SHOBHIT NIRWAN's

DESIGNED

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

OF CHEMISTRY
NEW NOTES FOR CLASS 11 2022 EXAMS
 OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
1. Importance of Chemistry

2. Nature of Matter
Matter – Solid , liquid, Gas
Matter – (a)Mixtures –(i) Homogenous Mixtures
(ii) Heterogenous Mixtures
(b)Pure Substances – (i) Elements
(ii) Compounds

3. Properties of Matter and their Measurements

(i) Physical Properties
(ii) Chemical Properties
(iii) S.I unit of : mass, volume, density, temperature.

4. Uncertainty in Measurement
(i) Scientific Notation
(ii) Multiplication & Division
(iii) Addition & Subtraction
(iv) Significant Figures → addition, subtraction, multiplication & division
(v) Dimensional Analysis

5. Laws of Chemical Combination

(i) Law of conservation of mass.
(ii) Law of definite properties.
(iii) Law of multiple proportions.
(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of gaseous volumes.
(v) Avogadro Law.

6. Dalton’s Atomic Theory

7. Atomic & Molecular Masses

8. Mole Concept & Molar Masses

9. Percentage Composition

10. Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations

(i) Chemistry deals with composition, structure & properties of matter
(ii) Chemistry if c/d science of atoms & molecules

11. Reactions in Solutions

(i) Mass Percent
(ii) Mole Fraction
(iii) Molarity
(iv) Molality
1. IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY:
a. Chemical principles are important in diverse areas, such as weather patterns,
functioning of brain & operation.
b. Plays important role in chemical industries (fertilizers, acids, salts, dyes,
polymers, drugs, soaps)
c. Lifesaving drugs such as cisplatin and Taxol effective in cancer therapy and
AZT (Azidothymidine) used for helping AIDS victims.

2. NATURE OF MATTER:
a. Solid – Particles are held very close to each other in an orderly fashion and
not much freedom of movement. Have definite volume & definite shape.
b. Liquids – Particles close to each other & can move around. Definite volume
but not definite shape, take shape of container.
c. Gases – Particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid or liquid
states movement is easy & fast. Neither definite volume not definite shape, परू े
container को occupy कर लेता है l
heat heat
Solid Liquid Gas
cool cool

(a)Mixtures: contains 2 or more substances present in any ratio called as

components.

(i)Homogeneous Mixture: (a) Components completely mix with each other.

(b) composition is uniform
Eg: air, sugar solution.
(ii)Heterogeneous Mixture: (a) Components do not mix completely
(b) components is not uniform
Eg: mixture of salt & sugar.

(b)Pure substances: Contains components in fixed composition. Components are

pure substances cannot be separated. Eg: glucose (C6H12O6)
(i) elements consists of only one type of particle
(atom/molecule) eg: sodium, copper, oxygen.
(ii) 2 or more atom combine eg: ammonia, water

Constituents of a compound cannot be separated into simpler substance by

physical method. They can be separated by chemical methods.

3. PROPERTIES OF MATTER & THEIR MEASUREMENT:

(i)Physical Properties:
 a. Which can be measured or observed without changing the identity or the
composition of the substance eg: colour, odour, M.P, B.P, density.
b. जिस property को तमु बिना कोई chemical reaction करे और बिना उस substance का
state change किये measure कर सकते हो l

(ii)Chemical Properties:
a. Require chemical change to occur
b. Eg: acidity, basicity, combustibility (हवा में जलना) अब इसमें chemical reaction
होगा और components के state भी change हो सकते हैं l

(iii)The International System of Units:

1) S.I. unit was established by General conference on weights and measures.
2) has 7 base units
Length L metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric Current i ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature T Kelvin k
Amount of substance n mole mol
Luminous intensity iv candela cd

Mass & Weight:

a. Mass: amount of matter present in it (always constant). Mass को हम analytical
balance से measure करते हैं l
b. Weight: force exerted by gravity on an object (may vary due to gravity)

Volume:
a. Has units of (length)3 – m3
b. In laboratory smaller volumes are used, hence often denoted in cm3 or dm3

Measurement of Volume of Liquids:

a. Measured in litre(L)
1L = 1000mL 1000cm 3 = 1dm3 1dm = 10cm
b. Devices जो हम use करते हैं liquid का volume measure करने –
Burette, Pipette, Graduated Cylinder, Volumetric Flask

Density: It is amount of mass per unit volume.

