Foundation designs

and geotechnical
aspects

Dr. Anasua GuhaRay, AM ASCE, LM IGS

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
BITS-Pilani Hyderabad Campus
 AGENDA

 Site Exploration for Foundation

 Different Types of Foundations
 Loads on Foundations
 Allowable Bearing Pressure on Soils
 Settlement and Rotation of Foundations
 Design of Shallow Foundations
 Design of Pile Foundations
 Foundations on Sloping Grounds
 Foundations on Soft / Loose Soil

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 SITE EXPLORATION FOR FOUNDATION

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 Stages of Geotechnical Site Investigation
Phase 1 –Preliminary Investigation
 Your own knowledge of the area
 Geologic or other maps
 Google maps
 Aerial photos

Phase 2 –Reconnaissance
 A visual inspection (may be a site trip)
 General topography
 Soil stratification
 Type of vegetation
 High water marks
 Ground water levels from nearby wells
 Type of construction nearby and existence of any cracks in walls etc.

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 Stages of Geotechnical Site Investigation

Phase 3 –Field Investigation

 Subsurface investigation

1) Test pits
2) Boring

Phase 4 –Laboratory Testing

 Visual Identification
 Tests on Index Properties
 Tests on Engineering Properties

 Sufficient additional samples should be recovered to redefine the design and for
any construction procedure required by the contractor to install the foundation.

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 Stages of Geotechnical Site Investigation

Phase 5 –Preparation of Report

Items conveyed to client:

 Types of soils
 Groundwater
 Recommended foundation type
 Depth to bedrock
 Feasibility of excavations and proposed methods
 Soil compaction criteria
 Slope recommendations
 Retaining wall design
 Boring and Lab test results

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 Stages of Geotechnical Site Investigation

 Digging of boreholes is known as Boring.

 The depth of boring should extend through any unsuitable foundation

material and include all soil strata which are likely to undergo
settlement.

 This depth is called “Significant Depth”

 Type of Structure
 Size, shape and deposition of loaded areas
 Intensity of loading
 Soil Profile
 Soil Properties

General Rule: Refer IS 1892 – 1979 / Table 19.4 of Text Book

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 Bore Holes (Spacing in metres)

Types of Types of Soil in Horizontal extent (m) Minm. No. of

Structures Uniform Average Erratic Bore Holes

1 or 2 storied 60 30 15 3
structure
Multi-storied 45 30 15 4
structure
Bridge piers, – 30 15 1-2 per
abutments foundation
Transmission tower – 30 15 1-2 per
foundation
Highway and 300 150 100 –
airports
Borrow pits 300-150 150-100 30-15 –

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 Site Investigation (IS 1904: 1986)

 The investigation of the site should be carried out in accordance with the principles set
in IS : 1892-19797.
 The exploration of the site for an important structure requires the exploration and
sampling of all strata likely to be significantly affected by the structural load.
 The extent of this exploration will depend on the site and structure. In any case,
particular attention shall be paid to the ground water level, underground water courses,
old drains, pits, wells, old foundation and presence of excessive sulphates or other
injurious compound in the ground water and soil.
 The site should also be explored in detail, where necessary, to ascertain the type
consistency, thickness, sequence and dip of the strata.
 Mass movements of the ground are liable to occur from causes independent of the loads
imposed by the structure. These include mining subsidence, land slips, unstable slopes
and creep on clay slopes.

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 Site Investigation
Mining Subsidence
 Mining subsidence is liable to occur in mining areas. The magnitude of the movement
and its distribution over the area of the workings and their vicinity can be roughly
estimated.
 Where future subsidence is likely, care should be taken to design the superstructure and
foundation sufficiently strong or sufficiently flexible to cater for probable ground
movements.
 Long continuous buildings should be avoided and large building should be divided into
independent sections of suitable size, each with its own foundations.

