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Language Testing: An introductory course to design tests to language components

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 Contents
Title Page
Acknowledgments III
Dedication IV
Preface V
Chapter 1: Introduction and basic concepts 1
Language testing 1
Basic concepts 2
Exercises 7
Assignments 8
Critical thinking 9
Chapter 2: Language testing approaches 10
Introduction 10
Language testing approaches 11
Conclusions 21
Exercises 24
Assignments 25
Critical thinking 26
Chapter 3: Designing language tests 27
Categories for designing language tests 27
Language tests types 28
Phases of test preparation 32
Tests preparation 35
Exercises 40
Critical thinking 41
Chapter 4: Testing language components 42
Testing sound system 42
Testing grammatical structures 48
Testing vocabulary 55
Exercises 61
Assignments 63
Critical thinking 63
Chapter 5: Testing language skills 65
Testing listening skill 65

I
Testing reading skill 71
Testing writing skill 77
Testing speaking skill 82
Exercises 86
Assignments 88
Critical thinking 88
Chapter 6: General proficiency tests 90
Language testing and evaluation 91
Exercises 98
Assignments 98
Critical thinking 99
Final-term-test 100
References 102
Appendix 104
Sound system test sample 105
Grammatical structures test sample 111
Vocabulary test sample 115
Listening skill test sample 120
Reading skill test sample 131
Writing skill test sample 140
Speaking skill test sample 147

II
 Acknowledgments

The author would like to greatly thank Dr.

Mahmoud Isma’il Saleh, the professor of Applied
Linguistics at the Department of English Language &
Literature, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia, whose fruitful and valuable lectures in
language testing have resulted to this fruit⎯the book
of language testing.

III
 Dedication

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IV
 Preface

Language testing has been discussed by many

linguists, psychologists, etc. from all over the world.
This, however, is an introductory course book based
on professor Mahmoud’s Isma’il Saleh lectures.
Professor Saleh is a professor of Applied Linguistics,
at the Department of English Language and Literature,
College of Arts, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia.
The book is presented in six chapters with
exercises, assignments, critical thinking activities
and/or tasks under the purpose of making a very
effective and helpful course to the students in the field
of language testing.
The first chapter is an introduction to the field
with some basic terms in relation to language testing.
The second chapter presents the major approaches to
language testing. The third chapter deals with practical
issues like design, constriction, etc.. The fourth
chapter guides the student in simple steps to design
and construct a test that would test language
components. Like chapter four, chapter five is a
guideline for the students to learn simply how to
design tests for the four language skills. The sixth
chapter introduces the students briefly to proficiency
tests and language evaluation.

V
 Chapter 1:
Introduction and basic concepts

Introduction: Language Testing

As a matter of fact, the discussion of (Language Testing)
will be divided into two parts: theoretical part and
applied part, the former includes the discussion of the
history of language testing, requirements of a good test,
types of tests, characteristics of test, typology [the study
of systematic classification of the types of tests] of tests
and the evaluation of tests (theoretical-applied
part/discussion), and the latter includes the discussion of
designing tests in the following areas: sound system,
vocabulary and grammatical structures [LANGUGAE
COMPONENTS], listening, speaking, reading and
writing [LANGUAGE SKILLS]. In the applied part also
we will look at proficiency language test (general
proficiency tests) like (TOFEL) and (IELTS);
foundations for general tests and sources of proficiency,
consider (European Common Framework) and (ACTFL)
(American Community Teaching of Foreign Language);


function as guidelines for language programmes and
language tests. To make it clear, consider (speaking)
skill, it tells you (this organization) what we expect from
a beginner learner, intermediate, advanced, etc., and they
stress on achieving the purpose of satisfying the needs
(survival needs), that is language learning in a foreign
country should fulfill (basics of communication).

Basic Concepts Relating to Language Testing

Testing, Assessing & Evaluating: actually, assessing
and evaluating are generally (roughly) the same
(synonymous), testing is only way of evaluating; we can
observe, use questionnaires, use interviews and so on and
so forth.
Testing Vs Quizzing: a quiz is usually sudden, smaller
than a test, limited, yet quizzed could arranged, that is
they can be (pop quizzes) [sudden] or (arranged quizzes).
Test Items: they can be either subjective or objective,
the former like essay questions, translation exercises, and
interviews, and the latter like multiple choices questions,
and filling in blanks and so on. More importantly, by


both objective and subjective we mean how tests are
assessed by the person, the test itself and the way it is
assessed but not the questions themselves!
Speed Vs Power Tests: the former requires to finish in a
limited time like (TOEFL) and (IELTS) and the latter has
no restriction to time like testing knowledge to see if the
testee [examinee] is aware of some issues so time
limiting is important.
Formative Vs Summative Evaluation: in the former
students are evaluated periodically for the purpose of
seeing to what extent they are being developed and the
latter is a sort of overall evaluation. For instance,
consider mid-term tests, quizzes and assignments for the
formative evaluation and final-term exams and term-
papers for the summative evaluation.
Norm-reference Vs Criterion-reference Tests:
typically the former is used when having a large number
of students, so it requires norming: a particular average
will get 70 0ut of 100% and a particular average will get
90 out of 100% and so on, or in the case of a test like
(TOFEL) students who get (450) will be eligible to join


certain fields and so on, admission tests also are included
here, the latter each question has certain marks and so
every student is evaluated with no consideration to the
other questions.
Grading Vs Evaluation: grading refers to scoring where
in students of different levels can be measured, grading is
actually general and scoring is specific, consider (A) as a
grade and (90) as a score.
Discrete Point Vs Integrative/ Global Tests: testing a
language component or a particular skill is a discrete
point test and it is usually objective because they are
mostly multiple choices questions. Integrative tests on
the other hand, are overall tests and are usually
subjective.
Linguistic Competence and Communicative
Competence Tests: in a linguistic competence test, there
is an emphasis on specific language aspects to measure
how learner is knowledgeable in a specific area like
vocabulary or command of language elements. On the
contrary, in a communicative competence test, it is
beyond linguistic elements, it asks for a telephone place


for example and not necessarily using language, gestures
and other paralinguistic means of communication can be
used. Additionally, the aspect of appropriateness is very
important here. For instance, a graph can be given and
the student is asked to write on it or a passage to be
rephrased (communicatively language teaching
approach). Thus, accuracy can be referred to (linguistic
competence tests) and fluency to (communicative
competence tests). Hence, naturally it is better to
combine both approaches with more evaluation to
accuracy (usually done).
Abstract Vs Situational Tests: the former are non-
context tests like most of the linguistic competence test
more specifically (vocabulary tests and language
structures), the latter has a context (situation) like most of
the communicative competence tests namely
conversation tests.
Pure Vs Hybrid Tests: a pure test is in particular field,
consider: pronunciation, spelling or vocabulary and
hybrid test is about more than one component or/and skill
of language.


Pretest Vs Posttest: a pretest is before carrying out an
experiment and often used in experimental researches,
for instance a researcher will have a control group and an
experimented group; they will have a pretest before
carrying out the experiment and a posttest after carrying
out the experiment. Admission tests or (entrance tests)
can be also considered as pretests.


 Exercises

Read the following statements and write (T) for the TRUE
ones and (F) for the FALSE ones.
1. Typology in language testing means the types of tests.
( )
2. The number of language components is the same as the
number of language skills. ( )
3. While a power test focuses on knowledge, a speed a test
focuses more on time. ( )
4. In a summative evaluation, the students are being evaluated
periodically under the purpose of stage-evaluation.
( )
5. A norm-referenced test requires rarely norming.
( )
6. A test is usually smaller than a quiz. ( )
7. Test items can be either subjective or objective.
( )
8. When achieving 90 out of 100, the 90 refers here to the
achieved grade. ( )
9. Testing language skills and language components in whole
refers to a discrete test type. ( )
10. A good example of abstract tests is a vocabulary test.
( )
Read the following statements and choose the correct answer.
1. One of the following is not among the language
components.
a. Sound system
b. Composition
c. Vocabulary
d. Grammatical structures
2. A good example of speed tests is:
a. A mid-term test


 b. A final-term test
c. A quiz
d. IELTS
3. An example for formative evaluation is:
a. Mid-term tests
b. Final term-tests
c. Term-papers
4. Testing is:
a. The only way of language evaluation
b. Only one way of language evaluation
c. The ideal way of language evaluation
5. Testing a particular skill by its own is an example of:
a. Hybrid test
b. Abstract test
c. Pure test

Write a short paragraph comparing and contrasting between

two of the following items. (Maximum: 10 lines)
1. A pretest vs. posttest
2. Grading vs. evaluating
3. Testing vs. quizzing

Compare between linguistic competence tests and

communicative competence tests. (Maximum: 15 lines)

Assignments
1. Visit your university library and make a list of at least ten
books about language testing and/or evaluation. Please
mention the following information in your provided
assignment:
a. The name of the book
b. The author
c. The date of publication


 d. The place of publication (city, country and company)
2. Using the internet, make a search for the following:
a. a list of ten books with the above mentioned data in
addition to the links of the books to be ordered online
b. a name of a journal titled as language testing or a
journal that publishes papers in language testing
i. provide the link to the journal
ii. the name of the journal
iii. a sample article

Critical thinking
Recall all the tests that you have taken from your early childhood
and try to map them in your mind or have classification for them in
terms of:
1. their types if you could do this
2. their formats
3. their degree of difficulty or simplicity
4. any other things that your mind could recall


 Chapter 2:
An Account of Approaches to Language Testing

Introduction
You design your test, I design my test and every teacher
else designs his/her own test in the way he/she likes it
ignoring the fact that our tests should be based on certain
characteristics. This argument, however, includes issues
such as what to test, how to test and on what bases you
design a test: have been all discussed in this chapter with
the help of accounting briefly for four approaches to
language testing. Thus, the four approaches (translation
approach, psychometric-structuralists approach,
integrative approach and communicative approach) have
been accounted for comparatively and contrastively.

Language testing as a major part in language teaching

and language learning has its own history in terms of
supporting theories and unsupportive theories. Like other
fields in language study, other fields have greatly
influenced language testing, namely, translation approach


theory, psychology, educational psychology, structural
linguistics, sociology, closure theory (Gestalt),
divisibility hypothesis, statistics, etc. For that matter, one
can infer that language testing as a field in Applied
Linguistics has been gradually developed influenced by
all the above theories and fields in addition to the
attempts of both linguists and applied linguists to push it
forward and forward to appear in the picture it has today.
Due to this, four major approaches to language testing
have appeared, namely: 1) essay translation approach
(pre-scientific era), 2) psychometric-structuralists
approach, 3) integrative approach (pragmatic) and 4)
communicative approach. Actually, all the above
mentioned approaches are different from one another, yet
share some similarities.

Language testing approaches

Nearly, from the early 1900s onward all tests were
designed at that age were generally considered as (pre-
scientific), because they were written and designed
intuitively without following any kind of procedures and


principles. For that matter, followers of such method
were categorized under the (pre-scientific era). Instead, it
was called the essay translation approach as a result of its
influence by the essay translation approach. In other
words, the focus of the tests was on essay writing,
translation, grammar structures mainly form and
phonetics (form also). Moreover, proponents of such an
approach were to some extent biased to culture and
literature involvement in their tests. At all rates, tests
designed in such a period were described as intuitive,
subjective, impressionistic yet impressionistically
evaluated tests and unspecific, (Madsen, 1983,
McNamara, 2000, McNamara & Roever (unknown) and
Weir, 2005).

As a result of the failure of the above mentioned

approach to achieve the purposes of both language
teachers and learners, yet and more importantly with the
rise of many sciences and marrying between them, some
fields have become more powerful. For instance,
language testing has been greatly influenced by


psychology and structural linguistics and the result was
what is being called in nowadays the scientific era of
language testing or more accurately the psychometric-
structuralists approach to language testing. Therefore, the
1950s has come with a new approach to language testing
led by both structural linguists (like Lado and his theory
in his proposed field Contrastive Analysis) and
psychologists, (Madsen, 1983, McNamara, 2000,
McNamara & Roever (unknown) and Weir, 2005). .

