The Eye and Vision

Function and Structure

The eye is the organ which receives electromagnetic

waves within the visual spectrum from the external world
and passes them to the brain for interpretation into an
image. The basic structure is similar to a simple camera
with an aperture, a lens, and a light sensitive screen called
the retina.
To be able to keep tracking a moving object, the eyes need
to act in harmony with one another which means
coordinated control of the muscles of the two eyes by the
brain. In a fatigued person, this coordination sometimes
fails and the result is that quite differing images are
transmitted from each eye. Subsequently double vision
occurs.
The Cornea:

Light enters the eye through the Cornea, a clear window

at the front of the eyeball. The cornea acts as a fixed
focusing device and is responsible for between 70% and
80% of the total focusing ability of the eye. The focusing
is achieved by the shape of the cornea bending the
incoming light rays.
The Iris and Pupil

The amount of light allowed to enter the eye is controlled by

the iris, the coloured part of the eye, which acts as a
diaphragm. It does this by controlling the size of the pupil, the
clear centre of the iris. The size of the pupil can change
rapidly to cater for changing light levels.
If the eye observes a close object the pupil becomes smaller
and, if the object is at a distance, the pupil becomes larger.
The amount of light can be adjusted by a factor of 5:1.
But this factor is not sufficient to cope with the different
light levels experienced between full daylight and a dark
night and a further mechanism is required. In reduced
light levels a chemical change takes place in the light
sensitive cells on the retina which enable them to react
to much lower light levels.
The Lens:

After passing through the pupil the light passes through a clear
lens. Its shape is changed by the muscles (ciliary muscles)
surrounding it which allow the final focusing onto the fovea.
This change of shape is known as accommodation. The power of
accommodation can be affected by the aging process or fatigue.
When a person is tired, accommodation is diminished, resulting in
blurred images.
In order to focus clearly on a near object, the lens is
thickened. To focus on a distant point, the lens is flattened.
The image is inverted and reversed by the lens onto the
retina. However the brain perceives the object in the upright
position because it considers the inverted image as normal.
The Retina

The retina is a light sensitive screen lining the inside of

the eyeball. On this screen are lightsensitive cells which,
when light falls on them, generate a small electrical
charge which is passed to the visual cortex of the brain
by nerve fibres (neurones) which combine to form the
optic nerve. The optic nerve enters the back of the
eyeball along with the small blood vessels needed to
bring oxygen to the cells of the eye.
The light sensitive cell receptors of the retina are of
two types - rods and cones. The centre of the retina
is called the fovea (see below) and the receptors in
this area are all cones. Moving outwards, the cones
become less dense and are gradually replaced by
rods, so that in the periphery there are no cones.
Vision through the functioning of the rods is called scotopic
vision whereas vision through the operation of the cones is
known as photopic vision.
Mesopic vision is when both the rods and cones are in
operation.
Cones:
The cones are used for direct
vision in good light and are
colour sensitive. Each cone
has its own neurone and thus
can detect very fine detail.
The human eye is capable of
distinguishing approximately
1000 different shades of
colour.
Rods
The maximum density of rods is
found about 10° from the fovea.
Several rods are connected to the
brain by a single neurone. The rods
can only detect black and white but
are much more sensitive at lower
light levels. As light decreases, the
sensing task is passed over from
the cones to the rods. This means
that in poor light levels we see only
in black or white or varying shades
of grey.
Rods are responsible for our peripheral vision. At night time, with a
dimly lit flight deck, the colour of instruments must be bright enough
for cone vision to be used.
Rods are also sensitive to movement and the movement of an
object to the side of us is quickly picked up.
Rods and cones are the nerve endings of the optic nerve. Thus, as
an extension of the brain, they are very much affected by a
shortage of oxygen, excess of alcohol, drugs or medication.
It is worth noting that the human eye has approximately 1.2
million neurones leading from the retina to the visual cortex
of the brain, while there are only about 50 000 from the
inner ears.
The eye is about 24 times more sensitive than the ear.
Fovea

The central part of the retina, the fovea, is composed only of cone
cells. Anything that needs to be examined in detail is automatically
brought to focus on the fovea.
The rest of the retina fulfils the function of attracting our attention to
movement and change.
Only at the fovea is vision 20/20 or 6/6. This is termed as central
vision.
The visual field comprises both the central and peripheral vision.
Light and Dark Adaptation
Light Adaptation
When experiencing sudden high levels of illumination the eye
quickly adjusts (approximately 10 seconds). However, if a
person has been in bright light for a long time, large
proportions of the photochemicals in both the cones and rods
are reduced thereby reducing the sensitivity of the eye to
light. Thus going quickly from outside on a sunny day into a
darkened room has the effect of vision being severely
reduced until dark adaptation takes place.
Dark Adaptation