Sloping Ground near Foundations

 Cuttings, excavations or sloping ground near foundations may increase the possibility of
shear failure in the ground supporting the foundations.
 On sloping ground on clay soils there is always a tendency for the upper layers of soil to
move downhill, the extent, however, depends on the type of soil, the angle of slope,
ground water regime and climatic conditions.
 Instability may develop even after a long period of apparent stability, particularly in
stiff, fissured and over consolidated clay soil.
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 Site Investigation
Presence of Expansive Soils
 Some clayey soils are susceptible to shrinkage and cracking in dry and hot weather, and
swelling in wet weather.
 Shrinkage of clay soils may be increased by the drying effect produced by nearby trees
and shrubs. Swelling may occur, if they are cut down.
 NO trees which grow to a large size shall be planted within 8 m of foundations of
buildings.

Drainage Conditions
 New constructions may interfere with drainage regime of the ground and affect the
stability of existing structure. Adequate precautions should be taken to protect these.
 On the uphill side of a building on a sloping site, land drainage requires special
consideration for diverting the natural flow of water away from the foundations.
 If excavation involves cutting through existing land drains, consideration should be
given for diverting into the ground-drainage system.

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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

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Different Types of Foundations

𝐷𝑓
If < 1 − Shallow Foundation
𝐵
𝐷𝑓
If > 1 − Deep Foundation
𝐵

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Different Types of Shallow Foundations
IS Code Definition: These cover such types of foundations in which load transference is
primarily through shear resistance of the bearing strata (the fractional resistance of soil
above bearing strata is not taken into consideration) and are laid normally to depth of 3 m.

Isolated Footing Combined Footing

Mat / Raft Footing

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Different Types of Deep Foundations
IS Code Definition: This is a foundation generally in the form of piles, caissons,
diaphragm walls, used separately or in combination to transmit the loads to a deeper load
bearing strata when no adequate bearing strata exists at shallow depths. The transference of
load by a deep foundation may be through friction, end-bearing or a combination of both.

End Bearing Piles Friction Piles Under-reamed Piles

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 LOADS ON FOUNDATIONS

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 Loads on Foundations
Loads on a foundation are those forces imparted by the structure, it is supporting, in any
of the form

(i) vertical either upwards or downwards,

(ii) horizontal or lateral, and
(iii) moment or couple.

Permanent Load - This is the actual service load/sustained load consisting of dead loads
and live loads of a structure which give rise to stresses and deformations in the soil below
foundation causing its settlement.

Transient Load - This is a momentary or sudden load imparted to a structure due to wind
or seismic vibrations. Due to its transitory nature, the stresses in the soil below the
foundation carried by such loads are allowed certain percentage increase over the
allowable safe values.

Foundations shall be proportioned for the following combination of loads:

a) Dead load + live load, and
b) Dead load + live load + wind load or seismic load.

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 Loads on Foundations

 Dead load also includes the weight of column/wall, footings, foundations, the overlying
fill but excludes the weight of the displaced soil.
 Live loads from the floors above as specified in IS : 875 ( Part 2 )-1987 shall be taken
in proportioning and designing the foundations.
 Where wind or seismic load is less than 25% of that due to dead and live loads, it may
be neglected in design and first combination of load shall be compared with the safe
bearing load to satisfy allowable bearing pressure.
 Where wind or seismic load is more than 25%of that due to dead and live loads,
foundations may be so proportioned that the pressure due to combination of load (i.e.
dead + live -,‘- wind load) does not exceed the safe bearing capacity by more than 25%.
 When seismic forces are considered, the safe bearing capacity shall be increased as
specified in IS:1893-1984. In non-cohesive soils, analysis for liquefaction and
settlement under earthquake shall also be made.