Once again and compared with the translation approach

theory, the psychometric-structuralists approach was
described as scientific, led by principles and procedures,
its tests are to some extent valid and reliable (influenced
by statistics). Linguistically, followers (proponents) of
this approach, yet proponents of the earlier approach,
were focusing on testees’ knowledge of the grammar
system, vocabulary, and sound system. In other words
and with reference to (McNamara, 2000: p. 14), there
was a ‘tendency to atomize and decontextualize the
knowledge to be tested’. For that matter, what is being


known as discrete-point-tests, were followed by nearly
all proponents of such an approach when designing their
tests. Needless to say, according to the structuralists’
theory, language is both learned and acquired as
systematic habits (influenced by behaviourism: a school
in psychology led by Skinner and Pavlov). On the basis
of this, each language skill (receptive: listening and
reading, productive: speaking and writing), yet each
language sub-skill or component: (sound system,
grammar structures and vocabulary), must be tested
separately so that each skill or sub-skill can be evaluated
properly, (Madsen, 1983, McNamara, 2000, McNamara
& Roever (unknown) and Weir, 2005).

While the tests which were designed on the basis of the

translation theory approach were described as subjective,
and impressionistic; the tests in the psychometric-
structuralists era were and still being described as
objective, statistics-based-exams; that is, non-
impressionistic, (Madsen, 1983, McNamara, 2000,
McNamara & Roever (unknown) and Weir, 2005).


On the other hand, every approach has its heyday, yet its
unpopular-day and this applied to the psychometric-
structuralists approach just like it applied to the earlier
approach and may be to the other two approaches.
Actually, the opponents of this approach have criticized it
for its inability to achieve communication which is a
major aim of learning and acquiring any language,
(Madsen, 1983, McNamara, 2000, McNamara & Roever
(unknown) and Weir, 2005).

Because of the above mentioned reason, a new school for

language testing has come to life, namely called the
pragmatics or integrative approach to language testing.
From among the major proponents of this approach is
Oller who has introduced his influential hypothesis
(Unitary Competence Hypothesis), (Madsen, 1983,
McNamara, 2000, McNamara & Roever (unknown) and
Weir, 2005).

Contrastively, the tests which were designed on the basis

of this approach were described as holistic, integrative,


pragmatic, sociological, subjective, yet and more
importantly were characterized by two features: 1)
assessing practical language skills of foreign learners
who wish to be enrolled in the English speaking
community universities-say UK and USA, and 2) both
skills and sub-skills of language were integrated to
achieve the communicative purpose which was not
achieved by the earlier approaches especially the
psychometric-structuralists approach, (Madsen, 1983,
McNamara, 2000, McNamara & Roever (unknown) and
Weir, 2005).

Moreover, for the proponents of the integrative approach

and pragmatic tests, the focus was on meaning, context,
at least two or more skills and sub-skills must go together
(tested together), involvement of language functions but
not their use, common use of dictation and cloze
procedure tests, oral interviews and finally
composition⎯writing. Of course, it should be noted the
cloze procedure tests were and are common for testing
reading comprehension, but for Oller such type of test


could be used where in two or more skills/sub-skills are
integrated. Again, it should be noted that the cloze
procedure test was by itself influenced by the Gestalt’s
theory of closure closing gaps in patterns sub-
consciously, (Madsen, 1983, McNamara, 2000,
McNamara & Roever (unknown) and Weir, 2005).

As the time has passed, it has been discovered by the

opponents of the integrative and pragmatic tests approach
that such an approach is not to a great extent different
from the psychometric-structuralists approach, because
no clear-short-cuts were drawn regarding testing
communicative skills of language. One more drawback
of this approach is its unreliability and invalidity in the
case of translation tests, because many skills and sub-
skills are required not only from the target language but
also from the native tongue language, that is, the source
language, (Madsen, 1983, McNamara, 2000, McNamara
& Roever (unknown) and Weir, 2005).


Consequently, a new approach for language testing has
shown up, namely called the communicative approach to
language testing.

Like the above three discussed approaches to language

testing, this approach has been also influenced by a
theory, namely communicative competence theory
(Hymes’ theory). According to this theory and approach,
knowing language is more than knowing its rules,
(Madsen, 1983, McNamara, 2000, McNamara & Roever
(unknown) and Weir, 2005).

Above all, tests which were designed following this

approach were characterized by two features: 1) learners
are assessed with the use of performance tests on the
basis of communication acts they perform be it receptive
or productive, 2) social rules must be integrated in any
test, (Madsen, 1983, McNamara, 2000, McNamara &
Roever (unknown) and Weir, 2005).


One clear area where in the psychometric-structuralists,
integrative and communicative approaches can be
contrasted is that in the former ones, language is
interpreted psychologically as an internal psychological
phenomenon, and in the latter one (communicative),
language is interpreted sociologically as an external
phenomenon. Yet, in both approaches language is a
means of communication and the major aim of tests is
testing the learners’ ability to communicate effectively;
that is to use productively what they have learned
receptively [prospectively].

Furthermore and in contrast, according to this approach,

the tests are being evaluated in terms of language use
rather than language form as in the translation approach.
Once again, while dictation is only encouraged by the
proponents of both the translation approach and
integrative approach, in this approach it is highly
encouraged. On the hand, in the case of the
psychometric-structuralists approach it was being
criticized and discarded, (Madsen, 1983, McNamara,


2000, McNamara & Roever (unknown), Weir, 2005 and
Hinkel, 2005).

The last area where the last approach to language testing

can be contrasted to the other approaches mainly the
second one is that in such an approach a tester must take
into consideration-say in test for specific purposes that a
test for students of medicine in an Arabian country must
be different for the student of medicine in Japan or
China; that is, culture must be taken into consideration.
Of course, this last point in addition to stressing on test
specifications on the basis of the needs of the learners are
two major advantages and areas of power for the
communicative approach. In other words, for other
approaches especially the psychometric-structuralists
approach, a test can be used globally regardless of the
culture differences of one country from another.

Finally it is important to note that some other theorists

and experts in language field mainly language testing
have tried to introduce a new approach which serves both


teaching and learning, not biased to any approach, yet
this approach by itself was to some extent biased to the
communicative approach, namely influenced by
sociology. Thus, Bachman is a clear example and a
proponent of such an approach, (Bachman, 1990 and
Bachman & Palmer 1996).

Needless to say, no matter what kind of approach is

followed since it achieves a positive and useful
backwash-washback to both language teaching and
language learning, (Cheng, Watanabe, & Curtis 2004 and
Hughes, 1989).

Conclusion
To sum up, four major approaches to language testing
have been introduced comparatively and contrastively: 1)
the pre-scientific era (no specific rules and procedures,
intuitive testing, 2) Scientific psychometric phase (certain
principles and procedures should be followed, this
approach was developed by psychologists and it has
some characteristics including: a) deciding on the tested


area (reading, writing, sound, etc.), b) use of objective
itemized tests (multiple choices questions), c) focus on
specific language elements or skills, d) the use of
statistics to see the average (validity and reliability of the
designed test), 3) integrative/ holistic or pragmatic
approach: it doesn’t test language and from among the
famous people of this approach is Oller. According to
him a test should be general (speaking and listening) for
example must go together because they are interrelated
(discrete tests must be used). Oller mentioned
(dedication) as an example for such a kind of tests, it
combines many skills whish are tested at the same time.
Actually this phase (approach) was replaced by the
communicative phase. Oller has also suggested (Cloze
test), a test where in some items are deleted and students
are asked to attempt to fill in the blanks and reach the
deleted items. However, such a kind of test is used for
reading comprehension in nowadays, but for Oller it is an
integrative test. He also adds dialogues which are the
closest to his introduced approach as they combine
language sub-skills (components), and finally 4)


communication Testing approach: there is an emphasis
on communicative competence (use= appropriateness)
and (usage= grammar). Actually, a test in this approach
would combine between pure and hybrid tests, the ability
to use language for communicative purposes, focusing on
LANGUGAE and not on KNOWELDGE of language.


 Exercises

Read the following statements and write (T) for the TRUE
ones and (F) for the FALSE ones.
1. Language testing has been influenced by many fields
excluding psychology. ( )
2. The development of language testing is correlated with the
development of some other fields like structural linguistics.
( )
3. Early designed tests were nearly all intuitive-based tests.
( )
4. The main reason behind calling the first approach of
language testing as a pre-scientific is that such approach
does include certain rules and principles. ( )
5. Essay translation approach and pre-scientific approach to
language testing are identical. ( )
6. The structuralists’ approach was greatly influenced by
behaviourism. ( )
7. Psychometrics-based tests were described as statistics-
based tests. ( )
8. The psychometric approach failed to achieve
communication feature which resulted to a new emerging
approach. ( )
9. Integrative-based tests were described as non-holistic tests.
( )
10. Reliability and validity feature(s) in the case of translation
tests was a plus point of the integrative approach.
( )

Read the following statements and choose the correct answer.

1. The tests are evaluated impressionistically in the
a. Pre-scientific era


 b. Scientific era
c. Integrative approach
d. Communicative approach
2. Using statistics to see certain features in a test
a. Pre-scientific era
b. Scientific era
c. Integrative approach
d. Communicative approach
3. Oller is considered as one of the proponents of the
a. Pre-scientific era
b. Scientific era
c. Integrative approach
d. Communicative approach
4. Oller believes that a test should be
a. General
b. Specific
c. Both
5. It emphasizes on language use
a. Pre-scientific era
b. Scientific era
c. Integrative approach
d. Communicative approach

Write four points (outlines) where each mentions a minus point of

each of the four approaches of language testing.
Or
Write four points (outlines) where each mentions a plus point of
each of the four approaches to language testing.

Write a short paragraph accounting for the influence of language

testing by other fields. (Maximum: 15 lines)
Assignments
1. In groups do the following:


 a. Go to the library again and try to find how language
testing was influenced by the following fields: ( a short
presentation about this for each group)
i. Psychology
ii. Theories of language/ linguistics
iii. Psychometrics
iv. Statistics
b. Using the internet, see if it is possible to find other
approaches to language testing other than the four
mentioned in this chapter.
i. Provide your source to confirm your claim

Critical thinking
On the basis of the discussion of the approaches to language
testing in this chapter, bring a test of any of your university classes
(language tests) and decide on which approach it has been
constructed.


 Chapter 3:
Designing Language Tests

Categories for Describing Language Testing

First, it should be noted that later developments in
language testing were communicative and recent
tendency is partially subjective, because evaluating a
review for example cannot be assessed fully objectively.
Thus, the tendency towards language testing is moving
from general to specific. The following however are eight
(8) categories for describing language testing:
1. Language pattern (language components [sound
system, vocabulary and grammar structures]) vs.
communicative function (language skills
[speaking, listening, reading and writing])
2. Objective vs. subjective assessment
3. Accuracy (linguistic, usage, grammar) vs. fluency
and appropriateness (pragmatic, use)
4. General vs. specific context


 5. Analysis (analysis of skills and language
components separately) vs. synthesis (dealing with
language components and skills as a whole)
6. Cognitive (knowledge of certain linguistic areas or
linguistic competence such as correcting certain
structures) vs. performance (reflection of certain
linguistic areas such as wrong reference)
7. Norm reference vs. criterion reference
8. Artificial four skill(authentic) tasks (each skill is
tested separately) vs. integrative tasks (skills and
or maybe language components are integrated)

To conclude, language testing developments are moving

towards the communicative direction. In other words, the
tendency is more communicative and less pattern.

Language Test Types: Major Categories

™ General:
a. Achievement test: basically means to test
what learners have acquired like typical
school language tests, based on syllabi, its


 purpose is specific and it tests target
language (TL)
b. Proficiency test: it tests the language
ability in general like admission tests and
entrance tests, it tests also target language
(TL)
c. Aptitude test: basically the assumption is
that someone who passes the test is able or
allowed to join this or that particular
programme, it actually tests readiness to
learn language or to knowledge, it tests
native language. actually, a test in this case
is designed to see if a particular learner
meets some certain characteristics; a learner
in order to learn a language must have a
grammatical logic, able to remember
(words), tend to imitate and talk (oral skill),
to stop generalizing (language components).
We are not actually testing motivation, but
checking for it.


