Introduction to Wireless Communication

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Introduction and study to Wireless Communication System.

Theory:
1G: The very first generation of commercial cellular network was introduced in the late 70’s
with fully implemented standards being established throughout the 80’s. The radio signals used
by 1G are analogue, meaning the voice of a call is modulated to a higher frequency rather than
being encoded to digital signals.

2G: The second generation saw the introduction of GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communication) technologies as a standard in the early 90’s. It allowed for digital voice and
data to be sent across the network and allowed users to roam for the first time. 2G also used
Signalling and Data Confidentially and Mobile Station Authentication to ensure improved
security and privacy of telephone calls.

2.5G: Between the year 2000 and 2003, an upgrade in technologies introduced the packet
network which provided high speed data transfer and internet and became known as 2.5G. The
standards included GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and EDGE (enhanced Data Rates in
GSM).

3G: Introduced commercially in 2001, the goals set out for third generation mobile
communication were to facilitate greater voice and data capacity, support a wider range of
applications, and increase data transmission at a lower cost. For the first time, this generation
supported high speed wide band internet access as well as fixed wireless internet access and
allowed for video calls, chatting and conferencing, mobile TV, video on demand services,
navigational maps, email, mobile gaming, music and digital services such as movies.

4G: Initiated in 2010, the fourth generation is an all IP based network system. Its purpose is to
provide high speed, high quality and high capacity to users while improving security and lower
the cost of voice and data services, multimedia and internet over IP. The major benefit of an IP
based network is that it is able to seamlessly handover, for voice and data to GSM, UMTS and
CDMA2000 technologies from the previous different generations infrastructure. 4G introduced
the LTE standard which only support packet switching and an all IP Network.

5G: 5G is the next generation of commercial cellular network, set to greatly increase internet
connectivity speeds. At this time, there aren’t any publicly agreed definitive standards that
have been set as with previous generations so not a great deal of information is known about
the specific technologies that are going to be used. Different estimations have been made for
the date of commercial introduction of 5G networks, but they are generally around the year
2020.

Types of Wireless Communication System:

• Television and Radio Broadcasting
• Satellite Communication
• Radar
• Mobile Telephone System (Cellular Communication)
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• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Infrared Communication
• WLAN (Wi-Fi)
• Bluetooth

Wireless Local Loop (WLL):

It is the use of a wireless communications link as the "last mile / first mile" connection for
delivering plain old telephone service (POTS) or Internet access (marketed under the term
"broadband") to telecommunications customers. Other terms for this type of access include
broadband wireless access (BWA), radio in the loop (RITL), fixed-radio access (FRA), fixed
wireless access (FWA) and metro wireless (MW).

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN):

A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices using
wireless communication to form a local area network (LAN) within a limited area such as a
home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office building. This gives users the ability to
move around within the area and remain connected to the network. Through a gateway, a
WLAN can also provide a connection to the wider Internet. Wireless LANs based on the IEEE
802.11 standards are the most widely used computer networks in the world.

Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging data
between fixed and mobile devices over short distances using UHF radio waves in the ISM
bands, from 2.402 GHz to 2.48 GHz, and building personal area networks (PANs). It is mainly
used as an alternative to wire connections, to exchange files between nearby portable devices
and connect cell phones and music players with wireless headphones.

Personal Area Networks:

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network for interconnecting electronic devices
within an individual person's workspace. A PAN provides data transmission among devices
such as computers, smartphones, tablets and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for
communication among the personal devices themselves, or for connecting to a higher level
network and the Internet where one master device takes up the role as gateway.

Exercises:
1. Study evolution of wireless communication system.
2. Study of Wireless LAN and Bluetooth technology.

Review Questions:
1. What is wireless communication? Explain in brief.
2. List all types of Wireless Communication System in detail.

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 Mobile Web Development

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Introduction and study to Mobile Web Development.

Theory:
What is the Mobile Web?
The mobile web, from a user’s perspective, is basically just web content accessed from a
mobile device. We can even discuss whether the mobile web exists as a concept from a user’s
perspective.
From a developer’s perspective, however, the mobile web definitely does exist, and it’s a
group of best practices, design patterns, and new code.
The mobile web refers to access to the World Wide Web, i.e. the use of browser-
based Internet services, from a handheld mobile device, such as a smart phone or a feature
phone, connected to a mobile network or other wireless network.

How Mobile web differs from Desktop Web?

1. Slower networks with higher latency
2. Slower hardware and less available memory
3. Different browsing experience
4. Different user contexts
5. Different browser behavior
6. Too many mobile web browsers, with different versions on the market at the same time
7. Some browsers are too limited, some browsers are too innovative
8. Several browsers without identity (it’s just…the browser), documentation, or
9. developer tools
10. Mobile browser support is inconsistent
11. Mobile devices are smaller and slower
12. Different input tools (stylus, fingers)
13. Different screen size and different resolutions
A standards-based approach to Mobile Web development ensures compliance and usability
across mobile browsers and platforms. Knowing all the rules—and knowing when to ignore
the rules—is necessary for success on the Mobile Web.

