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Relations and Functions

Relation 7. Equivalence Classes
Let A be a non-empty set and R ⊆ A × A. Then, R is called a Given, an arbitrary equivalence relation R on an
relation on A. arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets
If (a, b) ∈ R, then we say that a is related to b and we write Ai called partitions satisfying Ai ∪ Aj = X and
aRb. Ai ∩ Aj = φ, i ≠ j . The subset Ai are called equivalence
If (a, b) ∉ R, then we write b R/ a. class and it is denoted by [a].

Types of Relation Function

1. Empty Relation Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Then, a relation f from
A relation R on a set A is called empty relation, if no A to B which associates to each element x ∈ A, a unique
element of A is related to any element of A i.e., element of f(x) ∈ B is called a function from A to B and we
R = φ ⊂ A × A is the empty relation. write f : A → B. Here, A is called the domain of f,
i.e., dom(f ) = A, B is called the codomain of f.
2. Universal Relation Also, {f(x) : x ∈ A} ⊆ B is called the range of f.
A relation R on a set A is called universal relation, if each
element of A is related to every element of A i.e., Every function is a relation but every relation is not a
R = A × A. function.

Both the empty relation and the universal relation are Types of Function
sometimes called trivial relations.
1. One-one (Injective) Function
3. Reflexive Relation
A function f : A → B is said to be one-one, if f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 )
A relation R defined on set A is said to be reflexive, if ⇒ x1 = x2 or x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) ≠ f ( x2 )
( x, x ) ∈ R, ∀ x ∈ A.
where, x1, x2 ∈ A
4. Symmetric Relation
2. Many-one Function
A relation R defined on set A is said to be symmetric, if
( x, y ) ∈ R ⇒ ( y, x ) ∈ R, ∀ x, y ∈ A A function f : A → B is said to be many-one, if two or
more than two elements in A have the same image in B,
5. Transitive Relation i . e ., if x1 ≠ x2 , then f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ).
A relation R defined on set A is said to be transitive, if
3. Onto (Surjective) Function
( x, y ) ∈ R and ( y, z ) ∈ R ⇒ ( x, z ) ∈ R, ∀ x, y, z ∈ A
A function f : A → B is said to be onto, if every element in
6. Equivalence Relation B has its pre-image in A, i.e., if for each y ∈ B, there exists
A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation, if an element x ∈ A, such that f ( x ) = y.
it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

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4. Into Function Binary Operation

A function f : A → B is said to be into, if atleast one
element of B do not have a pre-image. Let S be a non-empty set and ∗ be an operation on S
such that
5. One-one and Onto (Bijective) Function a ∈ S, b ∈ S
A function f : X → Y is said to be one-one and onto, if f is ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ S , ∀ a, b ∈ S
both one-one and onto. Then, ∗ is called a binary operation on S.
6. Composite Function
Let f : A → B and g : B → C, then
Group
An algebraic structure (S ∗ ) consisting of a non-void set S
gof : A → C, such that (gof) ( x ) = g { f ( x )}, ∀ x ∈ A and a binary operation ∗ defined on S is called a group, if
it satisfies following axioms.
(i) In generally, gof ≠ fog .
(i) Closure property We say that ∗ on S satisfies the
(ii) In generally, if gof is one-one, then f is one-one. And if
gof is onto, then g is onto.
closure property, if
a ∈S, b ∈ S ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ S , ∀ a, b ∈ S
7. Invertible Function (ii) Commutative law Operation ∗ on S is said to be
A function f : X → Y is defined to be invertible, if there commutative, if a ∗ b = b ∗ a, ∀ a, b ∈ S .
exists a function g : Y → X, such that gof = IX and (iii) Associative law Operation ∗ on S is said to be
fog = IY . The function g is called the inverse of f and it is associative, if (a ∗ b)∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c ); a, b, c ∈ S .
denoted by f −1. Thus, f is invertible, then f must be (iv) Identity law An element e ∈ S is said to be the
one-one and onto and vice-versa. identity element of a binary operation ∗ on set S, if
B g a ∗e = e ∗ a = a, ∀ a ∈ S
f
A
f(x)
C (v) Invertible law or inverse law
x g [f(x)] An element a ∈ S is said to be invertible, if there
exists an element b ∈ S , such that
gof
a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e , ∀ b ∈ S.
(i) If f : X → Y, g : Y → Z and h : Z → S are functions, then Element b is called inverse of element a.
ho(gof ) = (hog)of.
(ii) Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two invertible functions. Zero is identity for the addition operation on R but it is not
−1 −1 −1 identity for addition operation on N.
Then, gof is also invertible with (gof ) = f og .

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions are not one-one and onto on their natural domains and ranges, so their inverse does not exist in all
values but their inverse may exists in some interval of their domains and ranges. Thus, we can say that, inverse of
trigonometric functions are defined within restricted domains of corresponding trigonometric functions. Inverse of f is
denoted by f −1.
Let y = f ( x ) = sin x be a function.
Inverse
∴Its inverse is x = sin −1 y, i.e., sin x → sin −1 x.

 1 
sin−1 x ≠ sin−1  
1
sin−1 x ≠ (sin x)−1 (sin x)−1 ≠  
 x  sin x 
Domain, Range and Principal Values of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Function Domain Range Principal value branch
−1
sin x [–1, 1] − π , π  π π
− ≤ y≤ , where y = sin−1 x
 2 2  2 2
cos −1 x [–1, 1] [0, π ] 0 ≤ y ≤ π, where y = cos −1 x
tan−1 x − π, π π π
R
  − < y< , where y = tan−1 x
 2 2 2 2

cosec −1 x ( −∞, − 1 ] ∪ [1, ∞ )  − π , π  − { 0} π π

− ≤ y ≤ , y ≠ 0, where y = cosec −1 x
 2 2  2 2
sec −1 x ( −∞, − 1 ] ∪ [1, ∞ ) π π
[0, π ] −   0 ≤ y ≤ π, y ≠  , where y = sec −1 x
2  2 
cot −1 x R ( 0, π ) 0 < y < π, where y = cot −1 x

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T-ratios of Some Standard Angles

Angle (θ) π π π π
0° = 0 30 ° = 45 ° = 60 ° = 90 ° =
Ratio 6 4 3 2

sin θ 0 1 1 3 1
2 2 2

cos θ 1 3 1 1 0
2 2 2

tan θ 0 1 1 3 ∞
3

Transformation of one Inverse Trigonometric Function to another Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Function Transformation of a Function

−1
(i) sin x cos −1 ( 1 − x2 )  x   1 − x2   1  cosec −1  
1
tan−1   cot −1   sec −1   x
 1 − x2   x   1 − x2 
     

(ii) cos −1 x sin−1 ( 1 − x2 )  1 − x2   x  sec −1  

1  1 
tan−1   cot −1   x cosec −1  
 x   1 − x2   1 − x2 
     

(iii) tan−1 x  x   1  cot −1  

1 sec −1 1 + x2  1 + x2 
sin−1   cos −1   x cosec −1  
 1 + x2   1 + x2   x 
     

Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Property I (iv) cot −1 (− x ) = π − cot −1 x, x ∈ R
 π π (v) cosec −1 (− x ) = π − cosec −1 x, x ≥ 1
(i) sin −1 (sin θ ) = θ, θ ∈ − ,
 2 2 
(vi) sec −1 (− x ) = π − sec −1 x, x ≥ 1
−1
(ii) cos (cos θ ) = θ, θ ∈[0, π ]
 π π Property III
(iii) tan −1 (tan θ ) = θ, θ ∈  − , 
 2 2
(iv) cot −1(cot θ ) = θ, θ ∈ (0, π ) (i) sin −1 (1 / x ) = cosec −1 x, x ≥ 1 or x ≤ − 1

 π π (ii) cos −1 (1 / x ) = sec −1 x, x ≥ 1 or x ≤ − 1

(v) cosec −1 (cosec θ ) = θ, θ ∈ − , − { 0}
 2 2  
1  cot −1 x , x > 0
−1
π  (iii) tan =
(vi) sec −1 (sec θ ) = θ, θ ∈ [0, π ] −   x  −1
2   − π + cot x, x < 0
(vii) sin (sin −1 x ) = x, x ∈ [− 1, 1]
Property IV
(viii) cos (cos −1 x ) = x, x ∈ [− 1, 1]
(ix) tan (tan −1 x ) = x, x ∈ R π
(i) sin −1 x + cos −1 x = , x ∈ [− 1, 1]
2
(x) cot (cot −1 x ) = x, x ∈ R π
(ii) tan −1 x + cot −1 x = , x ∈ R
(xi) cosec (cosec −1 x ) = x, x ∈ (− ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) 2
(xii) sec (sec −1 x ) = x, x ∈ (− ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) −1 −1 π
(iii) cosec x + sec x = , x ∈ (−∞,−1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
2
Property II
Property V
−1 −1
(i) sin (− x ) = − sin x, x ∈ [− 1, 1]
−1 (i) sin −1 x + sin −1 y = sin −1[ x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 ],
(ii) cos (− x ) = π − cos −1 x, x ∈[− 1, 1]
if −1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 or
(iii) tan −1 (− x ) = − tan −1 x, x ∈ R
if xy < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

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(ii) sin −1 x − sin −1 y = sin −1[ x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 ], tan A − tan B

