CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE

2.1 Introduction to Control Process System.

Concept control system
• To sense deviation of the output from the desired value and correct it, till the
desired output is achieved
•Desired value of the output - reference output or set point

Controllers are the controlling element of a control loop

• element which accepts the error in some form and decided the proper
corrective action
•Their function is to maintain a process variable (pressure, temperature, level..)
at some desired value
 CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE
2.1 Introduction to Control Process System.
Plant - system or process through which a particular quantity or
condition is controlled. This is also called the controlled system.

Controller - control elements are components needed to generate the

appropriate control signal applied to the plant

Feedback elements - components needed to identify the functional

relationship between the feedback signal and the controlled output.

Reference point - external signal applied to the summing point of the

control system to cause the plant to produce a specified action. This signal
represents the desired value of a controlled variable and it also called “set
point.”

Controlled output - quantity or condition of the plant which is controlled.

This signal represents the controlled variable.
 CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE
2.1 Introduction to Control Process System.
Feedback signal - function of the output signal. It is send to the summing point
and algebraically added to the reference input signal to obtain the actuating
signal.

Actuating signal - the control action of he control loop and is equal to the
algebraic sum of th reference input signal and feedback signal. This is also
called the “error signal.”

Manipulated variable - process acted upon to maintain the plant

output(controlled variable) at the desired value.

Disturbance - undesirable input signal that upset the value of the controlled
output of the plant.
 CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
• Various measurable parameter that indicate how good or bad the control system
•Divided 2 type
• transient / moving parameter
• path the controlled variable takes when going from one position to the next
• Steady state / not changing parameter
• final position
 CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE
Classification of Controllers

3 types of controller are:

•Discontinuous modes
•Multiposition modes
•Continuous modes

Discontinuous modes are controllers that have only two modes or

positions; on and off.
•Example - hot water heater.
•When the temperature of the water in the tank falls below setpoint, the
burner turns on. When the water temperature reaches setpoint, the
burner turns off. Because the water starts cooling again when the burner
turns off, it is only a matter of time before the cycle begins again. This
type of control doesn’t actually hold the variable at setpoint, but keeps the
variable within proximity of setpoint in what is known as a dead zone
 CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE
Classification of Controllers

•dead zone
 CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE
Classification of Controllers
Multiposition modes
• controllers that have at least one other possible position in addition
to on and off.
•operate similarly to discrete controllers, but as set point is
approached, the multistep controller takes intermediate steps.
•Therefore, the oscillation around set point can be less dramatic
when multistep controllers are employed than when discrete
controllers are used
 CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE
Classification of Controllers
•Continuous modes

Controllers automatically compare the value of the PV to the SP to

determine if an error exists.
If there is an error, the controller adjusts its output according to the
parameters that have been set in the controller.
The tuning parameters essentially determine:
How much correction should be made?
• The magnitude of the correction( change in controller output) is
determined by the proportional mode of the controller.
How long should the correction be applied?
•The duration of the adjustment to the controller output is
determined by the integral mode of the controller
How fast should the correction be applied?
•The speed at which a correction is made is determined by the
derivative mode of the controller.
 CHAPTER 2 : CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE
Classification of Controllers
•Continuous modes

Four modes of control commonly used for most applications are:

Proportional (P)
Proportional plus Reset (PI)
Proportional plus Rate (PD)
Proportional plus Reset plus Rate (PID)
 PID Controllers
• A particular control structure that has become almost universally used in
industrial control.
• It is based on a particular fixed structure controller family, the so-called
PID controller family.
• These controllers have proven to be robust and extremely beneficial in
the control of many important applications.
• PID stands for:
– P (Proportional)
– I (Integral)
– D (Derivative)

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General Control System Arrangement

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 So, what is a Controller?
• A controller is a device that generates an
output signal based on the input signal it
receives.
• The input signal is actually an error signal,
which is the difference between the measured
variable and the desired value, or set point.
• See figure below for the Controller.

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 Structure of a Controller
• This input error signal represents the amount
of deviation between where the process
system is actually operating and where the
process system is desired to be operating.
• The controller provides an output signal to the
final control element, which adjusts the
process system to reduce this deviation.
• The characteristic of this output signal is
dependent on the type, or mode, of the
controller.
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 Modes of Controllers
• The mode of control is the manner in which a control
system makes corrections relative to an error that exists
between the desired value (set point) of a controlled
variable and its actual value.
• The mode of control used for a specific application depends
on the characteristics of the process being controlled. For
example, some processes can be operated over a wide
band, while others must be maintained very close to the set
point.
• Deviation is the difference between the set point of a
process variable and its actual value. This is a key term used
when discussing various modes of control.