On the other hand, if the person remains in darkness for a

long time the reverse takes place and both the cones and
rods gradually become supersensitive to light so that even
the minutest amount of light causes excitement of the
receptors.
Night Vision
You may have noticed that in dim light it is easier to focus
on an object if you look slightly away from it. As the fovea
contains no rods, which would be required for vision in very
low brightness levels, the centre part of the eye becomes
blind to dim light. It is then necessary to look away from the
visual target so that the peripherally located rods can
perform their sensing task. This is most noticeable when
night flying.
You can demonstrate this to yourself by looking at dim
stars on a clear night. Some of them will be invisible with
direct viewing but will be discernible if you look 10° to 15°
off to one side.
It takes time for our eyes to adapt to darkness. This
adaptation does take time - about 7 minutes for the cones
and 30 minutes for the rods. However even a brief xposure
to bright light will require a further period of adaptation to
recover effective night vision.
It is good airmanship to avoid bright lights about 30 minutes
prior to a night flight.
It is also advisable to turn up cockpit lights when
approaching a weather pattern which might produce the
possibility of lightning. It is possible that fatigue may also
necessitate the increase of instrument lighting.
From sea level to 3000 m is known as the “indifferent zone”
because ordinary daytime vision is unaffected up to this altitude.
There is, however, a slight impairment of night vision. Withou
supplemental oxygen, the average percent decrease in night
vision capability is:
5% at 1100 metres
18% at 2800 metres
35% at 4000 metres
50% at 5000 metres
The most common factors affecting night vision are:
• Age (see presbyopia later in this chapter).
• Mild hypoxia.
• Cabin altitudes above 5000 ft (but not detrimental below approximately 12
000 ft).
• Smoking (a consumption of 20 cigarettes a day results in a night vision
degradation of
approximately 20%).
• Alcohol.
• Minor illnesses.
• Deficiency of vitamin ‘A’.
The Blind Spot
The point on the retina where the optic nerve enters the eyeball
has no covering of lightdetecting cells. Any image falling on this
point will not be detected. This has great significance when
considering the detection of objects which are on a constant
bearing from the observer.
If the eye remains looking straight ahead it is possible for a
closing aircraft to remain in the blind spot until a very short time
before impact.
To demonstrate to yourself the existence of the blind spot. Hold the
drawing at arm’s length, close the left eye and keep the right eye
open.
Now move the picture towards the face keeping the right eye
focused on the cross. The aircraft will disappear, then reappear as
it gets close.
If both eyes of the observer are open and unobscured
the blind spot is not a problem as each eye is able to
see the detail in the other eye’s blind spot.
However there is a very real possibility that an
approaching aircraft on a constant bearing will not be
seen since it remains in the blind spot of one eye and
an object/person within the cockpit is obscuring the
aircraft from the pilot’s other eye.
Stereopsis (Stereoscopic Vision)
Some of the optic nerve fibres cross over in the brain. Because
one eye is a little more than 2 inches (5 cm) to one side of the
other eye, the images on the two retina are different from one
another. This enables the brain to compare the slight differences
seen by each eye. The brain interprets this as depth/distance
perception. Thus a person with two eyes has a far greater ability
to judge relative distances when objects are nearby than a
person who only has one eye.
However stereopsis is virtually useless for depth perception at
distances beyond 200 ft/60 m.
Empty Visual Field Myopia

In the absence of anything to focus on (empty field) the

natural focus point of the eye is not at infinity, as was
long assumed, but on average at a distance of between
just under 1 metre and 1.5 metres, although there are
wide variations between individuals.
This is very significant in searching for distant targets when
visual cues are weak, as the eye will not be adjusted to
detect them. The condition is aggravated when there are
other objects close to the empty field range, rain spots on
the windscreen for example, as the eye will naturally be
drawn to them.
This phenomena can occur in cloudless skies at high
altitudes, in total darkness, under a uniformly overcast sky
or when resting the eyes.
Aircrew should minimize the risks associated with empty
visual field by periodically and deliberately focusing on
objects thus exercising the eyes.
High Light Levels

It is possible for too much light to fall on the eye. Pilots

are exposed to much higher light levels than most
people. Very high light levels occur at altitude where light
may be reflected from cloud and more importantly, where
there is less scattering of the light rays by atmospheric
pollution.
Normal sunlight contains all the colours of the spectrum but at
high altitudes pilots are exposed to light that contains more of
the high energy blue and ultra violet wavelengths than is
experienced at sea level.
The higher energy blue light can cause cumulative damage to
the retina over a long period. Ultra violet wavelengths can
also cause damage, mainly to the lens of the eye, but most
are filtered out by the cockpit windows.
Hypermetropia
In long sightedness, hypermetropia, a shorter than normal
eyeball along the visual axis results in the image being
formed behind the retina and, unless the combined refractive
index of the cornea and the lens can combine to focus the
image in the correct plane, a blurring of the vision will result
when looking at close objects. A convex lens will overcome
this refractive error by bending the light inwards before it
meets the cornea.
Myopia
In short-sightedness, Myopia, the problem is that the eyeball is longer than
normal and the image forms in front of the retina. If accommodation cannot
overcome this, then distant objects are out of focus whilst close up vision may
be satisfactory.