(vi) tan ( A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
if −1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 or
cot A cot B − 1
if xy > 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1 (vii) cot ( A + B) =
cot B + cot A
(iii) cos −1 x + cos −1 y = cos −1[ xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 ], cot A cot B + 1
(viii) cot ( A − B) =
if −1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y ≥ 0 cot B − cot A
(ix) 2 sin A cos B = sin ( A + B) + sin ( A − B)
(iv) cos −1 x − cos −1 y = cos −1[ xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 ],
(x) 2 cos A cos B = sin ( A + B) − sin ( A − B)
if −1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x ≤ y
(xi) 2 cos A cos B = cos ( A + B) + cos ( A − B)
 x + y
(v) tan −1 x + tan −1 y = tan −1   , xy < 1 (xii) 2 sin A sin B = cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B)
 1 − xy 
 C + D  C − D
x− y (xiii) sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
−1 −1 −1   2   2 
(vi) tan x − tan y = tan   , xy > −1
 1 + xy 
 C + D  C − D
(xiv) sin C − sin D = 2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
Property VI  C + D  C − D
(xv) cos C + cos D = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 
1 1
(i) 2 sin −1 x = sin −1 (2 x 1 − x 2 ), − ≤x≤  C + D  C − D
2 2 (xvi) cos C − cos D = − 2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
(ii) 2 cos −1 x = cos −1 (2 x 2 − 1), 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
 C + D  D − C
= 2 sin   sin  
−1 −1  2x   2   2 
(iii) 2 tan x = sin   , | x | ≤ 1 or −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 1 + x2  (xvii) sin 2 x = 2 sin x cos x
1− x 2 (xviii) cos 2 x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x = 1 − 2 sin 2 x = 2 cos 2 x − 1
(iv) 2 tan −1 x = cos −1  , x ≥ 0
 1 + x2  (xix) tan 2 x =
2 tan x
1 − tan 2 x
 2x 
(v) 2 tan −1 x = tan −1  , − 1< x ≤ 1 (xx) 1 + cos 2 x = 2 cos 2 x; 1 − cos 2 x = 2 sin 2 x
 1 − x2 
2 tan x 1 − tan 2 x
(xxi) sin 2 x = ; cos 2 x =
1 + tan 2 x 1 + tan 2 x
Some Useful Trigonometric Formulae
(xxii) sin 3 x = 3 sin x − 4 sin 3 x;
(i) sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(ii) sin( A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B cos 3 x = 4 cos 3 x − 3 cos x
(iii) cos( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B 3 tan x − tan 3 x
(xxiii) tan 3 x =
(iv) cos( A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B 1 − 3 tan 2 x
tan A + tan B
(v) tan( A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B

Matrices
Matrix If m = n, then matrix is a square matrix.
A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or A matrix is denoted by the symbol [ ].
functions. The number or functions are called the elements i.e., [A] = [aij] m × n
or the entries of the matrix.
We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are
real number or function taking real values.
Order of Matrix
A matrix of order m × n is of the form Types of Matrices
 a11 a12 a13 K a1n  (i) Row matrix A matrix having only one row and many
a a22 a23 K a2 n  columns, is called a row matrix.
A =  21 
 K K K K K (ii) Column matrix A matrix having only one column and
a am3 K amn 
 m1 am2 many rows, is called a column matrix.
Its element in the ith row and jth column is aij.

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(iii) Zero matrix or null matrix If all the elements of a matrix Properties of Multiplication of Matrices
are zero, then it is called a zero or null matrix. It is denoted (i) Associative law ( AB)C = A(BC )
by symbol O.
(ii) Existence of multiplicative identity
(iv) Square matrix A matrix in which number of rows and
A ⋅ I = A = I ⋅ A, I is called multiplicative identity.
number of columns are equal, is called a square matrix.
(iii) Distributive law A(B + C ) = AB + AC
(v) Diagonal matrix A square matrix is said to be a diagonal
matrix, if all the elements lying outside the diagonal
elements are zero. Transpose of a Matrix
(vi) Scalar matrix A diagonal matrix in which all principal The matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and
diagonal elements are equal, is called a scalar matrix. columns of a given matrix A, is callled transpose of a
matrix. It is denoted by A′ or AT .
(vii) Unit matrix or identity matrix A square matrix having 1
(one) on its principal diagonal and 0 (zero) elsewhere, is Properties of Transpose of Matrices
called an identity matrix. It is denoted by symbol I. (i) ( A + B)′ = A′ + B′ (ii) (kA)′ = kA′
(viii) Equality of Matrix Two matrices are said to be equal, if (iii) ( AB)′ = B′ A′ (iv) ( A′ )′ = A
their order is same and their corresponding elements are
also equal.
Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrix
A square matirx A is callled symmetric, if A′ = A.
Addition of Matrices
A square matrix A is called skew-symmetric, if A′ = − A.
Let A and B be two matrices each of order m × n. Then, the
sum of matrices A + B is defined, if matrices A and B are of Properties of Symmetric and
same order. Skew-symmetric Matrix
If A = [aij ]m × n , B = [aij ]m × n (i) For any square matrix A with real number entries,
Then, A + B = [aij + bij ]m × n A + A′ is a symmetric matrix and A − A′ is a
skew-symmetric matrix.
Properties of Addition of Matrices (ii) Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of
If A, B and C are three matrices of same order m × n, then symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
(i) Commutative law A + B = B + A 1 1
i.e., A = ( A + A′ ) + ( A − A′ )
(ii) Associative law ( A + B) + C = A + (B + C ) 2 2
(iii) Existence of additive identity A zero matrix (O) of order (iii) The principal diagonal elements of a
m × n (same as of A), is additive identity, if skew-symmetric matrix are always zero.
A+ O = A=O + A
(iv) Existence of additive inverse If A is a square matrix, Elementary Operations of a Matrix
then the matrix (− A), is additive inverse, if There are six operations (transformations) on a matrix,
A + ( − A) = O = ( − A) + A three of which are due to rows and three due to
columns, which are known as elementary operations or
If A and B are not of same order, then A + B is not defined.
transformations.
(i) The interchange of any two rows or two
Difference of Matrices columns Symbolically, the interchange of ith and
If A = [aij ], B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order m × n, jth rows is denoted by Ri ↔ R j and interchange of
then difference, A − B is defined as a matrix D = [d ij ], where ith and jth columns is denoted by Ci ↔ C j.
d ij = aij − bij, ∀i , j .
(ii) The multiplication of the elements of any row
or column by a non-zero number Symbolically,
Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar the multiplication of each element of the ith row
Let A = [aij ]m × n be a matrix and k be any scalar. Then, the by k, where k ≠ 0 is denoted by Ri → kRi. The
matrix obtained by multiplying each element of A by k is called corresponding column operation is denoted by
the scalar multiple of A by k, i.e., kA = [kaij ]m × n . Ci → kCi.
(i) k( A + B) = kA + kB (ii) (k + l )A = kA + lA (iii) The addition to the elements of any row or
column, the corresponding elements of any
Multiplication of Matrices other row or column multiplied by any
Let A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]n × p be two matrices such that the non-zero number Symbolically, the addition to
number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, the elements of ith row, the corresponding
then multiplication of A and B is denoted by AB, is given by elements of jth row multiplied by k is denoted by
n
Ri → Ri + kR j.
c ij = ∑ aik bkj The corresponding column operation is denoted
k =1
by Ci → Ci + kC j.
where, c ij is the element of matrix C and C = AB.

Generally, it is not commutative AB ≠ BA.

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Invertible Matrices Properties of Invertible Matrices

If A is a square matrix of order m and there exists another Let A and B be two non-zero matrices of same order.
square matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, (i) Uniqueness of inverse If inverse of a square matrix
then B is called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by exists, then it is unique.
A−1. (ii) AA−1 = A−1 A = I
❖ A rectangular matrix does not posses inverse matrix. (iii) ( AB)−1 = B −1 A−1
❖ If B is an inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B. (iv) ( A−1 )− 1 = A
(v) ( A′ )−1 = ( A−1 )′ or ( AT )−1 = ( A−1 )T
where, A′ or AT is transpose of a matrix A.

Determinants
Determinant Minors and Cofactors
Every square matrix A is associated with a number, called its Minors Minor of an element aij of a matrix is the
determinant and it is denoted by det(A) or A. determinant obtained by deleting i th row and jth
column. It is denoted by Mij.
Expansion of Determinant of Order (2×2) a11 a12 a13
a11 a12 If A = a21 a22 a23 , then
= a11 a22 − a12 a21
a21 a22 a31 a32 a33

Expansion of Determinant of Order (3 × 3) Minors of A are

a a
a11 a12 a13 M11 = 22 23 ,
a21 a22 a23 = a11 (a22 a33 − a32 a23 ) a32 a33
a31 a32 a33 a21 a23
M12 = ,
a31 a33
− a12 (a21a33 − a31a23 ) + a13 (a21a32 − a31a22 )
a21 a22
M13 = , etc.
Similarly, we can expand the above determinant corresponding a31 a32
to any row or column.
The minor of an element of a determinant of order
Properties of Determinants n (n ≥ 2 ) is a determinant of order n − 1.

