /proc/interrupts and a parameter to be passed to the interrupt
handler. Usually there is a certain number of IRQs available. How many IRQs
there are is hardware-dependent. The flags can include SA_SHIRQ to indicate
you are willing to share the IRQ with other interrupt handlers (usually because a
number of hardware devices sit on the same IRQ) and SA_INTERRUPT to indicate
this is a fast interrupt. This function will only succeed if there is not already a
handler on this IRQ, or if you are both willing to share.

0.15.2 Detecting button presses

Many popular single board computers, such as Raspberry Pi or Beagleboards,
have a bunch of GPIO pins. Attaching buttons to those and then having a
button press do something is a classic case in which you might need to use
interrupts, so that instead of having the CPU waste time and battery power
polling for a change in input state, it is better for the input to trigger the CPU
to then run a particular handling function.
Here is an example where buttons are connected to GPIO numbers 17 and
18 and an LED is connected to GPIO 4. You can change those numbers to
whatever is appropriate for your board.

1 /*
2 * intrpt.c - Handling GPIO with interrupts
3 *
4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de)
5 * from:
6 * https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples
7 *
8 * Press one button to turn on a LED and another to turn it off.
9 */
10
11 #include <linux/gpio.h>
12 #include <linux/interrupt.h>
13 #include <linux/kernel.h>
14 #include <linux/module.h>
15
16 static int button_irqs[] = {-1, -1};
17
 0.15. INTERRUPT HANDLERS 79

18 /* Define GPIOs for LEDs.

19 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board.
20 */
21 static struct gpio leds[] = {{4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1"}};
22
23 /* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS
24 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board.
25 */
26 static struct gpio buttons[] = {{17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON"},
27 {18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON"}};
28
29 /* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed. */
30 static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data)
31 {
32 /* first button */
33 if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio))
34 gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 1);
35 /* second button */
36 else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio))
37 gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 0);
38
39 return IRQ_HANDLED;
40 }
41
42 static int __init intrpt_init(void)
43 {
44 int ret = 0;
45
46 pr_info("%s\n", __func__);
47
48 /* register LED gpios */
49 ret = gpio_request_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds));
50
51 if (ret) {
52 pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret);
53 return ret;
54 }
55
56 /* register BUTTON gpios */
57 ret = gpio_request_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons));
58
59 if (ret) {
60 pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret);
61 goto fail1;
62 }
63
64 pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio));
65
66 ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[0].gpio);
67
68 if (ret < 0) {
69 pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret);
70 goto fail2;
71 }
72
73 button_irqs[0] = ret;
74
 0.15. INTERRUPT HANDLERS 80

75 pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]);

76
77 ret = request_irq(button_irqs[0], button_isr,
78 IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING,
79 "gpiomod#button1", NULL);
80
81 if (ret) {
82 pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret);
83 goto fail2;
84 }
85
86
87 ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[1].gpio);
88
89 if (ret < 0) {
90 pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret);
91 goto fail2;
92 }
93
94 button_irqs[1] = ret;
95
96 pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]);
97
98 ret = request_irq(button_irqs[1], button_isr,
99 IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING,
100 "gpiomod#button2", NULL);
101
102 if (ret) {
103 pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret);
104 goto fail3;
105 }
106
107 return 0;
108
109 /* cleanup what has been setup so far */
110 fail3:
111 free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL);
112
113 fail2:
114 gpio_free_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(leds));
115
116 fail1:
117 gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds));
118
119 return ret;
120 }
121
122 static void __exit intrpt_exit(void)
123 {
124 int i;
125
126 pr_info("%s\n", __func__);
127
128 /* free irqs */
129 free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL);
130 free_irq(button_irqs[1], NULL);
131
 0.15. INTERRUPT HANDLERS 81

132 /* turn all LEDs off */

133 for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++)
134 gpio_set_value(leds[i].gpio, 0);
135
136 /* unregister */
137 gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds));
138 gpio_free_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons));
139 }
140
141 module_init(intrpt_init);
142 module_exit(intrpt_exit);
143
144 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
145 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Handle some GPIO interrupts");

0.15.3 Bottom Half

Suppose you want to do a bunch of stuff inside of an interrupt routine. A com-
mon way to do that without rendering the interrupt unavailable for a significant
duration is to combine it with a tasklet. This pushes the bulk of the work off
into the scheduler.
The example below modifies the previous example to also run an additional
task when an interrupt is triggered.