Density = mass/volume = kg/m3 or kg m-3
Chemist usually density को gcm-3 में express करते हैं l

Temperature: Common scales : °C (degree Celsius), °F (degree), k(kelvin)

a. Thermometers में °C में लिखा होता है l
b. scale 0° to 100° (they are also freezing point & B.P)
c. Fahrenheit Scale – 32° to 212°
d. F = 9/5(°C) + 32 K = °C + 273.15 ( you can take 273 for calculation)

4. UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT:
(i)Scientific Notation: 232.508 can be written as 2.32508 × 102
0.00016 can be written as 1.6 × 10-4
(ii)Multiplication & Division:
Eg: 5.6 × 105 × 6.9 × 108 = (5.6 × 6.9) (105+6)
= 38.64 × 1013
= 3.864 × 1014
∴ in multiplication powers add up
Eg: 2.7 × 10-3 / 5.5 × 104 = 2.7/5.5 × 10-3-4 = 0.4909 × 1013 = 3.864 × 1014

(iii)Addition & Subtraction: to add or subtract हमे 10 का power equal करना होगा eg:
(i) 6.65 × 104 and 8.95 × 103
To add 6.65 × 104 + 8.95 × 103 = (6.65 + 0.895) × 104  = 7.545 × 104
(ii) 2.5 × 10-2 – 4.8 × 10-3 = (2.5 – 0.48) × 10-2 = 2.02 × 10-2

(iv)Significant Figures: Reliable digits plus first uncertain. Physical quantity के वो

digits जो reliable है यानी वो measurements जिस्पे हमे confidence है plus एक digit जो
uncertain यानी जिसके बारे मे तम
ु unsure हो
Eg: In 1.62 → 1 & 6 reliable digits
2 → uncertain

A choice of change of different units does not change the number of

significant digits or figure in a measurement.

Unit change होने पर number of significant figure change नहीं होंगे l

Ex: 2.308 cm → 4 significant figures
0.02308 m → 4 significant figures
23.08 mm → 4 significant figures

Rules for Significant Figures:

1. All non-zero digits are significant.
2. All the zeroes, b/w two non-zero digits are significant no matter where decimal
point is.
3. If the number less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point due to the left
of the 1st non-zero digit are no significant.
Eg: 0.002308 the first three zeroes are not significant
4. The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are not
significant.
Ex: 12300 the last two zeroes are not significant
5. The trailing zero(s) in a no. with a decimal तो point are significant.
3.500 4 significant
0.06900 figures

Significant Figures define करने मे हम गलती ना करे तो इसलिये हम उन्हे scientific

notation (in the power of 10) के लिखते हैं l
Eg: a × 106
a → no. b/w 1 and 10
b → +ve or -ve exponent/ power of 10

For approximation
अगर c ≤ 5 रहा तो a को 10 मे l
→ b is also c/d order of magnitude
 Eg: in 1.28 × 107 , 7 is order of magnitude

6. Preceding digit is raised by 1 if the insignificant digit to be dropped is more than 5

& is left unchanged if the latter is less than 5.
Eg: 2.746 rounded off to 2.75
2.243 rounded off to 2.74
7. If insignificant digit is 5 as in case of 2.745 then 5 is simply dropped if preceding is
even & raised if it is odd.
Eg: 2.745 rounded off to 2.74 (5 को निकाल दो सीधा)
2.735 round off to 2.74.