™ Purposes: Generally the above mentioned types of
tests can be used for different and many purposes,
consider (achievements tests), they can be used for
diagnosing (identifying problems) purposes, for
(promotion) moving from one level to another;
(proficiency tests) can be used for admission tests,
entrance tests (MA programmes or PhDs’),
(aptitude tests) can be used for selection purposes
¾ Placement: it determines the level of
learner (either achievement or proficiency
tests can be used)
¾ Entrance: proficiency tests can be used
¾ Diagnosis: it determines the skill(s) or
the component(s) a learner is weak at
(either achievement or proficiency tests
can be used)
¾ Screening or selection: to study for
example a foreign language (aptitude) or
study in the UK (proficiency test)
¾ Academic promotion: achievement tests
¾ Job promotion: proficiency tests


 ¾ Research purposes: it depends on the
nature of the research (proficiency tests
usually), errors in the study of grammar
(achievement tests)

In conclusion, some purposes can be achieved by

different types of tests and some types can be used for
different purposes.

™ Types of test items:

• Discrete point (specific) vs. integrative
tests (things together)
• Objective (multiple choices Qs.) vs.
subjective tests (essay Qs.)
™ Scores:
ƒ Objective: naturally objective scoring
ƒ Subjective: naturally subjective scoring but
can be semi-objective
ƒ Semi-objective/ semi-subjective: putting
some certain characteristics for subjective
tests like an essay question for example


 (marks for spelling, vocabulary choice,
grammar, ideas), in this case the subjective
question or test is being objectvised or it
can be evaluated as a whole called (global
evaluation)

Finally, it should be noted that the four above mentioned

categories (general, purposes, items and scores) can
overlap and not necessarily appear separately.

Phases of Test Preparation/ Design/ Construction

1. Reliability: a scale is correct as long as it gives
correct reading (reliable), consistency and
similar results
2. Validity: a grocery scale is totally different from
a jewelry scale, basically means you test what
you are supposed to test
3. Discrimination: too difficult tests must be
differentiated from too easy tests, not only low
and high level students must be taken into
consideration but all other levels


 4. Practicality: a person who does not have
enough money to take the TOEFL test is an
example of the absence of (practicality), what is
good in one setting may be not good in another
setting

Phases of Language Test Construction

Firstly, it should be noted that these phases apply more to
tests of general nature rather than class tests, yet and to
some extent they may apply to the class tests.
1. Design phase: it has a number of aspects:
a. Finding information about testees: about
their level, age, etc.
b. Setting: place, time, circumstances [date]
c. Functional specification (specs): skills,
communicative needs, what a learner is
exposed to (EFL) or (ESL), if you are
learning a language say English: why you
are learning it? Sub-skills of each skill like
reading (scanning, skimming, making
outlines, etc. are included.


 d. Topics: we also need to know topics we are
dealing with, consider, for example, (ESP)
English for Specific Purposes and (EAP)
English for Academic Purposes [academic-
oriented purposes].
e. Task: what task do you expect a learner to
perform (be able to order food in a
restaurant, how to get a book from a library).
2. Development phase: developing a test according to
specs like writing advertisements for local low
people, flight times and dates [functional reading],
or by transcording tables into information
[language], immigration forms and other types of
application; in all cases students must be given
samples
a. Making first draft
b. Piloting the test (questions)
c. Going back to check the test against
specification for consistency
3. Operation phase: making final form of the test and
then using it


In general, basic needs for making a test have been
finished. However and especially for general nature tests,
a 4th phase is added:
4. Monitoring phase: simply, it refers to the effect of
the test and made for revision purpose(s). It
answers questions such as: whether the test works
or not? Does a particular item work and another
does not work or do they all work? It is actually an
item language test, to see the results have fulfilled
the aims of the test or not. It is a way of evaluating
the performance of the test based on the
performance of the testees. Finally, it should be
noted here that we do not need to pilot the test [in
class room test], but for general⎯research nature
test, it is a [must].

Test Preparation
It should be noted first that the following phases are just
a sort of another version of phases which have been
introduced earlier. So, firstly, one has to decide on testees


and objectives (specifically), that is not only listening
skill generally, but also to specify purposes in details. For
instance, if you are testing sound system: is it sound
recognition, production or discrimination? Or, are you
testing segmental features (consonants, vowels) or supra-
segmental (stress or intonation) features? Again, if you
are testing vocabulary: is it production (use words in
sentences) or recognition (multiple choices). It should be
noted that the main difference between production and
recognition is that once the items (answers) are there and
the job of the student is to think, so it is recognition. On
the other hand, whenever the student is being asked to
produce his own answer, so it is production.

Have decided on both testees and objectives, then an

examiner has to decide on the format(s) of the test.
Actually, there are many formats for a test; the following
are the most common formats:
1. Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
2. Wh-questions (WHQs)
3. True-false-do not know questions (T-F-DKQs)


 4. Scrambled sentences/paragraphs
5. Sentences completion
6. Matching
7. Producing correct forms
8. Transformation
9. Correcting mistakes/errors
10. Errors identification
11. Cloze procedure (5th or 6th word by counting,
blanks filling)
12. Filling blanks (certain words)
13. Combination (combining sentences)
14. Words in a table ( all parts of speech or some as
required, an examiner will ask the students to
form sentences using the words given in the
table) [mostly used for teaching writing]
15. Interviews (oral for speaking skill)

It should be noted that (Cloze procedure) was originally

designed for measuring readability. That is, is the text
readable? Can it be read and understood? Is it adequate
or inadequate level? The given text is actually being


evaluated: is it adequate for this or that particular group
of the students? Again, an examiner should take into
consideration that unseen texts are much better for tests,
because seen texts can be memorized and then
comprehension is no more tested. However, the cloze
procedure could be used for other purposes rather than
reading comprehension, like grammar. Thus, the
following are the aspects and characteristics of the cloze
procedure test format:
1. Systematic deletion (5th or 6th item)
2. Deletion according to purposes (prepositions,
nouns)
3. Answers can be through multiple choices, lists (it
can be classified according to parts of speech or
separated according to the number of the
paragraphs, a list for each paragraph), (or for
avoidance of using technical terms like nouns, verb
and etc., one can use symbols, for example (a
circle for nouns, a triangular for verbs and so on
and so forth) (general or specific)


 4. Students’ own answers (production) [objectivity is
affected here), accepting only the exact words
(answers) or accepting also synonymous answers

Having decided on testees, objectives and format(s) of

the test, then the examiner will start writing
(constructing) the test which is the last stage (phase).

To conclude, three phases have been mentioned for test

preparation and at least 15 formats of the test have been
identified. Hence, some of the mentioned formats suit for
a skill or a language component than another, for
example, the cloze procedure is mostly used for reading
comprehension, matching for phonetics and phonology,
grammar and lexical test, table forms for writing, and
finally interviews for speaking skill.


 Exercises

Read the following statements and write (T) for the TRUE ones
and (F) for the FALSE ones.
1. The tendency towards language testing is moving from
specific to general. ( )
2. Language pattern includes both language skills and
components. ( )
3. Subjectivity in language testing and evaluation is an
inescapable, yet can be decreased. ( )
4. While accuracy indicates grammar, fluency indicates language
use. ( )
5. The tendency to language testing could be described recently
as more pattern and less communicative. ( )
6. Monitoring phase is the last yet obligatory one in a test design.
( )
7. The Cloze procedure was originally designed for measuring
unreadability. ( )
8. An achievement test must be based on a syllabus to be
considered reliable, valid and practical. ( )
9. Changing the test time for students within the same class
affects its practicality. ( )
10. Validity means simply consistency in results of the tests.
( )
Read the following statements and choose the correct answer.
1. It tests the leaner’s readiness to learn a language
a. A proficiency test
b. An aptitude test
c. An achievement test
2. It can be used to academic promotion
a. A proficiency test
b. An aptitude test


 c. An achievement test
3. Which of the following purposes of test is used to
determine the skill(s) and/or component(s) a learner is
weak at?
a. Placement purpose
b. Entrance purpose
c. Diagnosis purpose
4. A test should consider all the within-class levels of the
tested learners refers to
a. Reliability
b. Validity
c. Discrimination
d. Practicality
5. An example of an objective test items is
a. Writing a paragraph
b. True/ False questions
c. Writing an essay

List the categories for describing language testing?

Or
Define the following: reliability, validity, discrimination, and
practicality.

Write about the phases of designing a test. (Minimum: 20 lines)

Critical thinking
Recall your study times starting from your early childhood, and list
the purposes that you have taken tests for according to the
purposes that have been mentioned, in this chapter. See if you can
introduce a new purpose.


 Chapter 4:
Testing language components

Sound system
Basically, a sound system consists of segmental features,
supra-segmental features and combinations of sounds.
When testing sound system, however, three main
purposes have to be taken into consideration by an
examiner, namely production, recognition and
discrimination.

To start with discrimination, it means the ability to

discriminate between two sounds such as /s/ and /z/ or /b/
and /p/. Discrimination can be tested with the use of
minimal pairs as mentioned above. The format of the
question can be as it follows:

Pad, bad (D/S) (D) [D: different, S: similar]

Pad, pan (D/S) (S)


So in this case, a student is only being tested whether he
or she can discriminate or (recognize) between these two
sounds or not.

Instead, words with a target sound can be given, the

target sound is chosen on the basis of things like its
difficulty, problematic sound, etc. for example, the target
sound is /p/ and students are being asked to identify the
word(s) which have initial sounds like the word (pat):

Beat, pair, put, (pair and put)

Another way for testing recognition or/and

discrimination is matching oral words with written
words. The question would look like that: the students
have a sheet for each, it contains the list of the words
which are going to be pronounced by the teacher or from
a tape (or any other source) the students then listen, for
example the first word is (fan) they will write number
one (1) beside the word (fan), and the process goes on.


One more way is matching oral words with pictures, but
in this case it requires also vocabulary items and the
teacher would make sure that the words are known to the
testees. The question would look like that:

[or both pictures or more

Ship/sheep (a picture of one of them)
can be given]

Pin/pen (a picture of one of them)

Fan/van (a picture of one of them)

Additionally, testing recognition can be in the form of

asking the students to (find a match to key model
utterance), the teacher would given an utterance for
example,

He is a student. (Intonation testing) (Rising sound)

You are a student.
Do you like English?
Where is your hometown?


Or stress, namely bi-syllabic words can be tested in the
same way, but give different words not like present (N)
and present (V).

In addition to what have been mentioned above, an

examiner can ask his or her students to find words that
rhyme together (recognition and discrimination) [*both
recognition and discrimination are passive as they do not
require the learner to produce anything].

One more way, is to give the students sentences with

different patterns of intonation, or testing the differences
between (Wh-Qs [falling] and Yes/No Qs [rising]).

Also, words with different stress patterns can be tested

like: present as (V) [2nd syllable stress] and present (N)
[1st syllable stress]. Yet, it is better and as mentioned
above to use different words (present [V], subject [Adj],
object [V]), because these will be very easy for the
students to recognize or/and discriminate.


Have introduced some ways of testing both
discrimination and recognition, now, testing production
of sound system will be introduced.

Generally, by testing production, it means that we want

our learners to produce pronunciation, not speaking!
Actually, when testing production in sound system, three
ways can be followed:
1. Imitation and repetition: they can be words
[sounds], phrases or sentences [intonation]
2. Reading aloud: an examiner must make sure first
the students are able to read, they can be lists of
words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs,
dialogues, poems, drama e, dialogues, poems,
drama excerpts for advanced or intermediate
levels students
3. Free production: producing utterances such as:
what is this? Where is the book? And the student
produces the suitable answers freely.


We can ask the students questions that force them to
produce certain sounds which are problematic to them,
some of the students will try to escape, but a teacher
insists with his power to form the question in way that
forces the student to produce this or that certain sound.
For instance, we want the student to say the word (pen)
to test his ability to produce the sound /e/, so the question
will be like:
I always write with … (he may say chalk, marker, [to
escape the word pen)
I always write on my notebook with … (in this case he or
she cannot escape the word pen, mainly the sound /e/.