(i) If the rows and columns of a determinant are Cofactor If Mij is the minor of an element aij, then the
interchanged, then the value of the determinant does not cofactor of aij is denoted by Cij or Aij and defined as
change. follows
(ii) If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are Aij = Cij = (− 1)i + j Mij
interchanged, then sign of determinant changes.
(iii) If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical, Cofactors of A are Cij = (− 1)i + j Mij
then the value of the determinant is zero. where, i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2, 3.
(iv) If each element of a row (column) is multiplied by a
non-zero number k, then the value of the determinant is If elements of a row (column) are multiplied with
cofactors of any other row (column), then their sum is
multiplied by k. By this property, we can take out any
zero.
common factor from any one row or any one column of a
determinant.
(v) If A is a n × n matrix, then| kA| = k n |⋅ A|.
Area of Triangle
Let A( x1, y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ) be the vertices of a
(vi) If each element of any row (column) of a determinant is
∆ABC. Then, its area is given by
added k times the corresponding element of another row
(column), then the value of the determinant remains x1 y1 1
1
unchanged. ∆= x2 y2 1
2
(vii) If some or all elements of a row (column) of a determinant x3 y3 1
are expressed as sum of two (more) terms, then the
1
determinant can be expressed as sum of two (more) = ⋅ x1( y2 − y3 ) + x2 ( y3 − y1 ) + x3 ( y1 − y2 )
determinants. 2

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(i) Since, area is positive quantity. So, we always take the Properties of Inverse of a Square Matrix (A)
absolute value of the determinant.
(i) ( A−1 )−1 = A (ii) ( AB)−1 = B −1 A−1
(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values
of the determinant for calculation. (iii) ( AT )−1 = ( A−1 )T (iv) (kA)−1 = kA−1
(v) adj ( A−1 ) = (adj A)−1
Condition of Collinearity
Three points A( x1, y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ) are A is said to be singular, if| A|= 0.
collinear, when ∆ = 0.
x1 y1 1
i . e ., x 2 y2 1 = 0 System of Linear Equations
x3 y3 1 Let the system of equations be
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1,
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = d 2
Adjoint of a Matrix and a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d 3
The adjoint of a square matrix A is defined as the transpose Then, this system of equations can be written as AX = B
of the matrix formed by cofactors.  a1 b1 c1   x  d1 
Let A = [ aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then adjoint of A,
where, A = a2 b2 c 2 , X =  y  and B = d 2 
i . e ., adj A = CT , where C = [Cij ] is the cofactor matrix of A.      
a3 b3 c 3   z  d 3 
Properties of Adjoint of Square Matrix A system of equations is consistent or inconsistent
If A and B are square matrices of order n, then according as its solution exists or not.
(i) A(adj A) = | A| In = (adj A)A (i) For a square matrix A in matrix equation AX = B
(ii) adj ( AT ) = (adj A)T (a) | A| ≠ 0, then system of equations is consistent and
has unique solution.
(iii) | adj A| = | A|n − 1, if| A| ≠ 0
(b) | A| = 0 and (adj A) B ≠ O, then there exists no
2
(iv) |adj [adj ( A)]| = | A|( n −1) ' if| A| ≠ 0 solution, i . e ., inconsistent.
(c) | A| = 0 and (adj A) B = O, then system of equations
(v) (adj AB) = (adj B) (adj A)
is consistent and has an infinite number of
solutions.
Inverse of a Matrix 0 
(ii) When B = 0 , in such cases, we have
A square matrix A has inverse, if and only if A is a  
non-singular (| A| ≠ 0 ) matrix. The inverse of A is denoted 0 
by A−1 i.e., (a) | A| ≠ 0 ⇒ System has only trivial solution
1 i.e., x = 0, y = 0 and z = 0
A− 1 = (adj A),| A| ≠ 0
| A| (b) | A| = 0 ⇒ System has infinitely many solutions.

Continuity and Differentiability

Continuous Function Some Basic Continuous Function
A real function f is said to be continuous, if it is continuous (i) Every constant function is continuous.
at every point in the domain f. (ii) Every identity function is continuous.
(iii) Every polynomial function is continuous.
Continuity at a Point
Suppose f is a real valued function on a subset of the real Algebra of Continuous Function
numbers and let c be a point in the domain of f. Then, f is If f and g are two continuous functions in domain D, then
continuous at c, if lim f ( x ) = f (c ).
x→c (i) (f + g ) is continuous.
i.e., if f (c ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ), then f ( x ) is continuous at (ii) (f − g ) is continuous.
x→c + x→c − (iii) cf is continuous.
x = c . Otherwise, f ( x ) is discontinuous at x = c .
(iv) fg is continuous.
Graphically, a function f( x) is said to be continuous at a f
(v) is continuous in domain except at the points,
point, if the graph of the function has no break point. g
where, g( x ) = 0.

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

(vi) If f is continuous, then f is also continuous. d −1

(xv) (cos −1 x ) = , −1 < x < 1
(vii) Every rational function is continuous. dx 1 − x2
(viii) Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that d 1
(fog) is defined at c, if g is continuous at c and f is (xvi) (tan −1 x ) =
dx 1 + x2
continuous at g(c ), then (fog) is continuous at c.
d −1
(xvii) (cot −1 x ) =
dx 1 + x2
Differentiability or Derivability d 1
A function f is said to be derivable or differentiable at x = c , (xviii) (sec −1 x ) = ,| x| > 1
dx | x| x 2 − 1
if its left hand and right hand derivatives at c exist and are
equal. d −1
(xix) (cosec −1 x ) = ,| x| > 1
f (a + h ) − f (a) dx | x| x 2 − 1
(i) Right Hand Derivative Rf ′ (a) = lim
h →0 h
f (a − h ) − f (a) Derivative of Composite Function by
(ii) Left Hand Derivative Lf ′ (a) = lim
h →0 −h
Chain Rule
f ( x ) is differentiable at x = a, if Rf ′(a) = L f ′(a). Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of two
Otherwise, f ( x ) is not differentiable at x = a. functions u and v, i.e., f = vou . Suppose t = u ( x ) and if both
dt dv
(i) Graphically, a function is not differentiable at a corner and exist, we have
point of a curve. dx dt
df dv dt
(ii) Every differentiable function is continuous. But a = .
dx dt dx
continuous function need not be differentiable.
Derivatives of Two or More Functions
Differentiation
d du dv
The process of finding derivative is called differentiation. (i) (u ± v ) = ±
dx dx dx
d du dv dw
Derivatives of Standard Functions (ii) (u ± v ± w ± K ) = ± ± ±K
dx dx dx dx
d
(i) ( x n ) = nx n −1 d d d
dx (iii) (u ⋅ v ) = u (v ) + v (u ) [product rule]
dx dx dx
d
(ii) (constant) = 0 d d
dx v (u ) − u (v )
d u dx dx
d (iv)   = [quotient rule]
(iii) (cx n ) = cn x n −1 dx  v  v 2
dx
(v) y = [f ( x )]g( x )
d
(iv) (sin x ) = cos x dy  g( x ) 
dx ⇒ = [f ( x )]g( x )  f ( x ) f ′ ( x ) + log f ( x )⋅ g′ ( x )
d dx
(v) (cos x ) = − sin x
dx dy
(vi) If y = f [g( x )], then = f ′ [g( x )] g′ ( x )
d dx
(vi) (tan x ) = sec 2 x
dx
d Useful Logarithmic Formulae
(vii) (cosec x ) = − cosec x cot x
dx (i) log a mn = log a m + log a n 
d m  For m > 0, n > 0, a > 0
(viii) (sec x ) = sec x tan x (ii) log a = log a m − log a n 
 and a ≠ 1
dx n

(ix)
d
(cot x ) = − cosec 2 x (iii) log a mn = n log a m 
dx
(iv) log a a = 1; a > 0 and a ≠ 1
d
(x) (e x ) = e x (v) log a m = log b m + log a b; a > 0, b > 0, a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1 and
dx
m>0
d
(xi) (a x ) = a x loge a, a > 0 (vi) log a m × log m a = 1 ; a > 0, m > 0, a ≠ 1 and m ≠ 1
dx
d 1 1
(xii) (loge x ) = , x > 0 (vii) log bm a = log b a ; a > 0, b > 0 and b ≠ 1
dx x m
d 1 log m a
(xiii) (log a x ) = , a > 0, a ≠ 1 (viii) log b a = ; a > 0, b > 0, b ≠ 1, m > 0 and m ≠ 1
dx x loge a log m b
m
d 1 (ix) alog a = m; a > 0, m > 0, a ≠ 1
(xiv) (sin −1 x ) = , −1 < x < 1
dx 1 − x2

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Rolle’s Theorem Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem

If a function y = f ( x ) is defined in [a, b] and If a function f ( x ) is said to be defined on [a, b] and
(i) f ( x ) is continuous in [a, b]. (i) continuous in [a, b] and
(ii) f ( x ) is differentiable in (a, b) and (ii) differentiable in (a, b), then there will be atleast one
(iii) f (a) = f (b) f (b) − f (a)
value of c ∈(a, b) such that f ′ (c ) = .
Then, there will be atleast one value of c ∈(a, b) such b−a
that f ′ (c ) = 0.
Lagrange’s mean value theorem is valid irrespective of
whether f(a) = f(b ) or f(a) ≠ f(b ).

Application of Derivatives
Rate of Change of Quantities (iii) Area of a trapezium =
1
(Sum of parallel sides)
2
If y = f ( x ) is a function, where y is dependent variable and x
dy × Perpendicular distance between them
is independent variable. Then, [or f ′ ( x )] represents the
dx (iv) Area of a circle = πr 2
 dy 
rate of change of y w.r.t. x and   [or f ′ ( x0 )] and circumference of a circle
 dx  x = x
0
= 2πr, where r is the radius of circle.
represents the rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x = x0 .
∆y 4
(i) Average rate of change of y w.r.t. x = (v) Volume of sphere = πr 3 and surface area = 4πr 2
∆x 3
dy where, r is the radius of sphere.
(ii) Instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t. x = (vi) Total surface area of a right circular cylinder
dx
dy dy / dt dx = 2 πrh + 2 πr 2
(iii) Related rate of change = = , if ≠0
dx dx / dt dt Curved surface area of right circular cylinder
= 2πrh
dy dy
Here, is positive, if y increases as x increases and is and volume = πr 2 h
dx dx
negative, if y decreases as x increases. where, r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
1
Marginal Cost (vii) Volume of a right circular cone = πr 2 h,
3
Marginal cost represents the instantaneous rate of change Curved surface area = πrl
of the total cost at any level of output. If C( x ) represents the and total surface area = πr 2 + πrl
cost function for x units produced, then marginal cost, where, r is the radius, h is the height and l is the slant
d
denoted by MC, is given by MC = {C( x )}. height of the cone.
dx
(viii) Volume of a parallelopiped = xyz
Marginal Revenue and surface area = 2( xy + yz + zx )
where, x,y and z are the dimensions of parallelopiped.
Marginal revenue represents the rate of change of total
(ix) Volume of a cube = x 3 and surface area = 6 x 2
revenue with respect to the number of items sold at an
where, x is the side of the cube.
instant. If R( x ) represents the revenue function for x units
3
sold, then marginal revenue, denoted by MR, is given by (x) Area of an equilateral triangle = (Side) 2 .
d 4
MR = { R( x )}.
dx
Increasing and Decreasing
Total cost = Fixed cost + Variable cost
i.e., C ( x) = f(c ) + v( x)
Functions
(i) Increasing functions Let I be an open interval
Some Useful Results contained in the domain of a real valued function f.
(i) Area of a square = x 2 and perimeter = 4x Then, f is said to be
where, x is the side of the square. (a) increasing on I, if x1 < x2

(ii) Area of a rectangle = xy and perimeter = 2( x + y ) ⇒ f ( x1 ) ≤ f ( x2 ), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ I

where, x and y are length and breadth of rectangle. (b) strictly increasing on I, if x1 < x2
⇒ f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 ), ∀x1, x2 ∈ I

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

(ii) Decreasing functions Let I be an open interval (a) If m1m2 = − 1, then tangents are perpendicular to each
contained in the domain of a real valued function f. other. In this case, we say that the curves intersect
Then, f is said to be each other orthogonally.
This also happens, when m1 = 0 and m2 = ∞.
(a) decreasing on I, if x1 < x2 (b) If m1 = m2 , then tangents are parallel to each other.
⇒ f ( x1 ) ≥ f ( x2 ), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ I (c) If φ = 0, then curves touch each other.

