GLOBAL

ASSESSMENT
OF SOIL
POLLUTION
Summary for
policy makers
Pb Cs
Hg Cu

Cd As
©Pikrepo
 GLOBAL
ASSESSMENT
OF SOIL
POLLUTION
Summary for
policy makers

Published by
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
and
the United Nations Environment Programme
Rome, 2021
Required citation:
FAO and UNEP. 2021. Global assessment of soil pollution - Summary for policy makers. Rome, FAO.
https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4827en.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) or the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of
manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by
FAO or UNEP in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies
of FAO or UNEP.

ISBN 978-92-5-134448-4
© FAO, 2021

Some rights reserved. This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO
licence (CC BYNC-SA 3.0 IGO; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode/legalcode).

Under the terms of this licence, this work may be copied, redistributed and adapted for non-commercial purposes, provided
that the work is appropriately cited. In any use of this work, there should be no suggestion that FAO endorses any specific
organization, products or services. The use of the FAO logo is not permitted. If the work is adapted, then it must be licensed
under the same or equivalent Creative Commons licence. If a translation of this work is created, it must include the following
disclaimer along with the required citation: “This translation was not created by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO). FAO is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation. The original [Language] edition shall
be the authoritative edition.”
Disputes arising under the licence that cannot be settled amicably will be resolved by mediation and arbitration as described in
Article 8 of the licence except as otherwise provided herein. The applicable mediation rules will be the mediation rules of the
World Intellectual Property Organization http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/rules and any arbitration will be conducted
in accordance with the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).
Third-party materials. Users wishing to reuse material from this work that is attributed to a third party, such as tables, figures
or images, are responsible for determining whether permission is needed for that reuse and for obtaining permission from the
copyright holder. The risk of claims resulting from infringement of any third-party-owned component in the work rests solely
with the user.
Sales, rights and licensing. FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be
purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. Requests for commercial use should be submitted via: www.fao.org/contact-
us/licence-request. Queries regarding rights and licensing should be submitted to: copyright@fao.org.
Contents
ContributorsVI
ForewordIX
PrefaceXI
Abbreviations and acronyms XVII
Executive summary XVIII
Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 1
Inorganic contaminants 3
Trace elements 3
Radionuclides4
Asbestos4
Organic contaminants 4
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 4
Volatile organic compounds  5
Phenols, chlorobenzenes and chlorophenols  5
Explosives5
Dioxin and dioxin-like compounds 7
Polychlorinated biphenyls 7
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers 7
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances  7
Pesticides8
Emerging contaminants 9
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) 9
Plastics and synthetic polymers 9
Phthalates and other plasticizers 9
Nanomaterials10
Impacts of soil pollution on ecosystems 11
Soil pollution impacts on terrestrial ecosystems and the food chain 12
Soil pollution impacts on aquatic ecosystems 14
Socioeconomic impacts of soil pollution 15
Regional status and trends of soil pollution 17
Asia and the Pacific 18
Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (Eurasia) 21
Europe25
Latin America and the Caribbean 28
Near East and North Africa 31
North America  33
Sub-Saharan Africa 36
Actions to tackle soil pollution 39
Governance and legal frameworks to tackle soil pollution 39
Improved knowledge, monitoring and reporting 42
Management of soil contamination and pollution 42
Management of soils as a source of pollution 45
Priority Actions to prevent and halt soil pollution and to remediate polluted soils 46
Knowledge gaps 46
Awareness-raising and communication 46
Regional cooperation 48
References51
Glossary57

III
©Achim Constantin

IV GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Tables and figures
Table 1. Relationships between the Sustainable Development Goals and soil pollution XII
Figure 1. Timeline and main milestones of the development of the Global Assessment of Soil Pollution report XVI
Figure 2. Systematic categorization of the main pollutants in soils according to IUPAC (Nič et al., 2009).
Halogenated compounds comprise fluorinated, chlorinated, and brominated compounds  1
Figure 3. Routes of entrance and fate of contaminants in soils  2
Figure 4. Main effects of soil contaminants on human health, indicating the organs or systems affected and the
contaminants causing them  6
Figure 5. Soil pollution causes a cycle of degradation processes that leads to the reduction and ultimately to the loss
of ecosystem services 11
Figure 6. Contaminants’ transference into the terrestrial food web from the soil to pastures and crops, which are
ingested by wildlife, livestock and humans, or from the soil to invertebrates, ingested by birds and poultry and
ultimately transferred to humans  13
Figure 7. Processes in the terrestrial environment exacerbated by climate change that enhance the impact of soil
pollution on the aquatic environment  14
Figure 8. Quantifiable economic losses due to soil pollution  16
Figure 9. Global Soil Partnership regions as considered in this report  17
Figure 10. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Asia and the Pacific 18
Figure 11. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia 21
Figure 12. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Europe 25
Figure 13. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Latin America and the Caribbean 28
Figure 14. Possible source of solid waste and their impact on human and environment 30
Figure 15. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Near East and North Africa 31
Figure 16. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in North America 33
Figure 17. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in sub-Saharan African 36
Figure 18. Stages in the remediation of site pollution according to National Remediation Framework guideline 44
Figure 19. Plant mechanisms for the uptake and stabilization of organic and inorganic contaminants 45
Figure 20. Waste management hierarchy  47
Figure 21. Technical barriers to the abatement of soil pollution according to the perception of the experts who
contributed to the preparation of this report 48

V
Contributors and revised by Muhammad Shahid (Pakistan), Natasha
(Pakistan), Duangporn Kantachote (Thailand), Peerapat
Kosolsaksakul (Thailand) and Oramas Suttinun
All names listed here are presented in alphabetic order. (Thailand)

General coordination Chapter 7. Status of soil pollution in Eastern Europe,

Ronald Vargas Rojas (FAO-GSP) Caucasus and Central Asia
Lead author: Valentina Pidlisnyuk (Czech Republic)
Managing Editor Contributing authors: Tatyana Stefanovska (Ukraine),
Natalia Rodríguez Eugenio (FAO-GSP) Asil Nurzhanova (Kazakhstan)
Acknowledgements: Michail Kalinin (Belarus)
Authors
Chapter 1. Setting the scene Chapter 8. Status of soil pollution in Europe
Lead authors: Natalia Rodríguez Eugenio (FAO-GSP), Lead authors: Natalia Rodríguez Eugenio (FAO-GSP)
Abdelkader Bensada (UNEP), and Ronald Vargas (FAO- and Marilena Ronzan (FAO-GSP)
GSP)
Chapter 9. Status of soil pollution in Latin America
Chapter 2. Main soil contaminants and their fate in and the Caribbean
the soil environment Lead author: Rosalina González Forero (Colombia)
Lead authors: Bernd M. Bussian (FAO-GSP), Natalia Acknowledgements: Valentina Barragan (Colombia),
Rodríguez Eugenio (FAO-GSP), and Susan C. Wilson Daniela Serna (Colombia), Nathaly Castillo (Colombia),
(Australia) Yeferson Mendez (Colombia), Smith Ortega (Colombia),
Contributing authors: Andrea Ceci (Italy), Carolina Olegario Muñiz Ugarte (Cuba), Clístenes Williams
Parelho (Portugal), Dmytro Semenov (Ukraine), Mojtaba Araújo do Nascimento (Brazil)
Yahyaabadi (Iran)
Chapter 10. Status of soil pollution in Near East and
Chapter 3. Sources of soil pollution North Africa
Lead authors: Natalia Rodríguez Eugenio (FAO-GSP) Lead author: Talal Darwish (Lebanon)
and Marilena Ronzan (FAO-GSP)
Chapter 11. Status of soil pollution in North America
Chapter 4. Environmental, health and socio- Lead authors: Geoffrey Siemering (United States),
economic impacts of soil pollution Natalie Feisthauer (Canada) and Marilena Ronzan (FAO-
Lead author: Natalia Rodríguez Eugenio (FAO-GSP) GSP)

Chapter 5. Global status and trends of soil pollution Chapter 12. Status of soil pollution in sub-Saharan
Africa
Lead author: Bernd M. Bussian (FAO-GSP), Natalia
Rodríguez Eugenio (FAO-GSP), and Hugo Bourhis Lead author: Mariné Pienaar Blaauw (South Africa)
(FAO-GSP) Acknowledgements: Andrew McCartor (United States),
Brandon McGugan (South Africa), Chung Tran (UNIDO)
Chapter 6. Status of soil pollution in Asia and the
Pacific Chapter 13. Actions to tackle soil pollution
Lead author: Ravi Naidu (Australia) and Bhabananda Lead author: Richard Thompson (FAO-GSP)
Biswas (Australia) Contributing authors: Diego Arán (Spain), Pilar Bernal
Contributing authors: Zueng-Sang Chen (Taiwan), (Spain), Bhabananda Biswas (Australia), Andrea Ceci
(Italy), Giada Migliore (Italy), Ravi Naidu (Australia),
Island countries), Jeonggwan Kim and Kihwan Lee Erika Santos (Portugal), Pavlos Tyrologou (Greece),
(The Republic of Korea), Mohammad Mahmudur Donato Visconti (Italy), Susan C. Wilson (Australia),
Rahman (Bangladesh), Tanapon Phenrat (Thailand and Mojtaba Yahyaabadi (Iran)
Myanmar), Nabeel Khan Niazi (Pakistan), and M.A. Case studies (Company and place of intervention):
Ayanka Wijayawardena (Sri Lanka) Terratherm/Cascade (United States, Viet Nam), EDL
Acknowledgements: Some contents have been provided (New Zealand, Viet Nam), Regenesis (United Kingdom,

VI
United States, Italy), B&A (Italy), Ambiente (Italy), Nuo
(Italy), Mares Q8 (Italy), BAW (Italy), Teseco (Italy),
PeroxyChem (Italy), TopNetwork (Italy), Haemers
Technologies (Italy, France, West Africa), Veolia GRS
Valtech (France, Morocco, Italy, Serbia, Switzerland),
Veolia Kruger (Denmark), Veolia MPPE (Germany),
Green Soil (Belgium), Bio2X/Fortum (India)

Chapter 14. Conclusions and way forward

Lead authors: Natalia Rodríguez Eugenio (FAO-GSP),
and Ronald Vargas (FAO-GSP)

Editorial Board
ITPS:
Samuel Francke-Campaña (Chile), Ellen Graber
(Israel), Edmon Hien (Burkina Faso), Jin Ke (China),
Generose Nziguheba (Burundi), Ashok Patra (India),
Gary Pierzynski (United States), Peter de Ruiter (The
Netherlands)

Representatives of Regional Soil Partnership: Clístenes

Williams Araújo Do Nascimento (LAC, Brazil), Victor
Chude (AfSP, Nigeria), Samuel M. Contreras (ASP,
Philippines), Sadeq Jaafar Hasan Dwenee (NENA, Iraq),
Olegario Muniz Ugarte (LAC, Cuba), Iman Sahib Salman
(NENA, Iraq), Yiyi Sulaeman (ASP, Indonesia), Mari
Vargas (LAC, Venezuela), Piotr Wojda (ESP, European
Union)

Representatives of UN Agencies: Abdelkader Bensada

(UNEP), Eva Kohlschmid (FAO), Marco Martuzzi
(WHO), Jing Xu (FAO)

External reviewers: Lucia Buvé (NICOLE, Belgium),

Natalie Feisthauer (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
(AAFC), Canada), Drew McCartor (Pure Earth, United
States), Matthew Taylor (Waikato Regional Council,
New Zealand), Nicholas Tymko (NICOLE, United
Kingdom), Pavlos Tyrologou (European Federation of
Geologists (Belgium), Jeyanny Vijayanathan (Forest
Research Institute Malaysia, Malaysia), Roland Weber
(POPs Environmental Consulting, Germany)

Edition and publication

Dan Pennock
Lea Pennock
Isabelle Verbeke (FAO-GSP)
Magdeline Camille Vlasimsky (FAO-GSP)
Bofei Li (FAO-GSP)
©Pikrepo

Art direction
Matteo Sala (FAO-GSP)

Contributors VII
©Pikrepo

VIII GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Foreword Soil pollution, a chemical degradation process that
consumes fertile soils, may be invisible to human eyes, but
it compromises the food we eat, the water we drink and the
The Anthropocene era - the most recent period in air we breathe. Most contaminants originate from human
Earth’s history when human activity started to have a activities and are released into the environment because
significant impact on the planet’s climate and ecosystems of unsuitable production, consumption and disposal
- is characterized by massive global changes, including practices, such as unsustainable farming practices,
climate change, biodiversity loss, poverty, and food environmentally unfriendly industrial processes and
insecurity. The challenge for society is to adapt to and mining, as well as poor waste management. Pollution
mitigate these changes while transforming our agri-food knows no borders; contaminants move through soil, air
systems, making them more efficient, inclusive, resilient and water and enter into agri-food systems, affecting the
and sustainable, for better production, better nutrition, environment and human health.
a better environment, and a better life, leaving no one Soil pollution has been internationally recognized as
behind. A transformative approach that is in line with a major threat to soil health and its capacity to provide
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which ecosystems services. The United Nations Environment
sets out to achieve socio-economic development, while Assembly, at its third session in December 2017,
conserving the environment. addressed the issue and made a global call for action
The thin crust of the Earth’s surface, the soil, supports through Resolution 3/6 Managing Soil Pollution
all terrestrial life and is involved in the regulation and to Achieve Sustainable Development. The Assembly
provision of many key ecosystem services that are also requested UNEP to collaborate with relevant
essential to the environment and to human health and Organizations and entities, including the Food and
well-being. Soil is the foundation of the agri-food system Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
and the medium in which nearly all food-producing crops (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the
grow - about 95 percent of the food we eat comes from United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
the soil. After the oceans, soil is the largest active carbon (UNCCD) to prepare a report on the extent and future
store and one cubic metre of soil can store up to 600 litres trends of soil pollution.
of water, allowing crops to grow even during dry periods. Furthermore, in May 2018, FAO’s Global Soil
Biodiversity -above and below ground - is vital to Partnership together with UNEP, WHO and the
ensuring healthy soils and the ecosystems upon which Secretariat of the Rotterdam Convention, organized
we depend. Soil biodiversity contributes to the cycling of the Global Symposium on Soil Pollution, where “Be the
nutrients and carbon, regulates the emergence of pests solution to soil pollution” was agreed as a common way
and diseases, and serves as a source of pharmaceuticals forward.
that contribute to boost our health. Soils also provide The Global Status of Soil Pollution Report we present
building materials, fuel and fibre. They are the basis for today is the result of an inclusive process by scientists
human infrastructure and preserve our cultural heritage. from all regions of the world, bringing together the
However, global soils are under great pressure. The Status science behind soil pollution. The Report, a joint effort
of the World’s Soil Resources report presented in 2015 coordinated by FAO’s Global Soil Partnership and
by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United supported by UNEP, contributes to raising awareness to
Nations (FAO) and the Intergovernmental Technical the threats posed by soil pollution and to the interlinkage
Panel on Soil (ITPS) identified ten major threats to the with other global environmental pressures.
world’s soils: Erosion, loss of soil organic carbon and It is time to reconnect with our soils, as it is where our
biodiversity, pollution, acidification and sodification, food begins. Soil pollution should no longer be a hidden
salinization, nutrient imbalance, compaction, sealing and reality. Let us all be part of the solution to soil pollution.
waterlogging are major pressures on soil health and limit
their capacity to provide these key ecosystem services for
human well-being.

QU Dongyu Inger Andersen

Director-General of the Food and Agriculture Executive Director of the United Nations
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Environment Programme (UNEP)

IX
©Pexels/Lukas

X GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Preface The Status of the World’s Soil Resources report prepared
by FAO’s Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils
identified 10 global soil threats that put the provision
Soil pollution is invisible to the human eye, but it of key soil ecosystem services at risk (FAO and ITPS,
compromises the quality of the food we eat, the water 2015). Soil pollution was identified as one of the most
we drink and the air we breathe and puts human and worrying threats to soil health and functioning. In
environmental health at risk. Most contaminants originate 2018, FAO’s Global Soil Partnership organized the
from human activities such as industrial processes and Global Symposium on Soil Pollution (GSOP18). The
mining, poor waste management, unsustainable farming symposium, co-organized by the GSP and the ITPS,
practices, accidents ranging from small chemical spills UNEP, the Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and
to accidents at nuclear power plants, and the many Stockholm Conventions, and WHO, was the first attempt
effects of armed conflicts. Pollution knows no borders: to build an international network of experts, academia,
contaminants are spread throughout terrestrial and industry, and remediation businesses, to gather existing
aquatic ecosystems and many are distributed globally by information and identify gaps and options for priority
atmospheric transport. In addition, they are redistributed actions (FAO, 2018b).
through the global economy by way of food and production Following the successful organisation of the GSOP18,
chains. multiple events were organised throughout the year
Soil pollution has been internationally recognized as a to raise awareness of soil pollution targeting different
major threat to soil health, and it affects the soil’s ability stakeholders, from academics and technical experts to
to provide ecosystems services, including the production policy makers, and concluded with the celebration of
of safe and sufficient food, compromising global food World Soil Day on December 5th 2018 under the motto
security. Soil pollution hinders the achievement of many “Be the solution to soil pollution”.
of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Based on the outcome document of the GSOP18 “Be the
(SDGs), including those related to poverty elimination solution to soil pollution” (FAO, 2018a) and an intensive
(SDG 1), zero hunger (SDG 2) and good health and well- consultation and literature assessment, this report has
being (SDG 3). Soil pollution hits the most vulnerable been developed by the GSP in close consultation with
hardest, especially children and women (SDG 5). UNEP, WHO and a wide range of experts and stakeholders
The supply of safe drinking water is threatened by the to meet the UNEA-3 request. The report addresses the
leaching of contaminants into groundwater and runoff extent and trends of soil pollution, considering both point
(SDG 6). CO2 and N2O emissions from unsustainably source and diffuse soil pollution, and describes the risks
managed soils accelerate climate change (SDG 13). Soil and impacts of soil pollution on health, the environment
pollution contributes to land degradation and loss of and food security – including land degradation and the
terrestrial (SDG 15) and aquatic (SDG 14) biodiversity, burden of disease resulting from exposure to polluted
and decreased security and resilience of cities (SDG 11), soil. The process to develop the report involved in-depth
among others (Table 1). regional assessments of soil pollution, and the regional
In response to this global and multidimensional threat, chapters provide an overview of soil pollution issues
the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA)1 at the global scale that is long overdue (Figure 1). The
at its third session, held in Nairobi, Kenya, from 4 to Editorial Board comprised over 30 international experts
6 December 2017, met under the theme “Towards a representing the ITPS, the Regional Soil Partnerships,
pollution-free planet” (UNEP, 2017). As a result, UNEA relevant international fora and expert groups, and the
Resolution 3/6, requested ”the Executive Director to private sector.
present a report on the extent and future trends of soil The Summary for Policy makers presents the main
pollution […] in collaboration with the World Health findings of the report, together with options for action
Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture to facilitate global policy considerations in the UNEA
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the Global process. The main report is a comprehensive publication
Soil Partnership (GSP) and its Intergovernmental which is available on the FAO website.
Technical Panel on Soils (ITPS), and other relevant UN
organizations by the fifth session of the United Nations
Environment Assembly”. This report is the response to
that request.

1  The UNEA is the world’s highest-level decision-making body on the environment. Created in June 2012 at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development (Rio+20), the Assembly convenes all 193 UN Member States to tackle our most critical global environmental challenges. Through its resolutions and calls
to action, it provides the global leadership and inter-governmental action so critical to the health of our planet.

XI
 Table 1. Relationships
between the Sustainable
1.1 By 2030, eradicate
extreme poverty for all
2.4 By 2030, ensure
sustainable food production
3.4 By 2030, reduce by one
third premature mortality from
Development Goals and soil people everywhere, systems and implement non-communicable diseases
pollution currently measured as resilient agricultural practices through prevention and
people living on less than that increase productivity and treatment and promote mental
$1.25 a day production, that help health and well-being
maintain ecosystems, that
strengthen capacity for
adaptation to climate change,
3.9 By 2030, substantially
reduce the number of deaths
extreme weather, drought, and illnesses from hazardous
flooding and other disasters chemicals and air, water and soil
and that progressively pollution and contamination
improve land and soil quality

Targets releva
About 79 per cent of Soil pollution affects soil Soil pollution is closely
people living in extreme security by reducing crop linked to a great variety
poverty live in rural areas yields, hampering the of diseases. WHO
and depend heavily on quantity and the quality estimates that about
natural resources for their of the food produced. sixteen percent of total
livelihoods, mostly Soil pollution also global mortality is
through agriculture. Soil degrades soil structure attributed to
pollution reduces crop and organic carbon environmental
yields and quality, content, thereby pollution-related
leading to reduced reducing the resilience of diseases (including
incomes for rural terrestrial landscapes to water, air and soil
populations and flooding and drought, pollution). However, the
exacerbating the burden and ability to contribute burden of disease
of contaminants. to climate change attributed solely to soil
adaptation and pollution and soil-borne
mitigation. diseases remains largely
unknown and may be
greatly underestimated.

Links between S

XII
 5.5 Ensure women’s full
and effective participation
6.3 By 2030, improve
water quality by reducing
7.2 By 2030, increase
substantially the share of
8.4 Improve progressively,
through 2030, global resource
and equal opportunities for pollution, eliminating dumping renewable energy in the efficiency in consumption and
leadership at all levels of and minimizing release of global energy mix production and endeavour to
decision-making in political, hazardous chemicals and decouple economic growth
economic and public life materials, halving the from environmental
proportion of untreated degradation, in accordance
wastewater and substantially with the 10-year framework of
increasing recycling and safe programmes on sustainable
reuse globally consumption and production,
with developed countries
taking the lead

ant to soil pollution

Around 45 per cent of the Improvement and Around 65 percent of the Poorly managed
world’s women work in protection of water world’s energy production stockpiles and diffusion
vulnerable jobs (World quality can only be comes from the of chemicals into the
Bank, 2020), many in achieved if all forms of combustion of fossil fuels environment resulting
marginal agricultural pollution, including soil (coal, natural gas and oil), from industrial activities
areas, or as scavengers, pollution, are addressed. which are a major source are major sources of soil
and they tend to have less On the one hand, water of environmental pollution, both on the
access to education and pollution leads to soil contaminants. industrial site, and also
therefore have fewer pollution through more widely through the
resources and solutions to practices such as irrigation transport of particles via
reduce their exposure to with polluted water or the air and water.
soil pollution. discharge of wastewater.
On the other hand, soil
pollution leads to water
pollution through
contaminant leaching,
surface runoff and soil
erosion.
Open defecation is
responsible for a higher
burden of soil pollution
and transmission of
soil-borne diseases.

SDG and soil pollution

XIII
 10.1 By 2030,
progressively achieve
11.2 By 2030, provide
access to safe, affordable,
12.2 By 2030, achieve
the sustainable management
13.1 Strengthen resilience
and adaptive capacity to
and sustain income accessible and sustainable and efficient use of natural climate-related hazards and
growth of the bottom 40 transport systems for all, resources natural disasters in all countries
per cent of the
population at a rate
higher than the national
improving road safety,
notably by expanding public
transport, with special
12.4 By 2020, achieve
the environmentally sound
average attention to the needs of management of chemicals
those in vulnerable and all wastes throughout

Targe
situations, women, children, their life cycle, in accordance
persons with disabilities with agreed international
and older persons frameworks, and significantly

11.6 By 2030, reduce

reduce their release to air,
water and soil in order to

to s
the adverse per capita minimize their adverse
environmental impact of impacts on human health and
cities, including by paying the environment
special attention to air
quality and municipal and
other waste management
12.5 By 2030,
substantially reduce waste
generation through
prevention, reduction,
recycling and reuse

Soil pollution will lead to Transport and poor waste Modern production and Unsustainable
the reduction of management are two of consumption patterns agriculture is one of the
productive agricultural the main causes of soil based on the rapid main causes of soil
land, crop yields and pollution in urban areas. obsolescence of products pollution and also has a
quality, which will By promoting sustainable have led to an incessant major impact on climate
ultimately result in lower systems for all and production of waste and change. Some 109
incomes for rural reducing the the excessive extraction million tonnes of
populations that already environmental impact of of raw materials. The synthetic nitrogen
face extreme poverty. cities, soil pollution in world produces more fertilisers were applied
Human health impacts cities can be reduced and than 2 billion tonnes of worldwide in 2018. The
that disproportionately a healthier environment solid waste annually. excess nitrogen alters
affect poorer created. While some of this waste biological cycles in soil
populations/communities Urban green spaces is stored, recycled and and is released into the
due to soil pollution present great reused, much of it is not atmosphere in the form
reduce human capacity to opportunities for properly managed and of N2O, resulting in
improve their economic personal and social often ends up polluting emissions of 700 000 CO2
circumstances. development, and the environment, equivalents. In 2017,
human health and including the soil. With agriculture emissions
well-being, but if rapid population growth accounted for 20 percent
polluted they will be a and urbanization, annual of all human activities.
further route for waste generation is
contaminants to enter the projected to increase to
body. 3.4 billion tonnes in
2050. Unsustainable
waste management
represents the main
source of soil pollution in
some countries,
especially in the Global
South.