Mobile Web vs. Desktop Web

The Mobile Web uses the plumbing of the Desktop Web and adds new MIME types, markup
languages, document formats, and best practices to provide web content optimized for the
small screens, resource constraints, and usability challenges of web browsers on mobile
devices.
The Mobile Web introduces new components into the web ecosystem, including:
1. Markup languages and styles optimized for mobile devices
2. MIME types that differentiate mobile markup from desktop HTML
3. Browser clients with a wide variety of capabilities
4. Network proxies that further adapt your content to cater for those clients

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1. Mobile Web development is a new discipline for these reasons :
a. The mobile web ecosystem is totally new: The Mobile Web uses the plumbing of the
Desktop Web, but it has new best practices derived from the unique attributes of mobile
devices. Bandwidth consumption is a concern, even for smartphones. Rich Web 2.0
features such as JavaScript frameworks and Asynchronous JavaScript and XML
(AJAX) must be used judiciously, or you risk draining battery power. Operators
frequently control and block traffic to Mobile Web sites. Transcoding proxies often
attempt to reformat mobile markup enroute to a mobile browser.
b. The Mobile Web user is totally new : Mobile Web users have unique usage patterns
and navigation methods. Mobile users are keenly goal-directed and location-aware.
Roaming in and out of coverage areas, mobile users count network access problems
among the top factors affecting the Mobile Web browsing experience.
c. The Mobile Web browser is totally new: The mobile browser has unique benefits,
quirks, and workarounds. Partial and flawed implementations of web standards are
commonplace. Improperly formatted web pages can have drastic effects on mobile
devices, including crashing the browser or resetting the device. Advanced web features
such as JavaScript and AJAX are highly desirable but drain battery life.
Mobile Web Desktop Web

Average Session Length 2-3 Minutes 10-15 Minutes

Minimum Screen Size 90 x 60 800 x 600

Maximum Screen Size 240 x 400 Unlimited

Browser Vendors 12 + and growing Two with market share over 5%

Browser Bugs Frequent, Permanent Rare, Patchable

W3C Standards Spotty, Sometimes Matured and accepted

Markup Languages WMLCHTML XHTML HTML, XHTML

Basic XHTML-MP
XHTML

JavaScript and AJAX Not on 90% of mobile Usually Available

Addressable clients 3 Billion mobile 1 billion total notebooks, desktops

Table 1 - Characteristics of Mobile Web and Desktop Web

The Mobile Browsing Experience

The mobile browsing experience varies among different devices, and even among
different browsers running on the same device. The user interfaces work very differently.

1. Navigation Methods
A mobile website can be navigated using different techniques. Every mobile browser
uses one or many of these modes of navigation. The modes are:
a. Focus Navigation
b. Cursor Navigation
c. Touch Navigation
d. Multi touch Navigation
Focus navigation illustrated in fig 1 is the most frequent mechanism used for

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 browsing websites on low-end and mid-range devices. With this mode, a border or a
background color is used to show the user where the focus is. In generalit isused in
non-touch devices: the user uses the cursor keypad to navigate between links and scroll
the website. Pressing the down arrow key makes the browser change the focus to the
next focusable object (for example, a link, a text field, or a button), or scroll a couple of
lines in the content if there is no other focusable object nearby.

Figure 1- Focus Navigation on Low End Devices

Cursor Navigation illustrated in fig 2. A mouse cursor over the screen that can be
moved using the arrow keys. A mouse click is emulated with the Fire or Enter key. For
a better experience, many browsers jump the cursor to a nearby focusable object to
reduce the distance the user has to move the pointer to use a link or a button.

Figure 2 - Cursor Navigation

Touch navigation may seem obvious, but we need to be aware of one thing: the user
may navigate using a finger or a stylus. The differences in design can be huge;
precision is much lower if fingers are used. Touch devices allow the user to use
detectable gestures to easily perform some actions. Some devices are also multitouch
allowing the users to select many objects at the same time and incrementing the number

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 of gestures that can be detected.
2. Zoom Experience
Analyzing how browsers manage zoom options reveals two different types of
browser. The first type offers basic zoom capabilities: the web page is always rendered
at 1:1 scale to the original design, and the user can only change the font size. If the
design doesn’t fit on the screen, the scroll bar comes in to solve the problem.
The second type offers smart zoom capabilities: the web page can be viewed at any
zoom scale the user wants, and the zooming action affects the font size, the images, and
the web page as a whole. Based on a user gesture or menu option, we can switch from a
full page view to a paragraph view, as shown in fig 3.

Figure 3 - Smart Zooming

3. Reflow Layout Engines

Some mobile browsers aim to offer a better experience to mobile users browsing
websites that were not designed for mobile devices by re flowing the pages to a one-
column design. Fig 4 shows the result of using Opera Mini’s ―Single Column View‖
on a web page.