Addition & Subtraction of Significant:

The result cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal point than either of the
original number.
Eg: अगर हमे 12.11 और 18.0 को add करने के बाद जो result होगा उसमे decimal के right
side original numbers(12.1,18.0) से ज्यादा नहीं हो सकते 12.11
18.0 → 18.0 मे right side सिर्फ एक digit है ∴ result मे भी
30.11 एक ही होगा i.e 30.1

Multiplication & Division of Significant Figures:

Results must be reported with no more significant figures as are there in the
measurement with few significant figures.
मतलब measurement का वो number जिसके सबसे कम significant numbers है उससे ज्यादा
significant number नहीं होने चाहिए result के l
Eg: 2.5 × 1.25 = 3.125
2.5 के पास सबसे कम significant number है ∴ result 3.1 होगा l

(v)Dimensional Analysis: To convert units from one system to another factor label
method or unit factor method or dimensional analysis is used.

Que: Piece of wood is 3 inch in length. What is the length in cm??

Ans: 1 inch = 2.54 cm learn
By equivalence 1 inch/2.54cm = 1 = 2.54cm/1 inch
3 inch = 3 inch 2.54cm/1inch = 2×2.54 = 7.62 cm

अगर inch को cm मे करना हैं तो 2.54 cm/1 inch से 2.54/1 inch से multiply करदो
अगर inch को cm मे करना हैं तो 1 inch/2.54 cm से 2.54/1 inch से multiply करदो
1 m/100 cm = 1 = 100 cm/1m as 1L = 1000cm3
1 day/24 h = 1 = 24h/1day

5. LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION:

(i) Law of conservation of mass:
a. Statement: matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
b. Law was given by Antoine Lavoisier.

(ii) Law of Definite Proportions:

Statement: a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of
elements by weight.
a. Law was given by Joseph Proust.
 b. Proust worked on 2 samples of cupric carbonate (one natural and on
synthetic)
% of copper % of oxygen % of carbon
Natural sample 51.35 9.74 39.91
Synthetic sample 51.35 9.74 38.91

CuCO3 कोई भी source से लेलो elements का composition constant ही रहे गा l

(iii) Law of Multiple Proportion:

a. Statement: If 2 elements can combine to form more than on compound, the
masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element
are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
b. Given by Dalton.

Eg: hydrogen oxygen से combine होके water भी बन सकता है और hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2) भी बन सकता है l
Hydrogen + oxygen = water
2g 16g = 18g
Hydrogen + oxygen = hydrogen peroxide
2g 32g = 32g
Oxygen vary कर रहा है (16g, 32g) और (2g) अब जो varying वाला element है (oxygen)
उनका ratio small whole number मैं रहे गा जैसा कि ऊपर वाले मैं है i.e 16:32 = 1:2

(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes:

a. Statement: When gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction they
do so in a simple ratio by volume provided all gases at same temperature &
pressure.
b. Given by Gay Lussac.

Eg: hydrogen + oxygen = water

100 ml 50 ml = 100ml
Volume of hydrogen & oxygen जो combine होते combine हो रहे हैं उनका ratio simple
है – 2:1

(v) Avogadro Law:

a. Statement: equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
should contain an equal number of molecules.
b. Given by Avogadro.
c. He made a distinction between atoms and molecules.

6. DALTON ATOMIC THEORY:

Dalton published a ‘new system of chemical philosophy’. जिसमे उसने कहा –
1. Matter consists of indivisible (जीसे आप तोड़ नहीं सकते) atoms.
2. All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including identical mass.
Atoms of different differ in mass. (एक ही elements के atoms की properties same होती
हैं) even mass भी l पर different elements के atoms की properties differ करती हैं l )
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
( जब fixed ratio मे atom मिलते हैं तो compound बनता हैं)
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of atoms. These are neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction. (जब एक chemical reaction होता है तो atom अपने आप
इस तरह करते हैं कि reactions के left hand side & right hand side number of atoms equal
होते हैं, यानि ना नए atom हम बना सकते हैं ना परु ाने हम destroy कर सकते हैं l

7. ATOMIC & MOLECULAR MASS:

a. Atomic Mass: atomic masses is based on carbon – 12 as the standard.
b. C–12 carbon (C) का एक isotope है जिसका mass हमने 12 atomic mass unit
(amu) के equal दिया है l

Que: 1 amu क्या है ??

