FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS AND ACTUATORS

Introduction

• Final control elements are devices that complete the control loop. They
link the output of the controlling elements with their processes.
• Some final control elements are designed for specific applications. The final
control element is the last element of the closed control loop that
implements the control action.
• It receives the output signal (control or actuating signal) from a process
controller and adjusts accordingly the value of the manipulated variable by
changing the amount of matter or energy entering the process in a way to
bring the controlled variable (process variable) to its set point.
• The final control element is probably the most important because it exerts
a direct influence on the process.
• The majority of final control elements are general application devices
such as valves, dampers, pumps, and electric heaters.
• Valves and dampers have similar functions. Valves regulate flow rate
of a liquid while dampers regulate flow of air and gases.
Pumps, like valves, can be used to control flow of a fluid.
Heaters are used to control temperature.
Introduction
• In a typical process-control application, the measurement and evaluation of some
process variable is carried out using a low-energy analog or digital signal to
represent the variable.
• The control signal that carries feedback information back to the process for
necessary corrective action is expressed by the same low level of representation.
• In general, the controlled process itself may involve a high-energy condition, such
as the flow of thousands of cubic meters of liquid or several hundred thousand
newton hydraulic forces, as in a steel rolling mill.
• The function of the final control element is to translate low-energy control signals
into a level of action with the process under control. This can be considered an
amplification of the control signal, although in many cases the signal is also
converted into an entirely different form.
FINAL CONTROL OPERATION
• Final control element operations involve the
steps necessary to convert the control signal
(generated by a process controller) into
proportional action on the process itself.
• For a typical process-control application, the
conversion of a process-controller signal to a
control function can be represented by the
steps shown in Figure 1.
• The input control signal may take many
forms, including an electric current, a digital
signal, or pneumatic pressure.
Elements of the final control operation.
Signal Conversions
• This step refers to the modifications that must be made to the control signal to
properly interface with the next stage of control—that is, the actuator. Thus, if a
valve control element is to be operated by an electric motor actuator, then a 4- to
20-mA dc control signal must be modified to operate the motor. If a dc motor is
used, modification might be current-to voltage conversion and amplification.
• The devices that perform such signal conversions are often called transducers
because they convert control signals from one form to another, such as current to
pressure, current to voltage, and the like.
• The signal-conversion process is the development of special electronic devices
that provide a high-energy output under the control of a low-energy input. This is
generally described by the term industrial electronics.
Actuators

• The results of signal conversions provide an amplified and/or converted signal

designed to operate (actuate) a mechanism that changes a controlling variable in
the process.
• The direct effect is usually implemented by something in the process, such as a
valve or heater that must be operated by some device. The actuator is a
translation of the (converted) control signal into action on the control element.
• Thus, if a valve is to be operated, then the actuator is a device that converts the
control signal into the physical action of opening or closing the valve
Control Element
• At last the final control element itself.

• This device has direct influence on the process dynamic variable and is designed
as an integral part of the process. Thus, if flow is to be controlled, then the
control element, a valve, must be built directly into the flow system.

• Similarly, if temperature is to be controlled, then some mechanism or control

element that has a direct influence on temperature must be involved in the
process. This could be a heater/cooler combination that is electrically actuated by
relays or a pneumatic valve to control.
Example
• In Figure 2, a control system is shown to control the degree of baking of, say,
crackers, as determined by the cracker color. The optical measurement system
produces a 4- to 20-mA conditioned signal that is an analog representation of
cracker color (and, therefore, proper baking).
• The controller compares the measurement to a setpoint and outputs a 4- to 20-
mA signal that regulates the conveyer belt feed-motor speed to adjust baking
time. The final control operation is then represented by a signal conversion that
transforms the 4- to 20-mA signal into a 50- to 100-V signal as required for motor
speed control.
• The motor itself is the actuator, and the conveyer belt assembly is the control
element.
FIGURE 2
A process-control system showing the final control operations.
Control Valves

• A control valve is a valve with a pneumatic, hydraulic, electric or other

externally powered actuator that automatically, fully or partially
opens or closes the valve to a position dictated by signals transmitted
from controlling instruments.
• A control valve is simply a variable orifice that is used to regulate the
flow of a process fluid according to the requirements of the process.
Fig. Typical globe type control valve
• Fig.illustrates a typical globe-type control valve body in both the fully
open and fully closed positions.
• In a control valve, an actuator that is connected to the valves plug
stem moves the valve between the open and closed positions to
regulate flow in the process.
• The valve body is mounted in the process fluid line and is used to
control the flow of fluid in the process.
• The body of a control valve is generally defined as the part of the
valve that comprises the main boundary, including the connecting
ends. Valves are classified into two general types based on the
movement of the valves closure part: linear and rotary.
Types of Actuator
• An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical change in
the final control device when signaled to do so.
• The most common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or
closes a valve in response to control signals from a
controller. By themselves, valves cannot control a process.
• Manual valves require an operator to position them to control a process
variable. Valves that must be operated remotely and automatically
require special devices to move them. These devices are called actuators.
• Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically.
Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot valves, pistons, or electric
motors are often parts of an actuator system. There are four principal types of
actuator:
� Pneumatic
� Hydraulic
� Solenoid
� Electric Motor
 1 Pneumatic actuator with valve
• The pneumatic valve is an air-operated device which controls the flow
through an orifice by positioning appropriately a plug