Links between SDG

XIV
 14.1 By 2025, prevent
and significantly reduce
15.3 By 2020, promote
the implementation of
16.3 Promote the rule
of law at the national and
17.7 Promote the
development, transfer,
marine pollution of all kinds, sustainable management of all international levels and dissemination and diffusion of
in particular from land-based types of forests, halt ensure equal access to justice environmentally sound
activities, including marine deforestation, restore for all technologies to developing
debris and nutrient pollution degraded forests and
substantially increase
afforestation and reforestation
16.7 Ensure responsive,
inclusive, participatory and
countries on favourable terms,
including on concessional and
preferential terms, as mutually
globally representative decision agreed

gets relevant
-making at all levels
17.9 Enhance
international support for
implementing effective and
targeted capacity-building in

soil pollution
developing countries to support
national plans to implement all
the sustainable development
goals, including through
North-South, South-South and
triangular cooperation

About 80 percent of Soil pollution causes a Minority ethnic groups Developed countries are
marine pollution comes chain reaction in and the poorest and most more advanced in the
from land-based activities. terrestrial ecosystems, vulnerable are most development of
Erosion of polluted soils starting with the affected by soil pollution. technologies to detect
contributes plastics, contamination of plants These groups have less emerging contaminants,
nutrients and organic growing in the polluted access to justice and often innovative
chemicals which are soil, and then continuing suffer discrimination and environmentally friendly
contaminants of concern through the food chain to multiple forms of racism. industrial production and
in marine ecosystems. humans, resulting in Environmental soil pollution
contamination of entire inequalities exist in both remediation
ecosystems. Heavily developing and technologies, and
polluted soils also result developed countries and therefore need to actively
in soil degradation, are fostered by a lack of collaborate in the transfer
increasing susceptibility to information and data on of knowledge.
erosion and thinning of the state of the
forest cover. environment, which limits
the capacity of affected
populations to react, act
and decide.

G and soil pollution

XV
 1 Acceptance of the UNEA3
mandate and discussion of the
Coordination Team
(GSP, UNEP, WHO)

Feb 202

7
3

Dec 201
Awareness raising

Jan 2
11 Editing

018
activities on soil

De

8
and production

Jan 2
pollution and

021

201
c2
celebration of the Wold

020
No

Feb

8
Soil Day campaign "be

01
v2 the solution to soil

r2
Oc 02

Ma
t2 0 18 pollution"
02
0 r 20
Se Ap
p2 18
02 y 20
0
Ma
Aug 2
Organization of the
202 8
201
Global Symposium on Soil
0 Pollution (FAO/GSP, UNEP, Jun
WHO, BRS Conventions)
Jul 2 and launch of the
020 18
preliminary report "Soil Jul 20
pollution: a hidden reality"
(FAO, 2018)
Jun 2020
Aug 2018
4 Development
of questionnaire
May 2020 (93 questions Sep 2018
organized in 12
sections)
0 Oct 201
Apr 202 8
6 Organization of the side
0 event "Innovative actions Nov
202 201
Mar towards a pollution 8
9 Drafting free-planet: Implementing
0 the UNEA-3 resolution De
202
of the report c2
on soil pollution" 018
Feb at UNEA4
Jan
20
n 20 20
19
Ja
9

Fe

10
01

b2

Review of
c2

01

5
De

the report by the

9

Ma

Distribution of the
9
01

Editorial Board
r2

questionnaire among
v2

Apr
9

01
201
No

FAO, UNEP and WHO

9
May

201
019

focal points and other

Aug 2019

Jun 2019
Oct

Jul 2019

stakeholders
9
Sep 2

2019

7 Constitution of the
Editorial Board, regional
8 Collection expert teams and chapter
of responses and lead authors
literature review

Figure 1. Timeline and main milestones of the development of the Global Assessment of Soil Pollution report

XVI
Abbreviations and MSW Municipal solid waste

acronyms NENA Near East and North Africa Soil Partnership

Network for Industrially Co-ordinated

NICOLE
Sustainable Land Management in Europe
AAFC Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada NPRI Canadian National Pollutant Release Inventory
ACAP Arctic Council Action Plan OCPs Organochlorine pesticides
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations OPs Obsolete pesticides
ASP Asian Soil Partnership PAE Phthalate ester
United States Agency for Toxic Substances and PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
ATSDR
Disease Registry
PBDDs Polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins
BPA Bisphenol A
PBDEs Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
Compounds of benzene, toluene, ethyl
BTEX
benzene and xylenes PBDFs Polybrominated dibenzofurans
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid PCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
Economic Commission for Latin America and PCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
ECLAC
the Caribbean
PFAS Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances
EFSA European Food Safety Authority
PFOA Perfluorooctanoic acid
European Environment Information and
EIONET PFOS Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid
Observation Network

EOL End-of-life POPs Persistent organic pollutants

EPA Environment Protection Agency PPCP Pharmaceuticals and personal care products

ESP European Soil Partnership RDX 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine

EU European Union SDG Sustainable Development Goals

EUR Euro SSM Sustainable soil management

Food and Agriculture Organization of the SSV Soil screening value

FAO
United Nations TNT Trinitrotoluene
GHG Greenhouse gas TRI United States Toxics Release Inventory
GSOP Global Symposium on Soil Pollution TSIP Toxic Sites Identification Program
GSP Global Soil Partnership UAE United Arab Emirates
HCH Hexachlorocyclohexane UN United Nations
Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7- UNEA United Nations Environment Assembly
HMX
tetrazocine
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
INI International Nitrogen Initiative
United Nations Industrial Development
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change UNIDO
Organization
IQ Intelligence quotient United Nations Scientific Committee on the
UNSCEAR
ISO International Organization for Standardization Effects of Atomic Radiation

ITPS Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils US United States of America

ITRC Interstate Technology Regulatory Council USD United States Dollar

International Union of Pure and Applied Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil
IUPAC VGSSM
Chemistry Management

JRC Joint Research Centre, European Commission VOCs Volatile organic compounds

Latin America and the Caribbean Soil WHO World Health Organization
LAC
Partnership

MNM Manufactured nanomaterials

XVII
Executive summary
7. The main sources of contaminants contributing
to soil pollution (in order of importance) are

1. Global environmental degradation due to

pressures from the growing demands of agri-food
industrial activities, mining, waste treatment,
agriculture, fossil fuels extraction and processing, and
transport emissions. There is, however, no concrete
and industrial systems, responding to a rising world and comparable data on the actual emissions of each
population, is one of the major global challenges sector.
facing humanity.

2. Thousands of different synthetic chemical

8. With the exception of agrochemical inputs,
most contaminant releases to soil are not easily
compounds and naturally existing elements with quantified and, as a result, remain highly uncertain.
potential toxicity have been released into the Industrial contaminants are released into the
environment by human activities since ancient times. environment throughout their life cycle, from
These contaminants can have residence times in the manufacturing to the production of the contaminant-
environment in the order of hundreds to thousands of containing materials, their transport, use and
years and are distributed throughout the planet. disposal.

3. Pollution is a global problem that knows no

borders. Contaminants are found in every continent
9. Since the beginning of the XXI century, the
global annual production of industrial chemicals has
even in their most remote areas, and are readily doubled to approximately 2.3 billion tonnes and is
transported from one country to another. projected to increase by 85 percent by 2030. Soil
and environmental pollution is therefore expected
to increase unless there is a rapid shift in production
4. Soil is one of the main recipient of
contaminants. Soil pollution is one of the main threats
and consumption patterns and a political commitment
towards a real sustainable management where nature
is fully respected.
to soil health but its impacts go far beyond the soil
dimension and soil contaminants can have irreparable
consequences on human and ecosystem health.
10. Despite decades of research, inventorying
and monitoring of point-source polluted soils in
5. Polluted soil can act as a source of contaminants
for all environmental compartments, including
a number of countries, there are still significant
knowledge gaps and uncertainty about the number
and extent of areas affected, which is compounded by
water, air, food, and organisms, including humans.
the emergence of new contaminants. The knowledge
Ecosystem and human health are interconnected,
gap on soils affected by diffuse pollution and its
as the Planetary Health and One Health initiatives
impact on other environmental compartments is even
emphasize, yet neither can be effectively addressed
greater.
without tackling soil pollution.

6. Soil pollution can result in the loss of ecosystem

11. The proliferation of organic contaminants
and emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals,
services, and cause severe economic losses and social
antimicrobials that result in resistant bacteria,
inequities, all of which jeopardise the achievement of
industrial chemicals, and plastic residues is a growing
the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development.
societal concern. In the current global pandemic
situation caused by COVID-19, the pressure on the
environment has increased with an intensified release
of waste.

XVIII
12. Given the large amount of contaminants,
the variety of their physical-chemical characteristics
17. Remediation of soil pollution is a
technically complex and costly undertaking, ranging
and their multiple interactions with the soil (which from tens of thousands to hundreds of millions of
determine the fate of contaminants) estimating USD per year. The cost of remediation varies from
the load of contaminants is complex. Scientific site to site depending on the characteristics of the
knowledge on the fate of emerging contaminants site, the type of contaminants and their concentration,
is yet lacking. This makes establishing distribution the environmental compartments affected (e.g.
models at a global level very difficult in the absence of topsoil, groundwater, surface water), the protective
regular systematic analysis in soil laboratories (which measures to be taken to protect the population during
are more focused on the agronomic part of soils) and the remediation work, and the post-remediation land
monitoring systems in many countries of the world. use, as well as the technology chosen.

13. Identification and assessment of risk at

potentially polluted sites is the essential first step in
18. The production, use, transport, and
disposal of the most harmful soil contaminants are
the management of soil pollution. If contamination regulated by global conventions (the Stockholm,
at a given site is at levels that can cause harm to Basel, Rotterdam and Minamata Conventions).
organisms, information about that site should be In some regions, these global agreements are
collected at the appropriate governmental level and extended by regional agreements such as the Bamako
made available to the public, and remediation or risk Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa
minimization actions taken accordingly, especially and the Control of Transboundary Movement and
if the site is used for food production or as a water Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa.
reservoir for human consumption. Countries that are not parties to these conventions
should be strongly encouraged to bring them into
force.
14. The identification of the site also allows
the tracing of ownership of the site to occur, which
is fundamental to the “polluter pays” principle.
Although many countries have effective processes
19. In the current scenario of a worsening
global trend in soil pollution, greater political,
in place to identify and assess polluted sites, this business, and social commitment is needed to
fundamental step of identifying the liable part seek alternative solutions to the use of highly toxic
(polluter) is still lacking in many states. contaminants and increased investment in research,
prevention and remediation.

15. Management and remediation of polluted

sites is required to protect human health and that of 20. Enhanced cooperation and partnership
the environment. The regional chapters in the main are essential to ensure the availability of knowledge,
report show that in every region there are examples the sharing of successful experiences, and universal
of successful approaches to managing polluted sites; access to clean and sustainable technologies, leaving
sharing of expertise at the regional level would greatly no one behind.
facilitate progress in addressing soil pollution.

16. Clear channels of communication

are required between academia, policy makers,
and society to ensure that timely, science-based
information on the potential threats posed by
contaminants is available to policy makers and other
stakeholders.

XIX
©Pikrepo

XX GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health
effects
Chemicals that act as environmental contaminants in soil and which potentially cause risks on human health and the
environment, are either inorganic or organic compounds. Figure 2 introduces a systematic categorization of some
of the most common contaminants in soils according to their chemical properties. As emerging contaminants can
fall into a wide range of categorisations they are not included in the figure. The fate in the soil (Figure 3), including
retention or mobility to other environmental compartments and effects on living organisms is determined by the
intrinsic characteristics of the contaminant and by the local soil properties. Identifying the sources of trace elements in
the environment is of key importance to understanding their pollution patterns and for making decisions concerning
pollution remediation.

INORGANIC ORGANIC

METAL/ NON-METAL HALOGENATED NON-HALOGENATED

METALLOID

ALIPHATIC AROMATIC

ALIPHATIC AROMATIC

cadmium cyanides chloroform DDT ethane benzene

Examples

lead ammonium PFC PCBs toluene

copper sulfur PBDEs ethyl-benzene
zinc xylene
arsenic PAHs

Figure 2. Systematic categorization of the main pollutants in soils according to IUPAC (Nič et al., 2009). Halogenated compounds
comprise fluorinated, chlorinated, and brominated compounds
Source: adapted from Swartjes, 2011

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 1

 Incorporation into soil Erosion
through tilling and by wind
agricultural practices
Atmospheric
Physical and deposition
chemical
degradation and
Application of fragmentation
sewage sludge
and compost Soil Soil incorporation
ingestion Erosion by and leaching
through wind and Urban
Plastic grazing water runoff
mulch

Road runoff Overbank

(incl. tire debris) deposition
from flooding
Transport to
marine realm
Trophic
transfer Uptake by plants

Incorporation Burial by
into fluvial successive
sediments floods

Ingestion Percolation into

groundwater

lateral transport Incorporation

into soil
aggregates
vertical Burial
transport

There are nine major processes

that determine the fate
of contaminants in soils

Free transport Absorption/

and diffusion biodegradation

Physical Sorption/
occlusion desorption

Abiotic
Na+ degradation
K++
Ca Mg+
PO43- Mn+
CO23- Eh
Ion exchange SiO42- Volatilization
pH
Mn±x

Precipitation Redox
processes

Figure 3. Routes of entrance and fate of contaminants in soils

Source: adapted from Hurley and Nizzetto, 2018

2 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution often has a long-term impact on human metallic complexes, or may be present in the form of ions
health (Figure 4) and many variables determine the dissolved in soil solution. The partitioning among air,
relationship between exposure to soil pollution and water and soil is driven by chemical processes such as
disease, such as: adsorption to particles or pH-dependent dissolution in
water (Alloway, 2012).
• Contaminant(s) and concentrations > humans
Trace elements have a geogenic (natural) origin, as many
are exposed to multiple contaminants at specific
rocks contain high concentrations of trace elements that
times and throughout their lives. The mixtures
are released into the environment through weathering
of contaminants to which we are exposed vary
or anthropogenic action. Many soils have a natural
throughout our lives and can have synergistic,
background trace element concentration that originates
antagonistic or additive effects.
from the soil parent material, which must be established
• Routes of exposure > there are three main routes if the human-induced increases in concentration are to
of exposure (inhalation, ingestion, and dermal be assessed. Soil pollution by trace elements occurs from
absorption), which are often combined and occur point sources such as industrial areas, mines, landfills
simultaneously. with disposal of trace element-containing wastes, paints,
• Source media of exposure > soil contaminants can coal combustion residues, spillage of petrochemicals,
reach humans through soil, dust, air, water or food. and, to a decreasing extent, the deposition of exhaust
All can occur separately or simultaneously. gases emitted by leaded gasoline cars. Diffuse sources of
• Individual vulnerabilities and community specificity trace element-pollution include fertiliser and pesticide
> people with pre-existing illnesses, or more application, land application of animal manures and
vulnerable individuals such as foetuses, neonates and sewage sludge, wastewater irrigation and atmospheric
children will be more sensitive than healthy adults. deposition (as polluted dust).
Certain communities are at higher risk of exposure Trace elements accumulate in the tissues of living
because of their traditions and food culture (e.g. organisms. Some trace elements are essential
geophagists), socio-economic status and proximity micronutrients for organisms, including; iron,
to pollution sources. copper, zinc, manganese, nickel, boron, selenium and
molybdenum. However at high concentrations they may
be toxic. Among trace elements zinc, nickel, cobalt and
copper are relatively more toxic to plants, and arsenic,
Inorganic contaminants cadmium, lead, chromium and mercury are relatively
more toxic to higher animals including humans.
This group of contaminants includes elements or
compounds that occur naturally in parent rock or that The human health consequences of specific trace
have an anthropogenic origin. The major inorganic elements such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury
contaminants (trace elements, radionuclides, and are well-known (Landrigan et al., 2018). A wide range
asbestos) are described below. of organs and systems are affected by trace elements,
causing cardiovascular disease, neuro-developmental
alterations, haematological and immunological disorders,
Trace elements 2 reproductive complications and cancer. The following
provides information on three of the trace elements of
The term “trace elements” refers to a group of ubiquitous most concern to health and the environment, although
elements that normally occur at very low levels in the there are other trace elements also responsible for soil
environment and which can be toxic to organisms. Trace pollution (see the full report for more details on other
elements include heavy metals (that is, those metals with trace elements).
high atomic mass) such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), Chronic exposure to arsenic can cause skin lesions such as
cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), hyperpigmentation, keratosis and ulceration; respiratory
tin (Sn), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn). Non-metals that are system problems; cardiovascular disease; neurological
regarded as trace elements include arsenic (As), antimony and developmental alterations; haematological and
(Sb) and selenium (Se). immunological disorders; reproductive complications;
and cancer (WHO, 2020). The major source of arsenic is
contaminated water, although food irrigated with arsenic-
Trace elements are persistent and cannot be degraded by
contaminated water or grown on polluted soil can also be
metabolic processes. Trace elements can occur in many
a significant contributor of arsenic dietary exposures.
different forms such as salts, oxides, sulphides, organo-
2  Elements that are generally found in soil at low concentrations, less than 100 mg/kg, that are biologically significant in some fashion. Biological significance
would include elements that are essential or toxic to any organism where some elements can be both, depending on their concentration. Many of the trace elements
of importance are metals, while others are metalloids, non-metals, actinoids, and halogens occurring a variety of chemical states (elemental, cations, anions, oxy-
anions, methylated, etc.).

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 3

Lead is highly toxic to humans. The Lancet Commission and exposure (WHO, 2019). Due to the high toxicity, 67
estimates that nearly 2 percent of annual global deaths countries, as reported by the International Ban Asbestos
are due to lead as indicated in the Global Burden of Secretariat, have banned use of asbestos and asbestos
Disease study; 82 percent of these deaths occur in low- containing materials. However major consumers of
and middle-income countries (Prüss-Ustün et al., 2016). asbestos still exist, including India, China, Russia, Brazil
Lead causes increases in blood pressure, renal failure, and Indonesia (Kazan-Allen, 2019).
strokes and other cardiovascular diseases in adults. Although particularly important for occupational
In children, neurodevelopmental toxicity (including exposure, asbestos fibres can also be inhaled by people
cognitive impairment) is the most important consequence in areas surrounding mining sites or by accidental
of lead toxicity. exposure during gardening and recreation activities due
Mercury has numerous, well-known, health effects in to erosion or weathering of soils and rocks containing
humans, including cardiovascular, reproductive, and asbestos. Inhaled asbestos is responsible for 80 percent
developmental toxicity, neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, of mesothelioma cases worldwide, a malignant tumour
immunotoxicity, and carcinogenicity, and as such is that affects lungs, abdomen or pericardium. Larynx
considered by WHO as one of the top ten contaminants cancer and ovarian cancer are also related to exposure to
of health concern (WHO, 2017). Babies are especially asbestos.
vulnerable as they can be exposed both by transfer through
the placenta during pregnancy and through breast milk,
leading to reduced and impaired development of the
foetal and neonatal brain. Organic contaminants
Organic contaminants are carbon-based molecules,
many of which are anthropogenic in origin, but also to a
Radionuclides minor extent compounds derived from natural processes
such as wildfires or volcanic eruptions. Synthetic organic
Radionuclides are contaminants that produce ionising
contaminants may be produced for specific uses, such
radiation during the decay of active atoms and, as such,
as pesticides or as industrial chemicals or intermediate
pose a high risk to the environment and organisms.
chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Soil pollution by radionuclides originates either from
or other halogenated organics and volatile organic
natural processes such as parent rock weathering and
compounds. Organic contaminants may also be produced
volcanic eruptions or from anthropogenic activities such
unintentionally as by-products such as industrial
as historical refinement of radium (for cancer treatment)
emissions, frequently from mining and petroleum
and uranium, the use of radioactive phosphate and cobalt-
industries, that release polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
ores, nuclear weapon tests or nuclear accidents.
(PAHs).
Radionuclides in the soil are taken up by plants, and thereby
Compared to metals and radionuclides, knowledge
becoming available for further redistribution within the
about the overall footprint of soils polluted by organic
food chain. Humans are exposed to ionizing radiation
contaminants is lower. The diversity of organic
through inhalation and ingestion of contaminated food
contaminants is enormous and many studies have
and soil particles. Ionizing radiation causes alterations in
highlighted concerns about the unknown effects of
DNA, which leads to mutations and alterations of cells.
mixtures of organic contaminants in soils and on
Exposure to ionizing radiation has a long-term effect on
ecosystems and human health. Organic contaminant-
the risk of cancers, including thyroid, leukaemia, salivary
polluted soils are mainly localized around industrial or
gland, lung, bone, oesophagus, stomach, colon, rectum,
urban centres, although some organic contaminants have
skin, breast, kidney, bladder, and brain cancer. The
a ubiquitous distribution due to their potential for long-
effects may only become apparent after several years or
range transport and their persistence in the environment.
several decades of exposure (UNSCEAR, 2011).
Organic contaminants cause contamination of the food
chain and pose a threat to human health.
Asbestos

Asbestos is a generic term for a wide range of naturally Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
occurring hydrated mineral silicate fibres belonging to
PAHs are compounds containing only carbon and
the serpentine and amphibole groups of rock-forming
hydrogen. There are several thousand possible PAHs,
minerals. Asbestos has been widely used in a variety of
released by natural events like volcano eruptions or
construction materials. All types of asbestos fibres are
forest fires or through a wide range of past and current
potentially harmful to human health but effects depend on
anthropogenic activities such as production and
the type of asbestos material, its use, condition, location

4 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

combustion of petroleum and fossil fuels, open burning sources, such as the production of dyes, polymers, resins,
of municipal solid waste and incinerators, and creosote pharmaceuticals, pesticides, fertilisers, disinfectants,
production. PAHs are ubiquitous contaminants in soils and organic preservatives. They can be released during
present in decreasing concentration in industrial, urban, production, use and disposal of phenol-containing
agricultural and forestry soils (Zeng et al., 2019). products, as well as in the generation of industrial
Many PAHs, specifically the larger molecules, are and municipal wastewater, and reach the soil through
carcinogenic, mutagenic and/or toxic for reproduction, wastewater, sewage sludge and direct release.
the most toxic of which is benzo(a)pyrene. PAHs are Human-made phenol-containing compounds are
highly lipophilic and can be absorbed from the lungs, contaminants of priority concern due to their ubiquitous
gut and skin, and are able to pass the placental barrier distribution in the environment, persistence and toxicity
affecting the foetal neurodevelopment. They have (ECB-JRC, 2006). Phenolic compounds can easily be
chronic consequences in adulthood, contributing to absorbed by the skin and respiratory and gastrointestinal
heart disease, obesity, and immunosuppression (Drwal, track, and once in the body, they go through metabolic
Rak and Gregoraszczuk, 2019). degradation in liver, gut and kidneys that lead to the
formation of more reactive species. They are potent
neurotoxins. Chlorophenols are considered as potential
Volatile organic compounds carcinogenic to humans. Endocrine disrupting activity
has also been reported in animals and humans. Although
The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) encompass a the environmental exposure to these contaminants is low,
range of chemical classes that exist primarily as liquids few or no studies are available on the effects of acute or
that are highly volatile (that is, they readily change state chronic exposure to this category of contaminants in
from liquid to gaseous form) at room temperature. The humans (ATSDR, 2020).
VOCs most commonly encountered in soils are the
BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene
and xylenes), which are easily biodegraded. VOCs are Explosives
mainly released from natural sources such as forest fires.
Anthropogenic sources are becoming more relevant as Although explosives are not as widely distributed in the
activities such as the extraction and combustion of oil soil as other organic contaminants, there are still many
and natural gas, petrochemical activities and their use in polluted areas inherited from the First and Second
industrial products such as paints, lubricants, adhesives, World Wars, from civil wars, and from military sites
and other oil products. Their volatility makes quantitative scattered around the planet. Production facilities and
determination of concentration in soil difficult, but training ranges are the most common sites polluted
VOCs are among the most significant categories of with explosives. Soil pollution mostly comes from the
contaminants found at polluted industrial sites. use of nitro aromatic explosive compounds (such as
Due to their volatile nature, humans are mainly exposed to trinitrotoluene (TNT), octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-
VOCs through inhalation, both in indoor air by diffusion 1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) and 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-
of soil gas and outdoors (ATSDR, 2004). Ingestion and 1,3,5-triazine (RDX)), for which the United States
dermal contact are also possible but normally limited of America EPA has recommended concentration
to occupational exposure. VOCs have a range of toxic restrictions because of their toxicity for the environment
effects, with some promoting carcinogenic, mutagenic and human health (Chatterjee et al., 2017).
and teratogenic responses. Hematologic effects, acute The population may be exposed to these contaminants by
myelogenous leukaemia and myelodysplastic syndrome ingestion of polluted soil or food produced in polluted soil
are the main diseases attributed to BTEX acute exposure and neighbouring areas, as well as by accidental inhalation
supported by stronger evidence (Galbraith, Gross and or direct dermal contact with the contaminant or polluted
Paustenbach, 2010). soil. Ecotoxicological effects have been observed in
bacteria, aquatic and terrestrial organisms and crops, and
thus similar mechanisms could be expected in humans.
Phenols, chlorobenzenes and chlorophenols However, health outcomes of exposure to explosives have
scarcely been studied and controversy exists on some of
Phenols, chlorobenzenes and chlorophenols are the results (Lima et al., 2011).
chlorinated derivatives of benzene and phenol. Phenol
and related compounds can occur naturally in soil via
synthesis by plants and fungi, release by decomposition
of organic matter, or chlorination by microorganisms
of mono and polyaromatic compounds in soil and
water. Industrial activities are important anthropogenic