(b) strictly decreasing on I, if x1 < x2

⇒ f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 ), ∀x1, x2 ∈ I Approximation
Theorem Let f be continuous on [a, b] and Let y = f ( x ) be a function of x and ∆x be a small change
differentiable on (a, b). in x and ∆y be the corresponding change in y. Then,
∆y
(a) If f ′ ( x ) > 0 for each x ∈(a, b), then f ( x ) is said to be = f ′ ( x ) + ε, where ε → 0 and ∆x → 0
∆x
increasing in [a, b] and strictly increasing in (a, b).
⇒ ∆y = f ′ ( x ) ∆x + ε ∆x
(b) If f ′ ( x ) < 0 for each x ∈(a, b), then f ( x ) is said to be
dy  ∆y dy 
decreasing in [a, b] and strictly decreasing in (a, b). ⇒ ∆y = ∆x, approximately. Q ≈
dx  ∆x dx 
(c) If f ′ ( x ) = 0 for each x ∈(a, b), then f is said to be a
constant function in [a, b]. Also, f ( x + ∆x ) = f ( x ) + ∆y ⇒ f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) = ∆y
(iii) A monotonic function f in an interval I, we mean that f is
either increasing in I or decreasing in I.
Some Important Terms
Absolute error The error ∆x in x is called the absolute
error in x.
Tangents and Normals Relative error If ∆x is an error in x, then
∆x
is called the
x
A tangent is a straight line, which touches the curve y = f ( x ) relative error in x.
dy ∆x
at a point. represents the gradient function of a curve Percentage error If ∆x is an error in x, then × 100 is
dx x
y = f ( x ). called percentage error in x.
A normal is a straight line perpendicular to a tangent to the
curve y = f ( x ) intersecting at the point of contact.
Maxima and Minima
Equation of Tangent and Normal Let f be a real valued function and c be an interior point in
Let y = f ( x ) be a curve and P ( x1, y1 ) be a point on it. Then, the domain of f. Then,
(i) Local maxima Point c is called a local maxima, if
(a) Equation of tangent at P( x1, y1 ) is
there is a h > 0 such that
( y − y1 ) dy  f (c ) ≥ f ( x ) for all x in (c − h, c + h ).
=
( x − x1 ) dx ( x1, y1 ) (ii) Local minima Point c is called a point of local
minima, if there is a h > 0 such that
(b) Equation of normal at P ( x1, y1 ) is
( y − y1 ) −1 f (c ) ≤ f ( x ) for all x in (c − h, c + h ).
=
( x − x1 ) dy 
dx  ( x1, y1 ) Monotonic Function
(c) If a tangent line to the curve y = f ( x ) makes an angle θ A function which is either increasing or decreasing in their
with X-axis in the positive direction, then domain is called monotonic function.
dy Every monotonic function assumes its maximum or
= Slope of tangent = tan θ minimum value at the end points of the domain of the
dx
function or every continuous function on a closed interval
Angle of Intersection of Two Curves has a maximum and a minimum value.

Let y = f1( x ) and y = f2 ( x ) be the two curves and φ be the A monotonic function in an interval l, means that f is either
angle between their tangents at the point of their intersection increasing or decreasing in l.
P ( x1, y1 ).
m − m2
Then, tan φ = 1
1 + m1m2
Critical Point
A point c in the domain of a function f at which either
dy 
where, m1 = for y = f1( x ) f ′ (c ) = 0 or f is not differentiable, is called a critical point
dx 
( x1, y1 ) of f. Note that, if f is continuous at c and f′ (c) = 0, then
dy  there exists a h > 0 such that f is differentiable in the
and m2 = for y = f2 ( x ). interval (c − h, c + h).
dx 
( x1, y1 )

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

(ii) x = c is a point of local minima, if f ′ (c ) = 0 and

First Derivative Test f ′′(c ) > 0. Then, f (c ) is local minimum value of f.
(i) If f ′ ( x ) > 0 to closely left of c and f ′ ( x ) < 0 to closely right (iii) If f ′ (c ) = 0 and f ′′(c ) = 0, then the test fails.
of c, then c is a point of local maxima.
As f is twice differentiable at c, we mean second order
(ii) If f ′ ( x ) < 0 to closely left of c and f ′ ( x ) > 0 to closely right derivative of f exists at c.
of c, then c is a point of local minima.
(iii) If f ′( x ) does not change sign as x increases through c,
then c is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of Absolute Maxima and
local minima. This point is called a point of inflection.
Absolute Minima
Let f be a differentiable function on [a, b] and c be a point in
Second Derivative Test [a, b] such that f ′ (c ) = 0. Then, find f (a), f (b) and f (c ). The
Let f be twice differentiable at c, then maximum of these values gives a maxima or absolute
maxima and minimum of these values gives a minima or
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima, if f ′ (c ) = 0 and
absolute minima.
f ′′(c ) < 0. Then, f (c ) is local maximum value of f.

Integrals
Indefinite Integral (xv) ∫
1
dx = − cos −1 x + C
Let F( x ) and f ( x ) be two functions connected together, such 1− x 2

d 1
[F( x )] = f ( x ), then F( x ) is called integral of f ( x ) or dx = cos − 1 x + C
that
dx (xvi) ∫ 1 + x2
indefinite integral or anti-derivative.
dx
Thus, ∫ f ( x )dx = F( x ) + C (xvii) ∫ 1+ = tan − 1 x + C
x2
where, C is an arbitrary constant.
1
(xviii) ∫ dx = − cot − 1 x + C
Important Results 1+ x 2
x n +1 dx
= sec − 1 x + C
(i) ∫ x ndx =
(n + 1 )
+ C, n ≠ − 1 (xix) ∫ x x2 − 1
1 1 −1
(ii) ∫ x
dx = log| x| + C, x ≠ 0 (xx) ∫ x x2 − 1
dx = − cosec x+C

∫e dx = e x + C
x
(iii)

ax
Properties of Indefinite Integral
∫ a dx = +C
x
(iv) (i) The process of differentiation and integration are
log a
inverse of each other.
(v) ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C d
dx ∫
i.e., f ( x )dx = f ( x ) and ∫ f ′( x )dx = f ( x ) + C
(vi) ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C where, C is any arbitrary constant.
(vii) ∫ tan x dx = log|sec x| + C (ii) ∫ { f ( x ) ± g ( x )} dx = ∫ f ( x )dx ± ∫ g ( x )dx
(viii) ∫ cot x dx = log|sin x| + C (iii) ∫ K f ( x )dx = K ∫ f ( x )dx

(iv) In general, if f1, f2 , ..., fn are functions and k1, k2 , ..., kn

(ix) ∫ sec x dx = log|sec x + tan x | + C
are numbers, then
= log|tan (π / 4 + x / 2 )| + C
∫ [k1 f1 ( x ) + k2 f2( x ) + ... + kn fn( x )]dx
(x) ∫ cosec x dx = log|cosec x − cot x| + C
= k1 ∫ f1( x )dx + k2 ∫ f2 ( x ) dx + ... + kn ∫ fn ( x )dx + C
= log|tan( x / 2 )| + C
where, C is the constant of integration.
∫ sec x dx = tan x + C
2
(xi)

(xii) ∫ cosec 2 x dx = − cot x + C Integration by Substitution

The method of reducing a given integral into one or other
(xiii) ∫ sec x ⋅ tan x dx = sec x + C standard integral by changing the independent variable is
called method of substitution.
(xiv) ∫ cosec x cot x dx = − cosec x+C
Thus, ∫ f ( x )dx = ∫ f { g (t )} ⋅ g′(t ) dt , if we substitute x = g (t ),
such that dx = g′ (t ) dt.