1 /*
2 * bottomhalf.c - Top and bottom half interrupt handling
3 *
4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de)
5 * from:
6 * https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples
7 *
8 * Press one button to turn on a LED and another to turn it off
9 */
10
11 #include <linux/delay.h>
12 #include <linux/gpio.h>
13 #include <linux/interrupt.h>
14 #include <linux/kernel.h>
15 #include <linux/module.h>
16
17 /* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibiity.
18 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/
19 */
20 #ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD
21 #define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L)
22 #endif
23
24 static int button_irqs[] = {-1, -1};
25
26 /* Define GPIOs for LEDs.
27 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board.
28 */
29 static struct gpio leds[] = {{4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1"}};
30
 0.15. INTERRUPT HANDLERS 82

31 /* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS

32 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board.
33 */
34 static struct gpio buttons[] = {
35 {17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON"},
36 {18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON"},
37 };
38
39 /* Tasklet containing some non-trivial amount of processing */
40 static void bottomhalf_tasklet_fn(unsigned long data)
41 {
42 pr_info("Bottom half tasklet starts\n");
43 /* do something which takes a while */
44 mdelay(500);
45 pr_info("Bottom half tasklet ends\n");
46 }
47
48 DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(buttontask, bottomhalf_tasklet_fn);
49
50 /* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed */
51 static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data)
52 {
53 /* Do something quickly right now */
54 if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio))
55 gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 1);
56 else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio))
57 gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 0);
58
59 /* Do the rest at leisure via the scheduler */
60 tasklet_schedule(&buttontask);
61
62 return IRQ_HANDLED;
63 }
64
65 static int __init bottomhalf_init(void)
66 {
67 int ret = 0;
68
69 pr_info("%s\n", __func__);
70
71 /* register LED gpios */
72 ret = gpio_request_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds));
73
74 if (ret) {
75 pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret);
76 return ret;
77 }
78
79 /* register BUTTON gpios */
80 ret = gpio_request_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons));
81
82 if (ret) {
83 pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret);
84 goto fail1;
85 }
86
87 pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio));
 0.15. INTERRUPT HANDLERS 83

88
89 ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[0].gpio);
90
91 if (ret < 0) {
92 pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret);
93 goto fail2;
94 }
95
96 button_irqs[0] = ret;
97
98 pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]);
99
100 ret = request_irq(button_irqs[0], button_isr,
101 IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING,
102 "gpiomod#button1", NULL);
103
104 if (ret) {
105 pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret);
106 goto fail2;
107 }
108
109
110 ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[1].gpio);
111
112 if (ret < 0) {
113 pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret);
114 goto fail2;
115 }
116
117 button_irqs[1] = ret;
118
119 pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]);
120
121 ret = request_irq(button_irqs[1], button_isr,
122 IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING,
123 "gpiomod#button2", NULL);
124
125 if (ret) {
126 pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret);
127 goto fail3;
128 }
129
130 return 0;
131
132 /* cleanup what has been setup so far */
133 fail3:
134 free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL);
135
136 fail2:
137 gpio_free_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(leds));
138
139 fail1:
140 gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds));
141
142 return ret;
143 }
144
 0.16. CRYPTO 84

145 static void __exit bottomhalf_exit(void)

146 {
147 int i;
148
149 pr_info("%s\n", __func__);
150
151 /* free irqs */
152 free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL);
153 free_irq(button_irqs[1], NULL);
154
155 /* turn all LEDs off */
156 for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++)
157 gpio_set_value(leds[i].gpio, 0);
158
159 /* unregister */
160 gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds));
161 gpio_free_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons));
162 }
163
164 module_init(bottomhalf_init);
165 module_exit(bottomhalf_exit);
166
167 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
168 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Interrupt with top and bottom half");

0.16 Crypto
At the dawn of the internet, everybody trusted everybody completely. . . but
that did not work out so well. When this guide was originally written, it was a
more innocent era in which almost nobody actually gave a damn about crypto
- least of all kernel developers. That is certainly no longer the case now. To
handle crypto stuff, the kernel has its own API enabling common methods of
encryption, decryption and your favourite hash functions.

0.16.1 Hash functions

Calculating and checking the hashes of things is a common operation. Here is
a demonstration of how to calculate a sha256 hash within a kernel module.