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 5

 Lead, manganese, mercury, tin, PBDEs, PAHs, PCBs
Neurodevelopmental impairment, reduction of
Brain intelligence quotient, behavioural disorder,
Parkinson-type syndrome, headache

BTEX, lead, PFAS, PCBs

Lymp Altered immune response, reduced response
nodes to vaccines in children

Cadmium, PCBs, PBDEs

Thyroid Altered metabolism and reproductive hormone
levels, reduced thyroid hormones, altered growth

Benzene, lead, mercury, organochlorine

Heart and pesticides, PAHs, PFAS, PCBs, microplastics
cardiovascular Hypertension, haemolysis, anaemia, cardiovascular
system disease, elevated leucocyte count, leukaemia

Arsenic, asbestos, cadmium, chromium,

Lungs copper, mercury, radon
Pulmonary emphysema, asthma, chemical pneumonia,
lung cancer, mesothelioma

Stomach Nitrogen and ionizing radiation

Stomach cancer

Pancreas Phthalates, PCBs

Altered insulin metabolism and adipogenesis, diabetes

DDT, chromium, copper, mercury, PAHs, PCBs, PFAS,

Liver phthalates
Increased cholesterol levels, liver cancer, elevated hepatic
enzyme levels, necrosis

Cadmium, lead, mercury, PAHs, PFAS

Kidneys Renal tubular dysfunction, kidney weight changes,
progressive nephropathy, chronic inflammation, kidney
cancer

Arsenic, copper, lead, mercury, tin, microplastics, POPs

Intestines Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cancer of gastrointestinal
system, abdominal pain and cramping

Bladder Arsenic, lead

Cancer of urinary bladder, urinary changes

Antimony, asbestos, lead, manganese, phthalates,

PBDEs, PCBs, PFAS
Testicular atrophy, early menopause, reduced testosterone,
Reproductive reproductive alterations, decreased libido, impotence,
system sexual dysfunction, endometriosis, hormonal cancers
(breast, prostate, testes), infertility, ovary cancer

Cadmium, lead, PCBs, radium and its decay products

Bones Impaired bones development, slow growth, changes in
and joint metabolism of calcium and bone formation, osteomalasia,
bone cancer

Arsenic, chromium, PAHs, PCBs

Hyperkeratosis, hyperpigmentation, hypopigmentation,
Skin skin irritation and inflammation, chloracne, hirsutism, skin,
tooth, and nail abnormalities

Figure 4. Main effects of soil contaminants on human health, indicating the organs or systems affected and the contaminants
causing them
Source: created from information in ATSDR, 2018; Campanale et al., 2020; Carré et al., 2017 and references cited in Table 2 of Chapter 4 of the full report

6 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 Dioxin and dioxin-like compounds In soils and sediments, PCBs are strongly adsorbed to
organic carbon and thus the soil acts as a sink for PCBs.
Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, including If soil management practices reduce the amount of soil
polychlorinated/brominated dibenzo-p-dioxins organic carbon, PCBs can be released and enter the
(PCDDs/PBDDs), polychlorinated/brominated food chain. The main route of exposure to ndl-PCBs is
dibenzofurans (PCDFs/PBDFs) and dioxin-like through ingestion of contaminated food and water. Ndl-
polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) are groups of PCBs are endocrine disruptors and have been related
organic compounds containing benzene and variable to immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and carcinogenesis,
amounts of chlorine. The formation of PCDDs and especially related to breast cancer (Carpenter, 2015).
PCDFs occurs mainly as a by-product of industrial
processes associated with incomplete combustion
during incineration processes, including improper waste Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
incineration and burning of trash, especially electronic
waste. As a minor source they can also be formed during Since their introduction in 1970s, polybrominated
natural processes such as forest fires and volcanoes. diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been used as brominated
Although concentrations of PCDDs and PCDFs in soils flame retardants in a broad array of materials such as
are low, these compounds are extremely persistent and plastics, foams, resins and adhesives. Their production
are able to pass through cell membrane and accumulate has been phased out in many countries since their
in living tissues. Currently there is concern about these inclusion in the Stockholm Convention list of POPs, and
compounds, since low levels are enough to produce the environmental and human loads have reduced over
birth defects in small mammals, to interact with DNA, time since then. However, PBDEs are found in virtually
and to cause carcinogenicity (WHO, 2016). Intake all environmental matrices, including wild organisms and
of contaminated food is the main route of exposure humans, due to their long persistence, and their use in
to dioxins. Dioxins and dl-PCBs have been related to many products (Besis and Samara, 2012).
higher incidence of cancer, neurological retardation and PBDEs can reach the soils by dump sites, landfill
ultimately as a cause of death. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma leachates and application of sewage sludge as a nutrient
and suppression of the immune system are also attributed amendment. Relatively high concentrations have been
to the exposure to dioxins. Chloracne is probably the reported especially in e-waste dismantling and recycling
most well-known disease related to dioxins exposure but areas. In soils, PBDEs can bind to organic matter, persist
this is caused by exposure to high concentrations (serum for a long period of time (estimated half-lives of 28 years),
levels > 20 000 pg/g fat), several orders of magnitude impact soil biota by bioaccumulation and biomagnification
greater than environmental background levels and food across the food chain, and be transferred to aquatic
concentrations (Knutsen et al., 2018). ecosystems (fresh and marine waters) by sedimentation.
PBDEs have been associated with neurotoxicity, and
several studies have found sound evidence of the
Polychlorinated biphenyls relationship between prenatal PBDEs exposure and
impaired motor, cognitive and behavioural abilities in
Non dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (ndl-PCBs) are
small children, who show lower intelligence quotient
also widely distributed contaminants, highly persistent in
(IQ) levels or aggressive behaviour among other effects.
the environment and able to accumulate in the food chain.
These effects may be related to the impact of PBDEs on
They are rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract,
thyroid hormone production and regulation, with PBDEs
from where they are distributed to and accumulate in the
being endocrine disruptors. Several cancers have also
liver and adipose tissue. Since they also cross the placenta
been associated with the PBDEs body burden, including
and are absorbed in milk, PCBs can accumulate in the
breast, colorectal, papillary thyroid, and ovarian and
foetus and infant.
cervical cancers or endometrial carcinoma (Wu et al.,
Because of PCBs’ high chemical stability and electrical 2020).
resistance, they were used in a wide range of industrial
applications including fluids in capacitors and
transformers, hydraulic fluids, fire retardants and Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances
plasticizers. Given the concerns regarding environmental
persistence and toxicity, PCBs use and production ceased Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)
in most countries by the end of the 1970s, and they are a family of human-made chemicals that have been
belong to the group of twelve initial Persistent Organic shown to be persistent in the environment, toxic for
Pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention. both animals and humans, and highly mobile in aquatic
However, the legacy of PCBs already released into the environments. The PFAS family may include between
environment and the control of further releases remain a 5 000 and 10 000 different chemicals and therefore
concern (Klocke and Lein, 2020). the range in behaviour is highly diverse. Many PFAS are

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 7

resistant to oil, water, grease and heat, and hence are spread throughout the earth-atmosphere system and
used in applications such as water- and stain-resistant pesticide contamination occurs worldwide. Many studies
fabrics and floor coverings, paints and cleaning products, have highlighted concerns about the unknown effects
and fire-fighting foams (ITRC, 2020). of pesticide mixtures in soils on ecosystem and human
The main sources of PFAS in the environment are spills, health; however, given the great number of pesticides in
air emissions and inadequate disposal of manufacturing use it is virtually impossible to study and assign toxicity
waste and wastewater. These sources have left worldwide risks to the possible combinations (Bonner and Alavanja,
environmental contamination and pollution in surface 2017; Kim, Kabir and Jahan, 2017).
and groundwater and soils even in remote areas, as well Many pesticides are highly persistent in the environment
as in food such as fish, meat and eggs, resulting in public and toxic residues can affect beneficial and non-
concern for their risk to human health and ecosystems. target organisms, including humans, and contaminate
Recent estimates of global loads of some PFAS in waters and soils on a global scale. A number of
soils range from 1 500 to 9 000 tonnes, showing that pesticides and pesticide residues can bio-accumulate
soils constitute a global reservoir of these long-lived in high concentration in plants and animals and cause
contaminants (Brusseau, Anderson and Guo, 2020). biomagnification in the food chain. Some pesticides are
PFAS are endocrine disruptors, and interact with thyroid also associated with trace element contamination of soils.
hormones, altering cardiovascular system functioning Outbreaks of pesticide-contaminated food have been
and lipids metabolism, increasing the risk of obesity. reported in many places, although the source of
Increased concentration of cholesterol and other lipids in pesticides are barely studied in depth (Ge et al., 2017;
blood, or dyslipidaemia, is one of the major health effects Hwang, Zimmerman and Kim, 2018). Studies on health
attributable to PFAS, associated to chronic diseases such effects from exposure to pesticides are mainly related
as obesity, hypertension, diabetes and hepatotoxicity. to occupational exposure or self-poisoning, at relatively
Some evidence also relate prenatal PFAS exposure to high concentrations that do not occur in the general
neurodevelopmental impairment, but further research is population. The number of epidemiological studies
needed in this field (Sunderland et al., 2019). linking chronic diseases to environmental exposure to
pesticides is very low due to their wide distribution and
coexistence with other contaminants, and the difficulty
Pesticides of establishing casual relationships, coupled with limited
support for this type of research. However, scientific
Pesticides are active substances, or mixtures of evidence points to a relationship between pesticide
substances, used for preventing, destroying or controlling exposure and chronic diseases such as cancer, asthma,
any pest causing harm to humans or interfering with allergies and development impairment (Kim, Kabir and
human activities such as production, processing, storage, Jahan, 2017).
transport or marketing of food, wood and wood products,
fibres and other agricultural commodities. Insecticides,
fungicides, nematicides, rodenticides and herbicides are
some examples, which can also include insect repellents
and insect or plant growth regulators. Today, there are
about 1 000 different pesticides in use composed of
more than 800 active ingredients and the number is still
increasing.
Historically, the use of pesticides has allowed great
advances in agriculture and also in the public health sector
as vector control for diseases such as malaria. However,
the excessive and inappropriate use of pesticides, and the
mismanagement of obsolete and highly harmful pesticide
stocks, can cause unintended damage to non-target
species (FAO and ITPS, 2017). There is considerable
societal concern about the use of pesticides. The greatest
problem is that stores of obsolete pesticides still occur
in many countries. Spills and leakage from these depots
continue to cause significant soil pollution. Accidental
spills and leakage of non-restricted pesticides as well
as improper disposal of storage containers can lead to
unsafe levels of pesticides in soils; this is a widespread
©Pikrepo

point source of soil pollution. Pesticides have been

8 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Emerging contaminants disruption, inflammation, irritation, changes in fertility
and gender rates in population, and development of
Emerging contaminants are a broad group of synthetic or asthma, although relevant epidemiological studies are
naturally occurring chemicals and microorganisms that very limited or absent (Pereira et al., 2015; Wilkinson
have not been previously monitored in the environment, et al., 2016). PPCP release into the environment also
but that are generating increasing concern among the leads to microbial and bacterial resistance, causing
scientific community and policy makers due to their 700 000 death each year due to drug-resistant diseases
potential toxicity or risk to human and environmental (Miranda, Godoy and Lee, 2018).
health.

Plastics and synthetic polymers

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products
(PPCPs) Plastics are widely used in nearly all aspects of everyday
life because of their versatility, high performance, high
Pharmaceuticals can be defined as any active chemical resistance and cost effectiveness. Plastics, polymers
(natural or synthesized) that is designed to prevent or and other related materials mainly originate from the
cure diseases and to improve quality of life for humans processing of crude oil and natural gas, and in some cases
or animals. There are more than 4 000 pharmaceutical from other raw materials (such as coal and biomass).
and chemical products that have been used extensively The annual worldwide production of polymeric resins
for decades, including pharmaceutical drugs, diagnostic escalated since the 1950s, and it is estimated to grow to
agents, oral contraceptives, cosmetics, fragrances, nearly 500 million tonnes per year by 2100 (Li, Tse and
nutritional supplements and additives used in many Fok, 2016). Due to the high resistance to degradation
household cleaning items. Many PPCPs are biologically and improper disposal, plastic items and residues are
active compounds, designed to interact with hormonal commonly found in all environmental compartments.
processes or living tissues; for this reason, it is important Plastics persist in the environment for decades, and can be
to know their fate, effects and potential risks when partially broken down by mechanical action (agricultural
they are released into the environment. Some of these machinery, garbage collection trucks and treatment
chemicals are persistent in the environment while others plants) or weathering, which leads to a great variety of
are considered ‘pseudo-persistent’ due to the continuous plastics of different sizes in ecosystems.
use and release into the environment. Global production Micro- and nanoplastics particles can be ingested and
is estimated in the range 100 000–200 000 tonnes/year, absorbed by organisms and transferred across the food
but only few PPCPs are monitored and regulated, and for chain. Intake of contaminated food and water is the major
most no legal requirements exist to assess the impact of route of exposure to micro- and nanoplastics for humans.
long-term exposure (Boxall et al., 2012). Evidence of bio-accumulation and biomagnification
Pharmaceuticals, after administration, are absorbed and of plastics in the terrestrial food chain suggested that
undergo metabolic reactions to produce by-products plastics also accumulate in human bodies. New evidence
(metabolites) that can be more harmful than the original shows the accumulation of micro- and nanoplastics in
compounds or can be transformed back to the original human tissues, being able even to cross the placenta
active compounds. A high proportion of drugs are not (Ragusa et al., 2021). However, the risk posed by
completely assimilated by humans or animals; the original plastics to human health and the environment is not only
compound or partially metabolized (sometimes activated) their presence per se, which may cause oxidative stress,
drug residues are excreted in faeces or urine. These inflammation, severe immune responses, or alter the
compounds cannot always be completely degraded by ability to detect exogenous materials and react against
conventional wastewater treatment plants before entering them, but their capacity to adsorb and transport other
the environment. PPCPs are thereby continuously being contaminants and plastic additives that can be released
released into urban wastewater and animal manure. When in the organism (Prata et al., 2020). Further research
this manure and sewage sludge are applied to agricultural is needed to understand the routes of exposure and the
lands as fertilisers, or when treated wastewater is used for possible adverse effects in our health.
agricultural irrigation, crops can uptake PPCPs that may
persist in soils from a few to several hundred days (Al-
Farsi et al., 2018). Phthalates and other plasticizers
To date, information on the occurrence of PPCPs in the
Plasticizers, such as bisphenol A (BPA) or phthalate esters
environment is incomplete, as is knowledge on their
(PAEs), are additives that increase flexibility or plasticity,
effects on non-target organisms and potential risk of
and are used in industry as plastic additives to make
exposure. The adverse effects of PPCPs exposure include
plastic goods more flexible. They are found in electronic
acute and chronic toxicity, bioaccumulation, endocrine

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 9

devices, sport equipment, medical devices, food storage advances in countless scientific fields, including plastics,
containers, reusable bottles, building and construction electronics, textiles, cosmetics, catalysts and medicinal
materials, automotive parts, and in thermal papers, science. MNM are diverse in terms of physical, chemical,
such as credit card slips, bank receipts, and fax papers. electrical and magnetic properties.
Phthalates have been also employed in the cosmetics and The MNMs can be applied deliberately to soil for
perfumery industries (Wang et al., 2018). remediation of pollution but are also released
The plasticizers are not chemically bound to plastic unintentionally through various pathways including
polymers, and consequently can easily leach into the wastewater and sludge. Soil is a major sink, and the
environment and are released during plastic weathering. current growth in nanotechnology for targeted pesticide
PAEs and BPA are found in many agricultural soils close and fertiliser delivery in food crop production will likely
to urban or peri‑urban areas and can come from sewage increase MNM input to soil systems (Kuenen et al.,
sludge application, agricultural use of plastic films, 2020).
use of urban wastewater for irrigation, or atmospheric Their intrinsic characteristics and small size facilitate
deposition. Both phthalates and BPA have been detected the diffusion of nanomaterials through cell membranes.
in food and in humans, and are listed as toxic agents in The interactions between nanomaterials and cellular
international regulations. components and genetic material have not yet been fully
Phthalates are recognized endocrine disruptors elucidated and vary according to the size, morphology,
and teratogens. Children are the most vulnerable to surface charge and coating of the nanomaterial. Inhalation
phthalates exposure, suffering from food allergies and is the main route of exposure to MNM, especially on
neurobehavioral disorders in prenatal and early life occupational exposure, but ingestion may become more
exposure (Benjamin et al., 2017). relevant as nanotechnologies in food and food packaging
evolve. Dermal exposure can also be significant for
consumers. Studies of the impacts of MNM on the
Nanomaterials environment and human health are still at early stages
and existing data are not sufficient to understand the
Nanotechnology emerged in the 1990s and its use mechanisms of toxicity. The evidence that could attribute
and applications have greatly expanded since then. MNM exposure to different diseases is still very scarce,
Nanomaterials are defined as materials with at least one so no robust conclusions can be drawn. Further research
dimension between 1 and 100 nm, but the nanoparticles on the fate, behaviour, bio-availability and toxicity
with all three dimensions between 1 to 100 nm are in soils, and improved knowledge on environmental
particularly important (ISO, 2008). Manufactured concentrations, remains critical for environment and
nanomaterials (MNM) have numerous applications human health protection (Pietroiusti et al., 2018).
in medicine and technology and have enabled many
©Pikrepo

10 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 Impacts of soil pollution on ecosystems
Soil pollution affects above and below ground biodiversity, both by reducing the number of organisms due to the
toxicity caused by the contaminants, and by producing changes in communities, due to the replacement of more
sensitive species by more pollution-tolerant ones. Low concentrations of contaminants in the soil often lead to adaptive
strategies through changes in physiology and feeding behaviours. Changes in the activity of soil organisms can also
occur, resulting in the alteration of biogeochemical cycles. Additionally, polluted soils in turn become a source of
pollution for groundwater, through leaching of contaminants, and for fresh water and the marine environment,
since contaminants can be transported off-site through wind and water erosion. All those changes can be gradual or
remain inert until an inflexion point is reached and a severe degradation occurs. This triggers a chain of degradation
processes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that ultimately leads to the loss of ecosystem services (Figure 5).

Water purification and

minant reduction
soil conta

ion Clim
strat ate
e reg
qu
se ula
on tio
arb n
C
GHGs
DDT
CO2

CH4 NO3
l

CO2
fue

Nutrient
Limited
nd

imbalance due
buffering
ea

to alterations in

Nu
Reduced and filtering soil biodiversity
ibr

trie
inputs of capacity and loads of
d, f

organic nutrients

nt c
foo

matter

yclin
f

Higher GHG
ion o

emissions

g
C
contributing
Provis

to climate
change
N
P Ca
Reduced S Zn
crop K
Ecotoxicity
yields and loss of
biodiversity

organisms
and biomass

O IL
S N
Reduced
vegetation

tat for
O
cover and

UTI flood control

capacity
Habi
LL
UNSAFE

PO
Polluted soils are
Soil

not suitable for

residential, SAFE
Fun

agricultural and
recreational uses
ctio
ns

on
ati
ul

Promotion of
eg

antimicrobial
dr

o
resistance and
loss of genetic Flo
resources

inf Fou s
ras ical
tru ndatio ac eut es
ctur n rm ourc
e an for human f pha
d aes Source o netic res
thetic va
lues and ge

Figure 5. Soil pollution causes a cycle of degradation processes that leads to the reduction and ultimately to the loss of
ecosystem services

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 11

Biodiversity loss reduces the input of litter on the soil Soil pollution impacts on terrestrial ecosystems
surface and litter breakdown and mineralization of and the food chain
organic matter, and hence reduces the input of soil
organic carbon and alters the recycling of nutrients. The ecotoxicological responses to soil pollution in
Litter decomposition can be reduced by 10 to 80 percent terrestrial ecosystems are highly variable, and depend
in severely polluted soil compared to uncontaminated soil on the source of pollution, main contaminants, duration
(Kozlov and Zvereva, 2015). of the exposure, the trophic level affected and climate.
Degradation of physical properties caused as a result In general, trophic groups reduce their performance in
of the loss of soil organic matter and reduced presence the sense of body size and survival with the proximity to
and activity of soil organisms also occur in heavily the pollution source, while primary consumers are more
polluted soils (Korkina and Vorobeichik, 2018). The resilient to pollution in terms of diversity and abundance
presence of certain contaminants, such as salts and (Kozlov and Zvereva, 2011). However, responses to
surfactants, also contributes to the dispersion of clays stress are site-specific and the generalization of local
and the irreversible degradation of the soil structure. This patterns into a global scale has high uncertainties.
physical degradation of the soil increases the risk of soil A wide range of contaminants are absorbed onto plant
erodibility. roots and translocated to edible tissues. Soil-dwelling
Soil acidification is, together with soil pollution, one of organisms can also accumulate soil contaminants. Plants
the most overlooked threats to soil health, due to the pH and soil organisms are at lower levels in the terrestrial
buffer capacity of soils; however, pH buffering capacity food web, and when they are ingested by grazing animals,
is limited, especially in sandy soils. In agricultural areas, birds, amphibians or mammals, contaminants enter in the
soil acidification is mainly caused by the application of terrestrial food chain and accumulate in large amounts in
mineral nitrogen fertilisers and livestock urine, and by animals at the top of the food chain (Figure 6) (Baudrot
the repeated harvesting of plant biomass. It has been et al., 2018; Huerta-Lwanga et al., 2017).
estimated that soil pH has reduced globally an average Normally, wildlife exposure to contaminants occurs at
of 0.26 due to acid deposition and N additions (Tian low-dose levels over their lifetime span, unless heavy
and Niu, 2015). Soil acidification also enhances the release of contaminants has occurred. The health effects
mobilization and bioavailability of certain trace elements, of chronic low-dose exposure and the synergistic,
increasing the risk to human health and the environment summative or antagonistic effects of such mixtures have
and decreasing crop growth. generally been neglected in terrestrial ecosystems. Soil
N-fertilisers are oxidised to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate contaminants have neurotoxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic
(NO3-) by nitrifying soil bacteria. Nitrate and nitrite are and endocrine disrupting effects in vertebrates. The
highly mobile in soils and can be leached to groundwater. effects on animal health and behaviour depend on the
Inside the soil matrix, denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate type of contaminant and the mix of contaminants to which
into elemental nitrogen (N2 gas which is harmlessly animals are exposed, the living and dietary habits, which
returned to the atmosphere), through intermediate determine the time and intensity of exposure, and the
species nitric and nitrous oxide (NO and N2O), which development and immune status of the animal; immature
are highly volatile and can escape from soils into the or ill organisms are more susceptible to negative effects
atmosphere. N2O is a highly potent greenhouse gas, with and are less able to avoid polluted areas and food (Death,
a global warming potential 256 times greater than CO2, Griffiths and Story, 2019).
and therefore contributes significantly to climate change Herbivores differ from omnivores in terms of exposure
(IPCC, 2014). According to the Intergovernmental to contaminants, while the former accumulate higher
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report on Land and concentrations of trace elements or radionuclides; the
Climate Change, denitrifying bacteria are responsible for latter usually present higher concentrations of lipophilic
80 percent of the emissions of N2O (IPCC, 2019). contaminants, such as PCBs or PFAS (Kowalczyk et al.,
2018). Reptiles and amphibians are particularly sensitive
to hydrophilic and ionic contaminants, as these can pass
their permeable eggs wall, and be in contact with them
through the different phases of their life cycle (Sparling
et al., 2010).

12 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 Contaminant-degrading
bacteria Chicken ingestion
Uptake of contaminants of contaminated
and food chain food
transfer
to humans
Ingestion by litter
decomposers

Eaten by earthworm
weight loss & death
at high exposure Trophic
Transport down from transfers
surface by soil biota
Gut microbes
degrade contaminants
Microbial
and rhizosfere
degradation Uptake of Gut Inflammation
contaminants
Remobilization of Formation of biofilms or
contaminants with alteration of microbial
earthworm feces communities

Figure 6. Contaminants’ transference into the terrestrial food web from the soil to pastures and crops, which are ingested by
wildlife, livestock and humans, or from the soil to invertebrates, ingested by birds and poultry and ultimately transferred to
humans
Source: adapted from Ng et al., 2018

©FAO/Matteo Sala

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 13

 Soil pollution impacts on aquatic ecosystems

Precipitation, floods, snowmelt, and irrigation increase the water content in soil pores and, once soil is saturated, can
lead to waterlogging of flat areas and run-off on slopes. Dissolved organic matter, fine particles, and sorbed contaminants
are carried by runoff water and can reach nearby wetlands, rivers and lakes, and ultimately be transported to seas and
oceans (Shi and Schulin, 2018). Climate change exacerbates these processes, increasing the risk of contamination of
the aquatic environment by land-based activities (Figure 7).