Or the teacher can test combinations of sounds like

(street), sequencing problem.


 Grammatical structures

Principally, it should be noted that we are testing

(grammar structures: unconscious knowledge of
grammar) but not (grammar rules), that is the students
ability to use the language rather than their technical
knowledge of grammar rules. Hence, like testing the
sound system, an examiner has to start on deciding the
testees and the objectives of the test.

Have decided on testees and objectives; now, an

examiner needs to weigh the items of the test. For
example, if a teacher wants to test aspect or tens, so how
much items are given for the past, present, future, or
perfect, simple, continuous, etc. An examiner will take
into consideration: do I need to test them equally? Should
I give same weight for all items or treat them unequally?
Needless to say, there are some bases for weighing the
items of the test. These bases include:
™ Syllabus (for achievement tests)
™ Evaluation of teaching (for proficiency tests)


 ™ Error analysis (EA) (for proficiency tests)
™ Contrastive analysis (CA) (proficiency tests
also)
Thus, weighing the items of the test will be indirectly
reflected by the number of the questions for each and
every item.

The third step for testing the grammar structures is

deciding on format(s) of the test. Again and with
reference to the formats mentioned in the case of testing
sound system, same formats can be used when testing the
grammar structures. In spite of this, a number of these
formats discussed earlier will be mentioned again in a
way that suits testing the grammar structures.
1. Filling blanks: it can be either by (MYQs) or
students provide their own answer. It should
be noted that the more choices are- the less
chances for guessing is. For example:
• He …….. to Jeddah tomorrow.
(provide optional or do not)


2. Sentence completion: again it can be with
(MCQs) or students provide their own
answer. In this type of question, usually, the
blank part is at the end of the sentence, and
the student completes a sentence by word,
phrase, sentence or clause. For instance,
• If I had a
million,……………………….
9 It should be noted again that when students
provide their own answers (it is production
testing), when they only chose and think (it
is recognition testing).
3. Identifying errors: this can be with or
without correction. That is to say, an
examiner can ask the students either to only
identify errors/mistakes or to identify and
correct the mistakes/errors.
• Read the following sentences and
circle the wrong words.


 • Read the following sentences,
identify the errors/mistakes and
correct them.
4. Giving the correct form of a base, for
example (verbs in the infinitive form),
(nouns in singular form), or (providing the
suitable suffix or prefix) [for this type, it is
always production, no blanks no choices)
• It is legal to carry weapons in the
plane. (illegal)
• Provide the suitable prefix or suffix
for the following items
¾ There are many child in this
room. (children)
• Put the verb in the correct form (tense
and aspect testing)
¾ I go to school yesterday. (went)
5. Transformation: changing from one form
into another, for example, affirmative
sentences into negative, declarative into
imperative, statements into questions, voice


 into passive or vice versa [but by with the
subject must be mentioned]
6. Joining sentences or clauses: we can make it
more specific by indicating how:
coordinators, subordinators, conjunctions,
relative pronouns for forming complex and
compound sentences.
• Join the following sentences using the
following items
7. Expansion of sentences: usually with using
given words to test word order (WO). It tests
the students’ knowledge for the correct order
of adjective.
• Yesterday, I bought an English book.
(red)
• Yesterday, I bought a red English
book.
• He was the secretary of the U.Ns.
(general)


 • He was the secretary general of the U.
Ns.
• The book is new. (on the shelf)
• The new book is on the shelf.
• The book on the shelf is new. (any
order but no additions)
8. Cloze procedure (not common for testing
grammar structures): it is typically used for
testing reading comprehension, but can be
used for testing grammar structures if
deleting certain elements. The cloze
procedure has all the above mentioned
formats:
ƒ A list of words (filling the blanks)
ƒ Matching
ƒ Between brackets ()
ƒ Student’s own answer
9. Matching sentences with pictures or vice
versa. For example:


 • The boy is ready to jump. (provide set
or composite pictures)
10.Match parts of sentences: (A and B
columns), it should be noted that an extra
choice must be given because the number of
the choices is equal to the number of the
questions then the last one will be
automatically chosen.

To conclude, all the above steps must be followed, no

matter what format, but all steps must be taken into
consideration. Most importantly, asking questions such
(give examples for the present simple tense and so on and
so forth) is to test rules rather than structures
(terminological).


 Vocabulary

In basic, a lexeme can be a single word (simple words

like go, compound words like (term-paper), complex
words like (including phrasal verbs and idioms).
Actually, each and every item has three aspects: (form,
meaning, and usage & context). In detail, the form of any
lexeme has some aspects: graphic (written form), oral
(pronunciation), morphological (derivations) and
syntactic (like software (Adj+N) or computer-ware
(N+N). Again, the meaning of any lexeme has either
connotation(s) or denotation(s).That is, primary and
secondary meanings, usually, we test primary meaning,
secondary meaning for advanced students. Finally for the
usage of a lexeme, how a word can be used in a sentence
and grouping words that goes together.

Like sound system and grammatical structures testing,

we have to decide on our objectives: testing production,
recognition or discrimination (passive or active words).
Often, learners would have a large number of


comprehended words (words they can understand
[passive]), but less number of produced words (words
they can use [active]).

By all means, an examiner would ask: am I testing form,

yet what aspect of form (graphic, oral, etc.)? Am I testing
meaning, yet which meaning (primary or secondary,
based on the level of the testees)? Or am I testing usage
and collocations?

Having done this, then, a teacher has to decide on both

testees and their level (advanced, basic, intermediate or
upper-intermediate).

The next step is to select the items of the test on the

following bases:
™ Syllabus (for achievement tests)
™ Frequency list (1000: most frequent words
[represent about 80% of the running words],
2000 most frequent words [represent about


 85% of the running words and more guaranteed
to understand]
™ Semantic frequency (get ten years for stealing)
[sentenced] (less frequent than other meanings
of get), so based on semantic frequency
(common meanings) we test the students and
decide on items
™ Error analysis (EA): problematic words for
Arab learners like (library, bookshop and
bookstore)
™ Contrastive analysis (CA) false cognate words
like (library in English and Library in French,
in French it is like Arabic but in English it is
different)

After that, an examiner decides on the format(s) of the

test ad then he or she starts writing (constructing) the test.
It should be noted that weighing is usually done for
grammar tests; however, it is not common for other tests.


Testing formats: form
In this part, an examiner can test the students’ ability to
spell (dictation) words correctly, to say them correctly
(pronunciation). Dictation can be in the form of full
words, spot dictation (focus on certain areas and
problems (bear, baer), omission of some letters from the
word or omitting some words from a sentence (a learner
writes what he or she hears). Also, an examiner can test
the morphological form of a word (give the verb form of
the following words, give the base form of the following
words or vice versa [speech=speak], providing the
suitable suffix (derivational) or the suitable prefix
(inflexional), recognizing similarity or difference in some
forms of parts of speech (circle the different or odd word,
group words according to their forms).

Testing formats: meaning

The most common format for testing meaning is
providing synonyms which can be through asking
(MCQs), (a list of words, sentences), (T-F questions


[huge means very big (T), tiny means wide (F), (testees
won answer.

One more way is providing contrasting words and

antonyms, the former like (male, female, man, women,
child) and the latter like (big, small, tall, short). However,
the same procedures applied above can be done here.

In addition, hypronyms (general meanings and words)

and hyponyms (specific meaning and words) can be also
tested.

Additionally, grouping (categorizing) words according to

their meanings can be even tested.

Moreover, defining words or to give explanations for

words can be also tested and can take the form of
(MCQS), (T-FQs), and (Filling-Blanks), etc.

Another way is testing meaning through semantic field,

(hyponyms and hypronyms. This can be done by asking


the students to classify words according to their
categories, finding the odd word, matching words with
pictures or the opposite (MCQs, student’s own answer
for parts of the body, things, materials and anything that
has parts). Finally, lexical translation (for example to ask
an Arab learner to provide the translation(s) of some
lexical item in his or her native language) can be used,
but it is not common and not preferred by some educators
and teachers.

Testing formats: usage and collocations

Recognition can be tested by suing (MCQs), (Filling-
Blanks), (list of words), and using a word in a sentence.
On the other hand, collocations can be tested by
(Matching-Qs): [buzzing of …], [roaring of ……],
(MCQs): [a group of birds is called ( ) ( ) ( )], a group of
wolves is called ( ) ( ) ( )], list of words, testees own
answer and/ or (T-FQs): [the sound produced by a lion is
called hissing (F). Finally, we can combine all the above
mentioned formats by using the cloze procedure format.


 Exercises

Read the following statements and write (T) for the TRUE
ones and (F) for the FALSE ones.
1. A sound system consists only of segmental and supra-
segmental features. ( )
2. Production and other two purposes have to be considered
when testing a sound system. ( )
3. Production refers to the ability to discriminate between two
sounds like /b/ and /p/. ( )
4. Grammatical structures and grammatical rules are identical
terms. ( )
5. The first step in designing a test for any language
component is weighing the items of the test. ( )
6. Weighing a certain test can be achieved by looking at the
test format. ( )
7. A term-paper is an example of a compound lexeme.
( )
8. When testing vocabulary, four aspects have to be
considered. ( )
9. Primary and secondary meanings of a lexeme refer to the
usage aspect of a lexeme. ( )
10. Spelling mistakes can be tested within the grammatical
structures component. ( )

Read the following statements and choose the correct answer.

1. Testing the ability to pronounce the sound /v/ correctly and
distinguish it from /f/ is an example of testing the
a. Recognition aspect
b. Production aspect
c. Discrimination aspect
2. Imitation, reading aloud, and free oral practice are the ways
of testing


 a. Recognition aspect
b. Production aspect
c. Discrimination aspect
3. Transforming is considered as a way for testing
a. Sound system
b. Grammatical structures
c. Vocabulary
4. In vocabulary, testing the ability to differentiate between
love and like is an example of testing:
a. Form aspect
b. Meaning aspect
c. Usage aspect
5. Using semantic field strategy is best used to test
a. Vocabulary in general
b. Meaning aspect
c. Grammatical structures

Provide an example for ten of the following:

1. Testing discrimination in sound system
2. Testing recognition in sound system
3. A question format for testing production in sound system
4. A question format for testing recognition in sound system
5. A question format for testing production in sound system
6. A basis for weighing a test items
7. A question format for testing production in grammatical
structures
8. A question format for testing recognition in grammatical
structures
9. a question format for testing form (any aspect)
10. a question format for testing meaning (any aspect)
11. a question format for testing usage and/or collocations
12. a question format for testing using Cloze procedure


Write in somehow detail about any of the following (Minimum:
20 lines).
1. testing sound system
2. testing grammatical structures
3. testing vocabulary

Assignments
1. In groups, visit the library of your university or any
bookshop and locate three books in the following:
a. A textbook for sound system
b. A textbook for grammatical structures
c. A textbook for vocabulary
i. Write the name of the book, the author, the date of
publication, the city, the country and publishing
company.
ii. Scan the books and focus on the provided
exercises and/or test (if any) and decided whether
the author has or not used all testing features
which you have read about in this chapter?
iii. Write a short report about this and hand it to your
course teacher.

Critical thinking
1. A university teacher who was teaching her undergraduate
students an integrated introductory course of the English
Language decided to make her unique way for testing the
students. This university teacher provided her students with
a story along with a CD where the story can be listened to.
Claiming that her way is covering all the language
components that have been mentioned in this chapter, she
requested her students to do the following:
a. Record the story in their own voices after listening to
the provided CD;


 b. Writing a summary for the whole story in their own
words;
c. Making a table that consists of all the words provided in
the story where the words are classified in terms of
parts of speech.

Based on the above given information, do you think that her given
questions would really cover all or even the necessary aspects of
testing language components which have been mentioned in this
chapter? Make a discussion or a debate about this and prove or
disapprove what you claim.