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 ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE ON SOILS

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 Bearing Capacity: Basic Definitions

• The load per unit area of the foundation at which shear failure in soil occurs is
called the ultimate bearing capacity (qult)

• The gross allowable bearing capacity based on shear control qa is obtained by

dividing the ultimate bearing capacity(qult) by a Factor of safety FS

𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡
𝑞𝑎 =
𝐹𝑆

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 Bearing Capacity: Basic Definitions

Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity, qnu

qnu is the bearing capacity in excess of the effective overburden pressure q'0
expressed as

Net Allowable Bearing Pressure, qna

Safe Bearing Pressure, qs

qs is defined as the net safe bearing pressure which produces a settlement of the foundation
which does not exceed a permissible limit.

Note: In the design of foundations, one has to use the least of the two values of qna and qs.

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 Principle Modes of Failure

General Shear Failure:

• Sudden or catastrophic failure (when settlement reaches 0.07B)

• Well defined failure surface Well defined failure surface
• „Bulging on the ground surface adjacent to foundation
• „Common failure mode in dense sand (Dr > 70%)
 Principle Modes of Failure
Local Shear Failure:

• Common in sand or clay with medium compaction (35 ≤ Dr ≤ 70)

• Significant settlement upon loading
• Failure surface first develops right below the foundation and then slowly extends
outwards with load increments
• Foundation movement shows sudden jerks first (at qu1) and then after a
considerable amount of movement the slip surface may reach the ground.
• A small amount of bulging may occur next to the foundation.
 Principle Modes of Failure
Punching Shear Failure:

• Common in fairly loose sand or soft clay

• Failure surface does not extends beyond the zone right beneath the foundation
• Extensive settlement with a wedge shaped soil zone in elastic equilibrium beneath
the foundation. Vertical shear occurs around the edges of foundation.
• After reaching failure load-settlement curve continues at some slope and mostly
linearly.
Principle Modes of Failure

Vesic, 1963
 Different Bearing Capacity Theories
• The determination of bearing capacity of soil based on the classical earth pressure
theory of Rankine (1857) began with Pauker, a Russian military engineer (1889).

• It was modified by Bell (1915). Pauker's theory was applicable only for sandy soils but
the theory of Bell took into account cohesion also.

• The methods of calculating the ultimate bearing capacity of shallow strip footings by
plastic theory developed considerably over the years since Terzaghi (1943). Terzaghi
extended the theory of Prandtl (1921).

• Taylor (1948) extended the equation of Prandtl by taking into account the surcharge.

• Terzaghi (1943) first proposed a semi-empirical equation for computing the ultimate
bearing capacity of strip footings by taking into account cohesion, friction and weight of
soil, and replacing the overburden pressure with an equivalent surcharge load at the
base level of the foundation effect of the overburden soil at the foundation level.
 Different Bearing Capacity Theories

Terzaghi, 1943

Shape factors
 Different Bearing Capacity Theories

Terzaghi, 1943
 Different Bearing Capacity Theories

• Case -1- When GWT is above Foundation level

• Case -2- When GWT is below Foundation level

 Different Bearing Capacity Theories

Meyerhof, 1963
 Different Bearing Capacity Theories

IS-6403-1981
 Different Bearing Capacity Theories

Skempton’s Bearing Capacity for Cohesive Soils

 Allowable Vertical Bearing Pressure on Horz. Ground / Bedrock

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 Allowable Vertical Bearing Pressure on Horz. Ground / Bedrock

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 Allowable Vertical Bearing Pressure on Horz. Ground / Bedrock

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 SETTLEMENT AND ROTATION OF
FOUNDATIONS

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 Uniform Settlement

Uniform Settlement - The magnitude of the settlement that should occur, when
foundation loads are applied to the ground, depend on the rigidity of substructure and
compressibility of the underlying strata.

 In silts and clays the settlement may continue for a long period after the construction
of structure. Due allowance shall, therefore, needs to be made for this slow
consolidation settlement.

 In sand and gravels, the settlement is likely to be complete to a great extent by the
end of the construction activities.

 In strata of organic soils, settlement may continue almost indefiniteiy.