Atmospheric
Lightning nitrogen (N2)

Emissions
Rain from industrial
combustion and
Volcano
gasoline engines
NO → N2O

Eutrophication

Fossil fuels
Assimilation
Denitrification Fertilizer
Dead animals
and plants
Nitrogen
Urine
fixing Nitrates (NO3-)
bacteria
in root
nodules Decomposers
(bacteria and fungi)
Nitrogen Nitrites (NO2-)
fixing bacteria Leaching to
in soil Ammonification groundwater

Nitrification

Ammonium (NH4+)
and ammonia (NH3)

Human activities
Natural activities

Figure 7. Processes in the terrestrial environment exacerbated by climate change that enhance the impact of soil pollution on the
aquatic environment
Source: adapted from Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020; Lehnert et al., 2015

14 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Land-based activities are considered to be responsible Socioeconomic impacts of soil
for over 80 percent of marine pollution (Cicin-Sain
et al., 2011). An estimated 35 billion tonnes of soil pollution
are lost and mobilised each year due to erosion; of this
total about 12 billion tonnes are agricultural topsoil and Soil pollution has the greatest impact on the health
topsoil-associated nutrients and contaminants, which of the most vulnerable population groups, such as
are discharged in streams, rivers, lakes and coastal areas foetuses, children and pregnant women. Pollution also
every year (Kok, Papendick and Saxton, 2009). Runoff has significant effects on the health and well-being of
increases nutrient loading causing eutrophication of the poorest and marginalized groups (Landrigan et al.,
waters, carries inorganic and organic contaminants that 2018). Low- and middle-income countries accumulate
reduce water quality and affect aquatic ecosystems, and the highest rates of environmentally attributable mortality
also carries soil particles that cloud water and reduce the and burden of diseases, but there are also differences in
depth of watercourses. health status between different social groups within a
country.
An estimated average of 50 percent of nutrients added to
soils are leached or washed into rivers, lakes and ultimately The most impoverished countries and regions have
seas and oceans (Cosme, Mayorga and Hauschild, the least access to clean technologies, to pollution
2018). Nutrient loss from soil causes excessive levels of remediation technologies, and their environmental and
nutrients in waterways, which favours eutrophication and food safety regulations are often weaker (Mackie and
the appearance of cyanobacteria and algae blooms that Haščič, 2019). Access to clean green spaces, healthy food,
consume large volumes of oxygen, preventing the life of public sanitation or health insurance, environmental and
other organisms. Some of these cyanobacteria are also urban development policies, and clean technologies are
toxic to aquatic organisms and humans (Lehnert et al., the major socio-economic determinants influencing the
2015). Eutrophication cycles produce “dead zones” unequal distribution of the burden of disease attributable
in many of the world’s major water bodies, such as the to the environment (Pasetto, Mattioli and Marsili, 2019).
Gulf of Mexico, the Bay of Bengal, Hudson River, San Many developing countries have proved capable of
Francisco Bay, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Baltic Sea. rapidly adopting standards and measures to reduce the
Mismanaged waste disposal in coastal countries is release of contaminants into the soil, but need knowledge
responsible for 4.8 to 12.7 million metric tonnes of and technology transfer from more developed countries
plastic entering the ocean by wind erosion, or transported (Hilton, 2006).
via waterways or wastewater, while between 75 000 to Soil pollution has a direct cost of remediation and
1.1 million tonnes are discharged in rivers from in-land management, which can oscillate from thousands of
activities (Eunomia, 2016). In agricultural soils alone, dollars to hundreds of millions of dollars annually. The
the microplastics content is estimated to be between 63 cost of remediation varies from site to site depending
000 - 430 000 and 44 000 - 300 000 tonnes in Europe on the characteristics of the site, such as the size of the
and North America, respectively (Nizzetto, Futter and affected area, the concentration of contaminants, the
Langaas, 2016). Once ingested, micro- and nano-plastics environmental compartments to be remediated (topsoil,
can have various effects on aquatic organisms, ranging vadose zone, groundwater, surface water), the protective
from physiological alterations in primary production measures to be taken to protect the population during
organisms (alteration of chlorophyll production), to the remediation work, the acceptable level to be achieved
appetite inhibition, reduced growth or even collapse depending on the land use after remediation, as well as
of the digestive system due to accumulation of plastics the technology chosen (Darmendrail et al., 2004).
in higher animals and consequent death. Additionally, There are other indirect costs that are often neglected,
plastics adsorb other contaminants into their surfaces, leading to underestimation of the impacts of soil
such as trace elements, PAHs, pesticides, and other pollution. Many ecosystem services are hampered by soil
organic contaminants, contributing to their transfer to pollution, losing productivity and resilience in the long
the food web and causing additional health effects on term (Figure 8). Soil pollution causes reduced crop yields
aquatic organisms (Alimi et al., 2018). and food wastage due to high levels of contaminants,
loss of biodiversity and increased incidence of pests,
decreased water quality and eutrophication of the marine
environment. The economic cost of soil pollution-related
illnesses, many chronic and with long-term effects, and
the loss of human productivity are often overlooked
(Attina and Trasande, 2013).

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 15

 Unsafe
food
Decreased soil
productivity Polluted
water

Quantifiable
economic losses
Decreased due to soil
crop yields pollution Loss of
biodiversity

Increased use of Loss of

agrochemicals workforce and
productivity

Human
diseases

Figure 8. Quantifiable economic losses due to soil pollution

©Pikrepo

16 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Regional status and trends of soil pollution
An assessment of the extent and severity of existing polluted soils is essential to understanding the magnitude of the
problem and to determining the priority that addressing the problem should have, given the many stressors on the
environment that exist.
Although most soil contaminants are ubiquitous, their distribution and major sources vary among regions. There are
also significant differences in the regulatory frameworks that attempt to address soil pollution. The following sections
summarize the major sources of soil pollution and present the state of knowledge of soil pollution in the different
regions (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Global Soil Partnership regions as considered in this report

Source: UN, 2020, modified according to the GSP Regional Soil Partnership organization

To assess the regional extent of current soil pollution, the last decade through the Status of the World’s Soil
two methodologies were adopted. First, a questionnaire Resources report (FAO and ITPS, 2015), the Proceedings
developed by the leading United Nations agencies was of the Global Symposium on Soil Pollution 2018 (FAO,
sent to countries through the Global Soil Partnership 2018b), and the publication Soil pollution: a hidden
(GSP) Focal Points and partners’ networks as well as the reality (Rodríguez Eugenio, McLaughlin and Pennock,
UNEP network. The questionnaire (included in Annex 1 2018) that accompanied the 2018 Symposium.
of the main report) was used to gather information about For several regions, a major source of information is
national and regional legislation, the main polluting the database of the Toxic Sites Identification Program
activities as perceived by the government agencies, and (TSIP, Pure Earth, 2020). The TSIP was initiated by
existing data on soil pollution in inventories and soil the Blacksmith Institute (now Pure Earth/Blacksmith
monitoring systems, as well as monitoring systems related Institute) in 2005 with the goal of identifying and
to human health. Second, the authors gathered publicly screening toxic sites in low- and middle-income countries.
available information from a broad range of sources, The TSIP has assessed nearly 5 000 sites in 50 countries.
including reports from international organizations, The TSIP is not intended to be a comprehensive inventory
regional and national agencies, environmental of contaminated sites but is rather an effort to begin to
organizations, and scientific literature. This report also understand the scope of the problem.
complements existing relevant data collected during

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 17

 Asia and the Pacific

The Asia and Pacific region covers 41 countries in four sub-regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the
Pacific. Some details of the main sources of soil pollution in Asia and the Pacific and their distribution in the region are
shown below (Figure 10).

Urban settings,
transport and
municipal waste
treatment

Industrial
Agriculture activities

Geogenic Nuclear
sources activity

Figure 10. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Asia and the Pacific
The boxes represent an estimate of the relative importance of each source as perceived by regional experts, and their size is related to their relative importance. The
larger the size, the greater the relative importance

Map source: UN, 2020, modified according to the GSP Regional Soil Partnership organization

18 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Agriculture Industrial activities
Agriculture is an important source of pollution in Asian The risks of soil pollution in industrial regions in China
countries. Several countries such as China, Bangladesh, are more severe than in agricultural regions. In general,
South Korea or New Zealand have carried out national or trace element pollution is more serious in southeast
regional studies of soil pollution in agricultural areas and China than in northwest China. A comprehensive
have observed that the values of the safety guidelines for assessment focusing on soil pollution by trace elements
trace elements are often exceeded. Major sources of trace in mining areas recommended that the southern
elements are irrigation of paddy fields using arsenic- provinces and Liaoning province should be prioritized
contaminated groundwater, wastewater discharged from for pollution control. Compared to soils influenced by
industrial parks and transport areas, and as a result of metal mining, trace element concentrations in coalmine
historical pollution by long-term use of cadmium and soils were lower. Roadside soil pollution in China’s urban
fluorine contaminated phosphate fertilisers. and suburban areas is caused by the deposition of toxic
The large-scale application of POP pesticides, has in the chemicals emitted by vehicles.
past contaminated large areas with PCDDs and PCDFs Due to India’s very rapid economic growth through
in East Asia. In Japan, rice fields throughout the country industrial, agricultural, and mining activities, soil
have been contaminated with more than 450 kg PCDD/ pollution with trace elements in India is significant,
PCDF, and PCDD/PCDF have been transported for including copper, cadmium, nickel, lead, arsenic, and
decades in association with soil particles in rivers, lakes chromium. Anthropogenic activities were considered as
and ocean sediments. In Australia, more than 2 000 km2 the main possible driver.
of agricultural soils and sediments on the east coast are In Bangladesh, tanneries and brick kiln industries are
affected by PCDD/PCDF from past use of PCPs in sources of soil pollution by trace elements and pose
agriculture. Similarly, the use of PCP in China for snail a threat to the environment as well as to human health.
control has contaminated agricultural soils. The more Hazaribagh, in the city of Dhaka, is considered a
recent use of pesticides containing PCDD/PCDF, such highly polluted site due to tannery effluent loaded with
as quintozene and 2,4-D in agriculture or on golf courses, chromium. Extremely high levels of chromium were
has resulted in the release and additional formation of detected at the site and there is excessive concentration
PCDD/PCDF. Polluted soils have also been identified in in subsoils.
Vietnam at a former pesticide storage site.
Monometallic minerals sources are most exploited by
The Indian subcontinent has long used persistent China, followed by India, Vietnam, Indonesia, South
pesticides, including DDT and HCH. Soils are Korea and Japan. There is potential for deteriorating air
contaminated at pesticide production sites such as former and water quality in the vicinity of quarrying activities.
HCH producers in India or former DDT production in However, there is no aggregated information on the
Pakistan. In Bangladesh, organochlorine pesticides effect of quarrying on soil pollution status in the Asia-
(OCPs) are present in soil and water due to the widespread Pacific region.
use of these chemicals before OCPs were banned by the
Stockholm Convention. Agricultural soils in China also Trace element pollution is high in Southeast Asian
show a high concentration of organic contaminants, but countries and the problem has worsened due to the
to a lesser extent than trace elements pollution. In New growing number of chemical industries and generally
Zealand, agrochemical use and livestock treatment has weak environmental regulation in the region (Ding,
resulted in soil pollution by the legacy compound DDT, 2019). Mining is the main cause of trace element pollution
as well as dieldrin, trace elements and their compounds in soil, sediments and surface waters in Thailand.
such as arsenic and lead arsenate. Australian mine sites, both former and active mines,
The use of Agent Orange, containing dioxin compounds, present a soil pollution risk through acidic drainage/
during the Vietnam War between 1962 and 1971 sludge, leakage from oil storage and on-site landfilling
reportedly resulted in both non-carcinogenic and of process wastes. Australia has approximately 60 000
carcinogenic health risks to local civilians and military abandoned mining sites.
personnel involved in the war. However, the health risk In New Zealand, a number of industrial sites are polluted
associated with dioxin pollution from Agent Orange and with various toxic substances. Former timber treatment
its bioavailability in soil has been investigated in only a and gasworks sites may contain trace elements such
very small number of studies due to technical difficulties. as arsenic, chromium, copper, boron and organic
The identification of “emerging contaminants” in soil is compounds, such as coal tar and pentachlorophenol.
also gaining relevance in the region and some countries, Accidental leaks of chemical facilities from urban
including Australia, have started identification and and industrial sites cause soil pollution by petroleum
monitoring programmes for these contaminants of hydrocarbons; while mining operations, such as mineral
growing concern. processing and legacy sites with tailing dams are another
source of soil pollution by trace elements (such as arsenic
and cadmium).
Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 19
Waste disposal and management Geogenic sources
Thailand is one of the fastest-growing economies in the This region is particularly affected by contaminants of
region, and concern about polluted sites is also growing, geogenic origin. Arsenic is considered the most serious
not only because of native wastes but also because of mobile contaminant from geogenic sources in South
imported contaminants. The main sources of pollution are Asia. Although arsenic has been detected in groundwater
mining, petrochemical industries and illegal dumping, as worldwide, as a consequence of natural processes,
well as waste processing facilities (including landfills and South Asian countries are among the most vulnerable to
recycling facilities). arsenic pollution of groundwater. The source of arsenic
In Australia, solid waste generated by the rapid growth in groundwater/aquifer is derived from arsenic-bearing
of solar panel installations now appears to be a new sediments, mainly from the reductive dissolution of
concern for landfills. Normally, the lifetime of a solar iron oxyhydroxides where organic matter and microbes
panel is about 20 years, so the earliest installation panels play a crucial role in the mobilization of arsenic. Heavy
are being retired in Australia. The main components of groundwater withdrawals for irrigation are thought
solar panels - the photovoltaic panel - are glass, polymer to be the main reason for such pollution. South Asia,
and aluminium, but they may also contain potentially particularly the Bengal delta region, is a major hotspot
hazardous materials such as lead, copper and zinc, for arsenic pollution from geogenic sources. Geothermal
gallium, tellurium, indium, rare earth and plastics. and volcanic activity on the Pacific “ring of fire” also
contributes arsenic and other metals to soils and waters
The unregulated or superficially regulated disposal of
of the region.
end-of-life (EOL) vehicles and ships is a source of soil
pollution. In this region, in addition to domestically
Industrial accidents and military activity
disposed vehicles, the disposal of imported EOL vehicles
and ships is also a growing market – this is mainly referred In Japan, soil pollution by radioactive substances remains
to as the “wreckage industry.” For example, Bangladesh a significant problem. The case of Fukushima is a notable
has one of the largest ship-breaking industries in the incident. On 11 March 2011, the Fukushima Daiichi
world, where EOL ships come from many developed nuclear disaster occurred. In May 2013, the UN scientific
countries. The threat posed by EOL vehicles to soil and committee on the effects of atomic radiation concluded
sediment health depends largely on management and that there was no immediate health impact from exposure,
regulation. For example, EOL vehicles constitute a large but that future impacts were still undetermined. However,
market for recycling aluminium. On the other hand, they soils contaminated primarily with caesium-137 (137 Cs)
are a significant source of chemicals that are harmful to remain a significant concern. The authorities initially
humans and ecosystems. Contaminants include trace planned to use the massive amount of soil collected
elements (cadmium, mercury, copper, chromium, from the 13 000 km2 of exposed area for construction
lead), PCBs, PAHs and other POPs. Local atmospheric purposes, such as road foundation and embankments.
pollution from these priority substances can also lead to However, there has been considerable public concern
soil pollution through aerial deposition and fallout. about the possibility of reusing these contaminated soils.
Defence operations, military weapons testing and the
legacy of nuclear bomb testing remained a key issue in
the Asia-Pacific region. However, information on the
effect and extent of these operations on soil pollution in
particular is often limited. The legacy of nuclear testing
in the Pacific Islands by the United States of America
includes soil pollution. For example, approximately
85 000 m3 of radioactive waste was buried on Runit
Island – with an estimated decay time of 24 000 years.
©Pikrepo

20 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (Eurasia)

The Eurasian region covers an area of about 2 million hectares with an estimated population of 239.8 million people.
According to political and cultural differences, geographical location and socio-economic background, the 12
countries can be divided into three sub-regions: Eastern European countries (Belarus, the Republic of Moldova, the
Russian Federation and Ukraine), Caucasus republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia), and Central Asian countries
(Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan).
Eurasia has an array of soil pollution problems primarily dating from activities carried out in the former Soviet Union, of
which all of the Eurasian countries were a part prior to its collapse in 1991. The soils of Eurasia could be regarded as
strongly polluted due to the intensive and rapid industrial development of the Soviet Union, excessive militarization of
some areas, and the imbalanced use of agrochemicals (FAO, 2018b). Some details of the main sources of soil pollution
in Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia and their distribution in the region are shown below (Figure 11).

Industrial Mining
activities

Agriculture

Nuclear
Urban settings, activity
transport and
municipal waste Oil
treatment industry

Military
activities

Figure 11. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia
The boxes represent an estimate of the relative importance of each source as perceived by regional experts, and their size is related to their relative importance. The
larger the size, the greater the relative importance

Map source: UN, 2020, modified according to the GSP Regional Soil Partnership organization

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 21

There are no regional or comprehensive national quantities were reported, with 25 000 tonnes in 4 000
inventories of polluted sites available for the region. depots. Data received during the 2015 inventory again
According to the TSIP database there are 424 polluted reported about 24 500 tonnes, despite the fact that in the
sites in eight countries of the Eurasian region (Armenia, period 2007-2015, some 35 000 tonnes were destroyed
Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian abroad.
Federation, Tajikistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan). Trace
element pollution occurs at 54 percent of the sites, with At the beginning of 2000, the reduction of soil pollution
lead (16 percent), and arsenic (10 percent), together by OPs started throughout the Eurasian region. Thus,
with radionuclides including uranium (15 percent), under the Arctic Council Action Plan to Eliminate
accounting for the majority of sites. Persistent organic Pollution of the Arctic (ACAP), approximately 2 000
pollutants accounted for 27 percent of sites, while the tonnes of OPs were repackaged in north-western Russia.
remaining 19 percent of sites included volatile organic With the support of the World Bank, 1 150 tonnes of
compounds, sulphur dioxide, particulate matter, POPs and 1 060 tonnes of PCB and PCB-polluted soils
asbestos and cyanide. Of the sites examined, 177 were were treated in Moldova in 2006-2007. The Dutch
legacy sites, 102 were active, and 118 were both. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in cooperation with the Dutch
report states that only a small fraction of the total hotspots Foundation DOEN and PSO, financed the reduction of
was captured in data, but it does provide useful overview OPs in Moldova, Kyrgyzstan and Georgia (2005-2008);
information. about 400 tonnes of OPs were repacked and stored. In
Armenia under the framework of an FAO programme,
Agriculture 1 050 tonnes of POP pesticides were destroyed and
12 700 tonnes of soil less polluted by POP pesticides
A 2016 report by the International HCH & Pesticides were buried.
Association assessed obsolete pesticides (OPs) and other
persistent organic pollutant (POP) waste in countries of Industrial activities and mining
Eastern Europe, Caucasus, and Middle Asia. Pesticide
waste was greatest in the Middle Asian countries (76.1 Mining and ore processing are major point sources of trace
thousand tonnes), followed by Eastern Europe (34 element pollution throughout the region. In Armenia, the
thousand tonnes) and Caucasus (17.75 thousand major sources of soil pollution are wastes from chemical
tonnes). Other POP waste was highest in the Middle and mining industries, which were intensively exploited
Asian countries (242.6 thousand tonnes) followed by during the Soviet era. In particular, areas affected by waste
Eastern Europe (44.95 thousand tonnes) and Caucasus from the Nairid synthetic rubber plant (Nairid), copper
(2.8 thousand tonnes). Kazakhstan accounts for a high mining (Alaverdi), and molybdenum mining (Kajaran and
percentage of the total other POP waste with 240.400 Megri) are of concern in Armenia. In Tajikistan, local
thousand tonnes of other POP waste. industry is causing transboundary pollution, such as the
Tursunzade aluminium plant, which is one of the largest
No comparable estimates were found for the Russian smelters in the region and is continuously polluting
Federation, but large organochlorine production sites the soil with fluorine at the border with Uzbekistan. In
have been operated in the Russian Federation (such Kyrgyzstan, the main cause of soil pollution is past and
as Ufa and Chapaevsk) that have created large POPs present mining activities, in particular uranium mining.
contaminated areas including dioxin contamination. Soil pollution in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan was caused
by the Aral Sea disaster. The enormous water withdrawals
There were 183 former pesticide disposal sites and agro-
carried out over decades have led to the reduction of the
airstrips at the end of 1990 in southern Kyrgyzstan. In
Aral Sea. In the 1980s, the lake was reduced by 75 to 80
total, at least 1 876 tonnes of pesticides were buried,
percent in volume and 50 to 60 percent in area; in 1990s,
including 1 033 tonnes of POPs in two major dumpsites.
it was separated into the small Aral Sea in the north and
Soil pollution still exists in the areas of pesticide disposal,
the large Aral Sea in the south. In 2019, only 10 percent
former pesticides storehouses, agro-air strips and cotton
of the former Aral Sea is water-filled and the rest has been
fields, whose production required the application of large
transformed into desert. The former seabed has become
quantities of pesticides.
a constant source of pollution through the mobilization
The different inventories accomplished in the Eurasian of sediments polluted by pesticides and trace elements;
region have stated that statistical data on OPs and POPs about 75 million tonnes per year of toxins and salts are
have not been collected in a systematic way, and that mobilized by the erosion of the polluted sediments and
existing data are insufficiently defined and unreliable, deposited over thousands of square kilometres.
leading to an inherent uncertainty in the data and land The Russian Federation and Kazakhstan rank on the first
use plans. For example, in Ukraine in 2005, the number and second position among Eurasian countries in terms
of OPs was 22 000 tonnes in 5 000 deposits, while, of the extent of polychlorinated (PCB) polluted soils. The
according to the inventories carried out in 2007, larger inventory of PCBs in industrial waste was carried out in

22 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

the Russian Federation in 2000 for 600 enterprises, and 1991, some 4 500 military sites were reported to have
the chemical and petrochemical sectors, ferrous and non- occupied 600 000 ha of agricultural land, and only a very
ferrous metallurgical industries, mechanical engineering limited number of these sites were monitored. The sites
and timber (beside military sector) were reviewed. were found to be severely polluted with trace elements,
Industrial wastes released about 3 160 tonnes of PCBs petroleum products, and other chemicals and military by-
into the soil, in addition to the Sovtol spill, which polluted products.
soil with about 140 tonnes of PCBs. The mining sites abandoned and destroyed during the
In Kazakhstan, a programme for the control, management military conflict in eastern Ukraine in the Donbass region
and monitoring of POPs was developed in accordance represent an environmental challenge. When a mine is
with the “Concept of environmental protection of the abandoned, groundwater is no longer pumped out; it
Republic of Kazakhstan for 2004-2015.” Since then, fills mine cavities, leading to water and soil pollution and
80 tonnes of electrical transformers and 169 tonnes of subsidence. There are about 35 mines already flooded,
electrical capacitors have been incinerated in France, and 70 are predicted to be flooded in the upcoming years.
and 10 052 electrical capacitors have been disposed of Annual runoff of contaminated water from flooded mines
in Germany. Approximately 56 000 capacitors are still is estimated at 760 million m3, of which nearly 2.5 million
located in different areas, 15 000 of which were buried in tonnes/year of salts and trace elements (mercury, lead
the Semipalatinsk nuclear facility. and arsenic) are deposited to water bodies and soil.
In Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and the Soil pollution by radionuclides and trace elements from
Russian Federation, the petroleum industry is one of the former military activities has been identified as the cause
main sources of soil pollution. In Azerbaijan, a massive of pollution of military sites in Abkhazia, South Ossetia
petroleum pollution occurred in the past when oil from and Kazakhstan; however, at some sites there is little or
the Caspian Sea was supplied intensively throughout no information available on where radioactive materials
the Soviet Union. An area of more than 33 000 ha is were buried in the past.
considered to be contaminated by oil pumping and
processing activities in the Absheron Peninsula, and Industrial accidents
almost half of this area – 15 000 ha – is heavily polluted
Soil pollution by radionuclides is a serious problem
and is a major environmental concern. In Turkmenistan,
through the region, from both the Chernobyl catastrophe
the main causes of soil pollution are the oil and chemical
(Ukraine) of April 1986 and the legacy of extensive
industries located in the western part of the country on
uranium mining and former military activity in other
the banks of the Caspian Sea.
parts of the region. Global radionuclide contamination
In the Russian Federation, around 100 000 ha of resulting from the Chernobyl catastrophe is estimated at
agricultural land and pastures are contaminated due to oil 34 million hectares. Of the total contaminated area, 20
spills. In the oil regions of Western Kazakhstan and the million hectares of highly polluted radioactive soils are
Torgay plain, an area of more than 500 thousand hectares, in Europe, 70 percent of which are in Eastern European
there are large sections of soil contaminated with oil and countries: Belarus, Ukraine and the Russian Federation.
radioactive materials, high levels of salinity with industrial In 1986, right after the explosion at the Chernobyl
wastewater, and technological transformation of the soil nuclear power station, an area of 400 000 ha surrounding
landscape, leading to the accumulation of toxic trace the reactor was isolated in Ukraine (known as the 30-km
elements such as lead, cobalt, nickel and vanadium. “death zone”) and there is no activity there even today.
In addition, an area polluted by radionuclides equal to
Urban expansion and municipal waste treatment 204 000 ha was excluded from cultivation in Ukraine,
Urban expansion is one of the main drivers of soil pollution 210 000 ha was excluded in Belarus and 17 000 ha was
in the Russian Federation and Ukraine. Urban sprawl excluded in the Russian Federation.
leads to an increase in municipal waste and overloading Over the years, the level of air and water pollution has
of landfills, soil pollution from transport, and the decreased; however, secondary pollution has appeared
expansion of transport infrastructure including gasoline due to the transfer from soil to plant, as radionuclides have
and oil stations, airports, railway and bus stations. This is moved to the flora and fauna from polluted soil and water.
particularly true for metropolitan cities. Humans are affected by the consumption of contaminated
agricultural products that exceed the permitted levels
Military activities of radionuclides, especially long-rooted crops such
as potatoes, beets or carrots, berries and mushrooms,
In Ukraine and other points in the region, past and
because the radioactive contamination moves from
present military activities are an important driver of soil
the surface to deeper layers of the soil. In addition,
pollution. During the Soviet era, Ukraine was actively
fish, meat, and dairy products have become sources of
exploited by the Soviet army for test sites, rocket storage,
secondary radioactive pollution, due to the consumption
and tank and aircraft parking area. After independence in

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 23

 of contaminated grass by animals. Since 2010, a third In Turkmenistan, radioactive wastes that were generated
source of radionuclide pollution has appeared as a result as a by-product during the manufacture of iodine and
of frequent fires in the area around the Chernobyl reactor bromine from groundwater by absorption methods
and dust storms that carry contaminated particles over had also affected soil quality in Khazar and Balkanabat
long distances by wind and precipitation. locations. Radioactive waste was generated during the
Uranium mining and processing activities have been years 1940-1990, when the method of adsorption with
carried out in Central Asia since the 1940s, particularly activated carbon was used for the production of iodine
in the mountainous areas above the Syr Darya River and and bromine from the mineral groundwater of these two
the Fergana Valley, where the borders of Kyrgyzstan, cities. In 2009-2012, Turkmenistan implemented a
Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan meet. Closed sites programme in which 47 500 m2 of the plants’ territories
containing uranium and other hazardous wastes from were remediated. The radioactive wastes from the
radioactive processing in densely populated areas such most polluted sites were collected, packaged in bags or
as the Fergana Valley pose a threat to the environment containers and transported to the storage site, built in the
and to human health. The risks have been recognized by desert, some seven kilometres from the Caspian Sea. In
United Nations Resolution 68/218 of 2013, which calls 2010, the storage site was additionally reinforced with
for assistance to Central Asia in the remediation of these concrete walls and equipped by monitoring drill holes
sites. and a drainage system.
©Pexels/Abby Chung

24 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 Europe

The European chapter presents the situation and trends of soil pollution in the 27 Member States of the European
Union (EU) and Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iceland, Israel, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia,
Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The region has a total population of about 550 million and is relatively
homogeneous in terms of development and income.
The main source of information on the state of soils and the environment in 37 of the 38 countries are the regular reports
and indicators of the European Environment Agency and the European Environment Information and Observation
Network (EIONET). For Israel, scientific literature has been reviewed.
In Europe, there are about 650 000 sites identified as potentially polluted and that are inserted in national and/or
regional inventories. Some details of the main sources of soil pollution in Europe and their distribution in the region
are shown below (Figure 12).