Figure 4 - Opera Mini Single column view

4. Resolution
Resolution is the primary concern in mobile design. How many pixels (width and
height) are available on a given device? There are no mobile device standards regarding
screen resolution. One phone-sized device may have a resolution of 128×128 pixels,
and another 720×1280. The third generation iPad has a 2048×1536 screen. But if we
talk about devices sold from 2009, we can separate most of them into these groups:
a. Feature phones: 128×160 or 128×128 pixels
b. Social phones (group #1, nontouch): 176×220, 176×208, 240×320, or
320×240 pixels
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 c. Social phones (group #2, touch): 240×320, 320×240, or 240×400 pixels
d. Touch-enabled smartphones (group #1, low resolution): 240×480, 320×480,
or
e. 360×480 pixels
f. Touch-enabled smartphones (group #2, higher resolution): 480×800,
480×854,
g. 540×960, 640×960, 640×1136, 720×1280, or 768×1280 pixels
h. Tablets: 1024×768, 1024×600, 1280×800, 1920×1200, or 2048×1536 pixels

5. Physical dimensions
The resolution isn’t the only thing we can talk about with regard to a mobile
device’s screen. One feature as important as the resolution is the physical dimensions of
the screen. Or the relation between this measure and the resolution, which is known as
the PPI (pixels per inch) or DPI (dots per inch). This is very important, because while
our first thought may be that a screen with a resolution of 128×160 is ―smaller than a
screen with a resolution of 240×320 that may be a false conclusion. Consider the iPod 2
and the third generation iPod: they have resolutions of 1024×768 and 2048×1536,
respectively, in the same 9.7‖ screen. Also, you can find on the market 10‖ tablets with
only as many pixels as a high-resolution 4.5‖smart phone.
We can categorize screen sizes as follows:
a. Small phone screens: from 1.5‖to 3‖
b. Normal/medium phone screens: from 3‖to 4‖
c. Large phone screens: from 4‖to 5
d. Small tablet screens: from 5‖to 8‖
e. Large tablet screens: from 8‖to 11‖
Every screen size type can have different density options:
a. Low density: 100 to 130 PPI
b. Medium density: 130 to 180 PPI
c. High density: 180 to 270 PPI
d. Ultra-high density: more than 270 PPI

6. Pixel Density Ratio

To solve the problem of having different-resolution devices in the same device
category, some mobile browsers support a feature called device pixel ratio. This
is a multiplier that, when available, is automatically applied to our web content. The
objective of the pixel ratio idea is to simplify our lives as designers and
developers: we can design for one virtual, average device and the result will look fine
on every screen size. Remember, more pixels doesn’t necessarily mean more space to
insert content.
7. Aspect Ratio
A device’s aspect ratio is the ratio between its longer and shorter dimensions. There are
vertical (or portrait) devices whose displays are taller than they are wide, there are
horizontal (or landscape) devices whose displays are wider than they are tall, and there
are also some square screens. To complicate our lives as designers even more, today
there are also many devices with rotation capabilities. Such a device can be
either 320×240 or 240×320, depending on the orientation. Our websites need to be
aware of this and offer a good experience in both orientations.
a. Standard 4:3, used in classic TV and old CRT computer monitors
b. Standard 3:2, used in classic 35 mm film
c. Widescreen 16:9, used in standard high-definition TV
d. Wide-screen 15:9, used in LCD desktop computer monitors
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 8. Input Methods
There are many different input methods for mobile devices that change how a mobile
web app should be developed. A given device may support only one input method, or
many of them. Possibilities include:
a. Numeric keypad
b. Alphanumeric keypad (ABC or QWERTY)
c. Virtual keypad on screen
d. Touch
e. Multi touch
f. External keypad (wireless or not)
g. Handwriting recognition
h. Voice recognition

Exercises:
1. Study of different types of mobile operating System.
2. Study of Tools used to develop mobile application development.

Review Questions:
1. List difference between Mobile web and Desktop web.
2. What is Navigation? Explain types of it.
3. What is Resolution and Aspect Ratio?

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 Bluetooth Simulation
Practical No: Date: __________
Aim: Study and demonstration of Bluetooth Network Simulation.

Theory:
The Bluetooth Wireless Technology – An Overview
1. Bluetooth SIG
Bluetooth technology is being developed through the combined contributions of the
members of the Bluetooth Special Interest Group founded by Ericsson, IBM, Intel,
Nokia and Toshiba presently made up of around 1,800 members.

2. Technology Overview
Bluetooth is the name given to a new technology using short-range radio links,
intended to replace the cable(s) connecting portable and/or fixed electronic devices. It
is envisaged that it will allow for the replacement of the many propriety cables that
connect one device to another with one universal radio link. Its key features are
robustness, low complexity, low power and low cost. Designed to operate in noisy
frequency environments, the Bluetooth radio uses a fast acknowledgement and
frequency-hopping scheme to make the link robust. Bluetooth radio modules operate in
the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4GHz, and avoid interference from other signals by
hopping to a new frequency after transmitting or receiving a packet. Compared with
other systems in the same frequency band, the Bluetooth radio hops faster and uses
shorter packets.