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 Four Modes of Controllers
• Four modes of control commonly used for
most applications are:
– Proportional (P)
– Proportional plus Reset (PI)
– Proportional plus Rate (PD)
– Proportional plus Reset plus Rate (PID)

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 Proportional Controllers (P)
• Each mode of control has characteristic
advantages and limitations.
• The modes of control are discussed in this and
the next several sections of this module.
• In the proportional (throttling) mode, there is a
continuous linear relation between value of
the controlled variable and position of the final
control element.
• In other words, amount of valve movement is
proportional to amount of deviation.
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 Proportional Controllers
• Three terms commonly used to describe the proportional
mode of control are proportional band, gain and offset.
• Proportional band, (also called throttling range), is the change
in value of the controlled variable that causes full travel of the
final control element.
• Gain, also called sensitivity, compares the ratio of amount of
change in the final control element to amount of change in the
controlled variable.
• Mathematically, gain and sensitivity are reciprocal to
proportional band.

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 Proportional Controllers

• Offset, also called droop, is deviation that

remains after a process has stabilized. Offset is
an inherent characteristic of the proportional
mode of control. In other words, the
proportional mode of control will not
necessarily return a controlled variable to its
set point.
• Proportional control is also referred to as
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throttling control.
 Reset or Integral Controller (I)
• Integral control describes a controller in which
the output rate of change is dependent on the
magnitude of the input.
• Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a
slower rate of change of the output.
• This controller is called an integral controller
because it approximates the mathematical
function of integration.
• The integral control method is also known as
reset control.
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 Definition of Integral Control
• A device that performs the mathematical
function of integration is called an integrator.
• The mathematical result of integration is called
the integral.
• The integrator provides a linear output with a
rate of change that is directly related to the
amplitude of the step change input and a
constant that specifies the function of
integration.
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Example of an Integral Output for a Fixed Input

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Integral Flow Rate Controller

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23
 Properties of Integral Control
• The major advantage of integral controllers is that they have
the unique ability to return the controlled variable back to the
exact set point following a disturbance.
• Disadvantages of the integral control mode are that it
responds relatively slowly to an error signal and that it can
initially allow a large deviation at the instant the error is
produced.
• This can lead to system instability and cyclic operation. For this
reason, the integral control mode is not normally used alone,
but is combined with another control mode.

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 Proportional Plus Reset Control (PI)
• Proportional plus reset control is a
combination of the proportional and integral
control modes.
• This type control is actually a combination of
two previously discussed control modes,
proportional and integral.
• Combining the two modes results in gaining
the advantages and c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r t
h e disadvantages of the two individual modes.
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 Characteristics of the PI
• The main advantage of the proportional control mode is that
an immediate proportional output is produced as soon as an
error signal exists at the controller as shown in Figure below.
• The proportional controller is considered a fast-acting device.
• This immediate output change enables the proportional
controller to reposition the final control element within a
relatively short period of time in response to the error.
• See below figure for the response of the PI Control

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 Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt University,
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 Disadvantages of the
Proportional Control

• The main disadvantage of the proportional control mode is

that a residual offset error exists between the measured
variable and the set point for all but one set of system
conditions.
• The main advantage of the integral control mode is that the
controller output continues to reposition the final control
element until the error is reduced to zero.
• This results in the elimination of the residual offset error
allowed by the proportional mode.

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 Disadvantages of the
Proportional Control

• The main disadvantage of the integral mode

is that the controller output does not
immediately direct the final control element
to a new position in response to an error
signal.
• The controller output changes at a defined
rate of change, and time is needed for the
final control element to be repositioned.

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 PI Characteristics

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 Characteristics of the PI

• The combination of the two control modes is

called the proportional plus reset (PI) control
mode.
• It combines the immediate output
characteristics of a proportional control mode
with the zero residual offset characteristics of
the integral mode.
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Example of the PI for the Plant
Heat Exchanger

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 Effects of Disturbance on Reverse Acting
Controller

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 Proportional plus Rate control (PD)

• Proportional plus rate control is a control mode in which a

derivative section is added to the proportional controller.
• Proportional plus rate describes a control mode in which a
derivative section is added to a proportional controller.
• This derivative section responds to the rate of change of the
error signal, not the amplitude; this derivative action responds
to the rate of change the instant it starts.
• This causes the controller output to be initially larger in direct
relation with the error signal rate of change.