Urban settings,
transport and
municipal waste
treatment

Industrial Agriculture
activities

Military
Mining activities

Figure 12. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Europe
The boxes represent an estimate of the relative importance of each source as perceived by regional experts, and their size is related to their relative importance. The
larger the size, the greater the relative importance

Map source: UN, 2020, modified according to the GSP Regional Soil Partnership organization

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 25

Industrial and commercial activities the EU-27 exceed the critical value for N in runoff to
European countries have a long industrial history that, surface water (2.5 mg N/l) above which eutrophication
together with commercial activities and waste disposal is expected. About 40 percent of agricultural soils would
and treatment, have caused almost two thirds of the point need a reduction of N inputs to avoid eutrophication of
source soil pollution. The main contaminants associated surrounding water bodies. In North Macedonia, animal
with these industrial activities are mineral oils, trace husbandry and manure management, overuse of inorganic
elements (such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, nickel, or zinc) nitrogen fertiliser and manure additions to soils were
and organic contaminants such as halogenated and non- responsible of 89 percent emissions of ammonia (NH3).
halogenated solvents, PCBs and PAHs. PFASs are also a This percentage increases to 98 percent of ammonia
major concern in Europe having been detected in soils, emissions in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
groundwater, biota, and in the European population. Trace elements such as arsenic, cadmium, copper,
PFASs are used in a wide range of consumer products chromium, mercury, nickel, lead, and zinc have also been
and industrial applications, although the exact amount detected in agricultural soils originated from multiple
and type of PFASs used in Europe are unknown. There sources, including pesticides, synthetic fertilisers, animal
are an estimated 100 000 PFAS-emitting sites. manure, liming materials, sewage sludge, compost, and
In EU Member States, about 2.8 million sites are atmospheric deposition. About 21 percent of agricultural
suspected to be potentially polluted, although only one soils in Europe present levels of cadmium above the
quarter are included in national registries. In Switzerland, regulatory thresholds.
60 percent of polluted sites correspond to industrial
areas while the rest are landfills and areas where industrial Urban settings
accidents occurred. High levels of cadmium in Slovenian Around 73 percent of Europe’s population lives in cities,
soils originate primarily from the past industrial activity, and this proportion is expected to reach 82 percent by
such as zinc smelters. According to the 2014 report 2050. Urban soils are affected by car exhaust emission,
of the Israeli Ministry of Environmental Protection, improper waste disposal and a variety of household
industrial activities are responsible for three quarters of contaminants, especially organic contaminants.
the polluted sites in the country, mostly due to inadequate Around 640 million tonnes of construction and
treatment or disposal of industrial wastewater, waste and demolition, municipal, and electronic waste are produced
hazardous materials. in Europe annually, of which only half is recycled on
average, although recycling rate is reduced to 30 percent
Agriculture for electronic waste. Israel has a high rate of landfilling
Agriculture has traditionally been the major land use with only 21 percent of the country’s municipal solid
activity in Europe and represents around 25 percent of waste (MSW) recycled while the rest is disposed in
Europe’s land cover (194 304 ha of land). Agriculture landfills that are reaching maximum capacity and have the
represents a significant source of diffuse pollution in potential to contaminate soil and groundwater.
the region, mainly due to the use of agrochemicals. Although there has been significant progress in Europe in
The analysis of agricultural soils sampled under the EU terms of landfill control and containment measures, there
LUCAS survey showed that 80 percent of agricultural are still numerous illegal landfills scattered throughout
soils contain pesticide residues, with 58 percent of soils Europe. For example, about 340 illegal dumpsites were
presenting a mixture of pesticides residues and only identified in Bosnia Herzegovina in 2018.
17 percent of soils being free of pesticides. The main
pesticides detected in agricultural soils were glyphosate Mining
and its by-products, DDT and its residues and fungicides.
Mining activities are common and widely distributed
In France, the most common pesticide found in soils were
in Europe, but differences in regulations have led to an
by-products of lindane, especially in the northern region,
unequal impact on the environment. Mining and mineral
that may have come from volatilization of lindane applied
processing has played a vital part in the history and
to intensively cultivated areas, which was then transported
economy of the Western Balkans and Turkey, especially
by prevailing winds coming from the southwest and
of antimony, cobalt, copper, gallium, lead, rare-earth
deposited in a densely inhabited basin. In Finland, about
elements, zinc and asbestos. Abandoned and orphan sites
15 percent of groundwater samples situated in intensive
are scattered throughout the region without the proper
agricultural areas contained pesticides and exceed quality
containment measures in place. Montenegro has seen
standards for pesticide content.
an increase in hazardous waste from mining in the last
Although the gross nitrogen balance has decreased in few years, reaching values of 326 000 tonnes in 2019.
recent decades in EU Member States, 45 percent of Mineral and coal mining activities in Serbia have also left
nitrogen inputs still come from synthetic fertilisers, some long-lasting industrial landfills that pose a risk to
while manure accounts for 38 percent of nitrogen inputs. neighbouring populations.
Approximately 65-75 percent of agricultural soils in

26 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

In Spain, at the Guadiamar site, several hundred cubic alone, some 3 200 polluted sites await remediation.
metres of mine tailings were discharged into nearby The Kosovo conflict has also left stockpiles of weapons
water systems affecting 4 600 ha of agriculture and in the Balkan countries. In Montenegro, despite
pastures due to the dam break in 1998. In Hungary, in demilitarisation and management of the remaining
2010, about 1 million m3 of red sludge suspension was weapons, the soil polluted by depleted uranium bombs
released into the environment due to a failure of a tank still poses a risk to the population. Routine measurements
wall in an alumina industry. The emergency response and are now being carried out at four sites in Serbia to monitor
remediation measures cost the Hungarian government depleted uranium contamination. After the war, Serbia
about EUR 127 million. In Montenegro, 3.9 million had the highest rate of malignant tumours in Europe, with
tonnes of toxic flotation tailings from the lead and zinc more than 30 000 people diagnosed with cancer in the
mines were deposited on the banks of the Ćehotina River. first 10 years since the bombing, and a mortality rate of
one in three cases. Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the
Military activities most landmine-polluted countries in the world. To date,
Many countries in Europe still suffer from the legacy of it has some 1 366 settlements affected by landmines,
pollution caused by arms manufacturing industries, as which limit agricultural and livestock activities, due to the
well as chemical weapons stockpiles, and munitions left release of trace elements and organic contaminants such
over from the First and Second World Wars. In Germany as PAHs or PCBs.

©Unsplash/Frederic Paulussen

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 27

 Latin America and the Caribbean

The Latin American and the Caribbean region includes 43 countries and territories. The countries in the region can be
grouped into three sub-regions: the Caribbean, Central America, and South America.
The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC, 2019) indicated that the region has the
highest inequality in the world, especially with regard to access to healthcare and the exercise of political, economic,
social, and cultural rights.
Some details of the main sources of soil pollution in Latin America and the Caribbean and their distribution in the
region are shown below (Figure 13).

Oil
industry

Agriculture Mining

Urban settings,
transport and
municipal waste
treatment

Figure 13. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Latin America and the Caribbean
The boxes represent an estimate of the relative importance of each source as perceived by regional experts, and their size is related to their relative importance. The
larger the size, the greater the relative importance

Map source: UN, 2020, modified according to the GSP Regional Soil Partnership organization

28 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Agriculture Significant pollution by trace elements associated with
Latin America and the Caribbean has the world’s mining has been reported in Jamaica, Mexico, Colombia,
largest reserves of arable land. During the last 50 years Ecuador, Chile, Brazil, Suriname and Argentina. In
the region’s agricultural surface area increased from Central America, gold, silver, lead, and zinc are the
561 million ha to 741 million ha. most common mined elements, associated to iron, lead,
mercury, cadmium, arsenic, and cyanide contaminants.
The main agricultural practices contributing to soil
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining operations are
pollution in the region are the mismanagement of mineral
generally high in the region. The use of mercury and
fertilisers and pesticides, which are widely applied in the
arsenic compounds in mining activities and the use of
region, and the use of uncomposted manure and slurry
huge amounts of water for shale oil exploitation cause
as fertilisers. Latin America and the Caribbean has the
downstream pollution in soils and waters. There is no
highest average pesticide use per cropped area in the
comprehensive summary for the region and this list is
world. According to ECLAC (2012), poor pesticide use
likely to be incomplete.
and management practices can lead to transboundary
impacts of pesticide-laden runoff into rivers and the
Urban waste management
ocean.
Fertiliser use has also increased in recent decades. Mexico, The mismanagement of solid waste and wastewater has
Argentina and Chile are the countries with the highest led to serious soil pollution in the region. Direct dumping
rates of nitrogen pollution in water due to excessive into the nearest watercourse without prior treatment is a
application of nitrogen fertilisers in the Latin American frequent practice that has a direct impact on soils.
and the Caribbean region. The use of phosphate fertilisers In 2016, the region generated 231 million tonnes of
has also increased in the region during the 21st Century, municipal solid waste, of which, on average, only 55
and is especially relevant in South American countries. percent was properly managed and 4.5 percent was
Besides the high eutrophication risk posed by phosphates recycled. However, there were great differences between
leached or transported by runoff to neighbouring water countries.
bodies, phosphate fertilisers constitute a source of trace Three quarters of wastewater flows back into rivers and
elements, in particular cadmium. other water sources, some of which are then used to
There is a pressing need to deal with hazardous stockpiles irrigate crop soils. Wastewater can contain a diverse range
of obsolete pesticides in the region. Abandoned pesticide of contaminants, from pathogenic microorganisms to
containers and buried stockpiles are a widespread issue. organic pollutants and trace elements such as chromium,
For example, in Colombia, about 500 tonnes of obsolete copper, mercury and zinc, which can create public
pesticides are located in warehouses and illegal burials in health and environmental problems. Many countries
different parts of the country, but these sites have still not in the region have collection and distribution pipes for
been accurately identified. In El Salvador, the Ministry of wastewater flows, which in many cases have been poorly
Environment and Natural Resources found more than 62 maintained and have started to leak, causing pollution of
tonnes of pesticide wastes, in addition to contaminating soil and groundwater.
solvents and equipment. Additionally, the mixing of household and hazardous
As well as issues with storage of obsolete pesticides, many industrial waste was a common practice in the Latin
areas in the region are polluted by past pesticide use. For American and Caribbean region. Hazardous and
example, in Nicaragua, toxafeno, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, industrial wastes were discharged in open dumps with
lindane and endosulfan were used intensively in the no containment or leachate management, and without
1980s and 1990s, and residues remain in the soil. previous treatment posing risk to the environment and
human health (Figure 14). Industrial activities release
Mining mixtures of organic and inorganic contaminants into the
soil.
Mining is a source of soil pollution by trace elements
in the region and it is associated with the extraction of
precious metals such as gold, lead, nickel, silver, zinc,
lithium, iron, tin, bauxite and aluminium, and copper.
The ECLAC 2018 report indicates that Latin America
and the Caribbean has a significant share in the world’s
reserves of the main metallic minerals, with 61 percent
for lithium, 39 percent for copper, 32 percent for silver
and nickel, 25 percent for molybdenum and tin, 23
percent for zinc, 18 percent for bauxite and aluminium,
15 percent for iron and lead, and 11 percent for gold
(ECLAC, 2018).

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 29

 Marine
litter
Disease vectors and
spread of infections Water, soil and
pathologies air pollution

Informal Global
recycling warming

Environmental
and Health issues

Waste fractions
unmanaged
Open dumping Open burning

Used tires
Municipal
solid waste

Waste of electric
and electronic
Healthcare equipment
waste
Used batteries and
Construction and other hazardous
demolition waste waste

Figure 14. Possible source of solid waste and their impact on human and environment
Source: adapted from Ferronato and Torretta, 2019
©Pikrepo

30 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 Near East and North Africa

The Near East and North Africa (NENA) region consists of 20 countries. These include Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran
(Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.
The total population in the NENA region is over 485 million people, of which rural populations represent approximately
38 percent, although for some countries this percentage is significantly less. The gross domestic products in the NENA
region also differ widely between countries. With a significant part of its territory either desert or degraded lands (more
than 80 percent by area), the NENA region has a low proportion of productive soils, and the dispersion of contaminants
by dust transport is a particular concern in this region. Some details of the main sources of soil pollution in Near East
and North Africa and their distribution in the region are shown below (Figure 15).

Oil
Industrial industry
activities

Urban settings,
transport and
municipal waste
treatment

Agriculture
Mining

Figure 15. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in Near East and North Africa
The boxes represent an estimate of the relative importance of each source as perceived by regional experts, and their size is related to their relative importance. The
larger the size, the greater the relative importance

Map source: UN, 2020, modified according to the GSP Regional Soil Partnership organization

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 31

Urban waste management and transport In Sudan, severe environmental damage such as dust and
networks gas emission, deforestation, mercury pollution and the
In the NENA region, solid waste management mainly deterioration of landscape from gold mining are observed.
consists of landfilling or uncontrolled open dumps. The
landfills and dumps often receive domestic, hospital Agriculture
and industrial wastes, which are often burned. More Agricultural intensification has long been a priority
than 81 million tonnes of municipal solid waste are to address food security for a growing population in
generated each year in Egypt, of which less than the region, and has been closely linked to the use of
20 percent is adequately treated and less than 5 percent agrochemical inputs. Agriculture in this region is often
is recycled. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, more than concentrated in deltas and river floodplains. Trace
2 000 tonnes of hazardous medical wastes including elements and many other contaminants migrate attached
infectious, toxic, spontaneously combustible materials, to eroded soil particles and settle as sediments in water
and potentially carcinogenic, corrosive and reactive bodies. Floods can then mix the sediments with lowland
substances were disposed in the same landfill as domestic soils. For example, the Ibrahim River (Lebanon) river bed
wastes without any control. Eighty-five percent of urban sediments and adjacent floodplain soils show increased
waste is collected in Morocco, but less than 40 percent is levels of cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, manganese,
disposed in controlled landfills. nickel, lead and zinc from the upstream source to the sea
Transport is the major source of pollution in Algeria, outlet.
Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Agricultural soils along the Orontos River in Syria
Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. have increased levels of trace elements in the topsoil
Transport is not only the source of gas emission but also due to intensive agricultural practices, agrochemical
the main source of trace elements (such as cadmium, application and irrigation with untreated sewage water
chromium, lead and nickel) input to the soil. Dust in a densely populated semi-arid area in south-western
collected from street pavements in Abadan, the Islamic Syria with urban and industrial expansion. Agricultural
Republic of Iran, in areas with dense vehicle traffic soils revealed acceptable levels of lead concentration, but
showed high levels of trace elements. areas located along and in the vicinity of the riverbanks
showed high values of lead that exceed Syrian standards.
Industrial activities Phosphorus fertilisers may contain trace elements as
The principal industries in the region are manufacture impurities, mainly cadmium, zinc, lead, copper, antimony,
of paper, plastic and pipes; cement industry; food silver, palladium, niobium and molybdenum. Based
processing; construction; oil extraction, transportation on agricultural practices and the excessive application
and refining; and energy production. Industry is one of fertilisers prevailing in the eastern Mediterranean
of the main sources of soil pollution by trace elements countries, the average annual load of zinc, copper, lead
(arsenic, barium, cobalt, chromium, nickel, and zinc) in and cadmium is expected to reach levels that can be
the NENA region. tolerable in the short term, but which might in the long
Dust input has been reported as the main source of term lead to trace element accumulation in the soil.
diffuse pollution that carries trace elements emitted by The NENA countries are characterised by high pesticide
industry and energy production, and can be found in air, use on agricultural soils, although there are significant
water and soil in significant parts of the NENA region. variations, with Palestine (9 kg/ha/y) and Lebanon (7
There is a growing concern in the region about the kg/ha/y) applying the highest rates, while Iraq, Sudan,
increasing frequency of dust storms from bare and desert Yemen or Mauritania apply much lower doses (<0.2 kg/
lands, which carry particulate matter due to wind erosion. ha/y).
Dust blown from the soil surface can also carry fixed trace An emergent problem for the NENA region is the
elements. As it travels, the particulate matter can be management of obsolete pesticides, amounting to several
enriched with emission from industrial and transport and thousand tonnes, stored in inappropriate locations and in
can cause health problems in urban areas. For example, a risky manner. Toxic chemicals, often stored outdoors
monitoring of lead, zinc, cadmium, chromium, and nickel where leakage is common, seep into the soil and water
content of indoor house dust and outdoor street dust was and increase the risk of poisoning.
carried out at 76 sites in Bahrain. Lead was predominant
among the trace elements in areas with heavy traffic, but
elevated levels of zinc, cadmium, chromium and nickel
were also noted. Automobile exhaust and dust were the
main sources of lead and nickel in both the street and
indoor dust.

32 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 North America

The North America region includes the United States of America (US) and Canada. The United States of America and
Canada are large countries (9.83 million km2 and 9.98 million km2, respectively) with highly developed, diversified,
economies with large resource extraction, agriculture and manufacturing sectors. Similar economies and levels
of development have led to similar soil pollution sources and extent. There are thousands of polluted sites in both
countries, of varying size and significance, in settings ranging from abandoned buildings in inner cities to large areas
polluted with toxic materials from past industrial or mining activities.
In 2017, United States of America EPA and its state partners reported monitoring approximately 640 000 to 1 319
100 facilities to prevent releases to communities. The monitoring programme only cover sites currently producing
potential contaminants and not legacy sites or areas polluted by nonpoint sources. In July 2019, there were 23 663
federal sites included in Canada’s Federal Inventory of Contaminated Sites, with 16 845 sites listed as closed because
remediation is not feasible. Some details of the main sources of soil pollution in North America and their distribution in
the region are shown below (Figure 16).

Urban settings,
transport and
Agriculture municipal waste
treatment

Mining
Industrial
activities

Nuclear
activity
Geogenic Oil
sources industry

Military
activities

Figure 16. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in North America
The boxes represent an estimate of the relative importance of each source as perceived by regional experts, and their size is related to their relative importance. The
larger the size, the greater the relative importance

Map source: UN, 2020, modified according to the GSP Regional Soil Partnership organization

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 33

Industrial activities is estimated to be 500 kg per year. Considering that tens
of thousands of tonnes of PFAS were disposed in landfills,
The environment protection agencies of both countries
this release will likely continue for centuries, since PFAS
receive an annual report from the industries on the amount
are more persistent than the containment systems of
of toxic substances released in the three environmental
landfills.
compartments: water, air and land. The dataset is publicly
available in the form of inventories called the National
Mining and extractive activities
Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) for Canada and the
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) for the US. Canada has many sources of soil pollution related
NPRI’s 2018 registry, contains information on emissions to its large resource extraction industries (metals,
from some 7 699 facilities, which released approximately radionuclides, oil, natural gas, bitumen, coal), as well as
2.8 million tonnes of contaminants directly into the a developed industrial and manufacturing sector. Canada
environment (air, water and land), while 1.37 million is the global leader in the production of potash and
tonnes were disposed of in landfills, applied to soil or ranks among the top five global producers for cadmium,
injected into the subsoil, either on-site or off-site. cobalt, diamonds, gemstones, gold, graphite, indium,
nickel, niobium, platinum group metals, salt, titanium
In Canada during 2017 the facilities responsible for the
and uranium. Canada also accounts for a significant
release of the largest amounts of contaminants to land
proportion of the global production of primary aluminium
were those supporting air transport activities, followed
from imported bauxite and alumina. Although most
by hardware manufacturing, scheduled air transport,
mines are regulated to avoid pollution from effluents and
wastewater and sewage distribution systems. In the case
mine waste by the Metal Mining Effluent Regulations, the
of land and soil, ethylene glycol, used as antifreeze and de-
metal mining sector has reported sporadic exceedances
icing agents for cars and airplanes, was the contaminant
of prescribed limits for arsenic, copper, cyanide, nickel,
with the highest levels recorded.
zinc, radium 226 and pH.
In 2017, the United States of America EPA TRI reported
An important component of Canada’s oil extraction
that approximately 1.72 billion kg of contaminants
comes from the oil sands in Alberta, the world’s third
were released into all environmental compartments
largest oil reserve, which contributes considerably to
(e.g. soil, air and water) by industrial activities. The
Canada’s economy. The oil and gas sector, besides being
main contaminants were lead (35 percent), followed
a source of many hazardous contaminants, including
by zinc (23 percent), arsenic, manganese, barium,
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and chemicals, has
copper and others. Soil represents the largest recipient
also been causing habitat destruction and fragmentation
of these contaminants (70 percent of the total amount
and water resources consumption. The vast tailing
of contaminants released to the environment), coming
ponds associated with the oil sands are a considerable
mostly from metal mining (72 percent), followed by the
concern for water resources in the region, but no studies
chemical industries, energy companies, primary metal
were found about their impact in soils. Emissions and
mining and processing, hazardous waste and others.
deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
An issue of increasing concern in the US, as in from the oil and gas sector in Alberta has been a major
other developed countries in the globe, is the vast focus for research on their effects on human health and
contamination of drinking water and soils from per- or the environment, but soil pollution with PAHs and trace
polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, which includes a elements has been reported only from sites located near
family of thousands of chemicals, including PFOA and oil sands extraction operations. There is concern about
PFOS, among others. These chemicals are used for their the occurrence, reporting and remediation of fuel spills
waterproof, greaseproof, and non-stick properties in at exploration sites in remote areas that have little or no
many consumer goods and in PFAS manufacturing and regulatory oversight, and the impact this may be having
processing facilities, airports, and military installations on soils and the environment.
that use firefighting foams. They are persistent in the
In 2019, production in the United States of America of
environment and tend to accumulate in living tissues,
crushed stone, cement, construction sand and gravel,
causing serious health issues.
gold, copper, industrial sand and gravel, iron ore, lime,
To date, PFAS pollution has been detected in the tap salt, zinc, soda ash, phosphate rock, and molybdenum
water of 1 400 communities across the US, including were each valued at more than USD 1 billion. The mining
300 military sites. The two most used and most studied industry disposes of the largest amount of waste primarily
of these, PFOA and PFOS, are no longer manufactured in the form of on-site land disposal. Lead and zinc are the
in the US. However, the largest share of PFOS and PFOA main contaminants being released from mining activities
was used on carpets, textiles, furniture and food contact in the US. In addition to active mines, abandoned mines
paper such as fast food wrapping and pizza boxes from are also a major soil pollution problem in the US. In the
1970 to 2000, and has been largely disposed to landfills state of Colorado alone, there are an estimated 23 000
for the last four decades. The release of PFAS from abandoned mines in need of rehabilitation.
municipal waste landfills in the United States of America