3. Bluetooth Physical System

The Bluetooth system consists of a radio unit, a link control unit and a support unit for
link management and host terminal interface functions.

4. Bluetooth Protocol Stack

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 5. Network Topology

6. Piconet (Point-to-multipoint connection)

In this connection the channel is shared among several Bluetooth units.
a. Two or more units forming the same channel form a piconet.
b. One Bluetooth unit acts as the master of the piconet, whereas the other unit(s) act as
slave(s). Up to seven slaves can be active in a piconet, in addition many more
slaves can remain locked to the master in a parked state. These parked slaves
cannot be active on the channel, but remain synchronised to the master. Both for
active and parked slaves, the channel access is controlled by the master.

7. Scatternet
a. Multiple piconets with overlapping coverage areas form a scatternet.
b. Each piconet can only have a single master, however slaves can participate in
different piconets on a time-division multiplex basis.
c. A master in one piconet can be a slave in another.
d. Each piconet is identified by a different hopping frequency sequence. All users
participating on the same piconet are synchronized to this hopping sequence.

Exercises:
1. Explain the Network topology used in the Bluetooth with related printouts.
2. Explain Bluetooth Protocol Stack in detail and attach relevant printouts.
3. Explain the working simulation of Bluetooth by taking any single service operation and
also attach relevant printouts.

Review Questions:
1. What is Bluetooth Technology? Explain the Aim & Characteristics of the same?
2. Explain Bluetooth Protocol Stack.
3. Explain Piconet and Scatternet.

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 GSM Simulation

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Study and demonstration of GSM Simulation.

Theory:
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication and is an open, digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. A GSM network consists of
several functional entities whose functions and interfaces are defined. The GSM network
can be divided into following broad parts.

The Mobile Station (MS)

The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and digital
signal processors, and the SIM card. It provides the air interface to the user in GSM networks.
As such, other services are also provided, which include:
1. Voice teleservices
2. Data bearer services
3. The features' supplementary services
a. The Base Station Subsystem (BSS): The BSS is composed of two parts:
b. The Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS houses the radio transceivers that
define a cell and handles the radio link protocols with the MS. In a large urban area, a
large number of BTSs may be deployed.
c. The Base Station Controller (BSC): he BSC manages the radio resources for one or
more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup, frequency hopping, and handovers. The
BSC is the connection between the mobile and the MSC.
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations
between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS may
consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The BSS
uses the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1 or E1) is
then connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.
The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
The Network switching system (NSS), the main part of which is the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network
users, as well as the management of mobile services such as authentication.

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is
considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers,
including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an
individual buys a subscription in the form of SIM then all the information about this
subscription is registered in the HLR of that operator.

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Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the
switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as the
management of mobile services such as such as registration, authentication, location updating,
handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs such functions as toll
ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others. Every MSC is identified
by a unique ID.
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by
the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC.
When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will
request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call,
the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR
each time.
Authentication Center (AUC)
The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in
each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio
channel. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's
cellular world.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile
equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies
each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.
The Operation Support Subsystem(OSS)
The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support
system (OSS).
Following is the simple architecture diagram of GSM Network.

The added components of the GSM architecture include the functions of the databases and

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messaging systems:
a. Home Location Register (HLR)
b. Visitor Location Register (VLR)
c. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
d. Authentication Center (AuC)
e. SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
f. Gateway MSC (GMSC)
g. Chargeback Center (CBC)
h. Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

Following is the diagram of GSM Network along with added elements.

The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface, also known as the air interface or
radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching center across the A
interface.

GSM network areas:

In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:
a. Cell: Cell is the basic service area: one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell
Global Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
b. Location Area: A group of cells form a Location Area. This is the area that is paged
when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each Location Area is assigned a Location
Area Identity (LAI). Each Location Area is served by one or more BSCs.
c. MSC/VLR Service Area: The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR
service area.
d. PLMN: The area covered by one network operator is called PLMN. A PLMN can
contain one or more MSCs.

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Exercises:
1. Explain the entities and terminology used in GSM Simulation.
2. Explain the functions of HLR and VLR.
3. Explain GSM architecture with the help of GSM simulation.

Review Questions:
1. What is GSM? Explain its architecture.
2. Explain Mobile Station and Base Station.

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 GPRS Network Simulation
Practical No.: Date: __________
Aim: Study and demonstration of GPRS Network Simulation.