Ans: जो C – 12 atom का mass है उसका exactly 1/12 mass 1 amu है l

a. One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one – twelth
the mass of one carbon–12.

b. Mass of an atom of hydrogen = 1.67 × 10-24 g

c. In terms of amu mass of hydrogen atom = 1.67 × 10-24 g / 1.66 × 10-24g
= 1.0078 amu

d. Today amu has been replaced by ‘u’ which is known as unified mass.

Average Atomic Mass:

Example से समझते हैं isotope relative abundance(%) atomic mass(amu)
12
C 98.892% 12
12
C 1.108% 13.00335
12
C 2 × 10-10 % 14.00317

Molecular Mass:
Sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule.

Que: How to calculate molecular mass??

Ans: Molecule के elements के atomic mass को उनके respective no. of atoms से
multiply करदो और result को add करदो
Eg: C6 H12 O6 C H O
Atomic mass 12 1 18 = (12 × 6) + (1 × 12) + (16 × 6)
No. of atom 6 12 6 = 180°
Formula Mass:
a. Defined for ionic compounds.
b. Same molecular mass के तरह हैं बस formula mass सिर्फ ionic compounds के लिए
है l
Eg: NaCl → Na+ Cl-
Formula mass = atomic mass of sodium + atomic mass of chlorine
= 23 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u

8. MOLE CONCEPT & MOLAR MASSES:

One mole of is the amount of a substance that contains as many as particles or
entities as there are atoms in exactly 12g of 12C isotope 12g में जितने particles होते है
उतने ही one mole में होते हैं l
Mass of 12C atom = 1.992648 × 10-23 g
Now no. of atoms in carbon = 12g/mol 12C/ 1.992648 × 10-23g/c atom
= 6.0221367 × 10-23 atoms/mol

Molar Mass:
The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its molar mass.
(substance के एक mole का mass grams में )

Eg: 12g of carbon = 12 u of carbon

9. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION:
Mass % of an element = mass of that element in the compound × 100
Molar mass of the compound

Eg: H2O molar mass = 18 g

Mass% of hydrogen = 2 × 1/18 × 100 = 11.1
Mass% of hydrogen = 16/18 × 100 = 88.7

Empirical & Molecular Formula:

Molecular Formula → exact number of different atoms present in a molecule of a
compound.
Empirical Formula → molecular formula को जीता simplify कर सकते हो करदो l यही है l
BALANCING A CHEMICAL EQUATION (GREEN BOX IN NCERT):
According to the law of conservation of mass, a balanced chemical equation has the
same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation. Many
chemical equations can be balanced by trial and error. Let us take the reactions of a
few metals and non-metals with oxygen to give oxides
4 Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2 O3 (s) (a) balanced equation
2 Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO(s) (b) balanced equation
P4 (s) + O2 (g) → P4 O10(s) (c) unbalanced equation
Equations (a) and (b) are balanced, since there are same number of metal and
oxygen atoms on each side of the equations. However equation (c) is not balanced.
In this equation, phosphorus atoms are balanced but not the oxygen atoms. To
balance it, we must place the coefficient 5 on the left of oxygen on the left side of the
equation to balance the oxygen atoms appearing on the right side of the equation.
P4 (s) + 5O2 (g) → P4O10(s) balanced equation
Now, let us take combustion of propane, C3H8 . This equation can be balanced in
steps.

Step 1 Write down the correct formulas of reactants and products. Here, propane
and oxygen are reactants, and carbon dioxide and water are products. C3H8 (g) + O2
(g) → CO2 (g) + H2O(l) unbalanced equation

Step 2 Balance the number of C atoms: Since 3 carbon atoms are in the reactant,
therefore, three CO2 molecules are required on the right side.
C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Step 3 Balance the number of H atoms: on the left there are 8 hydrogen atoms in the
reactants however, each molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms, so four
molecules of water will be required for eight hydrogen atoms on the right side.
C3H8 (g) +O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)