34 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Most of the waste from metal mining accumulates in tubing for irrigation, feed bags, fruit bags, and plastic for
unregulated landfills and surface deposits, increasing by greenhouses, plastics play an essential role in fruit and
35 percent between 2007 and 2017 (from 900 million vegetable production, but if not managed properly they
tonnes to 1.2 thousand million tonnes). The mining are a source of soil pollution. Canada has included the
sector alone is responsible for 96 percent of the lead use of plastics in agriculture in its Action Plan for Zero
and 87 percent of the zinc dumped into the soil, while Plastic waste. Canadian farming organizations have also
42 percent of total grams of dioxins released come from identified that agroplastics need to be more effective
mineral ore extraction. Dioxins are the by-products of managed and have undertaken recycling and waste
many forms of combustion and several industrial chemical characterization initiatives.
processes. Since 2010, dioxin releases increased by 102 Farmers in the United States of America currently use 57
percent and in 2017, about 52 percent of dioxins were million kg of plastic mulch and 191 million kg of plastic
released into the soil. containers annually. However, there are no policies to
require or encourage recycling agricultural plastics in
Agriculture the United States of America and knowledge about the
Agriculture has also been identified as a significant source long-term effects of plastic residues in agroecosystems is
of contamination causing pollution of water sources. In sparse.
many cases, the main point sources of pollution, such as
current or historical industrial waste dumps, are similar Natural disasters
across the country, while other diffuse and point sources In the United States of America and Canada, there have
are specific to the region, such as different types of mining been cases of mobilization of contaminants caused by
or fossil fuel extraction and processing. natural disasters. The vulnerability of people depends on
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) calculates a their proximity to the sources of contamination. To date,
series of agri-environmental indicators as key measures many cases can be listed following hurricanes and floods.
of environmental conditions, risks and changes resulting The hurricane Katrina that hit the city of New Orleans
from agriculture and of the management practices in 2005 caused the sewage system to break down and
that producers use to mitigate these risks. AAFC data contaminants spread all over the city. High concentrations
suggested that after 100 years of sustained inputs from the of lead were measured in soils in downtown New Orleans,
application of fertilisers, manure and municipal biosolids compared to the surrounding area. During the 2011
to agricultural soils, concentrations of some trace floods in the state of Colorado, mine tailings from the
elements (arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, selenium, and Jamestown mine were mixed with sediments and water.
zinc) are estimated to be three times higher than natural Furthermore, the flood swept petroleum storage devices
background levels. distributing oil and other products into the floodwaters.
The United States of America has 44 percent of its land In 2015, an error in the restoration of the mine tailing
devoted to agricultural use, so management practices caused the discharge of cadmium, arsenic, lead and
have a major impact on the national rate of soil pollution. aluminium into the Colorado River, turning it orange for
Fertiliser use has peaked in recent decades, with a 215 100 miles.
percent increase since 1960. In contrast, pesticide use
has declined due to increased use of genetically modified
seeds and conservation farming practices. In addition to
pesticides currently registered for use, banned pesticides
now known to have long-lasting environmental impacts
can be found in soil decades after application and may still
be hazardous.
Biosolid application as fertiliser in is regulated both in
Canada and the United States of America but certain
amounts of potentially toxic contaminants are allowed
within regulatory guidelines. Over 400 contaminant
compounds, including trace elements, have been
identified as potentially present in biosolids. As trace
elements tend to remain where they are applied over time
their content in soils increases. PFAS are also recognized
as potentially present in biosolids, but allowable limits
have yet to be set.
Plastics also pose a worrying risk to North America’s
©Pexels

agricultural soils. Used as mulch for crops, plastic

35
 Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa includes 48 African countries that either are located south of the Sahara desert or include a portion
of the desert in the more northern parts of these countries.
The region has experienced dramatic population growth, from an estimated 227 million in 1960 to 1.08 billion people
in 2018. Africa’s urban population increased by 2 000 percent between 1950 and 2015. In contrast to developed
countries and several developing countries, the rapid urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa has resulted in the absence of
the conventional land-use zoning approach, and people have settled in areas directly next to industrial areas, mines or
agricultural processing facilities to be in close proximity to areas with employment opportunities. This poses significant
threats to human health in areas with polluted soils. A particular risk factor in sub-Saharan Africa is the practice of
geophagy (deliberate ingestion of soil).
No large-scale regional assessment of soil pollution has yet been conducted for the region. Reports on trace
elements’ contamination and pollution dominates the information available about known and emerging
contaminants and other major contaminants include pesticides, hydrocarbons and PCBs. Some details of the main
sources of soil pollution in sub-Saharan Africa and their distribution in the region are shown below (Figure 17).

Agriculture

Urban settings,
transport and
municipal waste
Mining treatment

Oil
industry

Figure 17. Hierarchical chart showing the main sources of soil pollution in sub-Saharan African
The boxes represent an estimate of the relative importance of each source as perceived by regional experts, and their size is related to their relative importance. The
larger the size, the greater the relative importance

Map source: UN, 2020, modified according to the GSP Regional Soil Partnership organization

36 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Mining mercury have been identified in seven countries in the
region (Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mozambique, Senegal,
Sub-Saharan Africa has significant mineral resources and
the United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda).
oil deposits, the extraction and processing of which can
stimulate economic activity and provide livelihoods for Apart from the mining of minerals, the extraction and
the population. However, the extraction and processing processing of fossil fuels are also contributing to soil
of mineral deposits, both in large-scale and artisanal pollution in the region. The highest occurrence of soil
and small-scale operations, have caused extensive pollution by trace elements and hydrocarbons as a result
environmental damage and soil pollution in the region. of the petroleum industries has been reported for Nigeria
Mining and quarrying are major sources of trace elements’ and Angola. Nigeria has suffered more than 4,000 oil
contamination and pollution in sub-Saharan Africa. spills between 1960 and 2010, with volumes estimated
at more than 2 million barrels (320 000 m3), the main
The dust fallout from mine and ore smelters can cause
cause being sabotage. In Angola, the oil and gas industry
soil pollution of nearby areas, including residential and
is responsible for the oil leaks and spills that have been
agricultural areas, with documented cases where levels of
reported since 2009 in the provinces of Cabinda and
trace elements have been detected to pose a risk to the
Zaire, which have caused the pollution of coastal and
environment and human health throughout the region.
riverine sediment with at least 15 PAHs.
Trace elements at mining sites are often accompanied by
other organic contaminants which results in more complex
Waste management and transport
combinations that requires advanced remediation
techniques. Dust suppression is a practice implemented In 2012, approximately 81 million tonnes of Municipal
in the large-scale mining sector in order to reduce the Solid Waste (MSW) was generated in sub-Saharan Africa.
negative impact of dust emissions from the bare surface It is projected that by 2025, the volume of MSW will grow
haul roads that are used for the transportation of the ore to 244 million tonnes. A rising demand for electrical and
from the mine. However, this practice can also introduce electronic equipment (often with a short lifespan) such as
contaminants to the soil where it is applied. Acid mine used cell phones and computers results in an increase of
drainage from tailings storage facilities is a major cause of electronic waste. Nigeria is one of the main receivers of
soil acidification in mining areas. The reduced pH levels e-waste from Asia and Europe. In addition to the waste
of both soil and tailings increases the mobility of trace that is generated, the region receives end-of-life vehicles,
elements and radionuclides. used tyres and electronic waste from countries in other
Artisanal and small-scale mining largely depends on regions. The average recycling rate of MSW waste in
human labour and primitive extraction technologies to Africa is around 4 percent.
extract the mineral from the ore. While the exact number In addition to waste generation within the region, the
of people dependent on this type of mining in sub- shipment of waste from other regions adds to the heavy
Saharan Africa could not be calculated, it is considered a pollution burden associated with waste in sub-Saharan
key contributor to at least 23 of the regional economies. Africa.
Countries in the region where artisanal and small-scale The negative human health implications of e-waste
mining provide rural livelihoods include Burkina Faso, sites have been illustrated in a study that linked the
Mali, the United Republic of Tanzania, Sierra Leone, and concentration of contaminants present in the blood levels
the Democratic Republic of the Congo. of 245 people to the import and processing of e-waste in
The two major contaminants of concern associated with the 16 African countries. A majority of the participants
the artisanal and small-scale mining of gold are mercury from sub-Saharan Africa hailed from Western Africa
and cyanide. Elemental mercury is used to remove gold and Central Africa. It was found that people, especially
from silt by formation of a mercury-gold amalgam that is children, from areas where e-waste processing is a major
again melted to remove the gold. The washing process activity are exposed to levels of trace elements such as
leaves mercury behind in the tailings and adds it to soil aluminium, arsenic, vanadium, chromium, mercury and
or nearby water resources. The use of cyanide to recover lead that present a high risk to their health. Areas where
gold is now used by small-scale and artisanal miners in e-waste is processed through open burning, such as at the
Mozambique, the United Republic of Tanzania, Burkina Agbogbloshie waste site in Ghana, have been identified as
Faso and Zimbabwe. It has been stated that artisanal sources of soil pollution.
and small-scale mining is globally the largest emitter of Historically, one of the major sources of soil pollution
mercury, with Burkina Faso contributing 35 tonnes to associated with transport was the contamination of
the estimated 1 400 tonnes per year. In reference to the roadside soil with lead through the use of leaded fuel.
polluted sites registered by Pure Earth, the International Although the phasing out of leaded fuels started almost
Institute for Environment and Development reported that forty years ago, progress in sub-Saharan Africa was slow
75 sites in sub-Saharan Africa have been registered as in comparison to that made in Europe, the United States
being polluted by mercury. It is estimated that these sites of America and even other developing countries.
affect 2.4 million people. Sites polluted with elemental

Soil contaminants: properties, sources and health effects 37

While none of the countries in sub-Saharan Africa use organochlorine insecticides, were detected in soils of the
leaded fuels anymore, vehicular emissions from areas Awash valley state farms in Ethiopia and are attributed to
with high traffic density has been linked to elevated trace historical agricultural practices in the area. In Burkina
metal concentrations in urban soils, especially antimony Faso, endosulfan and profenofos, an organophosphate
and cadmium. insecticide, are present in the soil of both old and new
agricultural fields used for cotton production.
Industrial activities Although DDT for agricultural purposes has been banned
Through the Toxic Sites Investigation Program, Pure in the region, some countries in the region have been
Earth/Blacksmith Institute has identified sites in sub- granted exemptions under the Stockholm convention
Saharan Africa that are polluted with trace elements. to continue to use DDT for malaria’s vector control.
These include arsenic, cadmium, chromium (both Unfortunately, supplies of DDT can sometimes leak from
hexavalent and total), lead, mercury and uranium. Sites malaria control to be sold through local markets into the
with toxic lead concentrations are the most prevalent of agricultural sector.
the trace element polluted sites. Countries where lead The past burial of obsolete pesticides is another source
pollution has been detected by the TSIP include Senegal, of soil pollution that may also be a diffuse source of
Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania, Ghana, groundwater pollution through seepage. The World
Rwanda, Madagascar, Uganda and Nigeria. The high Bank has reported that in 2013, approximately 50 000
lead concentrations in soil originate from a wide range of tonnes of obsolete pesticides have been identified
activities. These activities include lead battery recycling, across the African continent. The extent of pesticide
transport, weapon manufacturing, tanneries, wastewater pollution Africa, including those classified as POPs, was
treatment plants, power plants that use coal or oil, mining determined by the Africa Stockpiles Programme (ASP)
and ore processing, smelters, auto repair workshops and of FAO. Countries that have more than 1 000 tonnes of
medical waste. obsolete pesticides include Tunisia, the United Republic
Within residential areas a plethora of small industrial of Tanzania and Mali. Four of the regional countries
operations can be found ranging from dry cleaning, lead have stockpiles of these pesticides in excess of 400
battery recycling and auto mechanic shops. High levels tonnes. These countries are Rwanda, Côte d’Ivoire,
of trace elements have been documented in the soil and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Benin. Soils
biota around metal smelters. Although each individual polluted with pesticides have also been identified by
operation may be small, together they represent a major the TSIP. The countries where these sites have been
source of soil pollution. identified are Benin, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya,
Senegal, Somalia and the United Republic of Tanzania.
The informal recycling of used lead-acid batteries
is a significant source of lead in soil. At a typical
informal recycler, the plastic box that holds the battery
components is broken open with a hand axe or machete
and the sulphuric acid solution inside is dumped on the
ground or into a storm drain. The lead plates are removed
and placed in a hole in the ground, which is then is filled
with charcoal and ignited. The molten lead is then ladled
into ingot moulds, cooled, and sold back to battery
manufacturers. The process is typically conducted with
no pollution control equipment or regulatory oversight.

Agriculture
Agricultural activities in the region have also been a source
of soil pollution. Chemicals such as hazardous pesticides,
persistent organic pollutants and products containing
trace elements such as lead and mercury are still used in
the region, to the detriment of both environmental and
human health. While the use of these toxic chemicals is
banned or controlled in developed countries, their illegal
dumping in Africa provides a significant challenge for the
management of environmental pollution.
©Pexels/Vlad Chean

Pesticide use by the agricultural sector is considered

the most significant contributor of soil contaminants.
Significant levels of endosulfan and DDT, both

38 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Actions to tackle soil degradation, and high toxicity (Stockholm Convention,
2008). As well as prohibiting the production and use
pollution of the listed POPs, the Convention also ensures that
stockpiles and wastes consisting of or contaminated by
POPs are managed in an environmentally sound manner.
Improper storage and disposal of POPs is a major source
of global soil pollution. Currently there are 184 Parties
Governance and legal to the Convention.
frameworks to tackle soil The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty
to protect human health and the environment from the
pollution adverse effects of mercury (Minamata Convention on
Mercury, 2019). The Convention was adopted in 2013
and entered into force in August 2017. The major
International conventions regulating persistent highlights of the Minamata Convention include a ban on
organic pollutants and other hazardous new mercury mines, the phase-out of existing ones, the
substances phase-out and phase-down of mercury use in a number of
Although there is currently no binding international products and processes, control measures on emissions
agreement focusing specifically on soil pollution to air and on releases to land and water, and the regulation
prevention, control and remediation, a series of binding of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold
conventions partially support this objective. mining. The Convention also addresses interim storage
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste, sites
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal contaminated by mercury as well as health issues. To date
was adopted in 1989 and became effective in May there are 129 parties to the Convention.
1992 (Basel Convention, 2011). The principal aims of The status of adoption of these conventions is
the Convention are the reduction of hazardous waste summarized in the regional chapters, along with any
generation and the promotion of environmentally sound regional agreements that exist.
management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place of
disposal; the restriction of transboundary movements International voluntary agreements to tackle soil
of hazardous wastes except where it is perceived to be pollution
in accordance with the principles of environmentally The Global Soil Partnership (GSP) was established in
sound management; and a regulatory system applying to 2012 as a mechanism to develop a strong interactive
cases where transboundary movements are permissible. partnership and enhanced collaboration and synergy of
Currently there are 188 parties to the Basel Convention. efforts between all stakeholders (GSP, 2019). The GSP
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed has the mandate of improving governance of the limited
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals soil resources of the planet in order to guarantee healthy
and Pesticides in International Trade is a multilateral and productive soils for a food secure world, as well as
treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation support other essential ecosystem services, in accordance
to the importation of hazardous chemicals (Rotterdam with the sovereign right of each State over its natural
Convention, 2010). The goals of the Convention resources. The GSP addresses all soil threats and seeks
are to promote shared responsibility and cooperative on the one hand to improve knowledge and available data
efforts among the Parties in the international trade of and information for informed decision making, and on
certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human the other hand to increase awareness of all stakeholders,
health and the environment from potential harm; and with a final goal of to implementing field actions aimed
to contribute to the environmentally sound use of at sustainable soil management and soil restoration and
those hazardous chemicals, by facilitating information protection.
exchange about their characteristics, providing for a The Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil
national decision-making process on their import and Management (VGSSM) endorsed by FAO Council in
export and disseminating these decisions to Parties. The 2016 provide technical and policy recommendations for
Convention was adopted in 1998 and entered into force achieving sustainable soil management (FAO, 2017).
in February 2004. Currently there are 164 parties to the The VGSSM identify ten threats to soil functioning
Convention. and health, including soil pollution, and propose a set
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic of principles to minimize and control these threats.
Pollutants (signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004) Countries are encouraged to implement or strengthen
aims to restrict or eliminate the production and use of inclusive regulations conducive to sustainable soil
persistent organic pollutants (POPs), characterized by management in order to prevent and minimize the
their persistence in the environment, their resistance to accumulation of contaminants in soil, as well as to promote

Actions to tackle soil pollution 39

soil information by testing, monitoring and assessing and a Member Organization, the European Union. San
potentially contaminated soils in order to reduce risks to Marino and Timor-Leste are the latest country to join
human health and the environment. the Codex Alimentarius Commission, in 2016 and 2018
The International Code of Conduct for the Sustainable respectively. The relevance of the Codex to soil pollution
Use and Management of Fertilizers (Fertilizer Code) was lies primarily in its provisions on food additives, residues
endorsed by FAO Conference in 2019 and provides a of pesticide and veterinary drug residues, contamination
set of voluntary practices that promote the judicious use of food goods, methods of contaminants analysis
of synthetic and organic fertilisers (FAO, 2019a). The and sampling, and import and export inspection and
Fertilizer Code defines roles, responsibilities, and actions certification.
to prevent fertiliser misuse and its potential impacts Established in 2003, the International Nitrogen Initiative
on human health and the environment. It encourages (INI) is a science-policy platform for responding to
Member Nations to set standards, limits and guidelines the growing concern about nitrogen pollution (INI,
on the harmful contents of contaminants in fertiliser 2017). INI seeks to ‘optimize nitrogen’s beneficial role
products. It also includes provisions on monitoring, in sustainable food production and minimize nitrogen’s
training, research and development, and public access to negative effects on human health and the environment
information. resulting from food and energy production’. To achieve
The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide this, the initiative coordinates regional efforts to improve
Management (Pesticide Code), adopted by FAO Member and raise awareness on nitrogen management. The INI
Nations in 2013, establishes voluntary standards of is not an official initiative of the United Nations but
conduct for the various stakeholders involved with formed by international scientist and experts on nitrogen
pesticide use to ensure the judicious use of pesticides fertilisers’ management.
(FAO and WHO, 2014). The Pesticide Code is intended
to serve as a basis for countries who currently have no Regional legal frameworks addressing soil
or weak national legislation to regulate and control pollution
the quality and suitability of pesticide products. The Besides international agreements, there are other
standards set out in the Pesticide Code aim to ensure agreements at regional level that deserve to be taken
that pesticides are used effectively and efficiently in a into account. Although they do not specifically refer to
sustainable manner to minimize adverse effects on human soil pollution, they are intended to have an impact on the
health and the environment while contributing to the prevention and control of some of the most important
sustainable improvement of agriculture. sources of contaminants.
The Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance Within the framework of the Association of Southeast
aims to prevent and combat antimicrobial resistance, Asian Nations (ASEAN), environmental cooperation
which undermines human and animal health and hampers and coordination among its ten Member States (Brunei
medicine advances to effectively treat infectious diseases Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s
(WHO, 2015). Endorsed in 2015 by the WHO Assembly, Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines,
the Action Plan sets out five goals to combat antimicrobial Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam) has been promoted.
resistance: raising awareness, increasing understanding Coordination focuses on seven priorities: chemicals
and knowledge of antimicrobial resistance, reducing the and waste, sustainable cities, nature conservation, water
incidence of infections, optimizing the use of antimicrobial management, coastal environment, climate change
medicines, and increasing investment in new medicines. and environmental education. While none of these
By promoting the judicious use of antibiotics and other priorities specifically address soil pollution, most of them
veterinary drugs and thereby controlling the emergence can support the prevention of soil pollution and help
of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in livestock, the burden harmonise countries’ response through the exchange of
of antibiotic residues, and antimicrobial resistant bacteria knowledge and experience.
and genes, released into the soil through faeces and urine
There is also Asia-Pacific regional collaboration on
is significantly reduced, which contributes to prevent soil
mitigating soil pollution, promoted by the Taiwan
pollution from these sources.
Environmental Protection Administration (Taiwan EPA).
Founded in 1963, the Codex Alimentarius sets The Asia-Pacific Working Group on Remediation for
international food standards, guidelines and codes Soil and Groundwater Pollution, established in 2011
of practice to contribute to the safety and quality of and consisting of representatives from the Ministries
international food trade (WHO and FAO, 2018). of Environmental Protection of 12 countries (Taiwan
Although Codex standards and related texts are voluntary Province of China, Republic of Korea, Japan, Philippines,
and must be translated into national legislation to be Malaysia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Indonesia, Sri Lanka,
applicable, Codex standards often serve as the basis for India, Australia and New Zealand) aims to raise awareness
national legislation. Currently, the Codex Alimentarius and encourage bilateral cooperation between countries
Commission has 189 Members, 188 Member Nations to prevent soil pollution and groundwater pollution.

40 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

The Member States of the Eurasian Economic Union, environment and human health when it occurs along
namely the Republic of Armenia, the Republic of Belarus, the border between the two countries. Other major
the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic and the agreements with a greater focus on water quality
Russian Federation, have several agreements in place implicitly address soil pollution through requirements to
to control the movement of hazardous waste between consider water pollution derived from inputs from upland
countries and to ensure safety of chemical products to be watersheds.
imported. The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into
The European Commission has recently launched the EU Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements and
Green Deal, an ambitious plan to boost resource efficiency Management of Hazardous Wastes in Africa was adopted
by moving towards a clean and circular economy, restore within the framework of the Basel Convention. Its main
biodiversity and reduce pollution. Within the framework objectives are to stop the import of hazardous wastes and
of the Green Deal, the action plan “Towards a Zero potentially hazardous wastes, including radioactive waste,
Pollution Ambition for air, water and soil – building a from other parts of the world and the management of
Healthier Planet for Healthier People” is to be adopted in wastes already present in Africa. However, there was little
2021. This Action Plan aims to improve the governance acceptance and implementation, leading to the Libreville
of pollution policies, including at the international level, Declaration on Health and Environment in Africa in
with a particular focus on improving data availability 2008, promoted by WHO. This declaration included the
and existing models and new technologies that will establishment of different levels of legislative framework,
enable more data to be obtained. The Action Plan will capacity building to address the issues, initiation and
also address the international aspects of the EU’s Zero coordination of applied research. It also commits to
Pollution Ambition, such as diplomacy, trade policy and effective implementation and the establishment of
development support. The newly adopted Green Deal monitoring and evaluation at the national level.
will complement the existing set of directives regulating
the main sources of pollution. National legal frameworks addressing soil
An agenda is also being developed to extend the Green pollution
Deal to the Western Balkans. The Western Balkans The existence of legal frameworks and the distribution
Economic and Investment Plan aims to stimulate the of responsibilities differs from country to country. Few
economies of the Western Balkan states and, at the same countries have specific legislation to prevent, manage and
time, bring the region up to EU environmental standards remediate soil pollution. Many countries, on the contrary,
and climate targets. include soil management aspects in environmental
The Cartagena Convention, adopted by 21 countries in legislation, which is often very general and does not
Latin America and the Caribbean, imposes obligations provide an adequate framework to address the different
to prevent, reduce and control pollution. While the sources of soil pollution.
Convention focuses largely on the marine environment, For most countries, soil pollution prevention is a priority
it covers many sources of marine pollution including in legislation and policymaking. However, as polluting
land-based pollution by prohibiting the dumping or sources are varied, soil pollution itself is not legally
discharge of wastes and coastal disposal or discharges defined or recognized, and instead, most countries
causing pollution. Other land-based pollution includes have legislation related to urban and industrial waste
wastewater, pesticides, heavy metals, radioactive management and agricultural inputs and practices.
substances, solid waste and more, all of which could affect These measures seem to be insufficient to prevent and
soil preservation as well. The Protocol on Pollution from control soil pollution as they remain the main sources of
Land-based Sources and Activities includes regional contaminants.
limitations on domestic wastewater effluents and requires
In the absence of clearly defined soil polluting activities,
the development of plans to prevent, reduce and control
opportunities for developing management strategies,
non-point agricultural sources of contaminants.
monitoring plans, compliance, and enforcement activities
Regional agreements have been adopted between Costa are limited.
Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua
and Panama, and Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala and
Honduras to prevent the import and transit of hazardous
waste to Central America from third states.
The United States of America and Canada have one of
the oldest and most effective environmental partnerships
in the world. The Canada-US Joint Inland Pollution
Contingency Plan focuses on implementing measures
to address soil pollution and reduce the risks to the