Theory:
Simple GPRS Technical Overview:

As mentioned earlier GPRS is not a completely separate network to GSM. Many of the devices
such as the base transceiver stations and base transceiver station controllers are still used.
Often devices need to be upgraded be it software, hardware or both. When deploying GPRS
many of the software changes can be made remotely. There are however two new functional
elements which play a major role in how GPRS works. The Serving GPRS Support Node
(SGSN) and the Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN). These 2 nodes are new to the network
with the other changes being small if any. Before explaining what these 2 new members of our
network do it is important to ask how does

The network differentiates between GSM (circuit) and GPRS (packet)

In simple terms there are in practice two different networks working in parallel, GSM and
GPRS. In any GSM network there will be several BSC’s (Base Station Controllers). When
implementing GPRS software and hardware upgrade of this unit is required. The hardware
upgrade consists of adding a Packet Control Unit (PCU). This extra piece of hardware
differentiates data destined for the standard GSM network or Circuit Switched Data and data
destined for the GPRS network or Packet Switched Data. In some cases a PCU can be a
separate entity. From the upgraded BSC there is a fast frame relay connection that connects
directly to the newly introduced SGSN.

SGSN
The Serving GPRS Support Node, or SGSN for short, takes care of some important tasks,
including routing, handover and IP address assignment. The SGSN has a logical connection to
the GPRS device. One job of the SGSN is to make sure the connection is not interrupted as you
make your journey passing from cell to cell. The SGSN works out which BSC to route your
connection through. If the user moves into a segment of the network that is managed by a
different SGSN it will perform a handoff of to the new SGSN, this is done extremely quickly
and generally the user will not notice this has happened. Any packets that are lost during this
process are retransmitted. The SGSN converts mobile data into IP and is connected to the
GGSN via a tunneling protocol.
GGSN
The Gateway GPRS Support Node is the last port of call in the GPRS network before a
connection between an ISP or corporate network’s router occurs. The GGSN is basically a
gateway, router and firewall rolled into one. It also confirms user details with RADIUS servers
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for security, which are usually situated in the IP network and outside of the GPRS network.
HLR
The HLR or Home Location Register is a database that contains subscriber information, when
a device connects to the network their MSISDN number is associated with services, account
status information, preferences and sometimes IP addresses.

IP addressing
Allocating addressing:
There are 3 different ways in which a device can be assigned an IP address.
Fixed IP addressing:
Fixed IP addresses for mobile devices are not widely used due to shortages of Ipv4 addresses
(see below). This information is stored in the HLR.
Dynamic IP addressing:
The second means of addressing is dynamic addressing. This is where a mobile device does not
have its own IP address stored in the HLR. Instead the IP address is assigned to the GGSN
domain. The third method is also a type of dynamic IP addressing in which the IP address is
assigned by RADIUS servers normally situated inside an IP network outside the mobile
network, an example of this being when you dial up to an ISP from your home PC.

How does the SGSN know which GGSN to direct you to?
A mobile device is programmed with one or more Access Point Names which are commonly
referred to as the APN’s. An APN consists of a fully qualified DNS name e.g.
morgandoyle.co.uk. When a GPRS device wants to talk to morgandoyle.co.uk’s network, the
SGSN does a DNS lookup and resolves the name to the correct GGSN. You could have
multiple APN’s programmed into your phone so you are not limited to a single service or
GGSN.
IP Version 6
This new version of IP corrects unanticipated Ipv4 design issues that have come about because
of the popularity of the Internet. In short we are running out of addresses. IP version 4 is a 32-
bit address that allows a maximum of around 4 billion IP addresses. It is estimated that by
2005 all the addresses in IP 4 will run out. Some say this will happen sooner - introduce
millions of handheld devices all requiring IP addresses and suddenly there are none left. To
truly enable the Internet to such devices there has to be more addresses. This is where IP
version 6 comes in. Instead of a 32-bit address, IP6 is 128 bit with a maximum number of:
340,232,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 possible IP addresses. This amount of
address space is ample for future foreseeable growth.

Exercises:
1. What is GPRS?
2. Explain the entities and terminology used in GPRS Simulation.
3. Explain the GPRS support nodes with the help of GPRS simulation and also attach
required printouts.
4. Explain GPRS routing with the help of GPRS simulation.

Review Questions:
1. What is GPRS? Explain its architecture.
2. Explain difference between GGSN and SGSN.

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 Mobile IP Simulation
Practical No: Date: __________
Aim: Study and demonstration of Mobile IP Simulation.
Theory:
Mobile IP is a standard that allows users with mobile devices whose IP addresses are
associated with one network to stay connected when moving to a network with a different IP
address. When a user leaves the network with which his device is associated and enters the
domain of a foreign network, the foreign network uses the Mobile IP protocol to inform the
home network of a care-of address to which all packets for the user’s device should be sent.
Mobile IP is most often found in wireless WAN environments where users need to carry their
mobile devices across to which all packets for the user’s device should be sent. Mobile IP is
most often found in wireless WAN environments where users need to carry their mobile
devices across multiple LANs with different IP addresses,