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 PD Controller

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 Proportional plus Rate control (PD)

• The higher the error signal rate of change, the

sooner the final control element is positioned
to the desired value.
• The added derivative action reduces initial
overshoot of the measured variable, and
therefore aids in stabilizing the process sooner.
• This control mode is called proportional plus
rate (PD) control because the derivative
section responds to the rate of change of the
error signal.
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Definition of the Derivative Control
• A device that produces a derivative signal is
called a differentiator. Figure below shows the
input versus output relationship of a
differentiator.
• The differentiator provides an output that is
directly related to the rate of change of the
input and a constant that specifies the
function of differentiation.
• The derivative constant is expressed in units of
seconds and defines the differential controller
output.
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Derivative Output for a Constant Rate of change

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Rate Control Output

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 Rate Control Output

• The differentiator acts to transform a changing

signal to a constant magnitude signal as shown
in Figure above.
• As long as the input rate of change is constant,
the magnitude of the output is constant.
• A new input rate of change would give a new
output magnitude.
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 Rate Control Output
• Derivative cannot be used alone as a control
mode.
• This is because a steady-state input produces a
zero output in a differentiator.
• If the differentiator were used as a controller,
the input signal it would receive is the error
signal.
• As just described, a steady-state error signal
corresponds to any number of necessary
output signals for the positioning of the final
control element. 42
 Rate Control Output

• Therefore, derivative action is combined with

proportional action in a manner such that the
proportional section output serves as the
derivative section input.
• Proportional plus rate controllers take
advantage of both proportional and rate
control modes.
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 Proportional Action
• As seen in Figure below, proportional action
provides an output proportional to the error.
• If the error is not a step change, but is slowly
changing, the proportional action is slow.
• Rate action, when added, provides quick
response to the error.

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 Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt University,
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Example of the Proportional Plus rate Control

• To illustrate proportional plus rate control, we

will use the same heat exchanger process that
has been analyzed in previous chapters (see
Figure below).
• For this example, however, the temperature
controller used is a proportional plus rate
controller.
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 Proportional Plus rate Control for the Heat
Exchanger

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 Effects of Disturbance

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 Industrial Applications
• Proportional plus rate control is normally used with large
capacity or slow-responding processes such as temperature
control.
• The leading action of the controller output compensates for
the lagging characteristics of large capacity, slow processes.
• Rate action is not usually employed with fast responding
processes such as flow control or noisy processes because
derivative action responds to any rate of change in the error
signal, including the noise.
• Proportional plus rate controllers are useful with processes
which are frequently started up and shut down because it is
not susceptible to reset windup.

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Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control
(PID)

• Proportional plus reset plus rate controllers combine

proportional control actions with integral and derivative
actions.
• For processes that can operate with continuous cycling, the
relatively inexpensive two position controller is adequate.
• For processes that cannot tolerate continuous cycling, a
proportional controller is often employed.
• For processes that can tolerate neither continuous cycling nor
offset error, a proportional plus reset controller can be used.
• For processes that need improved stability and can tolerate an
offset error, a proportional plus rate controller is employed.

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Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control
(PID)
• However, there are some processes that
cannot tolerate offset error, yet need good
stability.
• The logical solution is to use a control mode
that combines the advantages of proportional,
reset, and rate action.
• This chapter describes the mode identified as
proportional plus reset plus rate, commonly
called Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID).
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 Controller Action

• When an error is introduced to a PID

controller, the controller’s response is a
combination of the proportional, integral, and
derivative actions, as shown in Figure below.

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 Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt University,
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 Controller Action
• Assume the error is due to a slowly increasing measured
variable. As the error increases, the proportional action of the
PID controller produces an output that is proportional to the
error signal.
• The reset action of the controller produces an output whose
rate of change is determined by the magnitude of the error.
• In this case, as the error continues to increase at a steady rate,
the reset output continues to increase its rate of change.
• The rate action of the controller produces an output whose
magnitude is determined by the rate of change. When
combined, these actions produce an output as shown in Figure
above.

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 Controller Action
• As you can see from the combined action
curve, the output produced responds
immediately to the error with a signal that is
proportional to the magnitude of the error
and that will continue to increase as long as
the error remains increasing.

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 PID Controller Response Curves

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 PID Response Curves
• Figure above demonstrates the combined
controller response to a demand disturbance.
• The proportional action of the controller
stabilizes the process.
• The reset action combined with the
proportional action causes the measured
variable to return to the set point.
• The rate action combined with the
proportional action reduces the initial
overshoot and cyclic period.
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 PID Controller

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PID Controllers Equations

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 PID Controller Characteristics

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 Design of PID Controllers
• Based on the knowledge of P, I and D
– trial and error
– manual tuning
– simulation

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