 Chapter 5:
Testing Language Skills

Listening Skill

Requirements for understating listening

Actually, there are certain requirements for
understanding listening comprehension, namely: 1)
sound system mainly discrimination, 2) grammatical
structures, 3) vocabulary in context, 4) recognizing
discourse signals (transitions) and 5) recognizing
paralinguistic signals (like gestures, body language etc.).

However, it should be noted that there is no one to one

relationship between language structures and functions,
because one structure can be used to express more than
one function pragmatically (prospectively), yet one
function can be expressed by more than one structure
syntactically and semantically.


Nature of texts (texts types)
As a matter of fact, types of texts which can be used for
testing listening comprehension could vary. For instance,
a common type is (authentic sources) which are not
designed for educational purposes and they include
airport reports, texts for normal uses and simply any
language which is not used for pedagogical purposes.
Another type is (simulated texts) which are simply
simulated copies from the original ones. One more type
is (fabricated texts) which are especially designed for
pedagogical purposes, something a teacher makes up for
educational purposes, like the traditional CDs and
teaching materials. Thus, it should be noted that live
presentation (like inviting a guest to speak to the
students) is also an authentic text but direct (a living
person is there).

Modes of presentation
Have introduced the types of texts, now, it is important to
mention the possible modes of presentation which
include: 1) live presentation, 2) audio-video recording, 3)


audio recording, and 4) reading aloud by the teacher.
Hence, it should be noted that such modes are not related
to the nature of texts.

Testing formats
Actually, there are six formats which can be used for
testing listening comprehension, namely: 1) picture cues
along with oral test, 2) task response (following
instructions, 3) multiple choices, 4) short answers to
(WH-Qs), 5) answers in the native language (not
common), and 6) choosing titles, commenting etc. It
should be noted also that we should not confuse skills; a
person can read well but cannot write well or understand
well but not speak well.

To start with picture cues a teacher can make use of

picture sets, composites, simple pictures and of course all
will be associated with oral texts; that is, listening.
Instead, a teacher can make use of the matching and
identifying techniques, where in pictures are given and
then the students listen and match or identify on the basis


of what they have listened to. Alternatively, yes/no/DK
questions can be used to show the students understanding
where in they listen to a certain text and say wither ‘yes’
or ‘no’. For instance, (The boy is sitting on the chair.) if
the picture indicates this, then the answer is ‘yes’, and if
it is wrong, then answer must be ‘no’. Once again, if the
answer is not provided, then answer is (DK-do not
know).

Another format which can be used for testing listening

comprehension is task response. In this format a teacher
can make use of (physical response tasks (TPR); that is,
asking the students to perform actions and such tasks can
be complicated if they are lengthen. Or the teacher can
use drawings (giving instructions to the students to draw
shapes, to colour (for beginners), etc.). Moreover, tracing
direction on a map or floor plans can be also used (like
asking the student to put the chair in the front of the
class).


The third format for testing listening comprehension is
(multiple choices in addition to the oral text of course).
Actually, students can be given statements, comments,
questions, or songs for advanced level students. In other
words, the text could be a song, story, dialogue, part of
lecture, but if it is long we should divide it into parts, yet
allow the students to take notes, because it is unfair to
expect from the learner to be able to recall the whole text
when answering the questions. More importantly and
regarding notes, they are may be taken in the learner’s
native language to serve his/her purposes. Furthermore, a
teacher can ask the students to (identify participants). For
example, he or she would ask (one of the participants in
this dialogue is: a) a taxi-driver, b) a tourist, c) an
officer). Or he or she can ask the students to identify
locations, (e.g. this dialogue occurs in a) a hotel, b)
hospital, c) airport, d) customs office). Conversely, he or
she can ask the students to identify occasion (Happy New
Year) would indicate that there is an occasion, and
similarly (congratulation) would also indicate winning,
getting having something that makes a person happy.


The fourth format which can be used for testing listening
comprehension is using (short answers to WH-Qs). For
instance, (How old is Mary, where is the boy, where is he
from?) and the answers will be on the basis of the heard
text.

The fifth format which is hardly used is answering in

one’s native tongue language (used for testing passive
vocabulary).

Lastly, a teacher can make use of (choosing titles,

comments, etc.), for example, (the best title for the
passage which you have just listened to is: a), b), c)), or
(this story can be described as: a) romantic, b) tragic, c)
comic). One more point to be noted down here is that
listening and reading share many features and tips.


 Reading Skill

Requirements for understating Reading skill

Understanding reading skill requires basically
understanding the following: 1) converting the graphic
letters into meaningful units (words); that is dissevering
graphic symbols (it should be noted that the mechanical
part can be done without understanding, again we use
here graphics but not letters, because graphics include
letters), 2) understanding lexical items in context, 3)
understanding grammatical structures, 4) functions, and
5) discourse and text markers which include: fonts,
punctuations, indentation, numbering, capitalization; in
speaking skill we have supra-segmental features of
speech).

Types of texts
Just like listening skill, we could use the same types of
texts here starting from the authentic texts, simulated
texts and then especially written materials (fabricated).


In detail, authentic contexts include: articles (newspaper),
street signs in general (NO PARKING, NO SMOKING)
with taking into consideration that the same sign may
mean different things in different contexts and situations,
advertisements in general, announcements in different
places, pamphlets, timetables, letters (formal and
informal), application forms, and simply anything printed
for its own purpose other than teaching purposes. For
simulated texts they may include all the following but
they are not original, imitated copies. Finally, especially
written texts; they include: printed forms, be it projected,
screened displayed etc.

Test formats
There are actually at least eight formats which can be
used for testing reading comprehension, namely: 1)
matching pictures with sentences or texts, 2) T/F/DK or
identify correct sentences, 3) MCQs, 4) short answers for
WH-Qs, 5) completion items (words, phrase, etc), 6)
Cloze procedure, 7) rearranging, and 8) giving, choosing
titles, descriptions, etc.


Matching pictures with sentences or texts can be with
using MCQs, T/F/DK, and lists of utterances or parts of
split sentences. T/F/DK questions or identifying correct
sentences will be based on texts pictures, or graphs, etc..
For the MCQs, options could be given within the text or
(a, b, c), correcting mistakes, interpreting, paraphrasing,
but this requires the involvement of writing skill. It
should be noted that questions should not be direct in a
way that a student can just quote it from the text, has it
happened, then reading comprehension is no more tested.
For short answers WH-Qs, the answers could be words,
phrases, or even complete sentences, but it is better to
make them short as complete sentences will turn the test
into writing rather than reading.

Cloze procedure format is very common for testing

reading comprehension. Actually, it was originally used
to measure readability. It is now called cloze test rather
than cloze procedure test. Such a test, however, has some
characteristics which include: a) systematic blanks in
terms of deletions, and b) specific (according to parts of


speech or the tested items). Thus, the answers in such
kind of test could be given in the form of: a) general lists
(- time consuming), b) categorized lists (paragraphs, parts
of speech) (+ it makes the selection process easier), and
c) students own answer (for advanced students only) (-
subjectivity, giving synonymous words, accepted not
accepted!).

In addition, a teacher could ask the students to rearrange

sentences or paragraphs. Or he or she could give them a
text and ask them to choose a title, a comment, a
description based on the given text. For instance, (from
this passage we understand: a/b/c, the writer of this story
is using a a/b/c style, or the best title for this passage is
/a/b/c).

Purposes of reading
Actually, one could skim (read for a specific idea) or he
or she could scan (read for a general idea). However and
generally, both skimming and scanning can be used for
asking general questions. On the other hand, intensive


reading (detailed Qs) and extensive reading (global Qs)
would be used for asking detailed questions. Yet, the
format of the test may be the same, but with different
goals. For example, in intensive reading, you can ask
meaning questions, lexical questions. On the basis of this,
one could say that for proficiency tests, intensive reading
is required, and for achievement tests, all are nearly
required: skimming, scanning, and intensive reading, yet
it can be without the intensive reading.

To conclude, other things which have been mentioned in

the listening skill could be also used here. Consider, for
example, task physical response, answering in the native
tongue language (involvement of translation skill). More
importantly, reading can be combined with writing in
terms of asking the students to read and make: outlines,
notes, summarize, make ideas and paraphrase. Once
again, reading comprehension may be combined with
vocabulary items. Similarly, in the case of speaking; that
is, reading aloud. Hence, it should be noted, if a student
for example reads the word (laugh) as [lagf]; it does not


affect actually the process of reading on condition that
the student knows it well that the word means its
meaning regardless of its correct pronunciation. Despite
this and particularly in the case of vocabulary items, the
correct pronunciation is a must especially in the case of
active vocabulary items which require knowing form,
meaning, and use, unless it would be considered as
passive.


 Writing Skill

Requirements for understanding writing skill

Like the receptive skills (listening and reading),
productive skills (writing and speaking) require some
requirements to be understood. Writing skill
requirements, however, will be mentioned and they
include: 1) understating graphics (graphics include
letters, punctuation marks and spelling, capitalization,
and indentation. Hence, all these features can be tested
separately and independently and as part of writing: (a
paragraph can be given to the students and ask them to
punctuate, proofread, write words (dictation), a page of a
text to be broken into paragraphs. To continue the
requirements: 2) vocabulary items, 3) grammar
structures, and 4) discourse signals.

Stages of writing
There are at least three stages of writing: 1) controlled
writing, 2) guided composition and 3) free composition.


Yet, within the last stage, there are two types either
creative or factual writing.

To start with the controlled writing, in this stage, learners

are provided with ideas, forms, structures, meanings and
what they have to do is to combine, imitate and rearrange
with slight modifications like (s/es). In other words, the
students only manipulate data they are provided with.
Namely, the data and tasks they would include:
scrambled sentences, matching split sentences, filling
blanks, rewriting sentences with correcting mistakes,
rewriting a paragraph with correcting mistakes. Simply,
all types of scrambling can be used here and also the
combination tables.

The second stage is the guided writing or better say

composition. In this stage, the students are also provided
with ideas along with prompt words. In contrast, in the
previous stage, we provide the students with both ideas
and structures through graphs, charts, timetables,
pictures, etc (visual aids), or with written: notes, outlines,


questions, reading passages to summarise them, watch or
listen and write, report, comment. Instead, they can
compare, tell a story, describe, and answer questions.
Moreover, they can be given statistical information and
we ask them to convert numbers into written language;
that is, composition. As for advanced students, they can
be given issues like, smoking and cancer, co-education,
with guidelines. In addition, they can be asked to write
letters (formal: application letters) and informal: friends
and family). Or, they can do writing with the use of
maps, floor-plans; they convert a map into written
instructions.

The third stage is the free writing. It has been mentioned

earlier that in this stage we can have either factual or
creative writing. The difference between them is that the
former refers to formal writing, say which are out of
imagination and enhanced with reality (realism
approach), the latter refers to literature compositions in
general, say poems, stories, novels, novellas, dramas,
etc.. In both last stages (guided and free) we should


provide the students with word-limit (how much they
should write) and ideas topics. Yet, some would argue
that in the stage of free writing, students must feel free to
choose the topic they want to write about.

However, testing is useless unless it is evaluated. As a

matter of fact, writing tests are to a great extent
subjective or say totally subjective but there are some
certain steps which can minimize the degree of
subjectivity and make it at least semi-objective. For that
matter, there are two ways for evaluating a writing test:
1) global evaluation and 2) itemized scoring (band-
system).

Global scoring is subjective and impressionistic and it is

without instructions, the teacher simply has a look at the
answers and then decides on the grade the student (A or
B) deserves. Another method of scoring is called (band-
system scoring). The band-system unlike the global
system is with instructions. To make it clear, the teacher
for example, will make 10 points for grammar, 10 for


vocabulary, 10 for coherence and cohesion, 5 for
spelling, and 5 for punctuation marks.

Itemized scoring is like the followed system in (IELTS)

test: 20 for grammar, 10 for vocabulary, 5 for spelling
and 15 for organization. Actually, this system can be
used for both teaching and testing writing. Yet, in all
cases it is still subjective.

One more way to make less subjective evaluation is using

more than a rater. Instead, the same rater does the rating
more than a time. Finally, it should be noted that with the
fast development of technology and computers, e-raters
are available in nowadays and can provide us will all the
above mentioned services.