How Mobile IP Works

Mobile IP can be thought of as a cooperation of three major subsystems.
a. First, there is a discovery mechanism defined so that mobile computers can determine
their new attachment points (new IP addresses) as they move from place to place within
the Internet.
b. Second, once the mobile computer knows the IP address at its new attachment point, it
registers with an agent representing it at its home network.
c. Third, Mobile IP defines simple mechanisms to deliver data-grams to the mobile
node when it is away from its home network.
d. Terminologies for Mobile IP
The following defines several entities and terms needed to understand Mobile IP:
a. Mobile Node (MN): It is and end system that can change its point of attachment to the
Internet using Mobile IP. It keeps its IP address and can communicate with any other
system in the Internet.
b. Correspondent Node (CN): The end system with which the MN communicates is
called CN. It can be a fixed or a mobile node.
c. Home Network: It is the subnet to which the MN belongs
d. Foreign Network: The current subnet that the MN visits and is not the home network.
e. Foreign Agent (FA): It provides several services to the MN during its visit. The FA
can have the COA acting as the tunnel endpoint and forwards packets to the MN. It is
not necessary to have a FA. It is typically implemented on the router for the subnet the
MN attaches to.
f. Care-of –address (COA): It defines the current location of the MN from an IP point of
view. All packets sent to the MN are delivered to the COA and not directly to the MN.
Packet delivery is done using a tunnel and COA marks the tunnel endpoint. There are
two possibilities for the location of the COA.
g. Foreign agent COA: The COA is the IP address of the FA. The FA acts as the tunnel
endpoint and forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the FA can share this COA.
h. Co-located COA: The COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquires an additional
IP address using DHCP which acts as the COA. This address is topologically correct
and the tunnel endpoint is at the MN.
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 i. Home agent (HA): The HA provides several services to the MN and is located in the
home network. The tunnel for the packets starts at the HA. It maintains a location
registry i.e. the current COA informs it of the MN’s location. It can be implemented on
the router that is responsible for the home network or on any node in the subnet.

Mobile IP Operations
a. CN wants to send message to the MN. It sends IP packets destined for the MN’s home
address.
b. These packets will be forwarded to the home network by normal routing.
c. After that, the HA makes a tunnel (encapsulates the original packets inside a new IP
packet), and forwards packets to COA (The source IP address is the HA address, and
the destination IP address is the COA.
d. After taking off the outer header, the FA forwards the packets directly to the MN by
link layer address if it is the FCOA.
e. However if it is the CCOA, the HA forwards the packets directly to the MN where the
packets are decapsulated.
f. Finally the MN sends the packets back to the CN as usual.

Exercises:
1. Explain the entities and terminology used in Mobile IP Simulation.
2. Explain the Mobile IP simulation and also attach required printouts.

Review Questions:
1. What is Mobile IP? Explain in brief.
2. Explain difference between Home Network and Foreign Network.

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 Cellular Systems
Practical No: Date: __________
Aim: Study and introduction to Cellular Systems.

Theory:
A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where the link to and from
end nodes is wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called "cells", each served by
at least one fixed-location transceiver (typically three cell sites or base transceiver stations).
These base stations provide the cell with the network coverage which can be used for
transmission of voice, data, and other types of content.

A cell typically uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, to avoid interference
and provide guaranteed service quality within each cell. Cells provide radio coverage over a
wide geographic area. This enables numerous portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones,
tablets and laptops equipped with mobile broadband modems, pagers, etc.) to communicate
with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base
stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during
transmission. More capacity than a single large transmitter, since the same frequency can be
used for multiple links as long as they are in different cells. Mobile devices use less power than
with a single transmitter or satellite since the cell towers are closer. Larger coverage area than
a single terrestrial transmitter, since additional cell towers can be added indefinitely and are not
limited by the horizon.

The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the mobile communication switching system developed by Amos Joel
of Bell Labs[4] that permitted multiple callers in a given area to use the same frequency by
switching calls to the nearest available cellular tower having that frequency available. This
strategy is viable because a given radio frequency can be reused in a different area for an
unrelated transmission. In contrast, a single transmitter can only handle one transmission for a
given frequency. Inevitably, there is some level of interference from the signal from the other
cells which use the same frequency. Consequently, there must be at least one cell gap between
cells which reuse the same frequency in a standard frequency-division multiple access
(FDMA) system. Consider the case of a taxi company, where each radio has a manually
operated channel selector knob to tune to different frequencies. As drivers move around, they
change from channel to channel. The drivers are aware of which frequency approximately
covers some area. When they do not receive a signal from the transmitter, they try other
channels until finding one that works. The taxi drivers only speak one at a time when invited
by the base station operator. This is a form of time-division multiple access (TDMA).

Cell signal encoding:

To distinguish signals from several different transmitters, frequency-division multiple access
(FDMA, used by analog and D-AMPS[citation needed] systems), time-division multiple access
(TDMA, used by GSM) and code-division multiple access (CDMA, first used for PCS, and the
basis of 3G) were developed. With FDMA, the transmitting and receiving frequencies used by

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different users in each cell are different from each other. Each cellular call was assigned a pair
of frequencies (one for base to mobile, the other for mobile to base) to provide full-duplex
operation. The original AMPS systems had 666 channel pairs, 333 each for the CLEC "A"
system and ILEC "B" system. The number of channels was expanded to 416 pairs per carrier,
but ultimately the number of RF channels limits the number of calls that a cell site could
handle. Note that FDMA is a familiar technology to telephone companies, that used frequency-
division multiplexing to add channels to their point-to-point wireline plants before time-
division multiplexing rendered FDM obsolete.