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 Uniform Settlement
 Foundations may settle due to some combination of the following reasons:

a) Elastic compression of the foundation material and the underlying soil

b) Consolidation including secondary compression
c) Ground Water Lowering - specially repeated lowering and raising of water level in
loose granular soils tend to compact the soil and cause settlement of the foundations.
Prolonged lowering of the water table in fine grained soils may introduce settlements
because of the extrusion of water from the voids. Pumping water or draining water by
wells or pipes from granular soils without adequate filter material as protection may, in a
period of time, carry a sufficient amount of fine particles away from the soil and cause
settlement;
d) Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive clays;
e) Ground movement on earth slopes, for example, surface erosion, slow creep or land
slides
f) Other causes, such as adjacent excavation, mining subsidence and underground
erosion by streams or floods; and
g) The effects of vegetation leading to shrinking and swelling of clay soils.

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 Uniform and Differential Settlement

Differential Settlements -- The foundations of different elements of a structure may have

unequal settlements and the difference between such settlements will cause differential
settlement.

Some of the causes for differential settlements are as follows:

a) Geologic and physical non-uniformity or anomalies in type, structure, thickness, and

density of the soil medium (pockets of sand in clay, clay lenses in sand), an admixture of
organic matter, peat, mud etc.
b) Non-uniform pressure distribution from foundation to the soil due to non-uniform
loading and incomplete loading of the foundations
c)Varying water regime at the construction site
d) Over stressing of soil at adjacent site by heavy structures built next to light ones
e) Overlap of stress distribution in soil from adjoining structures
f) Unequal expansion of the soil due to excavation for footings
g) Non-uniform development of extrusion settlements
h) Non-uniform structural disruptions or disturbance of soil due to freezing and thawing,
swelling, softening and drying of soils.
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 Criteria for Settlement Analysis of Shallow Foundations

a) Determine the required bearing area for a column having the largest live load to
dead load ratio. ln the conventional method of design, the area (A) is given by:

A = (Dead load + live load) / Allowable bearing capacity

b) Compute for this same column the design bearing value service load

qd = Service Load / A

c) Determine the area for all other columns by the use of qd, that is,

Bearing Area = Service Load / qd

Differential settlement and/or tilt (angular distortion) of the structures shall not be more than the
permissible values.
The differential settlement shall be obtained by taking the difference maximum and minimum
settlement.
Tilt shall be calculated by dividing the differential settlement by the distance between points of
related maximum and minimum settlement.

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 Permissible Settlement of Shallow Foundations

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 DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

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 Depth of Shallow Foundations

The depth to which foundations should be carried depends upon the following
principal factors:

 The securing of adequate allowable bearing capacity.

 In the case of clayey soils, penetration below the zone where shrinkage and swelling
due to seasonal weather changes, and due to trees and shrubs are likely to cause
appreciable movements.
 In fine sands and silts, penetration below the zone in which trouble may be expected
from frost.
 The maximum depth of scour, wherever relevant, should also be considered and the
foundation should be located sufficiently below this depth.
 Other factors such as ground movements and heat transmitted from the building to
the supporting ground may be important.

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 Depth of Shallow Foundations

 All foundations shall extend to a depth of at least 50 cm below natural ground level.
 On rock or such other weather resisting natural ground, removal of the top soil may
be all that is required. In such cases, the surface shall be cleaned and, if necessary,
stepped or otherwise prepared so as to provide a suitable bearing and thus prevent
slipping or other unwanted movements.
 Where there is excavation, ditch, pond, water course, filled up ground or similar
condition adjoining or adjacent to the subsoil, either the foundation of such structure
shall be carried down to a depth beyond the detrimental influence of such conditions,
or retaining walls or similar works shall be constructed for the purpose of shielding
from their effects.
 Foundation in any type of soil shall be below the zone significantly weakened by root
holes or cavities produced by burrowing animals or works. The depth shall also be
enough to prevent the rainwater scouring below the footings.
 In expansive soils it is necessary either to place the foundation bearing at such a
depth where the effects of seasonal changes are not important or to make the
foundation capable of eliminating the undesirable effects.