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Partial Fractions Some Standard Substitutions

Form of the Form of the Expression Substitution
Rational Functions Partial Fractions
1. a −x2 2
x = a sin θ or a cos θ
1. px ± q A B
,a≠b +
(x ± a) (x ± b) x±a x±b 2. a + x
2 2
x = a tan θ or a cot θ

2. px ± q A B 3. x −a2 2
x = a sec θ or a cosec θ
+
(x ± a)2 (x ± a) (x ± a)2
4. a+ x a−x x = a cos 2 θ
or
3. px2 ± qx ± r A
+
B
+
C
a−x a+ x
(x ± a) (x ± b)2 (x ± a) (x ± b) (x ± b)2
5. x −α x = α cos 2 θ + β sin2 θ
4. px2 ± qx ± r A Bx + C or (x − α) (x − β)
+ 2 , where β−x
(x ± a) (x2 ± bx ± c) (x ± a) x ± bx ± c
x2 ± bx ± c cannot be factorised
further. Integration of Irrational and Trigonometric
Functions
Integration by Parts
Integral Substitution
Let u and v be two differentiable functions of a single
variable x, then the integral of the product of two x 2
Let x2 = y and proceed for
functions is
(i)
∫ (x2 + a2 ) (x2 + b2 ) dx partial fraction of
d 
∫ uv dx = u ∫ v dx − ∫  u ∫ v dx dx y
I II  dx  ( y + a2 ) ( y + b2 )
If two functions are of different types, then consider the dx x
1st function (i.e., u) which comes first in word ILATE, (ii) ∫ a ± b cos x Put cos x =
1 − tan2
2 , then
where x
1 + tan2
I : Inverse trigonometric function e.g., sin −1 x 2
x
L : Logarithmic function e.g., log x put tan = t
2
A : Algebraic function e.g., 1, x, x 2
T : Trigonometic function e.g., sin x, cos x dx x
E : Exponential function e.g., e x
(iii) ∫ a ± b sin x Put sin x =
2 tan
2 , then
x
1 + tan2
2
Some Important Integrals x
put tan = t
dx 1 x−a 2
(i) ∫ ( x 2 − a2 ) = 2 a log x + a + C dx Put a = r cos θ and b = r sin θ
(iv) ∫ a sin x + b cos x
dx 1 a+ x
(ii) ∫ (a2 − x 2 ) = 2 a log a − x +C
a sin x + b cos x + c Put a sin x + b cos x + c
(v) ∫ p sin x + q cos x
dx
=A
d
(p sin x + q cos x)
dx
(iii) ∫ (x − a )
2 2
= log| x + x 2 − a2| + C dx
+ B (p sin x + q cos x)

dx a sin x + b cos x Put a sin x + b cos x

(iv) ∫ x 2 + a2
= log x + x 2 + a2 + C (vi) ∫ p sin x + q cos x + r
dx
=A
d
(p sin x + q cos x + r)
dx
x a2 x + B (p sin x + q cos x + r)
(v) ∫ a2 − x 2 dx = a2 − x 2 + sin −1 + C
2 2 a dx Put px + q = t
x (vii) ∫ (ax +
(vi) ∫ x 2 − a2 dx =
2
x 2 − a2 b) px + q

a2 dx Put px + q = t
− log x + x 2 − a2 + C
(viii) ∫ (ax2 + bx + c) px + q
2
x dx 1
(vii) ∫ x 2 + a2 dx =
2
x 2 + a2 (ix) ∫
(px + q)( ax2 + bx + c )
Put px + q =
t
a2
+ log x + x 2 + a2 + C dx 1
2 (x) ∫ Put x =
t
(px + q) ax + b
2 2

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Definite Integral Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

b Theorem 1 Let f be a continuous function defined on the
An integral is of the form of ∫a f ( x )dx is known as definite closed interval [a, b] and A( x ) be the area of function.
x
integral and is given by [i . e ., A( x ) = ∫ f ( x )dx ]. Then, A′( x ) = f ( x ), for all x ∈[a, b].
a
b Theorem 2 Let f be a continuous function defined on the
∫a f ( x )dx = g(b) − g(a) closed interval [a, b] and F be an anti-derivative of f.
where, a and b are lower and upper limits of an integral. b
∫a f ( x ) dx = [F( x )]a = F(b) − F(a)
b
Then,
Definite Integral as a Limit of Sum
Let us define a continuous function f ( x ) in [a, b] divide
Properties of Definite Integral
b b
interval into n equal sub-intervals, each of length h, so that (i) ∫a f ( x )dx = ∫a f (t )dt
b−a
h= b a
n (ii) ∫a f ( x )dx = − ∫b f ( x )dx
b a
Then, ∫a f ( x )dx = hlim
→0
h [f (a) + f (a + h ) + f (a + 2 h ) (iii) ∫a f ( x )dx = 0
+ … + f { a + (n − 1 ) h}] b c b

where, nh = b − a
(iv) ∫a f ( x )dx = ∫a f ( x )dx + ∫c f ( x )dx, where a < c < b.
b b

Some Standard Formulae

(v) ∫a f ( x )dx = ∫a f (a + b − x )dx
a a
n(n + 1)
1. Σn = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n = (vi) ∫0 f ( x )dx = ∫0 f (a − x )dx
2
2a a a
2. Σn = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n =
2 2 2 2 2 n(n + 1)(2 n + 1) (vii) ∫0 f ( x )dx = ∫ f ( x )dx +
0 ∫0 f (2 a − x )dx
6
2 a f ( x )dx, if f (2 a − x ) = f ( x ), even
 ∫0
n 2 (n + 1)2 2a
3. Σn = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n =
3 3 3 3
4
3 (viii) ∫0 f ( x ) dx =
 0, if f (2 a − x ) = − f ( x ), odd


a
(ix) ∫ f ( x )dx = 2 ∫0 f ( x )dx, if f (− x ) = f ( x ), even
a
−a  0, if f (− x ) = − f ( x ), odd

Application of Integrals
1. The area enclosed by the curve y = f ( x ), the X-axis and 3. If the curve y = f ( x ) lies below the X-axis, then area
the ordinates at x = a and x = b, is given by ∫ | y| dx.
b
bounded by the curve y = f ( x ), X-axis and the ordinates
a
b
at x = a and x = b, is given by ∫a ydx .
Y
Y
f(x) B
y= x=a x=b
A
X′ X
x=a y x=b O
X′ O X
L dx M y = f (x)
Y′ Y′
4. Generally, it may happen that some position of the curve
2. The area enclosed by the curve x = f ( y ), the Y-axis and is above X-axis and some is below the X-axis which is
d shown in the figure. The area A bounded by the curve
the abscissae at y = c and y = d , is given by ∫ | x| dy. y = f ( x ), X-axis and the ordinates at x = a and x = b, is
c
given by A = | A2 | + A1.
.

Y
y=d C Y
B A1
x
dy x = f(y)
x=b
x=a
A y=c D X′ X
O
X′ X
O
Y′ A2
Y′

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

5. The area enclosed between two curves, y1 = f ( x ) and 7. Area bounded by the two curves, y = f ( x ) and y = g( x )
y2 = g ( x ) and the ordinates at x = a and x = b, is given between the ordinates at x = a and x = b, is given by
c b
∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ g( x ) dx.
b
by ∫a y2 − y1 dx. a c

Y Y
)
g (x

y=
y=

f (x
y2 = g(x)

)
y1 = f(x)

X′ X
O x=a x=b X′ X
O x=a x=c x=b
Y′
Y′

6. The area enclosed between two curves, x1 = f ( y ) and

x2 = g ( y ) and the abscissae at y = c and y = d , is given
Curve Sketching
d The points given below are of great help in curve sketching.
by ∫ x2 − x1 dy.
c
(i) If the equation of the curve contains only even powers
Y
of x, then it is symmetrical about Y-axis.
y=d (ii) If the equation of the curve contains only even powers
of y, then it is symmetrical about X-axis.
x1 = f(y)

x2 = g(y)

(iii) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged when x

and y are interchanged, then it is symmetrical about
X′
y=c the line y = x.
X
O
(iv) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged
Y′ when x and y are replaced by − x and − y
respectively, then the curve is symmetrical in
opposite quadrants.

Differential Equations
Differential Equation Particular Solution of a Differential
An equation containing an independent variable, dependent Equation
variable and derivative of dependent variable with respect to The solution obtained from the general solution given
independent variable, is called a differential equation. The particular values to the arbitrary constants, is called a
derivates are denoted by the symbols particular solution of the differential equation.
dy d 2 y d ny
, 2 ,...., n or y′ , y′ ′, ..., y′ ′ ′ ... n or y1, y2 ,..., yn Formation of a Differential Equation
dx dx dx
An equation with independent, dependent variables
Order of a Differential Equation involving some arbitrary constants is given, then a
The order of the highest derivative occurring in the differential differential equation is obtained as follows
equation, is called order. (i) Differentiate the given equation with respect to the
independent variable (say x) as many times as the
Degree of a Differential Equation
number of arbitrary constants in it.
The power of the highest order derivative in the differential
(ii) Eliminate the arbitrary constants.
equation, is called degree.
(iii) The obtained equation is the required differential
equation.
Solution of a Differential Equation
A relation between the dependent and independent variables The order of a differential equation representing a family
which, when substituted in the differential equation reduces it of curves is same as the number of arbitrary constants
to an identity, is called a solution. present in the equations corresponding to the family of
curves.
General Solution of a
Differential Equation Equation in Variable Separable Form
If the equation can be reduced into the form
A solution of a differential equation which contains as many
arbitrary constants as the order of the differential equation, is f ( x )dx + g( y ) dy = 0,
called the general solution or primitive solution of the we say that the variables have been separated.
differential equation. Then, ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ g( y ) dy = C
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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

derivative is one and they do not get multiplied together, is

Homogeneous Differential Equation called a linear differential equation.
dy f ( x, y )
A differential equation of the form = There are two types of linear differential equations.
dx g( x, y )
dy
where, f ( x, y ) and g( x, y ) are homogeneous Type I Form + Py = Q, where P and Q are constants or
dx
functions of x and y are of the same order. functions of x.
If the homogeneous differential equation is in the form We find integrating factor (IF) = e ∫ P dx . Now, solution is y ×
dx
= F( x, y), where F( x, y) is a homogeneous function (IF) = ∫ [Q × (IF)] dx + C.
dy
x dx
of degree zero, then we make substitution = v, i.e., Type II Form + Px = Q, where P and Q are constants or
y dy
x = vy and we proceed further to find the general functions of y, then IF = e ∫ P dy .
solution.
Its solution is x × (IF) = ∫ [Q × (IF)] dy + C.