Step 4 Balance the number of O atoms: There are 10 oxygen atoms on the right side
(3 × 2 = 6 in CO2 and 4 × 1= 4 in water). Therefore, five O2 molecules are needed to
supply the required 10 CO2 and 4 × 1= 4 in water). Therefore, five O2 molecules are
needed to supply the required 10 oxygen atoms.
C3H8 (g) +5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)

Step 5 Verify that the number of atoms of each element is balanced in the final
equation. The equation shows three carbon atoms, eight hydrogen atoms, and 10
oxygen atoms on each side.
All equations that have correct formulas for all reactants and products can be
balanced. Always remember that subscripts in formulas of reactants and products
cannot be changed to balance an equation.

10.STOICHIOMETRY & STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS:

Stoicheion → element stoichiometry
Metron → measure

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O (g)

Here 2 for O2 & H2O is stoichiometric
 1 for CH4 & CO2
We can explain this reaction in following ways:
1 mole/molecule of CH4 reacts with 2 moles or molecules of O2 to give one mole
or molecule of CO2 and 2 moles or molecules of H2O.
or
22.7 L of CH4 (g) reacts with 45.4 L of O2 (g) to give 22.7 L of CO2 (g) and 45.4
L of H2O(g)
or
16 g of CH4 (g) reacts with 2×32 g of O2 (g) to give 44 g of CO2 (g) and
2×18 g of H2O (g).

mass liquid no. of molecules

Problem 1.3 Calculate the amount of water (g) produced by the combustion of
16 g of methane.
Solution:
The balanced equation for the combustion of methane is :
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
(i)16 g of CH4 corresponds to one mole.
(ii) From the above equation, 1 mol of CH4 (g) gives 2 mol of H2O (g).
2 mol of water (H2O) = 2 × (2+16) = 2 × 18 = 36 g
1 mol H2O = 18 g H2O ⇒ 18 g H2O/1 mol H2O = 1
Hence, 2 mol H2O × 18 g H2O / 1mol H2O = 2 × 18 g H2O = 36 g H2O

Problem 1.4
How many moles of methane are required to produce 22g CO2 (g) after
combustion?
Solution
According to the chemical equation,
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
44g CO2 (g) is obtained from 16 g CH4 (g). [∴1 mol CO2 (g) is obtained from 1
mol of CH4 (g)]

Number of moles of CO2 (g)

= 22 g CO2 (g) × 1mol CO2(g)/44g CO2(g)
= 0.5 mol CO2 (g)
Hence, 0.5 mol CO2 (g) would be obtained from 0.5 mol CH4 (g) or 0.5 mol of
CH4 (g) would be required to produce 22 g CO2 (g).
Limiting Reagent:
कई बार ऐसा होता है की chemical reaction में एक reactant ज्यादा होता है और एक
कम l जो reactant कम amount में present होता वो परू ा consume हो जाता है और फिर
reaction रुक जाती है l जो reactant कम amount मैं present होता है उसे हम limiting reagent
कहते हैंl
Limiting Reagent is a reactant which gets converted, limits the amount of
product formed.

Problem 1.5
50.0 kg of N2 (g) and 10.0 kg of H2 (g) are mixed to produce NH3 (g). Calculate
the amount of NH3 (g) formed. Identify the limiting reagent in the production of
NH3 in this situation.
Solution:-
A balanced equation for the above reaction is written as follows :

Calculation of moles :
N2(g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) moles of N2

= 50.Kg N2 × 1000g N2/1Kg N2 × 1 mol N2/28.0g N2

= 17.86×102 mol

Number of moles of H2

= 10.00 Kg H2 × 1000g H2/ 1kg H2 × 1mol H2/2.016g H2

= 4.96 × 103 mol

According to the above equation, 1 mol N2 (g) requires 3 mol H2 (g), for the
reaction. Hence, for 17.86×102 mol of N2 , the moles of H2 (g) required would
be
17.86 × 102 mol N2 × 3 mol H2 (g)/ 1 mol N2 (g)
= 5.36 ×103 mol H2