1 /*
2 * cryptosha256.c
3 */
4 #include <crypto/internal/hash.h>
5 #include <linux/module.h>
6
7 #define SHA256_LENGTH 32
8
9 static void show_hash_result(char *plaintext, char *hash_sha256)
10 {
11 int i;
12 char str[SHA256_LENGTH * 2 + 1];
13
 0.16. CRYPTO 85

14 pr_info("sha256 test for string: \"%s\"\n", plaintext);

15 for (i = 0; i < SHA256_LENGTH; i++)
16 sprintf(&str[i * 2], "%02x", (unsigned char) hash_sha256[i]);
17 str[i * 2] = 0;
18 pr_info("%s\n", str);
19 }
20
21 int cryptosha256_init(void)
22 {
23 char *plaintext = "This is a test";
24 char hash_sha256[SHA256_LENGTH];
25 struct crypto_shash *sha256;
26 struct shash_desc *shash;
27
28 sha256 = crypto_alloc_shash("sha256", 0, 0);
29 if (IS_ERR(sha256))
30 return -1;
31
32 shash = kmalloc(sizeof(struct shash_desc) + crypto_shash_descsize(sha256),
33 GFP_KERNEL);
34 if (!shash)
35 return -ENOMEM;
36
37 shash->tfm = sha256;
38
39 if (crypto_shash_init(shash))
40 return -1;
41
42 if (crypto_shash_update(shash, plaintext, strlen(plaintext)))
43 return -1;
44
45 if (crypto_shash_final(shash, hash_sha256))
46 return -1;
47
48 kfree(shash);
49 crypto_free_shash(sha256);
50
51 show_hash_result(plaintext, hash_sha256);
52
53 return 0;
54 }
55
56 void cryptosha256_exit(void) {}
57
58 module_init(cryptosha256_init);
59 module_exit(cryptosha256_exit);
60
61 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("sha256 hash test");
62 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

Make and install the module:

1 make
2 sudo insmod cryptosha256.ko
 0.16. CRYPTO 86

3 dmesg

And you should see that the hash was calculated for the test string.
Finally, remove the test module:

1 sudo rmmod cryptosha256

0.16.2 Symmetric key encryption

Here is an example of symmetrically encrypting a string using the AES algorithm
and a password.

1 /*
2 * cryptosk.c
3 */
4 #include <crypto/internal/skcipher.h>
5 #include <linux/crypto.h>
6 #include <linux/module.h>
7 #include <linux/random.h>
8 #include <linux/scatterlist.h>
9
10 #define SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH 32
11 #define CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE 16
12
13 struct tcrypt_result {
14 struct completion completion;
15 int err;
16 };
17
18 struct skcipher_def {
19 struct scatterlist sg;
20 struct crypto_skcipher *tfm;
21 struct skcipher_request *req;
22 struct tcrypt_result result;
23 char *scratchpad;
24 char *ciphertext;
25 char *ivdata;
26 };
27
28 static struct skcipher_def sk;
29
30 static void test_skcipher_finish(struct skcipher_def *sk)
31 {
32 if (sk->tfm)
33 crypto_free_skcipher(sk->tfm);
34 if (sk->req)
35 skcipher_request_free(sk->req);
36 if (sk->ivdata)
37 kfree(sk->ivdata);
38 if (sk->scratchpad)
39 kfree(sk->scratchpad);
40 if (sk->ciphertext)
 0.16. CRYPTO 87

41 kfree(sk->ciphertext);
42 }
43
44 static int test_skcipher_result(struct skcipher_def *sk, int rc)
45 {
46 switch (rc) {
47 case 0:
48 break;
49 case -EINPROGRESS || -EBUSY:
50 rc = wait_for_completion_interruptible(&sk->result.completion);
51 if (!rc && !sk->result.err) {
52 reinit_completion(&sk->result.completion);
53 break;
54 }
55 pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc,
56 sk->result.err);
57 break;
58 default:
59 pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc,
60 sk->result.err);
61 break;
62 }
63
64 init_completion(&sk->result.completion);
65
66 return rc;
67 }
68
69 static void test_skcipher_callback(struct crypto_async_request *req, int
,→ error)
70 {
71 struct tcrypt_result *result = req->data;
72
73 if (error == -EINPROGRESS)
74 return;
75
76 result->err = error;
77 complete(&result->completion);
78 pr_info("Encryption finished successfully\n");
79
80 /* decrypt data */
81 #if 0
82 memset((void*)sk.scratchpad, '-', CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE);
83 ret = crypto_skcipher_decrypt(sk.req);
84 ret = test_skcipher_result(&sk, ret);
85 if (ret)
86 return;
87
88 sg_copy_from_buffer(&sk.sg, 1, sk.scratchpad, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE);
89 sk.scratchpad[CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE-1] = 0;
90
91 pr_info("Decryption request successful\n");
92 pr_info("Decrypted: %s\n", sk.scratchpad);
93 #endif
94 }
95
96 static int test_skcipher_encrypt(char *plaintext,
 0.16. CRYPTO 88