 Speaking Skill

There are actually two basic activities in speaking skill,

namely: monologue and conversation. Needless to say,
the first one refers to speaking to one’s self and the
second refers to conversing with someone else; that is
two or more persons.

Regarding testing speaking, there are two ways: one is

group testing and the second is oral personal interview
(OPI).

In more details, the first one (group testing) is used

usually for formal testing and achievements tests. In
other words, it is not common for formal evaluation
because it is a little bit awkward and requires some work
when compared to the (OPI) which requires less effort
neither too awkward nor too simple.

To start with the (OPI), there are basically three steps: 1)

warn up (prepare and start by drawing the student’s


attention, breaking ice with personal questions so that he
or she gets relaxed), 2) main task (doing it) and 3) round
up (finish with using any encouraging and thanking
words).

However testing the students following this approach can

have the following formats. First, the teacher can use
pictures and other visual aids most importantly graphics
where the students can answer questions orally, describe,
tell a story, comment, compare and contrast, discuss (not
very common in the OPI). Secondly, a teacher can use
ROLE PLAYING where in two students play roles, or
the teacher and a student are playing roles. Thirdly, a
teacher can use GIVING INSTRUCTIONS which can be
used with language labs, with maps, floor plans. Above
all, in this format, the student is recorded and then
evaluated. Fourthly, a teacher can use GIVING SHORT
TASK where in cards are given to the students included
with topics to be talked about for two or three minutes.


To move to the second approach of testing the speaking
skill, namely (group testing format); can be done
following at least three formats: 1) problem-solving: the
ideal format for this approach, each one will add to the
problem specifically, 2) discussion: an interesting topic is
suggested and then everyone is saying what he or she
thinks about it generally, 3) debating: usually used for
advanced learners, the students are divided into two
group in favour and against the suggested topic; here
unlike discussion, the student can argue, counter, agree or
disagree, in the discussion, he or she adds some
information to enrich discussion.

Assessment and Grading of speaking tests

Actually, each one of the students is given a different role
to play in a way that the whole group is given a task and
each member in the group is given a point of view.
However, the teacher must take into consideration that a
silent student(s) must be prompted to talk. In case, this or
that particular student is extremely shy, a teacher would
test him/ her individually, yet a student who talks all the


time must be given less chances so that all the students
are being involved in the task. Needless to say, all of the
above techniques can be used not only for testing the
speaking skill, but also for teaching it.

As a matter of fact, grading the results of the speaking

tests can be done in the same way the writing tests’
answers are graded. Put it another way, either global
(without instructions and the students are evaluated less
impressionistically) scoring, or band-system (itemized
scoring with instructions and the students are evaluated
un-impressionistically) can be used for grading the
answers of speaking test’s answers. Of course, the items
here will be different from those used in the writing skill,
say: hesitation, supra-segmental features of speech,
fluency, and transition words. Alternatively, trained
raters or assessors can be done; involving more than one
assessor and taking the average from all assessors, or
monitoring the test, but this can be done only at the
organizational level, say for universities.


 Exercises

Read the following statements and write (T) for the TRUE
ones and (F) for the FALSE ones.
1. Sound system is the only requirement for understanding
listening comprehension. ( )
2. There is an intricate relationship between language
structures and functions. ( )
3. Simulated and fabricated texts are mostly designed for
pedagogical purposes. ( )
4. Modes of presentation in listening comprehension are
always related to the nature of the text. ( )
5. Comprehension in reading skill is a basic requirement even
in the mechanical reading process. ( )
6. Discourse and text markers are really required for reading
comprehension. ( )
7. Creative and factual writings are types of controlled
writing. ( )
8. Short story writing is an example of factual free
composition. ( )
9. Monologue and conversation are the two activities that go
within the speaking skill. ( )
10. Oral personal interview OPI is the only way for testing the
speaking skill. ( )

Read the following statements and choose the correct answer.

1. Pictures cues along with oral test can be best used to test
a. Listening skill
b. Reading skill
c. Writing skill
d. Speaking skill
2. Rearranging could be best used to test


 a. Listening skill
b. Reading skill
c. Writing skill
d. Speaking skill
3. When the students are given the chance to just manipulate
the data they are provided with, this means testing
a. Listening skill
b. Reading skill
c. Writing skill
d. Speaking skill
4. Warm up, main task and round up are the three basic steps
to apply the
a. Group testing way
b. Oral personal interview way
c. Role playing way
5. Problem-solving, discussion and debating are the three
formats that can be followed to test speaking using
a. Group testing way
b. Oral personal interview way
c. Both (a) and (b)

Provide an example for five of each of the following:

1. An authentic text
2. A simulated text
3. A fabricated text
4. Controlled writing
5. Free composition
6. Guided composition

List the requirements for understanding two of the following:

1. Listening skill
2. Reading skill


 3. Writing skill
4. Speaking skill

Write in detail about two of the following:

1. Testing formats of listening skill
2. Testing formats of reading skill
3. Testing formats of writing skill
4. Testing formats of speaking skill

Assignments
1. Design a test for each of the four language skills where you
consider the following:
a. Mentioning the tested language skill
b. Mentioning the level of the learners
c. The objective of each question item
d. Make only five questions and each question with five
items
e. Consider the issue of making a sample test that would
include all that you have learned about each skill in this
chapter
2. In groups, visit your university library or any bookshop and
locate four books, each about a certain language skill.
Consider and provide also the following information:
a. Name of the book
b. Name of the author
c. Date of publication
d. City, country and publishing company
e. Report the way the exercises have been constructed in
each book via the characteristics you have studied in
this chapter.


Critical thinking
A university teacher decides to change the testing mode of
introducing the test to her students who were having a course titled
English language skills. She provided them with a short story
along with an audio aid. She requested them to answer the
following claiming that she is testing the four language skills and
she is considering all major characteristics which have been
mentioned in this chapter.
a. Listen to the story using the provided audio aid;
b. Provide a 3-5 minutes presented speech describing your
understanding to the story;
c. Write a very short paragraph (minimum five lines)
summarizing your understanding to the story;

Do you think that this teacher has really applied some or all the
characteristics of testing language skills which you have studied in
this chapter?
What do you think about her way of testing, having been a
university teacher, will you do it, do you have an innovative way,
or will you just stick to what you have learnt here in this chapter?


 Chapter 6:
General Proficiency Tests

In the beginning, it is worth to mention the major names

of the proficiency tests: IELTS (International English
Language Testing System) (UK and Australia), TOFEL
(Test of Foreign English Language) (US) [as more
international tests], Cambridge University Test, George
Town University Test and Michigan University Test as
language tests, and GRE (General Record Exam) and
SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) as general tests rather
than proficiency tests. Thus, the TOFEL (PBT but neither
IBT nor CPT are) test is criticized for it is still pre-
communicative and pre-proficiency test. The IELTS test,
on the other hand is communicative and proficiency
oriented tests.

However, general proficiency tests in general have

certain characteristics: 1) comprehensive (covering
different language components and skills), 2) not biased
to any particular syllabus or programme, 3)


standardization (you try it out, analyze results, do validity
and reliability, discrimination items, it is also used for
setting norms (group evaluation), unlike criterion-
reference test (each one is evaluated individually), 4)
design based on previous students or frameworks,
consider, for example, (CEF) Common European
Framework, (ACTFL) American Community Teaching
of Foreign Language; all actually are used as sources and
guidelines for teaching, learning and assessment also. In
other words, learners can use them or evaluate
themselves, teachers can make use of them for teaching
methodology, and finally raters can make them to assess
tests.

Language Testing and Evaluation

Generally, there are four areas which by a test could be
evaluated: 1) validity, 2) reliability, 3) discrimination,
and 4) practicality. In spite of this, Henning has discussed
11 items as a checklist for evaluating a test.


Well, how do we evaluate a test? There are basically
three procedures: 1) item analysis including rubrics, 2)
reliability check, and 3) validity check.

To start with item analysis, in this procedure, responses

to the questions, length of the cues, (look at Madison for
more details), options (two are not as effective as four for
example, 50% # 25% guessing chance), nonsense
distracters (teacher provide and students disregard),
review options (none of the above, all the above), trick
question (looks like but), common knowledge responses,
matching materials and finally redundancy (over use of
some words, over repetition of instructions, questions,
etc.). Moreover, distracters selection (Cloze procedure,
Error Analysis, and Contrastive Analysis) in terms of
difficulty and simplicity of the test items (look at
Madison for more details). We may sometimes choose to
put easy questions to prepare the students
psychologically, to cover the syllabus, or we want to
include it and make sure that the students have read
everything. Actually and in relation to test items


difficulty, testees can be divided into groups based on
their levels (more than 90, more than 80, more than 70,
etc.), if a difficult question has been answered by low
level students but not by the higher level students, it
indicates that the item is weak, if the opposite happens it
means it is strong. At any rate, once we doubt something,
we go back and check it. Regarding discrimination,
students as it has been mentioned above will be divided
into groups (high level, mid, and low level) and then a
certain distracter which has not been chosen by any of
them or not answered, indicates its weakness.

The second procedure for evaluating a test is checking

reliability. In general, a test is to be considered as reliable
if it is done many times and it gives comparable and
consistent results. Yet, it should be noted that consistent
and comparable do not mean identical, it rather means
(for instance between 90 and 95) in such a case a test
could be considered as reliable. Or it can be achieved if
different raters have used it and have given comparable
ratings. In spite of this, there are some certain factors


which could threat reliability. For instance, fluctuations is
one threatening factor, and it can be when the learner is
sick, forgetting, in scoring, (inter-rater [different raters]
and intra-rater [same raters does it many times]),
fluctuation in test administration (one group one hour and
another group two hours, or one group in the morning
and another afternoon), test characteristics (length: the
longer the test the more reliable it is, and errors in
response (test-wise unfamiliarity with the format of the
test).

Due to this, we need some methods of reliability

computation which are: 1) test and re-test method where
in the same test is done twice to search for comparable
results, 2) parallel form test method for correlating
results, 3) split-half method: compare the results of one
half with the results of the second half (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9
compared with 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10) and 4) either inter-rater
(different raters, comparable marks with different raters),
or intra-rater (same rater many times, comparable marks
in different times), the second one is not common.


Last but not the very least procedure for evaluating a test
is checking for validity. Validity means simply, the tester
tests what is supposed to be tested and what is testable.
That is to say, after the results have been announced, do
they help for decision making, say in placement test, for
example, do they help place the student or not?

Nevertheless, validity has types which include: 1)

content: not statistical, simply comparing content with
the test, it is clearer in the case of achievement tests, 2)
concurrent: it is also called external validity and it is
statistical and we compare the results of our test with
another test in another area on condition that the two tests
are similar but not necessarily identical, 3) construct: it
means you ask if the test is valid theoretically, suppose
that you are doing a translation test and you ask the
student a question where in they have to remember
historical facts in this case it is theoretically invalid, has
it been a vocabulary a test and the students are asked for
new vocabulary items then it is theoretically valid (or the
approach itself of the test can affect the construct


validity, for instance using the communicative language
test and testing the sound discrimination, it is not
common in communicative tests because it is global,
therefore it lack construct validity), one general example
from day-to-day life is that suppose someone wants to get
the driving license and when he or she comes to take the
test he or she is being asked to run, then the test lacks
construct validity , and 4) face validity: asking a friend
(teacher) to read the test and say his or her opinion. It
should be noted that in the external validity we can also
have predictive validity (versus concurrent validity)
where in we predict who will get high marks will be
enrolled in this or that programme and then we compare
our predictions with the final results to see if they are
close to each other (predictions and results), if they are
close they there is a predictive validity. Once again,
whereas the concurrent validity is backward-looking and
retroactive (same time results compared), the predictive
validity is forward-looking and retrospective (now and
future results).


The last thing to be discussed here is possible threats for
validity: 1) invalid application of test (grammar questions
for vocabulary test), 2) inappropriate selection of test
items (content), 3) lack of cooperation of testees (testees
do not care for questions), and 4) inappropriate
referencing or norming population (if used in the wrong
population like dealing equally with foreign students and
native speakers.