Linear Differential Equation

A first order and first degree differential equation in
which the degree of dependent variable and its

Vector Algebra
Vector Like Vectors
A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction, is called The vectors which have same direction are called like
a vector. vectors.
→
Since, the length is never negative, so the notation | a | < 0 Unlike Vectors
has no meaning. The vectors which have opposite directions are called
unlike vectors.
Scalar
A quantity that has magnitude only, is called scalar.
Equal Vectors
Two vectors are equal, if they have same magnitude and
Magnitude of a Vector direction.
→ →
If a = a $i + b $j + c k$ , then | a | = a2 + b2 + c 2 Negative of a Vector
A vector whose magnitude is same as that of given vector
Free Vector but the direction is opposite is called negative vector of the
If the initial point of a vector is not specified, then it is called → → →
a free vector. given vector. e.g., Let AB be a vector, then − AB or BA is a
negative vector.
Type of Vectors Coplanar Vectors
Zero or Null Vector A system of vectors is said to be coplanar, if their supports
are parallel to same plane.
A vector whose magnitude is zero i . e ., whose initial and
final points coincide, is called a null vector or zero vector.
Addition of Vectors
Unit Vector → →
If OA = a
A vector whose magnitude is one unit. The unit vector in
→ → →
the direction of a is represented by a. $ The unit vectors and AB = b,
along X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are represented by $i , $j and k$ , → → → → →
then a + b = OA + AB = OB
respectively.
B
Coinitial Vectors
Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called
coinitial vectors. b

Collinear Vectors O A
a
The vectors which have same support are called collinear
vectors.

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Triangle Law of Vector Addition Section Formulae

If two vectors are represented along two sides of a triangle → →
taken in order, then their resultant is represented by the third Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b
side taken in opposite direction i.e., from ∆ ABC, by triangle respectively and P be a point which divides AB
law of vector addition, we have →
→ → →
internally in the ratio m : n. Then, position vector of P
BC + CA = BA → →
mb + n a
C = .
m+ n
If P divides AB externally in the ratio m:n. Then, position
→ →
→ mb − n a
vector of P = .
B A m−n
→ →
→ a+ b
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition If R is the mid-point of AB, then OR = .
2
If two vectors are represented along the two adjacent sides of
a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented by the
diagonal of the sides. If the sides OA and OC of parallelogram
Component of a Vector
→ → →
OABC represents OA and OC respectively, then we get If a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$ , we say that the scalar components
→ → → → → → → → →
OA + OC = OB or OA + AB = OB [Q AB = OC] of a along X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are a1, a2 and a3 ,
C B respectively.

Important Results in Component Form

→ →
If a and b are any two vectors given in the component
O A → →
form such that a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$ and b = b1$i + b2 $j + b3k$
Thus, we may say that the two laws of vectors addition are
equivalent to each other. Then, (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) are called direction
→ →
ratios of a and b, respectively.
Properties of Vector Addition
→ →
→ → (i) The sum (or resultant) of the vectors a and b is
(a) For any two vectors a and b,
→ → → →
given by
a+ b = b + a [commutative law] → →
→ → →
a + b = (a1 + b1 ) $i + (a2 + b2 ) $j + (a3 + b3 )k$
(b) For any three vectors a , b and c , →
→
→ → → → → → (ii) The difference of the vectors a and b is given by
a + (b + c ) = (a + b ) + c [associative law] → →
→ → → → → →
a − b = (a1 − b1 ) $i + (a2 − b2 ) $j + (a3 − b3 )k$
(c) For any vector a , we have a + 0 = 0 + a = a .
→ →
→ (iii) The vectors a and b are equal, if and only if
The zero vector 0 is called the additive identity for the
vector addition. a1 = b1, a2 = b2
→ → → and a3 = b3
(d) For any vector a , a + (− a ) = 0
→
→ → (iv) The multiplication of vector a by any scalar λ is
The vector − a is additive inverse of a . →
→ → → → → → → →
given by λ a = (λa ) $i + (λa ) $j + (λa )k$
1 2 3
(e) |a + b| ≤ |a + b|and |a − b| ≥ |a| − |b| b b b
(v) If 1 = 2 = 3 = k (constant)
a1 a2 a3
Difference of Vectors →
→
→ → → → Then, vectors a and b will be collinear.
If a and b are any two vectors, then their difference a − b is
→ → (vi) If it is given that l, m and n are direction cosines of a
defined as a + ( − b ). vector, then
→
→
l $i + m $j + n k$ = (cos α ) $i + (cos β ) $j + (cos γ )k$
→ b
a+ b is the unit vector in the direction of that vector, where
→
a
α , β and γ are the angles which the vector makes
O with X, Y and Z-axes, respectively.
→
→
a− →
−b
b

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Multiplication of a Vector by Scalar

→ If α, β and γ are the direction angles of vector
Let a be a given vector and λ be a scalar. Then, the →
→ →
a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$ , then its DC’s is given as
product of the vector a by the scalar λ, denoted by λa , is a a a
→
cos α = 1 , cos β = 2 , cos γ = 3
→ → →
called the multiplication of vector a by the scalar λ. |a| |a| |a|
→ →
Let a and b be any two vectors and k and m be any
scalars. Then,
→ → →
Cross Product or Vector Product
(i) k a + m a = (k + m) a → →
→ →
(i) If θ is the angle between the vectors a and b, then
→ → → →
(ii) k (m a ) = (km) a a × b =| a|| b |sin θ n$ , where, n$ is a unit vector
→ → → → → →
(iii) k (a + b ) = k a + k b perpendicular to the plane of a and b.
→ →
(ii) A unit vector perpendicular to both a and b is given by
Vector Joining Two Points → →
(a × b )
If P1 ( x1, y1, z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are any two points, then n$ = ⋅
→ →
vector joining P1 and P2 is |a × b |
→ → → → →
P1 P2 = OP2 − OP1 (iii) Area of a parallelogram with sides a and b
→ →
= ( x2 $i +y2 $j + z2k$ ) − ( x1$i +y1$j + z1k$ ) = | a × b|
→ →
= ( x − x ) $i + ( y − y ) $j +( z − z ) k$
2 1 2 1 2 1 (iv) Area of a parallelogram with diagonals a and b
1 → →
= | a × b|
Dot Product or Scalar Product 2
→ →
(i) If θ is the angle between a and b, then 1 → →
(v) Area of a quadrilateral ABCD = ( AC × BD )
→ → → → 2
a ⋅ b =| a || b |cos θ
1 → → 1 → →
→ → (vi) Area of a ∆ ABC = | AB × AC | = | BC × BA |
(ii) If θ is acute, then a ⋅ b > 0 and if θ is obtuse, 2 2
→ → 1 → →
then a⋅ b < 0 = | CB × CA |
2
→ → → →
(iii) a ⊥ b ⇔ a ⋅ b = 0. → → → → →
(vii) a || b ⇔ a × b = 0
→
(iv) $i ⋅ $i = $j ⋅ $j = k$ ⋅ k$ = 1 and $i ⋅ $j = $j ⋅ k$ = k$ ⋅ $i = 0 →
(viii) If a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$
 → → $i $j k$
→ → a⋅ b 
(v) Projection of a on b =  → → →
 →  $ $ $
and b = b1i + b2 j + b3k, then a × b = a1 a2 a3
 |b |
→
b1 b2 b3
(vi) If a force F displaces a particle from a point A to a → → → →
→ → (ix) a × b = − b × a
point B, then work done by the force = F . AB
→ → → → → → →
(vii) Properties of scalar product (x) a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c
→ → → → → → →
(a) a ⋅ b = b⋅ a [commutative] (xi) a × a = 0
→ → → → → → →
(b) a ⋅ (b + c ) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c (xii) $i × $j = k$ , $j × k$ = $i , k$ × $i = $j;
→ → → $j × $i = −k$ , k$ × $j = − $i , $i × k$ = − $j
(c) a ⋅ a = |a | 2 = a 2
→ → → →
where, a represents magnitude of vector a . (xiii) $i × $i = 0 , $j × $j = 0 , k$ × k$ = 0
→ → → →
(d) (a + b )⋅ (a − b ) = a2 − b2 , where a and b represent
→ →
the magnitude of vectors a and b.
→ → → →
(e) (λ a )⋅ b = λ( a ⋅ b )

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Three-Dimensional Geometry
Direction Cosines and (iii) Angle between two lines If θ is the angle between
→ → → → → →
Direction Ratios two lines
→ →
r =a +tb and r = c + s d, then

If a line make angles α, β and γ with X-axis, Y-axis and b⋅ d

cos θ = .
Z-axis respectively, then l = cos α, m = cos β and n = cos γ → →
| b|| d|
are called the direction cosines of the line.
(i) We always have, l 2 + m2 + n 2 = 1. (iv) Skew-lines If two lines do not meet and not
parallel, then they are known as skew-lines.
(ii) Angle between two lines If θ is the angle between
(v) Shortest distance between two skew-lines The
two lines with direction cosines l1, m1, n1 and
shortest distance between two skew-lines is the
l 2 , m2 , n2 , then cos θ = l1 l 2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 .
length of perpendicular to both the lines.
Numbers proportional to the direction cosines of a line are
called the direction ratios of the line. (a) Shortest distance between the skew-lines
→ → → → → →
(i) If a, b and c are the direction ratios of a line, then r = a 1 + λ b 1 and r = a 2 + λ b 2 is given by
a b → → → →
l= , m= |(a 2 − a 1 ) ⋅ (b 1 × b 2 )|
a2 + b2 + c 2 a2 + b2 + c 2 SD =
→ →
c |b 1 × b 2 |
and n =
a2 + b2 + c 2 (b) The shortest distance between the parallel lines
→ → → → → →
(ii) In any line, direction cosines are unique but direction r = a 1 + λ b and r = a 2 + µ b is given by
ratios are not unique.
→ → →
b × (a 2 − a 1 )
Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a SD =
→
b
Line
The direction cosines and direction ratios of the
line segment joining P( x1, y1, z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are Equation of Line in Cartesian Form
respectively given by (i) The equation of a line passing through a point
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 A( x1, y1, z1 ) and having direction ratios a, b and c is
, , and ( x2 − x1, y2 − y1, z2 − z1 )
PQ PQ PQ x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
a b c
where, PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z2 − z1 )2
(ii) If l, m and n are the direction cosines of the line, then
equation of the line is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Line = =
l m n
A straight line is the locus of the intersection of two planes.
(iii) The equation of a line passing through two points
A line is uniquely determined, if
A( x1, y1, z1 ) and B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
(i) it passes through a given point and has given x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
direction or = =
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
(ii) it passes through two given points.
(iv) If a1, b1, c1 and a2 , b2 , c 2 are direction ratios of two
Equation of Line in Vector Form lines respectively, then the angle θ between the lines
is given by
(i) Equation of a line through a given point A with
→ →
position vector a and parallel to a given vector b is a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2
cos θ =
→ → →
given by r = a + t b, where t is a scalar. a12 + b12 + c12 ⋅ a22 + b22 + c 22
→
$ then a, b and c are direction ratios
If b = a $i + b$j + ck, (a1b2 − a2 b1 )2 + (b1c 2 − b2c1 )2 + (c1a2 − c 2 a1 )2
of the line and conversely, if a, b and c are direction or sinθ =
→ a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c 22
ratios of a line, then b = a $i + b$j + ck$ will be the
parallel to the line. (v) Two lines with direction ratios a1, b1, c1 and a2 , b2 , c 2
are (a) perpendicular, if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 = 0.
(ii) The vector equation of a line passing through two
→ → a b c
points with position vectors a and b is given by (b) parallel, if 1 = 1 = 1 .
a2 b2 c 2
→ → → →
r = a + t (b − a ), where t is a scalar.