97 char *password,
98 struct skcipher_def *sk)
99 {
100 int ret = -EFAULT;
101 unsigned char key[SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH];
102
103 if (!sk->tfm) {
104 sk->tfm = crypto_alloc_skcipher("cbc-aes-aesni", 0, 0);
105 if (IS_ERR(sk->tfm)) {
106 pr_info("could not allocate skcipher handle\n");
107 return PTR_ERR(sk->tfm);
108 }
109 }
110
111 if (!sk->req) {
112 sk->req = skcipher_request_alloc(sk->tfm, GFP_KERNEL);
113 if (!sk->req) {
114 pr_info("could not allocate skcipher request\n");
115 ret = -ENOMEM;
116 goto out;
117 }
118 }
119
120 skcipher_request_set_callback(sk->req, CRYPTO_TFM_REQ_MAY_BACKLOG,
121 test_skcipher_callback, &sk->result);
122
123 /* clear the key */
124 memset((void *) key, '\0', SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH);
125
126 /* Use the world's favourite password */
127 sprintf((char *) key, "%s", password);
128
129 /* AES 256 with given symmetric key */
130 if (crypto_skcipher_setkey(sk->tfm, key, SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH)) {
131 pr_info("key could not be set\n");
132 ret = -EAGAIN;
133 goto out;
134 }
135 pr_info("Symmetric key: %s\n", key);
136 pr_info("Plaintext: %s\n", plaintext);
137
138 if (!sk->ivdata) {
139 /* see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialization_vector */
140 sk->ivdata = kmalloc(CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE, GFP_KERNEL);
141 if (!sk->ivdata) {
142 pr_info("could not allocate ivdata\n");
143 goto out;
144 }
145 get_random_bytes(sk->ivdata, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE);
146 }
147
148 if (!sk->scratchpad) {
149 /* The text to be encrypted */
150 sk->scratchpad = kmalloc(CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE, GFP_KERNEL);
151 if (!sk->scratchpad) {
152 pr_info("could not allocate scratchpad\n");
153 goto out;
 0.17. STANDARDIZING THE INTERFACES: THE DEVICE MODEL 89

154 }
155 }
156 sprintf((char *) sk->scratchpad, "%s", plaintext);
157
158 sg_init_one(&sk->sg, sk->scratchpad, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE);
159 skcipher_request_set_crypt(sk->req, &sk->sg, &sk->sg, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE,
160 sk->ivdata);
161 init_completion(&sk->result.completion);
162
163 /* encrypt data */
164 ret = crypto_skcipher_encrypt(sk->req);
165 ret = test_skcipher_result(sk, ret);
166 if (ret)
167 goto out;
168
169 pr_info("Encryption request successful\n");
170
171 out:
172 return ret;
173 }
174
175 int cryptoapi_init(void)
176 {
177 /* The world's favorite password */
178 char *password = "password123";
179
180 sk.tfm = NULL;
181 sk.req = NULL;
182 sk.scratchpad = NULL;
183 sk.ciphertext = NULL;
184 sk.ivdata = NULL;
185
186 test_skcipher_encrypt("Testing", password, &sk);
187 return 0;
188 }
189
190 void cryptoapi_exit(void)
191 {
192 test_skcipher_finish(&sk);
193 }
194
195 module_init(cryptoapi_init);
196 module_exit(cryptoapi_exit);
197
198 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Symmetric key encryption example");
199 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

0.17 Standardizing the interfaces: The Device

Model
Up to this point we have seen all kinds of modules doing all kinds of things,
but there was no consistency in their interfaces with the rest of the kernel. To
impose some consistency such that there is at minimum a standardized way to
 0.17. STANDARDIZING THE INTERFACES: THE DEVICE MODEL 90

start, suspend and resume a device a device model was added. An example
is shown below, and you can use this as a template to add your own suspend,
resume or other interface functions.