But we have only 4.96×103 mol H2. Hence, dihydrogen is the limiting reagent in
this case. So, NH3 (g) would be formed only from that amount of available
dihydrogen i.e., 4.96 × 103 mol
Since 3 mol H2 (g) gives 2 mol NH3 (g)
4.96×103 mol H2 (g) × 2 mol NH3(g)/ 3 mol H2g
= 3.30×103 mol NH3(g)
3.30×103 mol NH3 (g) is obtained.
If they are to be converted to grams, it is done as follows :
1 mol NH3 (g) = 17.0 g NH3 (g)
3.30 × 103 × mol NH3 (g) × 17.0g NH3 (g)/ 1 mol NH3 (g)
= 3.30 × 103 × 17g NH3 (g)
= 56.1 × 103 g NH3
= 56.1 kg NH3
11. REACTIONS IN SOLUTIONS:
(i) Mass percent:

Mass percent = mass of solute/mass of solution × 100

Problem 1.6
A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a substance A to 18 g of water.
Calculate the mass per cent of the solute.

Solution: mass percent of A = mass of A/ mass of solution × 100

= 2g/ 2g of A + 18g of water × 100
= 2g/20g × 100
= 10%

(ii) Mole Fraction:

Ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number
of moles of the solution.
Eg: A dissolved in B
Number of moles of A → nA
B → nB

(iii) Molarity (M):

a. Number of moles of the solute in 1 litre of the solution.
b. Solute → जिसको dissolve करते हैं (eg: salt & sugar) इसके no. of moles कम होते
हैं l
c. Solvent → जिसमे dissolve करते हैं (eg: water) इसके no. of moles ज्यादा होते हैं l

Eg: If we have 1 mol of NaOH and हमे 0.2M का solution बनाना है 1M NaOH मतलब 1
mol of NaOH, 1 litre solution में अब 0.2 M solution हमे 0.2 moles NaOH के चाहिए 1 litre
solution में 0.2 moles तो अब हमे 0.2 moles NaOH लेने होंगे और solution को 1 litre का
बनाना होगा l
1 mole is present in 1L or 100 ml
Then 0.2 mol is present in ? → = 1000ml/1mol × 2 mol = 200ml
Thus, 200 ml of 1 M NaOH are taken & enough water is added to dilute it to make it
1 litre.
इसी को हम और एक method से calculate कर सकते हैं l
Method calculate
M1V1 = M2V2
0.2 M × 1000ml = 1.0 M × V2
V2 = 0.2 M × 100 ml /1.0 M = 200 ml

Problem 1.7
Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its 4 g in
enough water to form 250 mL of the solution.
Solution:-
Since molarity (M)
= no.of moles of solute/volume of solution in litres
= mass of NaOH/molar mass of NaOH/0.250L
= 4g/40g/0.250L = 0.1mol/0.250L
= 0.4 mol L-1
= 0.4 M

Molarity of a solution depends upon temperature because volume of a solution

is temperature dependent.

(iv) Molality (m): Defined as number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent.

Problem 1.8
The density of 3 M solution of NaCl is 1.25 g mL–1. Calculate the molality of
the solution.
Solution:-
M = 3 mol L-1
Mass of NaCl in 1 L solution = 3 × 58.5 = 175.5 g
Mass of 1L solution = 1000 × 1.25 = 1250 g (since density = 1.25 g mL–1)
Mass of water in solution = 1250 –75.5 = 1074.5 g
Molality = No. of moles of solute/Mass of solvent in kg
= 3 mol/1.0745 kg
= 2.79 m
Often in a chemistry laboratory, a solution of a desired concentration is
prepared by diluting a solution of known higher concentration. The solution of
higher concentration is also known as stock solution. Note that the molality of
a solution does not change with temperature since mass remains unaffected
with temperature.

K3B: Stock solution of higher concentration solution जिसका concentration high है l

Laboratory मैं usually हमें जिस concentration का solution चाहिए उसे हम dilute करके यानी
पानी मिलाकर बनाते है l
अब जो molality होती है solution को वो temperature के साथ नहीं होता l