With TDMA, the transmitting and receiving time slots used by different users in each cell are
different from each other. TDMA typically uses digital signaling to store and forward bursts of
voice data that are fit into time slices for transmission, and expanded at the receiving end to
produce a somewhat normal-sounding voice at the receiver. TDMA must introduce latency
(time delay) into the audio signal. As long as the latency time is short enough that the delayed
audio is not heard as an echo, it is not problematic. Note that TDMA is a familiar technology
for telephone companies, that used time-division multiplexing to add channels to their point-to-
point wireline plants before packet switching rendered FDM obsolete.

The principle of CDMA is based on spread spectrum technology developed for military use
during World War II and improved during the Cold War into direct-sequence spread spectrum
that was used for early CDMA cellular systems and Wi-Fi. DSSS allows multiple simultaneous
phone conversations to take place on a single wideband RF channel, without needing to
channelize them in time or frequency. Although more sophisticated than older multiple access
schemes (and unfamiliar to legacy telephone companies because it was not developed by Bell
Labs), CDMA has scaled well to become the basis for 3G cellular radio systems.

Exercises:
1. Study about Cellular Systems.

Review Questions:
1. What is Cellular Systems? Explain in brief.
2. Explain CDMA, TDMA, FDMA in brief.

Gandhinagar Institute of Technology 3171608 WC

 Wireless LANs
Practical No: Date: __________
Aim: Study and demonstration of Wireless LANs.

Theory:
Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is one in which a mobile user
can connect to a Local Area Network (LAN) through a wireless connection. The IEEE 802.11
group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path sharing, 802.11
standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access with
collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired equivalent privacy algorithm.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building or an
office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still connected to
the network. In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying
cable, while in other cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the
public. Whatever the reason, wireless solutions are popping up everywhere.

Advantages of WLANs:
 Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further restriction.
Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be placed anywhere (also
non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls etc.).
 Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without previous
planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
 Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices which
can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but also designers of
small notepads, PDAs, etc.
 Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood etc.
whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break down completely
in disasters.
 Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average lower than
the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for two reasons. First,
after providing wireless access to the wireless network via an access point for the first
user, adding additional users to a network will not increase the cost. And second,
wireless LAN eliminates the direct costs of cabling and the labor associated with
installing and repairing it.
 Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new
information to take advantage of WLANs.

Gandhinagar Institute of Technology 3171608 WC

Disadvantages of WLANs:
 Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired networks.
The main reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations is radio transmission,
higher error rates due to interference and higher delay/delay variation due to extensive
error correction and detection mechanisms.
 Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many companies have
come up with proprietary solutions offering standardization functionality plus many
enhanced features. Most components today adhere to the basic standards IEEE 802.11a
or 802.11b.
 Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the
operation and restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
 Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so, national and
international frequency regulations have to be considered.
 Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power
consuming, also wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the LAN design
should take this into account and implement special power saving modes and power
management functions.
 License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special license to be
able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a license free band, such as the
2.4 GHz ISM band.
 Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission, many
other electrical devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum cleaner, train engines,
hair dryers, etc.).Wireless LAN transceivers cannot be adjusted for perfect transmission
is a standard office or production environment.

Exercises:
1. Study about Wireless LANs.

Review Questions:
1. What is Wireless LAN? Explain in brief.
2. Write advantages and disadvantages of Wireless LAN.

Gandhinagar Institute of Technology 3171608 WC

 Free Space Propagation Model and Frequency Selective Fading Model
Practical No: Date: __________
Aim: Study and demonstration of Free Space Propagation Model and Frequency Selective
Fading Model.

Theory:
The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them. Satellite
communication systems and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space
propagation. The free space propagation model assumes a transmit antenna and a receive
antenna to be located in an otherwise empty environment. Neither absorbing obstacles nor
reflecting surfaces are considered. In particular, the influence of the earth surface is assumed to
be entirely absent.

Figure: Transmit antenna modelled as a point source. Transmit power is spread over the surface
area of a hypothetical sphere. The receiver antenna has an aperture A, illustrated in orange.