One more thing to mention here and conclude with is that

in nowadays, computer applications are increasingly used
in language testing where in (item-bank) is used with the
help of either Access (fields) or with Excel (cells and
spread sheet). For instance,
File: Grammer test
• For or since use
• Tense and aspect
• Advanced students


 Exercises

Read the following statements and write (T) for the TRUE
ones and (F) for the FALSE ones.
1. IELTS and TOEFL are the least well-known proficiency
tests among the other available proficiency test of the
English Language. ( )
2. Cambridge University Test is an example of language test
rather than a proficiency test. ( )
3. General Record Exam, the well-known as GRE, though
general, but it also includes English Language as part of the
evaluation. ( )
4. When evaluating a test and starting with items’ analysis,
this step does not really include rubrics. ( )
5. Computer applications are being hardly used in nowadays
in the field of language testing. ( )

Provide an example for each of the following:

a. A proficiency test
b. A general language test
c. A general test that includes language evaluation

Write about one of the following: (Maximum: 10 lines)

a. Proficiency tests characteristics
b. Test evaluation procedures

Assignments
1. Use the internet and see if you can download a free copy of
the following tests:
a. IELTS (both General and Academic Modules)
b. TOEFL (all: PBT, CBT, and IBT)
c. Cambridge University Test
d. GRE


Critical thinking
1. Does your language have proficiency, language and general
tests just like the case in English Language:
a. Name these tests
b. Provide copies if possible to the class and share them
with your classmates and or colleagues
c. Do they have the characteristics you have studied in
this chapter?
d. Do they belong to a certain type just like in the English
(academic, general, IBT, PBT, CBT, etc.)?

Think about all these matters and also ask yourself:

a. Why do we need a proficiency test!
b. Why do we need a general test!
c. Does your university or any place in your country requires
a proficiency test, general, or any other type for joining a
certain place to study or when applying for a certain job?


 Final-Term-Test

1. Read the following paragraph and fill in the blanks with

suitable answers that best match the meaning of the
text.

Language assessment and language ………………….. are nearly

the same. When talking about language testing, two major
elements are considered, mainly, language …………… and
language …………. . The former includes:
………………………………, ……………………………............,
and ……………………………………......,. The latter includes
both …………. skills (………. skill and ………. skill) and
…………………… skills (…………skill, and …………. Skill).
(12 marks)

Answer ONLY two of the following questions.

2. Provide an example for 8 of the following:
a. A language component
b. A language skill
c. A question item that tests production in sound system
d. A question item that tests recognition in grammar
e. A question items that test form in vocabulary
f. A question item that tests production in listening
g. A question item that tests recognition in reading
h. A question item that tests speaking skill
i. A question items that tests writing
j. A question item that tests controlled writing
(8 marks)
3. Write in full detail about one of the following:
a. Testing sound system
b. Testing grammatical structures
c. Testing vocabulary
(10 marks)


4. Write in full detail about one of the following:
a. Testing listening skill
b. Testing reading skill
c. Testing writing skill
d. Testing speaking skill
(10 marks)
5. Construct (imagination-based test) a full test (five
questions each with five items) for one of the following:
a. Sound system
b. Grammatical structures
c. Vocabulary
d. Listening skill
e. Reading skill
f. Writing skill
g. Speaking skill
(10 marks)


 References
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundemental Consderations in
Language Testing . Oxford : Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L. F. & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language
Testing in Practice . Oxford : Oxford University Press.
Cheng, L., Watanabe, Y, & Curtis, A. (Ed.). (2004).
Washback In Language Testing: Research Contexts and
Methods. Mahwah, New Jersey London, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Heaton, J. B. (1990). Longman Handbooks for Language
Teachers: Writing English Language Tests (New ed.).
London and New York: Longman Group UK Ltd.
Hinkel, E. (Ed.). (2005). Handbook of Research in
Second Language Teaching and Learning. Mahwah,
New Jersey and London: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoicates,
Publishers .
Hughes, A. (1989). Testing for Language Teachers .
Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
Madsen, H. S. (1983). Techinques in Testing . Oxford :
Oxford University Press.


McNamara, T. & Roever (unknown). Language Testing
in the Social Dimension. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
McNamara, T. (2000). Oxford Introductions to Language
Study: Language Testing. (H. G. Widdowson, Ed.)
Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
Weir, C. J. (2005). Language Testing and Validation: An
Evidence-based Approach. Palgrave Macmillan.


 Appendix
Sample tests
1. Language Components
a. Sound System
b. Grammar Structures
c. Vocabulary
2. Language Skills
a. Receptive skills
A. Listening skill
B. Reading skill
b. Productive skills
A. Writing skill
B. Speaking skill


Title: A test for sound system
Level: 1st university level, freshmen students
Objectives of the questions:
1. Discrimination: (it tests the students’ ability to
discriminate between the sounds /p/ and /b/)
2. Recognition and discrimination: (it tests the
students’ ability to both discriminate and recognise
the sounds /f/ and /v/)
3. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
recognise words that sound the same)
4. Production: (it tests the students’ ability to
produce phrases with assimilation)
5. Recognition and discrimination: (it tests the
students’ ability to both discriminate and recognize
sounds such as /ș/, /ð/, /s/, /z/ and /i:/ and /ei/ with
different spellings and graphic representations)


1. Listen to the following pairs of words and
decide if their initial sounds are similar or not
(use (S) for similar pairs and (D) for different
pairs, the first one has been already answered
as a sample?
A B Answer
(S or D)
Pen Ben D
Cap Cap
Pin Bin
Big Pig
Pad Bad
Pray Bray

2. Tick ( / ) the words you recognise in the

sentences you hear (the first one has been
answered as a sample):
A B
Fine Vine
Few View


 Leaf Leave
Half Halve
Fan Van
Feel Veal

¾ I got beautiful flowers and vines.

¾ This writer’s view is negative.
¾ None will leave the class till we finish this
exercise.
¾ I spent an hour and a half for this assignment.
¾ They said that he was a van driver.
¾ Veal is a very tasty meat.

3. Look at the word in bold, decide which of the

three given words sounds the same and
underline it (the first one is answered as a
sample:
1. Steal
• Steel
• Still


 • style
2. Son
• Song
• Sum
• Son
3. Write
• Rat
• Right
• Wriot
4. piece
• peace
• peas
• pierce
5. Our
• Howl
• Owl
• hour
6. eight
• at
• ate


 • hate

4. Listen, repeat and write down what you hear:

• Ten men
• This shape
• This unit
• Would you try
• Red pen

5. Find words which have similar sounds to each

of the following words (the target sound is typed
in bold between slashes and the first one is
answered as a sample):
• Thin /ș/ thirsty
• Then /ð/ …………
• zero /z/ ………….
• sin /s/ ………….
• Pay /ei/ ………………
• Be /i:/ ………………..


 Face Tea Day
Thirsty There Please


Title: A test for grammar structures
Level: 1st university level, freshmen students
Objectives of the questions:
1. Recognition: (it tests the students’ recognition of
the present, past and future tenses in their simple
form with the use of indicators (clues)
2. Recognition: (it tests the students’ recognition of
the sub-verb agreement)
3. Production: (it tests the students’ ability to
produce (form) correct questions from statements
(transformation, especially with non-helping verbs
which are problematic to some learners)
4. Production: (it tests the students’ ability to
produce negative sentences from statements
especially those which need new insertions and are
problematic to some learners)
5. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
recognise the use of (linking words) to connect
sentences


1. Read the following sentences and write (T)
for the correct ones, and (F) for the wrong
ones with correcting the wrong ones:
a. The results of the final exam will be
announced yesterday. ( )
b. What are you doing? I read a book. ( )
c. He is reading a book every week. ( )
d. She usually goes to school by bus. ( )
e. They lose the match yesterday. ( )

2. Read the following sentences and choose the

correct answer to fill in the blank(s) in each
sentence:
a. Ahmed and Ali (is, are, am) students of
English.
b. Either Mohammed or his friends (is, are,
am) responsible for this crime.
c. Neither Mohammed’s friends not he (is, are,
am) responsible for what happened
yesterday.


 d. She (come, comes, came) back home by bus
every day.
e. Neither Mary nor I (is, am, are) going join
this bad school.

3. Change the following statements into

questions:
a. Sarah is an intelligent student.
b. He does his homework on time.
c. It wastes time.
d. He escaped.
e. She ignored his words.

4. Write the negative form for each of the

following sentences:
a. He is a stupid student.
b. She works hard.
c. It takes time to finish this.
d. He promised her to some on time.
e. Study hard!


5. Read the following sentecnes and choose the
correct word (linker) for each of the
following sentecnes:

______ the bad weather, they still went

ahead with the game. 
although despite however

She apologized for taking the car without

my permission. ______ , I was still
also despite however

Even ______ Paul's brother lives in

Brazil, he has never been there.
although despite though

He never went to university, ______

getting top marks at school.
Althoug In spite nevertheless

She has recovered from the accident now

-------- she still feels scared when
but despite In spite


Title: A test for Vocabulary
Level: 1st university level, freshmen students
Objectives of the questions:
1. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
recognise the correct spelling of some words
which are usually confusing, it focuses on form)
2. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
recognise words in groups and be able to classify
words according to their meanings, it tests
meaning)
3. Recognition: (this question is two folded, it tests
the students’ ability to recognise words according
to their class (part of speech, form) and words
according to their meanings (antonyms)
4. Production: (it tests the students’ ability to
produce plural, past and (ing) forms for some
confusing words, it tests (form) production
5. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
recognise the different usage(s) of some words
which sound similar but used differently


 1. Each of the following sentences has one or two
words which have been written with wrong
spelling (they are written in bold), write the
correct spelling for each:

a. They bought thier books from Jareer

bookstore.
b. I have not recieved your message yet.
c. You have to improv your speaking skill.
d. She said that she does not kno him.
e. Can you heare me?

2. Read the following words and identify the odd

(different) word in each group:
Teacher Lecturer Tutor professor Father Trainer
1-
Song Music Jazz singer cassette Preacher
2-
Student Learner Pupil Researcher Headmaster
3-


Moon Sky sun Son Space
4-
Hear Touch Smell See Speak Feel
5-

3. Answer the following question according to the

given instruction in each item:
a. One of the following words is not a noun,
underline it:
God Good Mood Food Wood

b. One of the following words is not a verb,

tick it:
Enlarge Emphasis Wait Minimize Simplify

c. One of the following words is an adjective,

tick it:
Badly Easily Manly Certainly Simply


 d. One of the following words is an adverb,
tick it:
Now Womanly Lovely Hello This

e. One of the following words is the opposite

of the word wrong, underline it:
Bad Good right Write Incorrect

4. Answer the following question according to the

given instruction in each item:

Give the plural form for

the word (potato)?

Give the plural form of

the word (medium)?

Give the past form of

the word (stop)?


 Give the (-ing) form of
the word (try)?

Give the plural form of

the word (deer)?

5. Read the following sentences and choose the

correct word to complete each sentence:
1 Whenever he gambles, he (loses/ looses) all the
money he has.
2 I (advice/ advise) you to read the question
before starting the (answers/replies).
3 The (economical/ economic situation of the
world is the worst in nowadays.
4 Faisal wanted his friend to (borrow/ lend) him
some money to buy the book which he was not
able to (lend/ borrow) from Prince’s Salman
Library.
5 All students must be (quite/ quiet) during the
exam time.


Title: A test for listening skill
Level: 1st university level, freshmen students
Objectives of the questions:
1. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
understand given instructions for performing class
task), each and every student will be given five
instructions to perform
2. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
comprehend basic dialogues in English)
3. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
recognise and infer, through listening, the
situations (locations) of the listened dialogue/
conversation)
4. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability
recognise words pronounced with the sound /r/
where in this sound according to the sound system
rules of the British English is hidden [concealed
prospectively]
5. Production: (it tests the students’ ability to reflect
what they have listened productively (with the use
of writing), it focuses on assimilation which is


problematic for the majority of non-native
speakers of English, the five given items are
pronounced differently (final sound of each first
word and initial sound of each second word), from
the way they are written as a result of assimilation


1. Listen and perform (act) each of the
following instructions: (the teacher)
a. Open your book on page fifteen
b. Write your full name and hand to me in a
paper
c. Tell your classmate who is setting to your
right to keep quiet
d. Close the door and come back to your place
but do not sit down
e. How many students are there setting in the
raw in front of you

2. Listen to the following short dialogues

identify a participant in each dialogue
according to the instructions given with each
dialogue: (tape)
a. A. Good morning!
B. Good morning sir!
A. I want to have my hair cut?
B. Certainly sir.