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

(vi) The shortest distance between the lines (vi) Distance of a point from a plane Distance of a
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 point P( x1, y1, z1 ) from a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
= = given by
a1 b1 c1
x − x 2 y − y 2 z − z2 | ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|
and = = is p=
a2 b2 c2 a2 + b2 + c 2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 (vii) Angle between two planes The angle between two
planes is the angle between their normals.
a1 b1 c1
If θ is the angle between the planes
a2 b2 c2
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
1 2 − b2c1 ) + (c1a2 − c 2 a1 )
2 2
(bc
and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0, then
+ (a1b2 − a2 b1 )2
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2
cos θ =
a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c 22

Plane If two planes are perpendicular, then

a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 = 0 and if they are parallel, then
A plane is a surface such that a line segment joining any a1 b1 c1
two points on it lies wholly on it. A plane is determined = = .
a2 b2 c 2
uniquely, if any one of the following is known.
(i) The normal to the plane and its distance from the (viii) Equation of the bisector plane The equation of the
origin is given, i.e., equation of a plane in normal form. bisector plane to the planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 are given by
(ii) It passes through a point and is perpendicular to a
given direction. a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2
=±
(iii) It passes through three given non-collinear points. a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c 22
Now, we shall find vector and cartesian equations of
the planes. Coplanarity of Two Lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Equation of Plane in Cartesian Form Two lines = =
a1 b1 c1
(i) The general equation of a plane is x − x 2 y − y 2 z − z2
and = =
ax + by + cz + d = 0. a2 b2 c2
The direction ratios of the normal to this plane are are coplanar, if and only if
a, b and c . x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
(ii) If a plane cuts (intercepts) a, b and c with the a1 b1 c1 = 0
coordinate axes, then the equation of the plane is
x y z a2 b2 c2
+ + = 1.
a b c The equation of plane containing the above lines is
(iii) Equation of a plane passing through a point and x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
perpendicular to a given vector The equation of a a1 b1 c1 = 0
plane passing through a point ( x1, y1, z1 ) is a2 b2 c2
a ( x − x1 ) + b( y − y1 ) + c ( z − z1 ) = 0
where, a, b and c are direction ratios of perpendicular Equation of Plane in Vector Form
vector. (i) Let O be the origin and n$ be a unit vector in the
(iv) Equation of a plane passing through three direction of the normal ON to the plane and let
non-collinear points The equation of a plane →
ON = p. Then, the equation of the plane is r ⋅ n$ = p.
passing through three non-collinear points A( x1, y1, z1 ),
B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and C( x3 , y3 , z3 ) is given by →
If r . (a $i + b$j + ck$ ) = d is the vector equation of a plane,
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
then ax + by + cz = d is the cartesian equation of the plane,
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0 where a, b and c are the direction ratios of the normal to the
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1 plane.
(v) Equation of a plane through the intersection of two (ii) Equation of a plane perpendicular to a given vector
planes The equation of a plane through the and passing through a given point The equation of a
intersection of the planes →
plane passing through the point a and perpendicular
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 →
and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 is to the given vector n is
→ → → →
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + λ (a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 ) = 0 (r − a ) ⋅ n = 0

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

(iii) Equation of plane passing through three non-collinear (vii) Distance of a point from a plane The
points The equation of plane passing through three →
→ → →
perpendicular distance of a point a from the
non-collinear points a , b and c is → → →
plane r ⋅ n = d, where n is normal to the plane, is
→ → → → → →
( r − a ) ⋅ [( b − a ) × ( c − a )] = 0 → →
a ⋅n −d
(iv) Plane passing through the intersection of two given
planes The equation of plane passing through the →
→ → → → n
intersection of two planes r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n 2 = d 2 is
→ → →
r ⋅ ( n 1 + λ n 2 ) = d1 + λ d 2 . (viii) The length of the perpendicular from origin O to
→ → → → → → → → d
(v) Two lines r = a 1 + λ b 1 and r = a 2 + λ b 2 are coplanar, if the plane r ⋅ n = d is .
→
→ → → → | n|
and only if (a 2 − a 1 ) ⋅ (b 1 × b 2 ) = 0.
→ → →
→ → → → (ix) The angle θ between line r = a + λ b and plane
(vi) Angle between the planes r ⋅ n 1 = p1 and r ⋅ n 2 = p2 is given
→ →
n1⋅ n 2 → →
by cos θ = . → → b⋅ n
→ → r ⋅ n = d is cos θ =
| n 1|| n 2| → →
b n
→ → →
Two planes are perpendicular to each other, if n 1 ⋅ n 2 = 0
→ → →
→ →
and parallel, if n1 × n2 = 0 . b ⋅n
and sin φ = , where φ = 90 °− θ.
→ →
b ⋅ n

Linear Programming
Linear Programming Problem 5. Solution
A linear programming problem is one that is concerned with A set of values of the variables which satisfy the
finding the optimal value (maximum or minimum value) of a linear constraints of given linear function (objective function)
function (called objective function) of several variables (say x and of several variable, subject to the conditions that the
y called decision variable), subject to the conditions that the variables are non-negative is called a solution of the
variables are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities linear programming problem.
(called linear constraints). 6. Feasible Solution
Any solution to the given linear programming
Some Terms Related to LPP problem which also satisfies the non-negative
1. Constraints restrictions of the problem is called a feasible
The linear inequations or inequalities or restrictions on the solution. Any point outside the feasible region is
variables of a linear programming problem are called constraints. called an infeasible solution.
The conditions x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 are called non-negative restrictions.
7. Feasible Region
2. Optimisation Problem The set of all feasible solutions constitutes a region
A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear function which is called the feasible region. Each point in this
subject to certain constraints determined by a set of linear region represents a feasible choice. The region other
inequalities is called an optimisation problem. Linear than feasible region is called an infeasible region.
programming problems are special type of optimisation
8. Bounded Region
problems.
A feasible region of a system of linear inequalities is
3. Objective Function said to be bounded, if it can be enclosed within a
A linear function of two or more variables which has to be circle. Otherwise, it is said to be unbounded region.
maximised or minimised under the given restrictions in the form 9. Optimal Solution
of linear inequations (or linear constraints) is called the A feasible solution at which the objective function has
objective function.The variables used in the objective function optimal value is called the optimal solution of the
are called decision variables. linear programming problem.
4. Optimal Values 10. Optimisation Technique
The maximum or minimum value of an objective function is
The process of obtaining the optimal solution is
known as its optimal value.
called optimisation technique.

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Step III When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are

Corner Point Method the maximum and minimum values of z.
It is a graphical method to solve the LPP. Step IV In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we
The following steps are given below have
Step I Find the feasible region of the linear programming (a) M is the maximum value of z, if the open half
problem and determine its corner points (vertices) plane determined by ax + by > M has no point
either by inspection or by solving the two equations in common with the feasible region. Otherwise,
of the lines intersecting at that point. z has no maximum value.
Step II Evaluate the objective function z = ax + by at each (b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of z, if the
corner point. Let M and m respectively denote the open half plane determined by ax + by < m has
largest and smallest values of these points. no point in common with the feasible region.
Otherwise, z has no minimum value.

Probability
Some Basic Definitions Complement of an Event
Let some A be an event in a sample space S, then
1. Experiment
complement of A is the set of all sample points of
An operation which results in some well-defined outcomes, is
the space other than the sample point in A and it
called an experiment.
is denoted by A′ or A.
2. Random Experiment i . e ., A′ = { n : n ∈ S , n ∉ A}
An experiment in which total outcomes are known in advance but
occurrence of specific outcome can be told only after completion
of the experiment, is known as a random experiment. Some Basic Terms
3. Trial Coin
When a random experiment is repeated under identical A coin has two sides, head and tail. If an event
conditions and it does not give the same result each time but consists of more than one coin, then coins are
may result in one of the several possible outcomes, then such considered as distinct, if not otherwise stated.
experiment is called a trial.
(i) Sample space of one coin= { H, T }
4. Sample Space (ii) Sample space of two coins
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is = {(H, T ), (T, H ), ( H, H ), (T, T )}
called its sample space. It is usually denoted by S.
(iii) Sample space of three coins
5. Discrete Sample Space = {( H, H, H ), ( H, H, T ), ( H, T, H ), (T, H, H ),
A sample space is called a discrete sample space, if S is a finite ( H, T, T ), (T, H, T ), (T, T, H ), (T, T, T )}
set.
Die
Event A die has six faces marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. If we
have more than one die, then all dice are
A subset of the sample space associated with a random
considered as distinct, if not otherwise stated.
experiment is called an event or case.
(i) Sample space of a die = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Type of Events (ii) Sample space of two dice

Equally Likely Events (1, 1), (1, 2 ), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6) 
 
The given events are said to be equally likely, if none of them is (2, 1), (2, 2 ), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)
expected to occur in preference to the other.  
(3, 1), (3, 2 ), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)
Mutually Exclusive Events  
= 
A set of events is said to be mutually exclusive, if the happening of (4, 1), (4, 2 ), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6)
one excludes the happening of the other i.e., if A and B are  
mutually exclusive, then ( A ∩ B) = φ. (5, 1), (5, 2 ), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6)
 
Exhaustive Events (6, 1), (6, 2 ), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)
 
A set of events is said to be exhaustive, if the performance of the
experiment always results in the occurrence of atleast one of
them.
If E1, E2 ,… , En are exhaustive events, then E1 ∪ E2 ∪…∪ En = S .