A concave lens will correct the situation by bending the light outwards before it
hits the cornea. Pilots with either hypermetropia or myopia may usually retain
their licences provided that their corrected vision allows them to read normal
small print in good lighting at a distance of 30 cm and have at least 6/9 vision
in each eye, but with 6/6 vision with both eyes. This is equivalent to reading a
car number plate at about 40 metres, as compared to the driving test
requirement of 23 metres. Bifocal spectacles may be used when flying.
Presbyopia
The ability of the lens to change its shape and therefore focal
length (accommodation) depends on its elasticity and normally
this is gradually lost with age. After the age of 40 to 50 the lens
is usually unable to accommodate fully and a form of
long-sightedness known as presbyopia occurs.
The effects start with difficulty in reading small print in poor light.
The condition normally requires a minor correction with a weak
convex lens. Half lenses or lookover spectacles will suffice.
Astigmatism

The surface of a healthy cornea is spheroidal in shape.

Astigmatism is usually caused by a misshapen or oblong cornea
and objects will appear irregularly shaped.
Although astigmatism can be cured by the use of cylindrical
(toric) lenses, modern surgical techniques can reshape the
cornea with a scalpel or, more easily, with laser techniques.
 It is a requirement that aircrew who have to wear
correcting spectacles, in order to exercise the
privileges of their licence, are to carry a spare (easily
accessible) pair during flight.
Cataracts
Cataracts are normally associated with the ageing process
though some diseases can cause cataracts at any age.
With time, the lens can become cloudy causing a marked
loss of vision.
For severe cases, traditional surgery is carried out in which
a section of the lens is removed and replaced with an
artificial substitute. Surgery utilizes local anaesthesia on an
outpatient basis and, following successful treatment, pilots
will normally be allowed to return to flying.
Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a disease of the eye which causes a pressure rise of the liquid in
the eye (aqueous humour).

The fluid protects the lens and nourishes the cornea. It passes through a
small shutter which can either be flawed or can become jammed causing a
rise in pressure of the eye. The normal pressure range is 10 - 20 mm Hg.
Glaucoma damages the optic nerve and may cause severe pain and if left
untreated, blindness. Part of the JAA medical examination is a test for
glaucoma.

The symptoms can be treated either be by eye drops (timitol) or by an

operation in which a hole is made in the shutter. Glaucoma can be inherited or
may result from the ageing process.
The main symptoms of Glaucoma are:

• Acute pain in the eye - in extreme cases.

• Blurred vision.
• Sensitivity to high light levels.
• Visual field deterioration.
• Red discolouration of the eye.
Colour Blindness
Total colour blindness is a bar to the issue of a flying licence. It is
caused by a defect in the structure of the colour sensitive cones in
the retina - normally when a single group is missing.
Whereas total colour blindness is extremely rare, many people
suffer from this defect to a degree (colour defective). The most
common form is red/green blindness. These colours are seen in
shades of yellow, brown or grey. It does not affect acuity and many
people go through their lives with no knowledge that they suffer
from this imperfection.
Colour blindness is rare in women, however they do act as carriers
of this incurable and congenital flaw.
Monocular and Binocular Vision

Binocular vision is not essential for flying and there are many
one-eyed (monocular) pilots, currently flying with a class II
medical certificate.
However should a pilot lose an eye it normally takes some time
for the brain to learn to compensate for the loss of binocular
vision and for the individual to regain his/her medical certificate.
However, a person with vision in only one eye cannot be
accepted under EASA as fit to fly.
Accommodation is controlled by the:
a. ciliary muscles
b. iris
c. lens
d. cornea
The amount of light allowed to enter the eye is controlled by
the:
a. cornea
b. retina
c. iris
d. fovea
Does lack of oxygen affect sight?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Sometimes
d. It depends on the health of the individual
Peripheral vision is looked after by the:
a. rods
b. cones
c. rods and cones
d. fovea
Where is the “blind spot”?
a. On the iris
b. On the fovea
c. On the edge of the lens
d. At the entrance to the optic nerve
What is the recommended course of action if
encountering an electrical storm during flight?
a. Pull the visors down
b. Turn the cockpit lights down
c. Turn the cockpit lights to full
d. Put on sunglasses if available
Cones detect .................... and are mostly concentrated
at the .....................
a. black and white fovea
b. colour fovea
c. black and white retina
d. colour entry point
What four factors affect night vision?
a. Age, alcohol, altitude and smoking
b. Age, altitude, instrument lights and smoking
c. Instrument lights, alcohol, altitude and smoking
d. Age, alcohol, altitude and instrument lights
Is a pilot allowed to fly wearing bifocal contact lenses?
a. Yes
b. Yes, if cleared to do so by a qualified aviation specialist
c. Yes, if cleared to do so by the authority
d. No
What causes long or short sightedness?
a. Presbyopia
b. Astigmatism
c. Distortion of the eyeball
d. Distortion of the cornea
What is “empty field myopia”?
a. It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus
will tend to focus at infinity
b. It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus
will tend to focus between 4 to 6 metres
c. It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus
will tend to focus between 10 to 12 metres
d. It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus
will tend to focus between just under 1 to 1.5 metres
The resolving power of the fovea decreases rapidly at
only ..................... from its centre.
a. 5°
b. 13° to 16°
c. 3°
d. 2° to 3°