 Q: One of the participants in this dialogue
is
i. A shopkeeper
ii. A barber
iii. A nurse

b. A. I am a new student. My name is Ali.

B. How do you do? My name is Mohammed
C. How are you? Are you new students
here?
A. Yes, I am a new student in the
Department of History.
B. I am also a new student in the
Department of Geology.
C. Oh! It seems that I will meet you a lot. I
am teaching there.

Q. What does the speaker(C) means in his

last utterance?
i. He is a teacher in the college where in
these students are going to study


 ii. He is going to be their friend
iii. He is going to visit them a lot

c. A. Are you French?

B. No, I am Dutch.
A. Where are you going?
B. I am going to study in Spain, a
scholarship student.
A. Can you give me your passport please?
B. Of course, here you are!

Q. The speaker (A) is a:

i. Detective
ii. Passports officer
iii. Passing friend

d. A. What’s the matter children?

B. We are tired…
C. … and thirsty
A. Sit down here.
Are you all right now?


 B. No, we aren’t.
A. I will go and bring some water to drink.
C. No, we do not want water, we want ice-
cream.

Q. The Speaker (A) is a

i. Nurse
ii. Teacher
iii. Mother

e. A. Good morning.
B. Good morning.
A. I want to borrow this book please?
B. Your card please?
A. I don’t have a card.
B. I am rally so much sorry.


 Q. The speaker (B) means by the last
utterance:
i. That he has done something impolite
and then has apologized for the
speaker (A)
ii. That he feels sorry for the speaker (A)
doesn’t have a borrowing card
(membership card)
iii. That he cannot lend the book for the
speaker (A) because only those who
have cards can borrow from the
library

3. Listen to each of the following dialogues and

locate the place where each one occurs:
(tape)
a. A. Good morning!
B. Good morning sir!
A. I want to have my hair cut?
B. Certainly sir.


 Q: This dialogue occurs in a
i. A shop
ii. A house
iii. A barbering shop

b. A. I am a new student. My name is Ali.

B. How do you do? My name is Mohammed
C. How are you? Are you new students
here?
A. Yes, I am a new student in the
Department of History.
B. I am also a new student in the
Department of Geology.
C. Oh! It seems that I will meet you a lot. I
am teaching there.

Q. This dialogue occurs in a

i. hospital
ii. school
iii. university


c. A. Are you French?
B. No, I am Dutch.
A. Where are you going?
B. I am going to study in Spain, a
scholarship student.
A. Can you give me your passport please?
B. Of course, here you are!

Q. This dialogue occurs in a:

i. Street
ii. Airport
iii. TV programme meeting

d. A. What’s the matter children?

B. We are tired…
C. … and thirsty
A. Sit down here.
Are you all right now?
B. No, we aren’t.
A. I will go and bring some water to drink.


 C. No, we do not want water, we want ice-
cream.

Q. This dialogue occurs in/on a

i. street
ii. home
iii. bus

e. A. Good morning.
B. Good morning.
A. I want to borrow this book please?
B. Your card please?
A. I don’t have a card.
B. I am rally so much sorry.

Q. This dialogue occurs in a

i. bookshop
ii. library
iii. university


4. Listen and write down what you hear: (tape)
a. Part
b. Ear
c. Water
d. Satire
e. Hear

5. Listen and write down what you have

listened (tape)
• Ten men
• This shape
• This unit
• Would you try
• Red pen


Title: A test for reading skill
Level: 1st university level, freshmen students
Objectives of the questions:
1. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to read a
text and comprehend the main idea (scanning))
2. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to read a
text and comprehend certain or specific ideas
(skimming))
3. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to
comprehend a text in details)
4. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to read
and predict meanings of difficult words through
reading; that is, words in context)
5. Recognition: (it tests the students’ ability to read
announcements and comprehend what they have
read so that they act appropriately, (consider
searching for vacant jobs or applying for
scholarships)


 1. Read the following passage and then decide:
what is the most suitable choice from among the
given choices; can be the main idea for the
passage which you have read?
India and Yemen have good football teams with
interesting players in them. They play very well for their
countries and win matches. The players have a lot of fans
in their countries who go mad when the teams lose
matches at times. Football is an interesting game to
watch.
™ The best title for the above passage is:
a. Football teams
b. Playing football
c. Playing football in Yemen
d. Playing football in India
e. Indian and Yemeni football teams and
their supporters
f. Watching football matches


 2. Read the following passage and answer the
given questions?
Ramadhan is a holy month. During the month, people
fast during the day and pray. They keep awake during the
night. It is important for people to give Zakat to the poor,
as this will help them to celebrate Ramadhan as happily
as the other people.
™ Write true (T) for the true statements,
false (F) for wrong sentences and (DK)
for statements which you think the writer
did not mention the answer in the text?
a. Muslims sometimes fast Ramadhan. ( )
b. People give zakat to the rich people in
Ramadhan ( )
c. Giving zakat to the poor to live normally
and without sufferings ( )
d. People fast the whole month of Ramadhan ()
e. All people in all the world fast Ramadhan ()


 3. Read the following passage and answer the
given questions below?
The world is becoming smaller and smaller. People in
one country can know about those in the other countries
very easily through television and newspapers. The air
travel has made the distances between the countries
small. You can reach any place in the world with your
computers and with internet. You can make friends even
with strangers, if you have the internet facilities.
™ Answer the following questions with ‘yes’
or ‘no’?
1. The world is becoming smaller and
smaller because many people are
dying.
2. People in one country can know about
people in another country through
television and newspapers only.
3. Having internet facilities guarantees
having many friends.
4. Computers alone can tell us nothing
about the world or other countries.


 5. By the sentence ‘people in one
country can know about those in other
countries’ the writer means that they
can shake hands with each other.

4. Read the following passage and answer the

given questions below?
There are a lot of insects in the world. Some of them are
useful to people and some others harm them. Bees, for
example, give us honey but mosquitoes spread malaria.
Grasshoppers destroy plants but earthworms help the
plants to grow. Scientists are doing a lot of research these
days to find ways of controlling harmful insects.
™ Answer the following question:
a. Find words from the above given text which
match the following pictures. Write the
word under the picture directly, the first one
has been done for you)?


bee

b. Choose the correct answer for each of the

following items
A. (bee)/ (mosquito)/ (grasshopper) is an
example of useful insects.
B. (bee)/ (earthworm)/ (grasshopper) is
an example of harmful insects.
C. Some insects are……… and some
other are………


5. Read the following announcement and answer
the given questions?

SCHOLARSHIPS FOR THE STUDENTS OF

THE YEMENI UNIVERSITIES (Full
scholarships)

The EU (European Union) announces a

number of the master degree scholarships in
all fields of study for the graduate students
from the developing countries universities. A
student will study in any one of the partner
European universities. The students in general
are chosen on the basis of their skills,
academic degree, English language
proficiency, basic knowledge of any other
European language, and finally the chosen
field of study.15 June is the deadline for
receiving application letters and filling the
application forms. Contact us in the following
address:
E-mail: europa-union@yem.nl


™ Answer the following questions, chose the
correct answer for each one?
a. Eligible applicants for the above mentioned
scholarship announced by the EU are:
A. Students of science and medicine only
B. Students from all field of study
C. Students from all the world
th
b. 15 of June 2010, the date mentioned in the
announcement indicates:
A. The date where students can start their
applications
B. The date where students are no more
able to apply
C. The last date where in students can
send their applications
c. When evaluating the application forms,
priority may be given to
A. Those who have applied earlier
B. Those who know the language of the
country which they choose to study in


 C. Those who are handsome and have
beautiful handwriting
d. Eligible countries for such kind of
scholarships are:
A. Arabs
B. National of developing countries
C. Muslims
5. Students who will be accepted:
A. Will not need to pay for anything
B. Will need to pay for their tickets
C. Will be responsible for their living
costs


Title: A test for writing skill
Level: 1st university level, freshmen students
Objectives of the questions:
1. It tests the students’ ability to write simple and
compound sentences.
2. It tests the students’ ability to edit a paragraph.
3. It tests the students’ ability to write short
paragraph (controlled writing)
4. It tests the students’ ability to write letters (guided
writing).
5. It tests the students’ ability to write their own ideas
orderly, coherently and cohesively (free
composition).


 1. Answer the following questions by writing
either a simple or compound sentence for each
according to the question?
A. What is your name?
B. How old are you and what is your job?
C. How many brothers and sisters do you have
and do your parents still alive?
D. What do you usually have in the morning
(your breakfast)?
E. What do you want to be in the future?

2. Rewrite the following paragraph with

correcting the mistakes and errors?
trees help us in many ways They provide us with food
and shelter but we cut them in order to build houses. we
never think for a moment about a tree,s Life before We
cut it. Each tree has life like us And it grows for many
years now; but we destroy it in a few minutes?


3. The following lines (verses) have been written
by someone as his dream, read them carefully
and try to write your dream in the same way?
™ Instructions
9 (minimum 10 line, maximum 15
lines)
9 Each line or verse must be either a
full sentence or a clause (ended by
the next line or verse)
9 The title (I have a dream must be
repeated in each line)

I Have a Dream
I have a dream that people will not pollute the
Earth.
I have a dream that people will not make drugs or
anything that will hurt their bodies.
I have a dream that people will not hurt or kill
other people because they feel like it or just for
fun.
I have a dream that you will dream these same


 things, just like I do.
So don't be afraid to dream.

4. Read the following announcement and write an

application letter; that is, a response letter
indicating the following points?
™ Instructions
9 Write at least 150 words
9 Do not write more than 2oo words
9 Mention the following points in your
response letter:
¾ Who are you briefly
¾ How do you know about the
scholarships
¾ You are interested in such
scholarships and you want to
apply
¾ You want to know more details
about the process of
application


¾ Ask them from where you can
get the application form
¾ What are the required
documents in addition to the
application form
¾ Use the information provided
in the announcement to
support your response letter
(interest letter)


 SCHOLARSHIPS FOR THE STUDENTS OF
THE YEMENI UNIVERSITIES (Full
scholarships)

The EU (European Union) announces a

number of the master degree scholarships in
all fields of study for the graduate students
from the developing countries universities. A
student will study in any one of the partner
European universities. The students in
general are chosen on the basis of their skills,
academic degree, English language
proficiency, basic knowledge of any other
European language, and finally the chosen
field of study.15 June is the deadline for
receiving application letters and filling the
application forms. Contact us in the
following address:
E-mail: europa-union@yem.nl


5. Think of any topic you feel that you like to write
about it, write first the title and then write a
paragraph?
™ Instructions
9 Provide a title (what are you going to
write about?)
9 Write at least (150 words)
9 Do not write more than (250 words)
9 Reread what you have written and
correct mistakes if any


Title: A test for speaking skill
Level: 1st university level, freshmen students
Answer the following questions:
I. Introduce yourself taking into consideration
answering the following questions:
1. Who are you?
2. Your family members?
3. Your village, city, country etc.
4. Your study
5. Things you like and dislike
6. Your ambitions, hobbies, dreams etc.
7. Future plans

II. What do you say in each of the following

situations:
1. Greeting someone in the morning
2. Apologizing for behaving politely
3. Thanking someone for his or her advice
4. Asking for a cup of tea
5. Asking for an advice


III. Why have you joined the department of
English?

IV. Choose one of the following topics/issues/items

to talk about it, take notes if you would like:
1. The last book you have read
2. The best book you have ever read
3. Islam and other religions
4. Exercising sport(s) and its relation to health
5. English and language as an international
language
6. Your village, city or the place where you live in
full details

V. Discussion with the student on the basis of the

above chosen topic by the student?


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