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 Stability of Shallow Foundation
Sliding

 The factor of safety against sliding of structures which resist lateral forces (such as
retaining walls) shall be not less than 1.5 when dead load, live load and earth
pressures are considered together with wind load or seismic forces.
 When dead load, live load and earth pressure only are considered, the factor of
safety shall be not less than l.75.
 For structures founded on soils with low frictional coefficient (i.e., slippery
material), safety against sliding may be improved by providing anchor type cut-off
walls or piles to fake the excess inclined underside of the base.

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 Stability of Shallow Foundation
Overturning

 The factor of safety for shallow foundation against overturning shall be not less
than 1.5 when dead load, live load and earth pressures are considered together with
wind load or seismic forces.
 When dead load, live load and earth pressures only are considered, the factor of
safety shall be not less than 2.

Bearing Capacity

 The safe bearing capacity for shallow foundation shall be calculated in accordance
with IS : 6403-1981. Minimum factor of safety should be 3.

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 Settlement of Shallow Foundation

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 Settlement of Shallow Foundation
Elastic Settlement

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 Settlement of Shallow Foundation
Consolidation Settlement

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 Settlement of Shallow Foundation
Settlement from Plate Load Test

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 DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

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 Requirement of Pile Foundation

1. Very high superstructure load

2. Presence of problematic soil at the ground surface.

3. Presence Rocky strata at a great depth

4. Very high lateral load.

5. Presence of shallow ground water table

6. Strong uplift forces

7. For structures near flowing water (Bridge abutments, etc.) to avoid the
problems due to erosion.

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 Classification of Pile Foundation
Based on Material used

Steel Piles
 Pipe piles
 Rolled steel H- section piles
 Optimum Load = 400 – 1200 kN
„ oncrete Piles
C
 Optimum Load = 400 – 600 kN
 Pre-cast
 Cast-in-situ

„Timber Piles
 Optimum Load = 250 kN

Composite Piles

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 Classification of Pile Foundation
Based on Installation type

Displacement piles
 Soil is displaced from its position

Replacement piles
 Soil is replaced from its position

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 Classification of Pile Foundation
Based on Installation type
Driven piles / Displacement piles
 Soil is displaced from its position.
 Driven either vertically or at an angle to the vertical.
 In granular soil, the soil displaced = volume of driven pile ------ soil gets compacted
------- leads to densification of soil ------ increases bearing capacity.
 In saturated clay or cohesive soil, soil cannot be densified because of poor
drainage characteristics ------ results in development of pore water pressure and
decreases bearing capacity.

Advantages

 Precast to required specification. Piles of any size, length and shape can be
made in advance.
 Pile driven in granular soil compacts the adjacent soil mass ---- increases
bearing capacity.

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 Classification of Pile Foundation

Based on Installation type

Disadvantages

 Must be properly reinforced to withstand handling stresses during

transportation and driving.
 Advance planning.
 Requires heavy equipment for handling and driving.
 Since exact length cannot be determined in advance, method involves cutting
off extra length ---- cost increases.
 Unsuitable for soils with poor drainage conditions.
 Foundations of adjacent structures may be affected due to vibration of driving
piles.

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 Classification of Pile Foundation
Based on Installation type
Replacement / Cast – in –situ piles

 Constructed by making bore holes in the ground to required depth and filling
the hole with concrete.

Advantages

 Piles of any size, length and shape can be constructed.

 Damage due to driving and handling can be avoided.
 Safety of adjoining structure.
 Suitable for poor drainage quality soil.

Disadvantages

 Quality control of materials in construction site.