Actions to tackle soil pollution 41

Improved knowledge, site contamination and site pollution. In many cases soil
screening values (SSVs) are used. These are generic soil
monitoring and reporting quality standards based on generic exposure pathways
and scenarios, and they have been adopted in many
Despite the large amount of existing information, there countries to allow identification of polluted soils (Carlon
are still numerous knowledge gaps to be clarified. More et al., 2007).
research and harmonized data collection is needed on the
The determination of the degree of pollution and its
amount of contaminant emissions into the environment,
potential for harm is carried out in a risk assessment
their fate in the soil and beyond, and the spatial
framework. Risk management decisions for soils or
distribution of polluted sites, with special attention to
sediments focus on identifying relevant pathways
hot spots that pose the greatest danger to human and
of exposure that pose a risk to human health or the
environmental health.
environment and developing appropriate remedial
It is necessary to improve the mechanisms for measures. These could include treating or removing
communicating the causes, risks and prevention actions sources or cutting off pathways of exposure, or both.
of soil pollution among all stakeholders, but especially Risk assessment approaches are tools to take science-
among the general public. The actions of the Global based political and technical decisions and are similar
Soil Partnership following the Global Symposium on worldwide. These allow polluted sites to be distinguished
Soil Pollution and on the occasion of World Soil Day from contaminated sites, and thus to facilitate the
celebration in 2018 demonstrated that there is a great selection of appropriate management techniques.
interest in this topic.
Management of contaminated sites
Soil contamination often results from the spread of
Management of soil contaminants from polluted sites by wind or water erosion,
irrigation of soils with polluted ground or surface water,
contamination and pollution or land spreading of contaminated manures or sewage
sludge; all of these would be considered diffuse sources
The management approach for polluted soil sites (posing
of contamination. It can also occur from wind dispersal
risk to human health and the environment) is very different
of contaminants from a point source – such as a smelter
from the approach for contaminated sites. Polluted sites
or waste incinerator. Close to the source, the soil may be
must be isolated from human and animal contact, and
polluted, but further downwind the soil has contaminant
then the levels of the contaminants reduced below the
levels below those known to cause harm to non-target
point where they cause harm to non-target organisms.
organisms.
This reduction in levels is called soil remediation.
Contaminated sites would undergo remediation only Management of these sites usually consist of adaptation
rarely; instead, the management of the site may need to be to the presence of contaminants and follows the general
altered in order to minimize the risk of harm to organisms principles of Sustainable Soil Management (SSM);
(Cachada, Rocha-Santos and Duarte, 2018). specific approaches are summarized in section 3.5 of the
Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management
The costs of safeguarding and eliminating a concentrated
(FAO, 2017). These approaches often involve a change
contaminant before it has leaked are orders of magnitude
in land use at the contaminated site, including change
less than the cost of remediating the soil afterwards.
of crop selection – for example, a change to crops that
The cost of inaction in eliminating global stocks of soil
do not bio-accumulate and biomagnify the particular
contaminants is unacceptable. Given the possibility of
contaminant that has been detected. Another key
permanent degradation of land, the risks to public health
management approach is to reduce or eliminate dispersal
and environment, and the expense and complexity of
of contaminants by wind or water erosion by implementing
remediation, the avoidance of soil pollution is an obvious
soil conservation measures on the contaminated site.
priority.
Similar approaches can be used to reduce or eliminate
leaching of contaminants to groundwater by, for example,
Identification and risk assessment
growing deep-rooted plants with high water use.
The initial stage for site assessment is to identify sites
where pollution may exist. Sites may be selected on the Management of polluted soils
basis of historical analysis (for past activities) or based on
In general, where soil is found to be polluted (that is,
knowledge of accident sites. After preliminary research
where the level of contaminants can cause harm to non-
on the site’s historical use, an initial assessment is
target organisms), the polluted soil must be isolated
carried out to define whether contaminants are present
from causing harm to people, organisms or aquatic
and whether they are posing any risk to the environment
systems. Soil remediation (reducing the concentration
and to human health – that is, to distinguish between

42 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

of the contaminant in the soil) is a permanent approach Available remediation options include physical, chemical
to managing pollution. Remediation of polluted sites and biological treatments (e.g. phytoremediation,
is a site-specific approach that includes identification, Figure 19), and these options offer potential technical
characterization, risk assessment and selection of solutions to most soil pollution. For both in situ and ex
remediation technologies, and is mainly focused on situ measures, the net effect on the contaminants can be
point-source pollution (Figure 18). categorized as a) reducing the concentration, b) reducing
If pollution is confirmed and remediation measures are the bio-availability without reducing the concentration,
necessary, the first management step should be to exclude c) encapsulating the polluted soil in an inert matrix, d)
people and animals from the site using fencing or other containment and e) removal. After clean-up, measures
physical barriers and warning signs. This step should be are essential to confirm that the risk has been reduced and
supported by communication programmes to sensitize that the source of pollution has been controlled.
the population of the dangers to them and their animals In cases where remediation is not chosen (for logistical,
of entering the site. economic, or political reasons), risk management can
Next, a detailed investigation must be accomplished to be practised using a number of strategies. Capping
determine the extent and possible remediation measures. the polluted soil with clean soil, a hard surface or other
Risk management and/or remediation strategies are containment material is an option where the risk of
subsequently defined and implemented (Aven, 2016). groundwater contamination is very low. Where the
groundwater contamination risk is higher, an impermeable
Remediation techniques can be divided in two main
barrier may have to be installed below the polluted soil.
groups: in situ (on the site) and ex situ (removal of
contaminated soil for treatment off the site) remediation.

©CIAT/GeorginaSmith

Actions to tackle soil pollution 43

 Stages in the remediation
of site contamination NRF guideline
Site assessment determines Stage 1: Define
Develop remediation
objectives remediation is required
(Refer to ASC NEPM) • Regulatory
considerations
• Remediation
Regulator objectives
engagement Community engagement
• Role of auditing

Design remedial strategy

(cost-benefit and Stage 2: Design
sustainability analysis may
be considered) and implement

NO • Regulatory
considerations
Is there a preferred
remediation • Remediation
option? (pilot trials may be options assessment
required)
• Technology guides
YES
• Cost-benefit and
sustainability
Develop remediation analysis of
action plan and / or site remediation
management plan alternatives

Regulator approval
(if required) YES

Perform remediation
works

Have remediation Validate remediation

objectives been met? works Stage 3: Finalise
• Validation and
closure
Is further remediation
NO possible? • Institutional
Documentation and record keeping

controls
YES
• Long-term
NO monitoring
Stakeholder engagement

• Role of auditing
Is long-term monitoring Develop site
Health and safety

and/or institutional YES management plan

control required?

Implement long-term
monitoring
and / or institutional
control

Communicate with Site

NO closure
stakeholders

Figure 18. Stages in the remediation of site pollution according to National Remediation Framework guideline
Source: CRC CARE, 2018

44 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Management of soils as a source of pollution
A final aspect to management of pollution is to reduce or eliminate water pollution that occurs as a result of chemicals,
primarily agrochemicals, moving from the soil to both surface water and groundwater. This transport of agrochemicals
is one of the leading causes of water pollution globally and affects both freshwater and marine environments. Both the
Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management (FAO, 2017) and the International Code of Conduct for the
Sustainable Use and Management of Fertilizers (FAO, 2019) outline specific techniques that can be used to ensure that
agrochemicals are safely and sustainably added to the soil system so as to prevent off-site pollution.

Phytodegradation
Phytovolatilization

Phytoextraction
Rhizodegradation

Phytostabilitation

Trace elements
Organic contaminant
Non-toxic or less toxic
organic compounds
Volatile compounds
Microorganisms (degraders) Contaminants uptake

Figure 19. Plant mechanisms for the uptake and stabilization of organic and inorganic contaminants
Source: adapted from Gómez-Sagasti et al., 2012; ITRC, 2009; Tangahu et al., 2011
©FAO/Matteo Sala

Actions to tackle soil pollution 45

Priority Actions to prevent and halt soil pollution
and to remediate polluted soils
Based on the scientific evidence gathered for this report, as well as comments and discussions from multiple stakeholders
who have participated in different Global Soil Partnership and UNEP fora, a number of key recommendations to tackle
soil pollution imminently and effectively are defined below.
The first and foremost action against soil pollution is prevention. All stakeholders must take decisive steps in
the prevention of soil pollution, starting with small actions in people’s consumption decisions and extending to
the development of stringent policies and incentives that encourage industrial innovation and the adoption of
environmentally sound technologies.

Knowledge gaps compliance to schemes like the Voluntary Guidelines

for Sustainable Soil Management by providing
labelling to agriculture products implementing those
From assessment to monitoring
tools/schemes.
• Harmonise standard operating procedures for • Advocate for a global commitment towards
laboratory methods of soil contaminants analysis preventing, halting and remediating soil pollution in
and develop standardized threshold levels of soil the framework of Zero Pollution/Towards a Pollution
pollution. Free Planet ambitions, using regional efforts and
• Promote the inclusion of soil pollution into the targets such as the European Green Deal as a basis.
conventional soil surveys, data and information on • Improve national and international regulations on
soil pollution into national and global soil information emissions from industry and mining and promote
systems. environmentally friendly industrial processes.
• Increase the investment in targeted research on • Develop and promote “right to repair” policies and
emerging contaminants: detection, fate in the de-incentivize planned obsolescence of manufactured
environment, risks assessment and remediation. materials to reduce waste, including e-waste.
• Develop and strengthen the inventory and monitoring • De-incentivize and reduce single-use items,
of point-source and diffuse soil pollution at national, particularly in packaging for materials and foodstuffs.
regional and global levels.
• Implement appropriate waste collection and green
• Establish and strengthen national biomonitoring management policies that promote recycling and
and epidemiological surveillance systems to identify, ensure the adequate treatment of different types of
assess, and monitor damage and diseases attributable waste within and among countries.
to soil pollution and support preventive actions.
• Promote and incentivize the use of sustainable
• Promote the establishment of the Global Soil transport.
Pollution Information and Monitoring System.
• Implement policies aimed at sustainable management
From policy to technical actions of agricultural soils with a special focus on reducing
dependence on agrochemicals and controlling the
• Enforce compliance with international agreements on quality of irrigation water and organic residues.
chemicals, persistent organic pollutants, waste, and
• Develop and include in national reporting mechanisms
sustainable soil management (including the Voluntary
soil pollution targets and indicators related to the
Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management, and the
achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.
International Codes of Conducts for the Sustainable
Use and Management of Fertilizers and Pesticides). • Scale up nature-based and environmentally
sound sustainable management and remediation
• Establish a system of incentives and recognition to
technologies (e.g. bioremediation).
efforts to stop soil pollution, including eco-labelling or

46 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Awareness-raising and communication
• Launch a global awareness raising campaign on soil • Promote public awareness of responsible and
pollution aimed at the general public for them to environmentally friendly consumption and encourage
understand why soil pollution matters to all and how separation at source and the waste hierarchy, in
they could be part of the solution. particular the 4R approach (reduce, reuse, recycle
• Foster citizen science activities and citizen and recover) (Figure 20).
observatories to improve early warning systems and • Advocate for the inclusion of soil health and soil
community-based soil pollution monitoring. pollution topics at schools.

Most
favoured

• Prevention
• Personal
REDUCE • Household
• Community
Information and
• Business
awareness-raising
campaigns are
needed for REUSE • Conservation and repair
effective • 2nd hand market
engagement
• Selective separation and collection
RECYCLE • Recovering of materials
• Composting

OPTIONS

• Energy (recovered or non-recovered)

INCINERATE
• Toxic ashes (filters or landfilling)

DISPOSAL • Landfill leachate

• Leachate managment

Least
favoured

Figure 20. Waste management hierarchy

Source: adapted from March and Vidal Rodrigo, 2017

Priority Actions to prevent and halt soil pollution and to remediate polluted soils 47
Regional cooperation
• Facilitate the transfer of scientific knowledge through international events and promote the publication of
information in open access sources.
• Advocate for technology transfer and cross-capacity building for the whole cycle of soil pollution, from prevention
to detection, monitoring, management, and remediation, from regions and countries with high expertise and
experience on soil pollution to countries with less or no expertise in the topic (Figure 21).
• Build and strengthen transboundary monitoring networks to prevent, manage, and remediate diffuse pollution.
• Establish a global training programme for developing capacities on the full cycle of soil pollution.

Technical barriers preventing soil pollution abatement

45% • || Not important

• | Minor importance
40%
• | Important
35% • | Most important
• DN/NA
30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%
Information and Lack of qualified The right The right Technical
knowledge staff to conduct machinery/ machinery/ solutions for
support is not soil sampling, soil technology for technology for remedying
available contaminants analysing soil remedying polluted soils
analysis and soil contaminants polluted soils are not mature
pollution is not is not (additional
mapping available in available in research is
your country your country required)

Figure 21. Technical barriers to the abatement of soil pollution according to the perception of the experts who contributed to the
preparation of this report

48 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 ©Boudewijn Fokke

Priority Actions to prevent and halt soil pollution and to remediate polluted soils 49
©Achim Constantin

50 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

References Bonner, M.R. & Alavanja, M.C.R. 2017. Pesticides, human
health, and food security. Food and Energy Security, 6(3):
89–93. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.112
Al-Farsi, R., Ahmed, M., Al-Busaidi, A. & Choudri, B.S. Borgå, K. 2013. Ecotoxicology: Bioaccumulation.
2018. Assessing the presence of pharmaceuticals in soil and Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental
plants irrigated with treated wastewater in Oman. International Sciences, p. B978012409548900765X. Elsevier. (also
Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture, 7(2): available at https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/
165–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-018-0202-1 B978012409548900765X).
Alimi, O.S., Farner Budarz, J., Hernandez, L.M. & Boxall, A.B.A., Rudd, M.A., Brooks, B.W., Caldwell,
Tufenkji, N. 2018. Microplastics and Nanoplastics in D.J., Choi, Hickmann Silke, Innes Elizabeth, Ostapyk
Aquatic Environments: Aggregation, Deposition, and Kim, Staveley Jane P., Verslycke Tim, Ankley Gerald T.,
Enhanced Contaminant Transport. Environmental Science & Beazley Karen F., Belanger Scott E., Berninger Jason P.,
Technology, 52(4): 1704–1724. https://doi.org/10.1021/ Carriquiriborde Pedro, Coors Anja, DeLeo Paul C., Dyer
acs.est.7b05559 Scott D., Ericson Jon F., Gagné François, Giesy John P.,
Alloway, B.J. 2012. Heavy metals in soils: trace metals and Gouin Todd, Hallstrom Lars, Karlsson Maja V., Larsson
metalloids in soils and their bioavailability. Springer Science D. G. Joakim, Lazorchak James M., Mastrocco Frank,
& Business Media. McLaughlin Alison, McMaster Mark E., Meyerhoff Roger
D., Moore Roberta, Parrott Joanne L., Snape Jason R.,
ATSDR. 2004. Interaction profile for Benzene, Toluene, Murray-Smith Richard, Servos Mark R., Sibley Paul
Ethylbenzene, and Xylenes (BTEX). , p. 154. Agency for Toxic K., Straub Jürg Oliver, Szabo Nora D., Topp Edward,
Substances and Disease Registry. (also available at https:// Tetreault Gerald R., Trudeau Vance L., & Van Der Kraak
www.atsdr.cdc.gov/interactionprofiles/ip-btex/ip05.pdf). Glen. 2012. Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in
ATSDR. 2018. ATSDR Toxic Substances Portal. In: Agency the Environment: What Are the Big Questions? Environmental
for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry [online]. [Cited 22 Health Perspectives, 120(9): 1221–1229. https://doi.
September 2020]. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/ org/10.1289/ehp.1104477
index.asp Brusseau, M.L., Anderson, R.H. & Guo, B. 2020. PFAS
ATSDR. 2020. Toxicological Profile for Chlorobenzene. , p. concentrations in soils: Background levels versus contaminated
132. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. sites. Science of The Total Environment, 740: 140017.
Department of Health & Human Services. (also available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140017
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp131.pdf). Cachada, A., Rocha-Santos, T. & Duarte, A.C. 2018. Soil
Attina, T.M. & Trasande, L. 2013. Economic Costs of and Pollution: An introduction to the Main Issues. In A.C.
Childhood Lead Exposure in Low- and Middle-Income Duarte, A. Cachada & T. Rocha-Santos, eds. Soil pollution:
Countries. Environmental Health Perspectives, 121(9): from monitoring to remediation, pp. 1–23. London, United
1097–1102. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206424 Kingdom, Academic Press, an imprint of Elsevier.

Aven, T. 2016. Risk assessment and risk management: Campanale, Massarelli, Savino, Locaputo, & Uricchio.
Review of recent advances on their foundation. European 2020. A Detailed Review Study on Potential Effects of
Journal of Operational Research, 253(1): 1–13. https://doi. Microplastics and Additives of Concern on Human Health.
org/10.1016/j.ejor.2015.12.023 International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, 17(4): 1212. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Basel Convention. 2011. Basel Convention > The Convention ijerph17041212
> Overview [online]. [Cited 26 December 2019]. http://
www.basel.int/TheConvention/Overview/tabid/1271/ Carlon, C., Swartjes, F., European Commission, Joint
Default.aspx Research Centre, & Institute for Environment and
Sustainability. 2007. Derivation methods of soil screening
Baudrot, V., Fritsch, C., Perasso, A., Banerjee, M. & values in Europe a review of national procedures towards
Raoul, F. 2018. Effects of contaminants and trophic cascade harmonisation. M. D’Alessandro, ed. Luxembourg,
regulation on food chain stability: Application to cadmium Publications Office.
soil pollution on small mammals – Raptor systems. Ecological
Modelling, 382: 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Carpenter, D.O. 2015. Exposure to and health effects of
ecolmodel.2018.05.002 volatile PCBs. Reviews on Environmental Health, 30(2): 81–
92. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2014-0074
Benjamin, S., Masai, E., Kamimura, N., Takahashi, K.,
Anderson, R.C. & Faisal, P.A. 2017. Phthalates impact human Carré, F., Caudeville, J., Bonnard, R., Bert, V., Boucard, P.
health: Epidemiological evidences and plausible mechanism & Ramel, M. 2017. Soil Contamination and Human Health: A
of action. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 340: 360–383. Major Challenge for Global Soil Security. In D.J. Field, C.L.S.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.06.036 Morgan & A.B. McBratney, eds. Global Soil Security, pp. 275–
295. Progress in Soil Science. Cham, Springer International
Besis, A. & Samara, C. 2012. Polybrominated diphenyl Publishing. (also available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
ethers (PBDEs) in the indoor and outdoor environments – A 3-319-43394-3_25).
review on occurrence and human exposure. Environmental
Pollution, 169: 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envpol.2012.04.009

References 51
Chapman, P.M. 2007. Determining when contamination is ECLAC. 2018. Estado de situación de la minería en América
pollution — Weight of evidence determinations for sediments Latina y el Caribe: desafíos y oportunidades para un desarrollo
and effluents. Environment International, 33(4): 492–501. más sostenible. Paper presented at IX Conferencia Anual de
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2006.09.001 Ministerios de Minería de las Américas CAMMA, 20 November
2018, Lima, Peru. https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/
Chatterjee, S., Deb, U., Datta, S., Walther, C. & Gupta,
presentation/files/181116_extendidafinalconferencia_a_
D.K. 2017. Common explosives (TNT, RDX, HMX) and
los_ministros_mineria_lima.pdf
their fate in the environment: Emphasizing bioremediation.
Chemosphere, 184: 438–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2020. The nitrogen cycle.
chemosphere.2017.06.008 Definition & Steps. In: Encyclopedia Britannica [online].
[Cited 1 April 2020]. https://www.britannica.com/science/
Cicin-Sain, B., Balgos, M., Appiott, J., Wowk, K. & Hamon,
nitrogen-cycle
G. 2011. Oceans at Rio+20: how well are we doing on the major
ocean commitments from the 1992 earth summit and the 2002 Eunomia. 2016. Plastics in the Marine Environment. , p.
world summit on sustainable development? , p. 60. Global Ocean 13. United Kingdom, Eunomia Research & Consulting. (also
Forum. (also available at https://www.undp.org/content/ available at https://www.eunomia.co.uk/reports-tools/
dam/undp/library/Environment%20and%20Energy/ plastics-in-the-marine-environment/).
Water%20and%20Ocean%20Governance/OceansatRio+2
FAO. 2017. Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil
0ReportSummaryforDecisionMakersOct102011.pdf).
Management. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
Cipullo, S., Prpich, G., Campo, P. & Coulon, F. 2018. United Nations. [Cited 16 January 2019]. http://www.fao.
Assessing bioavailability of complex chemical mixtures in org/3/i6874en/I6874EN.pdf
contaminated soils: Progress made and research needs. The
FAO. 2018a. Be the solution to soil pollution. Outcome
Science of the Total Environment, 615: 708–723. https://doi.
document of the Global Symposium on Soil Pollution. , p. 32.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.321
Rome, Italy, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Cosme, N., Mayorga, E. & Hauschild, M.Z. 2018. Spatially Nations. (also available at http://www.fao.org/3/ca0362en/
explicit fate factors of waterborne nitrogen emissions at CA0362EN.pdf).
the global scale. The International Journal of Life Cycle
FAO. 2018b. Proceedings of the Global Symposium on
Assessment, 23(6): 1286–1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/
Soil Pollution 2018. Rome, Italy, Food and Agriculture
s11367-017-1349-0
Organization of the United Nations. 977 pp. (also available at
CRC CARE. 2018. Guideline on performing remediation http://www.fao.org/3/CA1087EN/ca1087en.pdf).
options assessment. [Cited 10 June 2020]. https://www.
FAO. 2019a. The International Code of Conduct for the
crccare.com/files/dmfile/GuidelineonconductingROA_
Sustainable Use and Management of Fertilizers. Food and
Rev2.pdf
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.
Darmendrail, D., Cerdan, O., Gobin, A., Bouzit, M., fao.org/3/mz476en/mz476en.pdf
Blanchard, F. & Siegele, B. 2004. Assessing the Economic
FAO. 2019b. The International Code of Conduct for the
Impacts of Soil Degradation
Sustainable Use and Management of Fertilizers. Food and
Death, C.E., Griffiths, S.R. & Story, P.G. 2019. Terrestrial Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.
vertebrate toxicology in Australia: An overview of wildlife fao.org/3/mz476en/mz476en.pdf
research. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health,
FAO & ITPS. 2015. Status of the world’s soil resources
11: 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2019.07.001
(SWSR): Main Report. Rome, Food and Agriculture
Ding, Y. 2019. Heavy metal pollution and transboundary Organization of the United Nations and Intergovernmental
issues in ASEAN countries. Water Policy, 21(5): 1096–1106. Technical Panel on Soils.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2019.003
FAO & ITPS. 2017. Global assessment of the impact of plant
Drouillard, K.G. 2008. Biomagnification. In S.E. Jørgensen protection products on soil functions and soil ecosystems. ,
& B. Fath, eds. Encyclopedia of Ecology | ScienceDirect, p. 40. Rome, Italy, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
pp. 441–448. Elsevier. (also available at https://www. United Nations. (also available at http://www.fao.org/3/
sciencedirect.com/referencework/9780080454054/ i8168en/I8168EN.pdf).
encyclopedia-of-ecology).
FAO & WHO. 2014. The international code of conduct on
Drwal, E., Rak, A. & Gregoraszczuk, E.L. 2019. Review: pesticide management. Rome, Inter-Organization Programme
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)—Action on for the Sound Management of Chemicals: World Health
placental function and health risks in future life of newborns. Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the
Toxicology, 411: 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. United Nations. 37 pp.
tox.2018.10.003
Galbraith, D., Gross, S.A. & Paustenbach, D. 2010.
ECB-JRC. 2006. European Union Risk Assessment Report: Benzene and human health: A historical review and appraisal
phenol. , p. 240. No. EUR 22522 EN/1. European Chemical of associations with various diseases. Critical Reviews in
Bureau - Joint Research Centre. (also available at https://echa. Toxicology, 40(sup2): 1–46. https://doi.org/10.3109/104
europa.eu/documents/10162/1ca68f98-878f-4ef6-914a- 08444.2010.508162
9f21e9ad2234).