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Playing Cards If a set of events A1, A2 ,… , An are exhaustive, then

P ( A1 ∪ A2 ∪…∪ An ) = 1.
A pack of playing cards has 52 cards. There are 4 suits
(spade, heart, diamond and club), each having 13 cards.
There are two colours, red (heart and diamond) and black
Booley’s Inequality
(spade and club), each having 26 cards. (i) If A1, A2 ,… , An are n events associated with a
In 13 cards of each suit, there are 3 face cards namely random experiment, then
n
king, queen and jack, so there are in all 12 face cards.
Also, there are 16 honour cards, 4 of each suit namely ace, (a) P (A1 ∩ A2 ∩…∩ An ) ≥ Σ P(Ai ) − (n − 1)
i= 1
king, queen and jack. n
Σ P(Ai )
n
(b) P ( ∪ Ai ) ≤
Cards i= 1 i= 1
52
(ii) If A and B are two events associated to a random
experiment, then
Colours P ( A ∩ B) ≤ P( A) ≤ P ( A ∪ B) ≤ P( A) + P(B)
Red Black (iii) If A and B are two events associated with a random
26 26 experiment, then
(a) P ( A ∩ B) = P(B) − P ( A ∩ B)
Heart Diamond Club Spade (b) P ( A ∩ B ) = P( A) − P ( A ∩ B)
13 13 13 13 (c) P[( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ B)] = P( A) + P(B)
− 2P ( A ∩ B)
(d) P ( A ∩ B ) = 1 − P ( A ∪ B)
Probability (e) P( A ∪ B ) = 1 − P ( A ∩ B)
In a random experiment, let S be the sample space and E
(f) P( A) = P ( A ∩ B) + P ( A ∩ B )
be the event. Then,
Number of distinct elements in E n( E ) (g) P(B) = P ( A ∩ B) + P (B ∩ A )
P(E ) = =
Number of distinct elements in S n(S ) (iv) (a) P (exactly one of A, B occurs)
Number of outcomes favourable to E = P( A) + P(B) − 2 P( A ∩ B)
=
Number of all possible outcomes = P ( A ∪ B) − P ( A ∩ B)
(i) If E is an event and S is the sample space, then (b) P (neither A nor B) = P (A ∩ B) = 1− P(A ∪ B)
(a) 0 ≤ P(E ) ≤ 1 (b) P(φ ) = 0 (v) If A, B and C are three events, then
P (exactly one of A, B, C occurs)
(c) P(S ) = 1
= P( A) + P(B) + P(C ) − 2 P ( A ∩ B)
(ii) P (E ) = 1 − P (E ) − 2 P (B ∩ C ) − 2 P ( A ∩ C ) + 3P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(vi) P(atleast two of A, B, C occurs)
Addition Theorem of Probability
= P( A ∩ B) + P(B ∩ C ) + P(C ∩ A) − 2 P( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(a) For two events A and B,
P ( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P(B) − P ( A ∩ B) (vii) P (exactly two of A, B, C occurs)
If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then = P( A ∩ B) + P(B ∩ C ) + P( A ∩ C ) − 3P( A ∩ B ∩ C )
P ( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P(B) (viii) (a) P( A ) = 1 − P( A)
[for mutually exclusive, P ( A ∩ B) = 0 ] (b) P ( A ∪ A ) = P(S ), P (φ ) = 0
(b) For three events A, B and C,
P ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P( A) + P(B) + P(C ) Conditional Probability
− P ( A ∩ B ) − P (B ∩ C ) Let E and F be two events associated with a random
− P ( A ∩ C) + P ( A ∩ B ∩ C) experiment. Then, probability of occurrence of event E,
If A, B and C are mutually exclusive, then when the event F has already occurred, is called
P ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P( A) + P(B) + P(C ) conditional probability of event E over F and is denoted by
for mutually exclusive events,  P(E / F ).
  P(E ∩ F )
P( A ∩ B) = P(B ∩ C ) = P(C ∩ A)  P(E / F ) = , where P(F ) ≠ 0.
P(F )
 
 = P( A ∩ B ∩ C)=0  Properties of Conditional Probability
(c) If a set of events A1, A2 ,… , An are mutually exclusive, Let A,B and C be the events of a sample space S. Then,
then A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩…∩ An = φ. (i) P(S / A) = P( A / A) = 1
∴ P( A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪…∪ An ) (ii) P{( A ∪ B)/ C} = P( A / C ) + P(B / C ) − P{( A ∩ B)/ C};
= P( A1 ) + P( A2 ) +…+ P( An ) P(C ) ≠ 0
and P ( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩…∩ An ) = 0 (iii) P( A′ / B) = 1 − P( A / B), where A′ is complement of A.

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Fast Track Revision Notes Mathematics-XII

Multiplication Theorem on Probability Probability Distribution of a

Let A and B are two events associated with a random
experiment, then Random Variable
P( A)⋅ P(B / A), where P( A) ≠ 0 The system in which the value of a random variable are
P( A ∩ B) =  given along with their corresponding probability is called
P(B)⋅ P( A / B), where P( A) ≠ 0 probability distribution. If X is a random variable and takes
The above result is known as the multiplication rule of the value x1, x2 , x3 ,..., xn with respective probabilities
probability. p1, p2 , p3 ,..., pn . Then, the probability distribution of X is
represented by
Multiplication Probability for more than X x1 x2 x3 ... xn
Two Events P( X ) p1 p2 p3 ... pn
Let E, F and G be three events of sample space S, then
 F  G  such that Σ pi = 1
P(E ∩ F ∩ G ) = P(E )⋅ P   ⋅ P  
 E   E ∩ F
If xi is one of the possible values of a random variable X,
the statement X = x i is true only at some point(s) of the
Independent Events sample space. Hence, the probability that X takes value x i
Two events A and B are said to be independent, if the is always non-zero, i.e., P( X = x i ) ≠ 0.
occurrence or non-occurrence of one event does not affect
the occurrence or non-occurrence of another event. Mean and Variance of a Probability
Then, P( A ∩ B) = P( A)⋅ P(B); P( A / B) = P( A) Distribution
and P(B / A) = P(B) n
Mean of a probability distribution is ∑ xi ⋅ pi. It is also
Partition of Sample Space n
i =1

A set of events E1, E2 , ..., En is said to represent a partition called expectation of X, i.e., E( X ) = ∑ xi pi.
of the sample space S, if it satisfies the following i =1
conditions  nn 
2

(i) Ei ∩ E j = φ, i ≠ j , i , j = 1, 2,..., n Variance is given by V ( X ) = ∑ xi2 ⋅ pi −  ∑ xi ⋅ pi

i =1  i=1 
(ii) E1 ∪ E2 ∪...∪ En = S
n
(iii) P(Ei ) > 0, for all i = 1, 2,..., n or V ( X ) = E( X 2 ) − [E( X )]2 , where E( X 2 ) = ∑ xi2 ⋅ p( xi )
i =1
Theorem of Total Probability
Let S be the sample space and E1, E2 , E3 ,..., En be n mutually Bernoulli Trials
exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a random The independent trials which have only two outcomes i.e.,
experiment. success or failure, is called Bernoulli trial.
If E is any event which occurs with E1, E2 , E3 ,..., En .
Then, P(E ) = P(E1 )⋅ P(E / E1 ) + P(E2 )⋅ P(E / E2 ) Conditions for Bernoulli Trials
+ P(E3 )⋅ P(E / E3 ) + ... + P(En )⋅ P(E / En ) (i) There should be a finite number of trials.
n
 E (ii) The trials should be independent.
or P(E ) = ∑ P (Ei )⋅ P   (iii) Each trial has exactly two outcomes success or failure.
i =1
 Ei 
(iv) The probability of success remains the same in each
trial.
Baye’s Theorem
Let S be the sample space and E1, E2 ,..., En be n mutually Binomial Distribution
exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a random The probability distribution of number of successes in an
experiment. If A is any event which occurs with E1, E2 , ..., En , experiment consisting n Bernoulli trials obtained by the
then probability of occurrence of Ei when A occurred, binomial expression ( p + q )n , is called binomial
P(E )P( A / Ei )
P(Ei / A) = n i , i = 1, 2,..., n distribution.
∑ P(Ei )P( A/ Ei ) This distribution can be represented by the following table
i =1 0 1 2 ...r ... n
X
If P(E1 ) = P(E2 ) = P(E3 ) =... = P(En ), then n n n n−1 1 n n−2 2 n
p ... C r q n− r r
... n
Cnpn
P( X ) C 0 q C1 q p C2 q p
P(E / Ei )
P(Ei / E ) = n
Here, P( X = r ) = n Cr q n − r pr is called the probability function
∑ P(E / Ei ) of the binomial distribution.
i =1
where, p = Probability of success
q = Probability of failure,
n = Number of trials and p + q = 1

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