 Storage place for materials at site.
 No increased bearing capacity.
 For heavy current of ground water, construction is difficult.
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 Classification of Pile Foundation
Based on load Transfer Mechanism

End-Bearing piles

Friction piles

Combined End Bearing and Friction piles

Underreamed piles

Micro-piles

Sheet-piles

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 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundation
Load Transfer Mechanism

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 FOUNDATIONS ON SLOPING GROUNDS

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 Footings on Sloping Ground
Where footings are adjacent to sloping ground or where the bottoms of the footings of a
structure are at different levels or at levels different from those, of the footings of adjoining
structures, the depth of the footings shall be such that the difference in footing elevations
shall be subject to the following limitations:

 When the ground surface slopes downward adjacent to a footing, the sloping surface
shall not intersect a frustum of bearing material under the footing having sides which
make an angle of 30° with the horizontal for soil and horizontal distance from the lower
edge of the footing to the sloping surface shall be at least 60 cm for rock and 90 cm for
soil.

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 Footings on Sloping Ground
 In the case of footings in granular soil, a line drawn between the lower adjacent edges
of adjacent footings shall not have a steeper slope than one vertical to two horizontal.
 In case of footing of clayey soils a line drawn between the lower adjacent edge of the
upper footing and the upper adjacent edge of lower footing shall not have a steeper
slope than 1V:2H.

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 Footings on Sloping Ground

The requirements given above shall not apply under the following conditions:
 Where adequate provision is made for the lateral support (such as with retaining
walls) of the material supporting the higher footing.
 When the factor of safety of the foundation soil against shearing is not less than
four.

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 Footings on Sloping Ground

 On sloping ground on clay soils, there is always a tendency for the upper layers of
soil to move downhill, depending on type of soil, the angle of slope, climatic
conditions, etc.
 On sloping sites, spread foundations shall be on a horizontal bearing and stepped. At
all changes of levels, they shall be lapped at the steps for a distance at least equal to
the thickness of the foundation or twice the height of the step, whichever is greater.
 The steps shall not be of greater height than the thickness of the foundation, unless
special precautions are taken.
 Cuttings, excavations or sloping ground near and below foundation level may
increase the possibility of shear failure of the soil. The foundation shall be well
beyond the zone of such shear failure.
 If the probable failure surface intersects a retaining wall or other revetment, the
latter shall be made strong enough to resist any unbalanced thrust.
 In case of doubt, as to the suitability of the natural slopes or cuttings, the structure
shall be kept well away from the top of the slopes, or, the slopes shall be stabilized.

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 FOUNDATIONS ON SOFT / LOOSE SOIL

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 Objectives of Ground Improvement

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 Major Classification of Ground Modification Techniques

MECHANICAL MODIFICATION

 Short term external mechanical forces

 Compaction of surface layers
 Static, vibratory, impact rollers and plate vibrators
 Deep compaction by heavy tamping or vibration

HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION

 Free pore water drained out by drains and wells.

 In coarse-grained soils, groundwater level lowered by pumping from
boreholes and trenches.
 In fine-grained soils, pre-loading or electro-kinetic stabilisation is done.

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 Major Classification of Ground Modification Techniques
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL MODIFICATION

 Physically mixing additives with surface layers or columns of soil.

 Additives include natural soils, industrial by-products or waste
materials, cementitious and other chemicals.
 Grouting
 Heating ground evaporates water causing permanent changes in
mineral structure.
 Freezing solidifies part or entire water and bonds individual particles
together.

MODIFICATION BY INCLUSIONS AND CONFINEMENT

 Reinforcement by fibers, strips, bars, meshes and fabrics.

 In-situ reinforcement by nails and anchors.
 Confinement of soil with concrete, steel or fabric elements (crib, bin
walls and sand bags)

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Dr. Anasua GuhaRay

Email: guharay@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
Contact: 040 66303 677
Website: http://universe.bits-pilani.ac.in/hyderabad/guharay/Profile

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