52 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Ge, J., Cui, K., Yan, H., Li, Y., Chai, Y., Liu, X., Cheng, IPCC. 2019. Special Report on Climate Change and Land.
J. & Yu, X. 2017. Uptake and translocation of imidacloprid, Switzerland, United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on
thiamethoxam and difenoconazole in rice plants. Environmental Climate Change. (also available at https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/
Pollution, 226: 479–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chapter/chapter-4/).
envpol.2017.04.043
IPCS. 2002. Global assessment of the state-of-the-science
Gómez-Sagasti, M.T., Alkorta, I., Becerril, J.M., Epelde, of endocrine disruptors. No. WHO/PCS/EDC/02.2.
L., Anza, M. & Garbisu, C. 2012. Microbial Monitoring of the International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health
Recovery of Soil Quality During Heavy Metal Phytoremediation. Organization. 180 pp. (also available at https://www.who.int/
Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 223(6): 3249–3262. https:// ipcs/publications/new_issues/endocrine_disruptors/en/).
doi.org/10.1007/s11270-012-1106-8
ISO. 2008. ISO/TS 27687:2008. Nanotechnologies-
GSP. 2019. Why the partnership? | Global Soil Terminology and definitions for nano-objects-Nanoparticle,
Partnership | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United nanofibre and nanoplate. International Organization for
Nations. In: Global Soil Partnership [online]. [Cited 16 April Standardization. [Cited 28 December 2020]. https://www.
2019]. http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/about/ iso.org/cms/render/live/en/sites/isoorg/contents/data/
why-the-partnership/en/ standard/04/42/44278.html
Gupta, N., Yadav, K.K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Chadd, ISO. 2015. ISO 11074:2015. [Cited 14 October 2019].
R.P. & Kumar, A. 2019. Trace elements in soil-vegetables http://www.iso.org/cms/render/live/en/sites/isoorg/
interface: Translocation, bioaccumulation, toxicity and contents/data/standard/05/92/59259.html
amelioration - A review. Science of The Total Environment,
ISO. 2016. ISO 18311:2016. [Cited 14 October 2019].
651: 2927–2942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
http://www.iso.org/cms/render/live/en/sites/isoorg/
scitotenv.2018.10.047
contents/data/standard/06/21/62102.html
Gupta, P.K. 2016. Chapter 13 - Genotoxicity. In P.K. Gupta,
ITRC. 2009. Phytotechnology Technical and Regulatory
ed. Fundamentals of Toxicology, pp. 151–164. Academic
Guidance and Decision Trees, Revised. , p. 204. Technical/
Press. (also available at http://www.sciencedirect.com/
Regulatory Guidance. The Interstate Technology &
science/article/pii/B9780128054260000135).
Regulatory Council. (also available at https://itrcweb.org/
Harmsen, J. 2007. Measuring bioavailability: from a scientific GuidanceDocuments/PHYTO-3.pdf).
approach to standard methods. Journal of Environmental
ITRC. 2020. History and Use of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl
Quality, 36(5): 1420–1428. https://doi.org/10.2134/
Substances (PFAS). Interstate Technology Regulatory Council
jeq2006.0492
(ITRC). [Cited 11 September 2020]. https://pfas-1.itrcweb.
Hilton, F.G. 2006. Poverty and pollution abatement: Evidence org/fact_sheets_page/PFAS_Fact_Sheet_History_and_
from lead phase-out. Ecological Economics, 56(1): 125–131. Use_April2020.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.01.020
Kabata-Pendias, A. & Pendias, H. 2001. Trace elements in
Huerta-Lwanga, E., Vega, J.M., Quej, V.K., de los Angeles soils and plants. 3rd ed edition. Boca Raton, Fla, CRC Press.
Chi, J., del Cid, L.S., Chi, C., Segura, G.E., Gertsen, H., 413 pp.
Salánki, T. & van der Ploeg, M. 2017. Field evidence for
Kazan-Allen, L. 2019. Current Asbestos Bans. In:
transfer of plastic debris along a terrestrial food chain. Scientific
International Ban Asbestos Secretariat [online]. [Cited 27
Reports, 7(1): 14071.
October 2020]. http://www.ibasecretariat.org/alpha_ban_
Hurley, R.R. & Nizzetto, L. 2018. Fate and occurrence of list.php
micro(nano)plastics in soils: Knowledge gaps and possible
Kim, K.-H., Kabir, E. & Jahan, S.A. 2017. Exposure to
risks. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 1:
pesticides and the associated human health effects. Science
6–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2017.10.006
of The Total Environment, 575: 525–535. https://doi.
Hwang, J.-I., Zimmerman, A.R. & Kim, J.-E. 2018. org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.009
Bioconcentration factor-based management of soil pesticide
Kim, R.-Y., Yoon, J.-K., Kim, T.-S., Yang, J.E., Owens, G.
residues: Endosulfan uptake by carrot and potato plants.
& Kim, K.-R. 2015. Bioavailability of heavy metals in soils:
Science of The Total Environment, 627: 514–522. https://
definitions and practical implementation--a critical review.
doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.208
Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 37(6): 1041–1061.
INI. 2017. The International Nitrogen Initiative. In: Initrogen https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9695-y
[online]. [Cited 9 June 2020]. https://initrogen.org/content/
Klaassen, C.D., Casarett, L.J. & Doull, J., eds. 2013.
about-ini
Casarett and Doull’s toxicology: the basic science of poisons.
IPCC. 2014. Climate change 2014: synthesis report. Core 8th ed edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Education. 1454 pp.
Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri & L. Mayer, eds. Contribution
Klocke, C. & Lein, P.J. 2020. Evidence Implicating
of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report
Non-Dioxin-Like Congeners as the Key Mediators of
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva,
Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Developmental Neurotoxicity.
Switzerland, IPCC. 151 pp. (also available at https://www.
International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(3). https://
ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/SYR_AR5_FINAL_
doi.org/10.3390/ijms21031013
full.pdf).

References 53
Knutsen, H.K., Alexander, J., Barregård, L., Bignami, Lancet, 391(10119): 462–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/
M., Brüschweiler, B., Ceccatelli, S., Cottrill, B., Dinovi, S0140-6736(17)32345-0
M., Edler, L., Grasl‐Kraupp, B., Hogstrand, C., Nebbia,
Lehnert, N., Coruzzi, G., Hegg, E., Seefeldt, L. & Stein, L.
C.S., Oswald, I.P., Petersen, A., Rose, M., Roudot, A.-C.,
2015. Feeding the world in the 21st Century: Grand challenges
Schwerdtle, T., Vleminckx, C., Vollmer, G., Wallace, H.,
in the nitrogen cycle. , p. 40. Arlington, VA, National Science
Fürst, P., Håkansson, H., Halldorsson, T., Lundebye, A.-
Foundation. (also available at https://www.nsf.gov/mps/che/
K., Pohjanvirta, R., Rylander, L., Smith, A., Loveren, H.
workshops/nsf_nitrogen_report_int.pdf).
van, Waalkens‐Berendsen, I., Zeilmaker, M., Binaglia,
M., Ruiz, J.Á.G., Horváth, Z., Christoph, E., Ciccolallo, Li, W.C., Tse, H.F. & Fok, L. 2016. Plastic waste in the
L., Bordajandi, L.R., Steinkellner, H. & Hoogenboom, marine environment: A review of sources, occurrence and
L. (Ron). 2018. Risk for animal and human health related to effects. Science of The Total Environment, 566–567: 333–
the presence of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in feed and food. 349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.084
EFSA Journal, 16(11): e05333. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.
Lima, D.R.S., Bezerra, M.L.S., Neves, E.B. & Moreira,
efsa.2018.5333
F.R. 2011. Impact of ammunition and military explosives on
Kok, H., Papendick, R.I. & Saxton, K.E. 2009. STEEP: human health and the environment. Reviews on Environmental
Impact of long-term conservation farming research and Health, 26(2): 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1515/
education in Pacific Northwest wheatlands. Journal of Soil reveh.2011.014
and Water Conservation, 64(4): 253–264. https://doi.
Mackie, A. & Haščič, I. 2019. The distributional aspects
org/10.2489/jswc.64.4.253
of environmental quality and environmental policies:
Korkina, I.N. & Vorobeichik, E.L. 2018. Humus Index as Opportunities for individuals and households. , p. 34. OECD
an indicator of the topsoil response to the impacts of industrial Green Growth Papers No. 2019/02. Environment Directorate,
pollution. Applied Soil Ecology, 123: 455–463. https://doi. OECD. (also available at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/
org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2017.09.025 environment/the-distributional-aspects-of-environmental-
quality-and-environmental-policies_e0939b52-en).
Kowalczyk, J., Numata, J., Zimmermann, B., Klinger, R.,
Habedank, F., Just, P., Schafft, H. & Lahrssen-Wiederholt, March, J. & Vidal Rodrigo, N. 2017. Waste
M. 2018. Suitability of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) as a Bioindicator hierarchy. Wikipedia. [Cited 11 September 2020].
for Environmental Pollution with Perfluorooctanoic Acid https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waste_
(PFOA) and Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid (PFOS). Archives of hierarchy&oldid=946221573
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 75(4): 594–
Minamata Convention on Mercury. 2019. Minamata
606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-018-0552-8
Convention on Mercury. Text and Annexes [online]. [Cited
Kozlov, M.V. & Zvereva, E.L. 2011. A second life for old 26 December 2019]. http://www.mercuryconvention.org/
data: Global patterns in pollution ecology revealed from Portals/11/documents/Booklets/COP3-version/Minamata-
published observational studies. Environmental Pollution, Convention-booklet-Sep2019-EN.pdf
159(5): 1067–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Miranda, C.D., Godoy, F.A. & Lee, M.R. 2018. Current
envpol.2010.10.028
status of the use of antibiotics and the antimicrobial resistance
Kozlov, M.V. & Zvereva, E.L. 2015. Decomposition of birch in the chilean salmon farms. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9(JUN):
leaves in heavily polluted industrial barrens: relative importance 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01284
of leaf quality and site of exposure. Environmental Science
Ng, E.-L., Huerta Lwanga, E., Eldridge, S.M., Johnston,
and Pollution Research, 22(13): 9943–9950. https://doi.
P., Hu, H.-W., Geissen, V. & Chen, D. 2018. An overview
org/10.1007/s11356-015-4165-8
of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution in agroecosystems.
Kuenen, J., Pomar-Portillo, V., Vilchez, A., Visschedijk, Science of The Total Environment, 627: 1377–1388. https://
A., Gon, H.D. van der, Vázquez-Campos, S., Nowack, B. doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.341
& Adam, V. 2020. Inventory of country-specific emissions
Ng, J.C., Juhasz, A., Smith, E. & Naidu, R. 2015. Assessing
of engineered nanomaterials throughout the life cycle.
the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of metals and metalloids.
Environmental Science: Nano, 7(12): 3824–3839. https://
Environmental Science and Pollution Research International,
doi.org/10.1039/D0EN00422G
22(12): 8802–8825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-
Landrigan, P.J., Fuller, R., Acosta, N.J.R., Adeyi, O., 013-1820-9
Arnold, R., Basu, N. (Nil), Baldé, A.B., Bertollini, R.,
Nič, M., Jirát, J., Košata, B., Jenkins, A. & McNaught, A.,
Bose-O’Reilly, S., Boufford, J.I., Breysse, P.N., Chiles,
eds. 2009. IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology:
T., Mahidol, C., Coll-Seck, A.M., Cropper, M.L., Fobil,
Gold Book. 2.1.0 edition. Research Triagle Park, NC, IUPAC.
J., Fuster, V., Greenstone, M., Haines, A., Hanrahan,
(also available at http://goldbook.iupac.org).
D., Hunter, D., Khare, M., Krupnick, A., Lanphear,
B., Lohani, B., Martin, K., Mathiasen, K.V., McTeer, Nizzetto, L., Futter, M. & Langaas, S. 2016. Are Agricultural
M.A., Murray, C.J.L., Ndahimananjara, J.D., Perera, F., Soils Dumps for Microplastics of Urban Origin? Environmental
Potočnik, J., Preker, A.S., Ramesh, J., Rockström, J., science & technology, 50(20): 10777–10779. https://doi.
Salinas, C., Samson, L.D., Sandilya, K., Sly, P.D., Smith, org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04140
K.R., Steiner, A., Stewart, R.B., Suk, W.A., Schayck,
O.C.P. van, Yadama, G.N., Yumkella, K. & Zhong, M.
2018. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The

54 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Pasetto, R., Mattioli, B. & Marsili, D. 2019. Environmental Shi, P. & Schulin, R. 2018. Erosion-induced losses of carbon,
Justice in Industrially Contaminated Sites. A Review of Scientific nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals from agricultural soils
Evidence in the WHO European Region. International Journal of contrasting organic matter management. Science of The Total
of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(6). https:// Environment, 618: 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060998 scitotenv.2017.11.060
Pereira, L.C., de Souza, A.O., Bernardes, M.F.F., Pazin, Sinche, F.L., Nutile, S.A., Hartz, K.E.H., Landrum, P.F.
M., Tasso, M.J., Pereira, P.H. & Dorta, D.J. 2015. A & Lydy, M.J. 2018. Effects of type and quantity of organic
perspective on the potential risks of emerging contaminants carbon on the bioaccessibility of polychlorinated biphenyls
to human and environmental health. Environmental Science in contaminated sediments. Environmental Toxicology and
and Pollution Research, 22(18): 13800–13823. https://doi. Chemistry, 37(5): 1280–1290. https://doi.org/10.1002/
org/10.1007/s11356-015-4896-6 etc.4073
Pietroiusti, A., Stockmann‐Juvala, H., Lucaroni, F. & Sparling, D.W., Linder, G., Bishop, C.A. & Krest, S.
Savolainen, K. 2018. Nanomaterial exposure, toxicity, 2010. Ecotoxicology of Amphibians and Reptiles. CRC Press.
and impact on human health. WIREs Nanomedicine 946 pp.
and Nanobiotechnology, 10(5): e1513. https://doi.
Spencer, P.S. & Lein, P.J. 2014. Neurotoxicity. In P.
org/10.1002/wnan.1513
Wexler, ed. Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third Edition),
Prata, J.C., da Costa, J.P., Lopes, I., Duarte, A.C. & Rocha- pp. 489–500. Oxford, Academic Press. (also available
Santos, T. 2020. Environmental exposure to microplastics: An at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
overview on possible human health effects. Science of The Total B978012386454300169X).
Environment, 702: 134455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Stockholm Convention. 2008. The Stockholm Convention
scitotenv.2019.134455
Overview. In: Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Prüss-Ustün, A., Wolf, J., Corvalán, C., Bos, R. & Neira, Pollutants [online]. [Cited 7 November 2019]. http://chm.
M. 2016. Preventing disease through healthy environments. pops.int/TheConvention/Overview/History/Overview/
A global assessment of the burden disease from environmental tabid/3549/Default.aspx
risk. , p. 176. Geneva, Switzerland, World Health
Sunderland, E.M., Hu, X.C., Dassuncao, C., Tokranov,
Organization. (also available at https://apps.who.int/iris/
A.K., Wagner, C.C. & Allen, J.G. 2019. A review of the
bitstream/handle/10665/204585/9789241565196_eng.
pathways of human exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl
pdf?sequence=1).
substances (PFASs) and present understanding of health
Pure Earth. 2020. Toxic Sites Identification Program (TSIP). effects. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental
In: Pure Earth [online]. [Cited 7 September 2020]. https:// Epidemiology, 29(2): 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1038/
www.pureearth.org/projects/toxic-sites-identification- s41370-018-0094-1
program-tsip/
Swartjes, F.A., ed. 2011. Dealing with Contaminated Sites.
Ragusa, A., Svelato, A., Santacroce, C., Catalano, P., Dordrecht, Springer Netherlands. (also available at http://
Notarstefano, V., Carnevali, O., Papa, F., Rongioletti, link.springer.com/10.1007/978-90-481-9757-6).
M.C.A., Baiocco, F., Draghi, S., D’Amore, E., Rinaldo,
Tangahu, B.V., Sheikh Abdullah, S.R., Basri, H., Idris, M.,
D., Matta, M. & Giorgini, E. 2021. Plasticenta: First
Anuar, N. & Mukhlisin, M. 2011. A Review on Heavy Metals
evidence of microplastics in human placenta. Environment
(As, Pb, and Hg) Uptake by Plants through Phytoremediation.
International, 146: 106274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
In: International Journal of Chemical Engineering [online].
envint.2020.106274
[Cited 2 March 2020]. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/
Reimann, C. & Garrett, R.G. 2005. Geochemical ijce/2011/939161/
background—concept and reality. Science of The Total
Tian, D. & Niu, S. 2015. A global analysis of soil acidification
Environment, 350(1–3): 12–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
caused by nitrogen addition. Environmental Research
scitotenv.2005.01.047
Letters, 10(2): 024019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-
Rodríguez Eugenio, N., McLaughlin, M.J. & Pennock, D. 9326/10/2/024019
2018. Soil pollution: a hidden reality. Rome, Italy, Food and
Tian, K., Huang, B., Xing, Z. & Hu, W. 2017. Geochemical
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 156 pp.
baseline establishment and ecological risk evaluation of heavy
Rotterdam Convention. 2010. Rotterdam Convention metals in greenhouse soils from Dongtai, China. Ecological
[online]. [Cited 26 December 2019]. http://www.pic.int/ Indicators, 72: 510–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
TheConvention/Overview/tabid/1044/language/en-US/ ecolind.2016.08.037
Default.aspx
UN. 2020. Map of the World. United Nations. [Cited 27 March
Semple, K.T., Doick, K.J., Jones, K.C., Burauel, P., 2021]. https://www.un.org/geospatial/file/3420/download
Craven, A. & Harms, H. 2004. Defining bioavailability
UNEP. 2017. Resolution 3/6. Managing soil pollution to
and bioaccessibility of contaminated soil and sediment is
achieve sustainable development. [Cited 5 April 2019].
complicated. Environmental Science & Technology, 38(12):
https://papersmart.unon.org/resolution/uploads/
228A-231A. (also available at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/
k1800204.english.pdf
pdf/10.1021/es040548w).

References 55
United Nations, ed. 2011. Globally harmonized system of Wu, Z., He, C., Han, W., Song, J., Li, H., Zhang, Y.,
classification and labelling of chemicals: GHS. 4th rev. ed Jing, X. & Wu, W. 2020. Exposure pathways, levels and
edition. United Nations. New York, United Nations. 561 pp. toxicity of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in humans: A
(also available at https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/ review. Environmental Research, 187: 109531. https://doi.
trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev04/English/ST-SG-AC10- org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109531
30-Rev4e.pdf).
Zeng, S., Ma, J., Ren, Y., Liu, G.J., Zhang, Q. & Chen, F.
UNSCEAR. 2011. Sources and effects of ionizing radiation: 2019. Assessing the spatial distribution of soil pahs and their
UNSCEAR 2008 report to the General Assembly, with scientific relationship with anthropogenic activities at a national scale.
indexes Vol. 2, Vol. 2,. New York, United Nations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 16(24). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16244928
Wang, L., Liu, M., Tao, W., Zhang, W., Wang, L., Shi,
X., Lu, X. & Li, X. 2018. Pollution characteristics and
health risk assessment of phthalate esters in urban soil
in the typical semi-arid city of Xi’an, Northwest China.
Chemosphere, 191: 467–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
chemosphere.2017.10.066
WHO. 2015. Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial
Resistance. World Health Organization. [Cited 9
June 2020]. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/
handle/10665/193736/9789241509763_eng.
pdf?sequence=1
WHO. 2016. Dioxins and their effects on human health. In:
WHO Facsheets [online]. [Cited 17 December 2020]. https://
www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dioxins-and-
their-effects-on-human-health
WHO. 2017. Mercury and health. In: World Health
Organization [online]. [Cited 22 September 2020]. https://
www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-
health
WHO. 2019. Asbestos. In: International Programme on
Chemical Safety [online]. [Cited 1 December 2020]. http://
www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/public_health/asbestos/en/
WHO. 2020. Water-related diseases: Arsenicosis [online].
https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases-
risks/diseases/arsenicosis/en/
WHO & FAO. 2018. Codex Alimentarius: understanding
Codex.. 5th edition edition. Rome, Italy, World Health
Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations. 52 pp. (also available at http://www.fao.
org/3/ca1176en/CA1176EN.pdf).
Wilkinson, J.L., Hooda, P.S., Barker, J., Barton, S. &
Swinden, J. 2016. Ecotoxic pharmaceuticals, personal
care products, and other emerging contaminants: A review
of environmental, receptor-mediated, developmental, and
epigenetic toxicity with discussion of proposed toxicity to
humans. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and
Technology, 46(4): 336–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/10
643389.2015.1096876
Wilson, M.A., Burt, R., Indorante, S.J., Jenkins,
A.B., Chiaretti, J.V., Ulmer, M.G. & Scheyer, J.M.
2008. Geochemistry in the modern soil survey program.
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 139(1–3): 151–
171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9822-z
World Bank. 2020. Vulnerable employment, female (% of
©FAO/Matteo Sala

female employment) (modeled ILO estimate). In: The World

Bank Data [online]. [Cited 7 February 2021]. https://data.
worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.VULN.FE.ZS?view=map

56 GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL POLLUTION

Glossary Carcinogenicity. The ability of a physical phenomenon
(e.g. radiation), or of a chemical or biological agent to
cause cancer or increase its incidence (United Nations,
Bioavailability. The portion of the total quantity of 2011).
a chemical/substance that is ‘freely available’ to cross
an organism’s cellular membrane from the medium the
Contaminant. A substance, compound or chemical
organism inhabits at a given time (Semple et al., 2004),
element at a concentration that exceeds natural
and which can be metabolically active in a living organism
concentrations (Chapman, 2007) (natural background
(Klaassen, Casarett and Doull, 2013). ‘Freely available’
value) (ISO, 2016). The presence of a contaminant does
is defined operationally by different methods. Bioassays
not necessarily indicate harmful or deleterious effects.
on plants or animals (Ng et al., 2015) are often time and
The term is often used as a synonym for pollutant.
resource-consuming and may comprise ethical issues.
Indirect single-step or sequential chemical extractions
using reagent(s) simulating the interaction of plant Diffuse soil pollution. Pollution that is spread over wide
or human fluids/exudates with the contaminant(s) of areas and that accumulates in the soil. Diffuse pollution is
interest are also employed (Cipullo et al., 2018). Some of often more difficult to attribute to a single source. Two
these extractions have been standardized and taken into main types of diffuse pollution occur. 1. unintended
consideration in the legislation of some countries. Other spreading of a chemical or of contaminated particles from
extractions are undergoing standardization, a process a point-source site or polluting activity (e.g. industrial
necessary to make bioavailability a concept that can be emissions) to the broader landscape. This spreading
included in legislation and policies for soil protection, can occur by wind or water transport of chemicals and
and as a tool for risk assessment (Harmsen, 2007; Kim particles on the soil surface, by atmospheric transport
et al., 2015). In soil, contaminant bioavailability can be and deposition of volatile chemicals, or by leaching
affected by soil properties (e.g., pH, redox potential, of chemicals from the soil to groundwater. 2. diffuse
clay content, organic matter content, etc.) (Gupta et al., pollution occurs through intended application of a
2019; Sinche et al., 2018), contaminant chemical contaminant or a source of contaminants – for example,
properties (e.g., polarity, oxidation states, acidity, etc.), irrigation with contaminated groundwater or untreated
and/or environmental factors (e.g., moisture content, wastewater, land application of sewage sludge, or
temperature, etc.). These properties are not static in time agricultural use of non-rapidly-degradable pesticides or
or place, thus it is important to understand the limitations contaminants introduced with fertilisers.
of operationally-defined determinations of bioavailability
when evaluating actual bioavailability at a given site Endocrine disruptor. An exogenous substance or
temporally and spatially. mixture that alters function(s) of the endocrine system
and consequently causes adverse health effects in an
Bioaccumulation. The net result of all processes of intact organism, or its progeny, or (sub)populations
absorption and loss, such as respiratory absorption and (IPCS, 2002).
through food ingestion, and loss by egestion, passive
diffusion, metabolism, transfer to offspring and growth Eutrophication. The excessive enrichment of surface
(Borgå, 2013). It comprises the specific processes of waters with plant nutrients, primarily N and P (FAO,
bioconcentration and biomagnification. 2019b).

Biomagnification. The enrichment of a chemical/ Mutagenicity. The ability of any contaminant to damage
substance in an organism relative to the chemical/ the genetic information in a cell, producing transmissible
substance in the organism’s food, when the major genetic alterations to other cells and progeny (Gupta,
exposure route occurs from the organism’s diet 2016).
(Drouillard, 2008). Biomagnification leads to increased
chemical/substance concentration with higher trophic
position in the food web (Borgå, 2013). Natural (geochemical) background concentration.
The natural concentration (given in a range or in absolute
value) (Reimann and Garrett, 2005) of an element or
Biomonitoring. The use of living organisms to assess compound in the soil due to geological and pedological
environmental contamination or pollution by measuring processes, in a given place and time, the origin and
accumulation of chemicals in organism tissues or by presence of which has no anthropic influence (adapted
assessing biomarkers of exposure on indicator species. from ISO, 2015a; Tian et al., 2017). Natural soil
background concentrations are variable depending on
the mineralogical composition of the soil parent material

Glossary 57
and on the pedogenetic (soil-forming) processes (Kabata-
Pendias and Pendias, 2001; Wilson et al., 2008).

Neurotoxicity. Any adverse effect on the structure

and/or the normal activity of the nervous system after
exposure to contaminants (neurotoxins) (Spencer and
Lein, 2014).

Point-source soil pollution. Point-source soil pollution

occurs in a limited area, and in most cases the source and
identity of the pollution is readily identified. The cause
of the point-source pollution can be accidental (for
example, through spills of contaminants or leakage from
storage containers) or it may occur as a by-product of an
intentional activity (e.g. former factory sites, landfills,
lead battery or electronic waste recycling sites, and mine
tailings). Ideally, appropriate governance regulates and
prevents soil pollution. However, many examples of
lack of regulation, or weak implementation of existing
regulations, for soil pollution are included in this report.

Soil contamination. Soil contamination occurs when

the concentration of a chemical or substance is higher
than would occur naturally, but is not at a level known to
cause harm to non-target organisms.
Soil pollution. Soil pollution refers to the presence of a
chemical or substance that is out of place and/or is present
at a higher than natural background concentration, and
that has an adverse effect on any non-target organism. The
specification of non-target organisms in these definitions
recognizes that some chemicals and substances are
added to plants and soils specifically to suppress target
organisms such as pesticides.

58
Glossary
59
©Curllan Bhola
©Pikrepo
©Pikrepo
 The Global Soil Partnership (GSP) is a globally recognized mechanism established in 2012. Our mission is
to position soils in the Global Agenda through collective action. Our key objectives are to promote
Sustainable Soil Management (SSM) and improve soil governance to guarantee healthy and productive
soils, and support the provision of essential ecosystem services towards food security and improved
nutrition, climate change adaptation and mitigation, and sustainable development.

Thanks to the financial support of

Ministry of Finance of the

Russian Federation

ISBN 978-92-5-134448-4

9 789251 344484
CB4827EN/1/06.21