The plug (1) is placed in the orifice (2)

of the valve and attached to the end of
the stem (3). The orifice is placed inside
the body of the valve (4) made of cast
iron, alloy steels, alloy steels plus
corrosion-resistant alloys, or bronze.
The upper part of the final control
element is an actuator (5). A diaphragm
Fig. Air-to-close pneumatic actuator with valve (6) divides this actuator in two
chambers.
• The upper end of the stem is supported on the diaphragm.
• When the airs pressure (the output signal from a pneumatic
controller) above the diaphragm increases, the diaphragm deflects
and the stem moves downwards thus restricting by the plug flow of
the fluid through the orifice.
• This type of a pneumatic valve is called air-to-close valve.
Hydraulic actuators

• Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes requiring

quick and accurate response, as they do not require a large amount of
motive force.
• However, when a large amount of force is required to operate a valve
(for example, the main steam-stop valves), hydraulic actuators are
normally used.
• Hydraulic actuators use fluid displacement to
move a piston in a cylinder
positioning the valve as needed for 0- 100% fluid flow.
• Although hydraulic actuators come in many designs, piston types are
most common.
 • It consists of a cylinder, piston, spring, hydraulic
supply and returns line, and stem.
• The piston slides vertically inside the cylinder and
separates the cylinder into two chambers. The
upper chamber contains the spring and the lower
chamber contains hydraulic oil.
• The hydraulic supply and return line are connected
to the lower chamber and allows
hydraulic fluid to flow to and from the lower
chamber of the actuator. The stem
Fig. Piston-type hydraulic actuator transmits the motion of the piston to a valve.
• When the
hydraulic force is greater than the spring force, the piston begins
to move upward, the spring
compresses, and the valve begins to open.
• As the hydraulic pressure increases, the valve continues to open.
• Conversely, as hydraulic oil is drained from the cylinder, the hydraulic
force
becomes less than the spring force, the piston moves downward,
and the valve closes.
• Byregulating amount of oil supplied or drained from the actuato
r, the valve can be positioned between fully open and fully closed.
Electric solenoid actuators

• Solenoid actuators are used on small valves and employ an elec

tromagnet to move the stem which allows the valve to either be fully
open or fully closed. A typical electric solenoid actuator is shown
in Fig. It consists of a coil, armature, spring, and stem.

Fig. Electric solenoid actuator

• The coil is connected to an external current supply. The spring rests on the
armature to force it downward. The armature moves vertically inside the coil and
transmits its motion through the stem to the valve.
• When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field forms around the coil. The
magnetic field attracts the armature toward the center of the coil. As the
armature moves upward, the spring collapses and the valve opens. When the
circuit is opened and current stops flowing to the coil, the magnetic field
collapses. This allows the spring to expand and shut the valve.
• A major advantage of solenoid actuators is their quick operation. Also, they are
mucheasier
to install than pneumatic or hydraulic actuators. However, solenoid actuat
ors have two disadvantages.
• First, they have only two positions: fully open and fully closed. Second,
they dont produce much force, so they usually only operate relatively small
valves.
4 Electric motor actuators

• An electric motor is composed of a rotating centre, called the rotor

and a stationary outside, and called the stator. These motors use the
attraction and repulsion of magnetic fields to induce forces, and
hence motion. Equipped with limit switches and/or torque limiters,
the electric motor actuator has the capability of 0-100% control and
has not only a motor but also a manual hand wheel, and a clutch and
gearbox assembly
• Electric motor actuators vary widely in their design and
applications. Some electric motor actuators are designed to operate
in only two positions (fully open or fully closed). Other
electric motors can be positioned between the two positions. A
typical electric motor actuator is shown in Fig. . Its major parts
include an electric motor, clutch and gear box assembly, manual hand
wheel, and stem connected to a valve.
• The motor moves the stem through the gear assembly. The motor
reverses its rotation to either open or close the valve. The clutch and
clutch lever disconnects the electric motor from the gear assembly
and allows the valve to be operated manually with the hand wheel.
END
Actuators

Mechanism
Logical
Signal
Signal Processing Electric Hydraulic
& Amplification Pneumatic Final Actuation
Element

Actuator
Sensor
Types of Actuators
1. Electrical actuators
• Electric motors
• DC servomotors
• AC motors
• Stepper motors
• Solenoids
2. Hydraulic actuators
• Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command
signal
3. Pneumatic actuators
• Use compressed air as the driving force
Key features of pneumatic and hydraulic
systems are summarized below:
Solenoid
• A solenoid is an elementary device that converts an electrical signal
into mechanical motion, usually rectilinear (in a straight line). As
shown in Figure
What is a solenoid?

• A solenoid is a device comprised of a coil of wire, the housing and a

moveable plunger (armature). When an electrical current is introduced, a
magnetic field forms around the coil which draws the plunger in. More
simply, a solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical work.
• The coil is made of many turns of tightly wound copper wire. When an
electrical current flows through this wire, a strong magnetic field/flux is
created.
• The housing, usually made of iron or steel, surrounds the coil concentrating
the magnetic field generated by the coil.
• The plunger is attracted to the stop through the concentration of the
magnetic field providing the mechanical force to do work.
• A solenoid valve is an electromechanical actuated valve to control the flow
of liquids and gases
Pneumatic Actuators:
The actuator often translates a control signal into a large force or torque as required to
manipulate some control element. The pneumatic actuator is most useful for such
translation. The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area.
Hydraulic Actuators
The basic idea is the same as for pneumatic actuators, except that an incompressible fluid is
used to provide the pressure, which can be made very large by adjusting the area of the forcing
piston, . The hydraulic pressure is given by
Fluid Valves
• Control-Valve Principles Flow rate in process control is usually
expressed as volume per unit time
CONTROL ELEMENTS

Mechanical
• Control elements that perform some mechanical operation in a
process (by virtue of operations) are called mechanical control
elements. Examples of these types follow.
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