1 /*
2 * devicemodel.c
3 */
4 #include <linux/kernel.h>
5 #include <linux/module.h>
6 #include <linux/platform_device.h>
7
8 struct devicemodel_data {
9 char *greeting;
10 int number;
11 };
12
13 static int devicemodel_probe(struct platform_device *dev)
14 {
15 struct devicemodel_data *pd =
16 (struct devicemodel_data *) (dev->dev.platform_data);
17
18 pr_info("devicemodel probe\n");
19 pr_info("devicemodel greeting: %s; %d\n", pd->greeting, pd->number);
20
21 /* Your device initialization code */
22
23 return 0;
24 }
25
26 static int devicemodel_remove(struct platform_device *dev)
27 {
28 pr_info("devicemodel example removed\n");
29
30 /* Your device removal code */
31
32 return 0;
33 }
34
35 static int devicemodel_suspend(struct device *dev)
36 {
37 pr_info("devicemodel example suspend\n");
38
39 /* Your device suspend code */
40
41 return 0;
42 }
43
44 static int devicemodel_resume(struct device *dev)
45 {
46 pr_info("devicemodel example resume\n");
47
48 /* Your device resume code */
49
50 return 0;
51 }
52
53 static const struct dev_pm_ops devicemodel_pm_ops = {
 0.18. OPTIMIZATIONS 91

54 .suspend = devicemodel_suspend,
55 .resume = devicemodel_resume,
56 .poweroff = devicemodel_suspend,
57 .freeze = devicemodel_suspend,
58 .thaw = devicemodel_resume,
59 .restore = devicemodel_resume,
60 };
61
62 static struct platform_driver devicemodel_driver = {
63 .driver =
64 {
65 .name = "devicemodel_example",
66 .owner = THIS_MODULE,
67 .pm = &devicemodel_pm_ops,
68 },
69 .probe = devicemodel_probe,
70 .remove = devicemodel_remove,
71 };
72
73 static int devicemodel_init(void)
74 {
75 int ret;
76
77 pr_info("devicemodel init\n");
78
79 ret = platform_driver_register(&devicemodel_driver);
80
81 if (ret) {
82 pr_err("Unable to register driver\n");
83 return ret;
84 }
85
86 return 0;
87 }
88
89 static void devicemodel_exit(void)
90 {
91 pr_info("devicemodel exit\n");
92 platform_driver_unregister(&devicemodel_driver);
93 }
94
95 module_init(devicemodel_init);
96 module_exit(devicemodel_exit);
97
98 MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
99 MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Linux Device Model example");

0.18 Optimizations
0.18.1 Likely and Unlikely conditions
Sometimes you might want your code to run as quickly as possible, especially
if it is handling an interrupt or doing something which might cause noticeable
latency. If your code contains boolean conditions and if you know that the
 0.19. COMMON PITFALLS 92

conditions are almost always likely to evaluate as either true or false, then
you can allow the compiler to optimize for this using the likely and unlikely
macros. For example, when allocating memory you are almost always expecting
this to succeed.

1 bvl = bvec_alloc(gfp_mask, nr_iovecs, &idx);

2 if (unlikely(!bvl)) {
3 mempool_free(bio, bio_pool);
4 bio = NULL;
5 goto out;
6 }

When the unlikely macro is used, the compiler alters its machine instruc-
tion output, so that it continues along the false branch and only jumps if the
condition is true. That avoids flushing the processor pipeline. The opposite
happens if you use the likely macro.

0.19 Common Pitfalls

0.19.1 Using standard libraries
You can not do that. In a kernel module, you can only use kernel functions
which are the functions you can see in /proc/kallsyms.

0.19.2 Disabling interrupts

You might need to do this for a short time and that is OK, but if you do not
enable them afterwards, your system will be stuck and you will have to power
it off.

0.20 Where To Go From Here?

For people seriously interested in kernel programming, I recommend kernel-
newbies.org and the Documentation subdirectory within the kernel source code
which is not always easy to understand but can be a starting point for further
investigation. Also, as Linus Torvalds said, the best way to learn the kernel is
to read the source code yourself.
If you are interested in more examples of short kernel modules then searching
on sites such as Github and Gitlab is a good way to start, although there is a lot
of duplication of older LKMPG examples which may not compile with newer
kernel versions. You will also be able to find examples of the use of kernel
modules to attack or compromise systems or exfiltrate data and those can be
useful for thinking about how to defend systems and learning about existing
security mechanisms within the kernel.
0.20. WHERE TO GO FROM HERE? 93

I hope I have helped you in your quest to become a better programmer,

or at least to have fun through technology. And, if you do write useful kernel
modules, I hope you publish them under the GPL, so I can use them too.
If you would like to contribute to this guide or notice anything glaringly
wrong, please create an issue at https://github.com/sysprog21/lkmpg.
Happy hacking!