For propagation distances d much larger than the antenna size, the far field of the
electromagnetic wave dominates all other components. That is, we are allowed to model the
radiating antenna as a point source with negligible physical dimensions. In such case, the
energy radiated by an omni-directional antenna is spread over the surface of a sphere. This
allows us to analyses the effect of distance on the received signal power. In wireless
communications, fading is variation of the attenuation of a signal with various variables. These
variables include time, geographical position, and radio frequency. Fading is often modeled as
a random process. A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading. In
wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath-
induced fading, weather (particularly rain), or shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave
propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading Frequency selective fading occurs when
the symbol length is shorter than the delay spread, or equivalently when signal bandwidth is
larger than the channel bandwidth. Selective fading is due to the time-dispersive medium.
When an impulse (short pulse) is sent out from the base-station antenna, due to man-made
structures the reflected waves travel in different paths and arrive at the mobile-unit antenna at
different times. Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to
the delay requirement of the application. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change
imposed by the channel can be considered roughly constant over the period of use. Slow fading
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can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large obstruction such as a hill or large
building obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and the receiver. The received
power change caused by shadowing is often modeled using a log-normal distribution with a
standard deviation according to the log-distance path loss model. Fast fading occurs when the
coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay requirement of the application. In
this case, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel varies considerably over the
period of use.

Selective fading:
Selective fading or frequency selective fading is a radio propagation anomaly caused by partial
cancellation of a radio signal by itself — the signal arrives at the receiver by two different
paths, and at least one of the paths is changing (lengthening or shortening). This typically
happens in the early evening or early morning as the various layers in the ionosphere move,
separate, and combine. The two paths can both be skywave or one be groundwave. Selective
fading manifests as a slow, cyclic disturbance; the cancellation effect, or "null", is deepest at
one particular frequency, which changes constantly, sweeping through the received audio. As
the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude will vary.
The coherence bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will
experience uncorrelated fading. In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger
than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will
experience the same magnitude of fading. In frequency-selective fading, the coherence
bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency
components of the signal therefore experience uncorrelated fading.

Exercises:
1. Study about Free Space Propagation Model and Frequency Selective Fading Model.

Review Questions:
1. What is fading? Explain its types in brief.

Gandhinagar Institute of Technology 3171608 WC

 Ground Reflection (Two Ray) Model and Diffraction (Knife-edge) Model
Practical No: Date: __________
Aim: Study and demonstration of Ground Reflection (Two Ray) Model and Diffraction
(Knife-edge) Model.

Theory:
The two-rays ground-reflection model is a multipath radio propagation model which predicts
the path losses between a transmitting antenna and a receiving antenna when they are in line of
sight (LOS). Generally, the two antenna each have different height. The received signal having
two components, the LOS component and the reflection component formed predominantly by
a single ground reflected wave.

Fig.: Two Ray Model

A two-ray model, which consists of two overlapping waves at the receiver, one direct path and
one reflected wave from the ground. The total received E-field ETOT is the result of the direct
line of sight component ELOS and the ground reflected component Eg. Referring to Figure
1.2.1, ht is the height of the transmitter and hr is the height of the receiver. If E0is the free
space electric field (in V/m) at a reference distance d0 from the transmitter then for d>d0,
 Reflection occurs when the signal encounters a large solid surface, whose size is much
larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., a solid wall.
 Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a corner, whose size is larger
than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., an edge of a wall.

Gandhinagar Institute of Technology 3171608 WC

Exercises:
1. Study about Ground Reflection (Two Ray) Model and Diffraction (Knife-edge) Model.

Review Questions:
1. What is Reflection? Explain in brief.

Gandhinagar Institute of Technology 3171608 WC

 Large-scale Empirical Model and Small-scale Empirical Model
Practical No: Date: __________
Aim: Study and demonstration of Large-scale Empirical Model and Small-scale Empirical
Model.

Theory:
Radio propagation models are broadly classified into large scale and small scale models. Large
scale effects typically occur in the order of hundreds to thousands of meters in distance. Small
scale effects are localized and occur temporally (in the order of a few seconds) or spatially (in
the order of a few meters). The important questions in large scale modeling are – how the
signal from a transmitter reaches the receiver in the first place and what is the relative power of
the received signal with respect to the transmitted power level. Lots of scenarios can occur in
large-scale. For example, the transmitter and the receiver could be in line-of-sight in an
environment surrounded by buildings, trees and other objects. As a result, the receiver may
receive – a direct attenuated signal (also called as line-of-sight (LOS) signal) from the
transmitter and indirect signals (or non-line-of-sight (NLOS) signal) due to other physical
effects like reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering. The direct and indirect signals
could also interfere with each other.

The Free-space propagation model is the simplest large-scale model, quite useful in satellite
and microwave link modeling. It models a single unobstructed path between the transmitter
and the receiver. Applying the fact that the strength of a radiation field decreases as 1/d in the
far field, we arrive at the Friis free space equation that can tell us about the amount of power
received relative to the power transmitted. The log distance propagation model is an extension
to Friis space propagation model. It incorporates a path-loss exponent that is used to predict the
relative received power in a wide range of environments.

In the absence of line-of-sight signal, other physical phenomena like refection, diffraction,
etc.., must be relied upon for the modeling. Reflection involves a change in direction of the
signal wavefront when it bounces off an object with different optical properties. The plane-
earth loss model is another simple propagation model that considers the interaction between
the line-of-sight signal and the reflected signal.

Exercises:
1. Study about Large-scale Empirical Model and Small-scale Empirical Model.

Review Questions:
1. Explain Diffraction in brief

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