IT 6 - Questions

IT 6 – ADVANCE DATABASE SYSTEMS Module 2
MODULE 2 – DEFINING VARIABLES AND DATATYPES

A. Introduction:
PL/SQL is a programming language suitable for several tasks involving an Oracle
database. In this lesson, you learn about the benefits of the PL/SQL programming
language
and how it compares to other programming languages. You also learn how PL/SQL
relates to
other Oracle products.
B. Objectives:
In this module, the lesson covers the following:
1. List the uses of variables in PL/SQL
2. Identify the syntax for variables in PL/SQL
3. Declare and initialize variables in PL/SQL
4. Assign new values to variables in PL/SQL
C. Learning Content:
• Parameters
• Variables
D. Pre-Test:
Using Variables in PL/SQL
Vocabulary
Identify the vocabulary word for each definition below:
Used for storage of data and manipulation of stored values.
Values passed to a program by a user or by another program to
customize the program.
Try It / Solve It
1. Fill in the blanks.
A. Variables can be assigned to the output of a __________________.
LESSON 2.1 – Using Variables in PL/SQL
B. Variables can be assigned values in the _____________________ section of a
PL/SQL
block.
C. Variables can be passed as ____________________ to subprograms.
E. Learning Activities:
Use of Variables
• Variables are expressions that stand for something of value (in the equation x +
y = 45, x
and y are variables that stand for two numbers that add up to 45).
• When defining a variable in a PL/SQL declaration section, you label a memory
location,
assign a datatype, and, if needed, assign a starting value for the variable.
• A variable can represent a number, character string, boolean (true/false value),
or other
datatypes.
• Throughout the PL/SQL code, variable values can be changed by the assignment
operator (:=).
• Use variables for:
• Temporary storage of data
• Manipulation of stored values
• Reusability
SELECT
first_name,
department_id Jennifer v_emp_fname
INTO
v_emp_fname,
v_emp_deptno
FROM…
10 v_emp_deptno
Handling Variables in PL/SQL
• Variables are:
- Declared and initialized in the declarative section
- Used and assigned new values in the executable section
• Variables can be:
- Passed as parameters to PL/SQL subprograms
- Assigned to hold the output of a PL/SQL subprogram
Declaring Variables
• All PL/SQL variables must be declared in the declaration section before
referencing
them in the PL/SQL block.
• The purpose of a declaration is to allocate storage space for a value, specify
its data
type, and name the storage location so that you can reference it.
• You can declare variables in the declarative part of any PL/SQL block,
subprogram, or
package.
Declaring Variables: Syntax
• The identifier is the name of the variable.
• It and the datatype are the minimum elements required.
identifier [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL] [:= expr | DEFAULT
expr];
Initializing Variables
• Variables are assigned a memory location inside the DECLARE section.
• Variables can be assigned a value at the same time.
• This process is called initialization.
• The value in a variable also can be modified by reinitializing the variable in
the
executable section.
DECLARE
v_counter INTEGER := 0;
BEGIN
v_counter := v_counter + 1;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_counter);
END;
Declaring and Initializing Variables Example 1
• This example shows the declaration of several variables of various datatypes
using
syntax that sets constraints, defaults, and initial values.
• You will learn more about the different syntax as the course progresses.
Declaring and Initializing Variables Example 2
• This example shows the convention of beginning variables with v_ and variables
that are
configured as constants with c_.
• The defining of data types and data structures using a standard in a programming
language is a significant aid to readability.
Assigning Values in the Executable Section Example 1
• After a variable is declared, you can use it in the executable section of a
PL/SQL block.
• For example, in the following block, the variable v_myname is declared in the
declarative
section of the block.
• You can access this variable in the executable section of the same block.
• What do you think the block will print?
• In this example, the variable has no value when the first PUT_LINE is executed,
but then
the value John is assigned to the variable before the second PUT_LINE.
• The value of the variable is then concatenated with the string My name is:
• The output is:
• A non-initialized variable contains a NULLvalue until a non-null value is
explicitly
assigned to it.
• In this block, the variable v_myname is declared and initialized.
• It begins with the value John, but the value is then manipulated in the
executable section
of the block.
• Passing Variables as Parameters to PL/SQL Subprograms
• Parameters are values passed to a subprogram by the user or by another program.
• The subprogram uses the value in the parameter when it runs.
• The subprogram may also return a parameter to the calling environment. In PL/SQL,
subprograms are generally known as procedures or functions.

• You will learn more about procedures and functions as the course progresses.
• In the following example, the parameter v_date is being passed to the procedure
PUT_LINE, which is part of the package DBMS_OUTPUT.
Assigning Variables to PL/SQL Subprogram Output
• You can use variables to hold values that are returned by a function (see
function
definition below and a call to this function on the following slide).
• The concept, creation, and use of functions will be covered later in this course.
• In the call to the function num_characters, the value returned by the function
will be
stored in the variable v_length_of_string.
F. Assessment:
Try It / Solve It
1. Identify valid and invalid variable declaration and initialization:
number_of_copies PLS_INTEGER;
printer_name CONSTANT VARCHAR2(10);
deliver_to VARCHAR2(10) := Johnson;
by_when DATE := SYSDATE+1;
2. Examine the following anonymous block and choose the appropriate statement.
DECLARE
fname VARCHAR2(25);
lname VARCHAR2(25) DEFAULT 'fernandez';
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(fname || ' ' || lname);
END;
A. The block will execute successfully and print ‘ fernandez’.
B. The block will give an error because the fname variable is used without
initializing.
C. The block will execute successfully and print ‘null fernandez’.
D. The block will give an error because you cannot use the DEFAULT keyword to
initialize a vari-able of the VARCHAR2 type.
E. The block will give an error because the FNAME variable is not declared.
3. In Application Express:
A. Create the following function:
CREATE FUNCTION num_characters (p_string IN VARCHAR2)
RETURN INTEGER AS
v_num_characters INTEGER;
BEGIN
SELECT LENGTH(p_string) INTO v_num_characters
FROM dual;
RETURN v_num_characters;
END;
B. Create and execute the following anonymous block:
DECLARE
v_length_of_string INTEGER;
BEGIN
v_length_of_string := num_characters('Oracle Corporation');
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_length_of_string);
END;
4. Write an anonymous block that uses a country name as input and prints the
highest and
lowest elevations for that country. Use the COUNTRIES table. Execute your block
three
times using Unit-ed States of America, French Republic, and Japan.
G. References:
https://academy.oracle.com/pages/programming_PLSQL_course.pdf
A. Introduction:
A spoken language has different parts of speech. Each part of speech (such as an
adjective, noun, and verb) is used differently and must follow rules. Similarly, a
programming
language has different parts of speech that are used differently and must follow
rules. These
parts of speech are called lexical units.
B. Objectives:
1. List and define the different types of lexical units available in PL/SQL
2. Describe identifiers and identify valid and invalid identifiers in PL/SQL
3. Describe and identify reserved words, delimiters, literals, and comments in
PL/SQL
• Lexical units
• Identifiers
• Reserved words
• Delimiters
• Literals
• Comments
D. Pre-Test:
Recognizing PL/SQL Lexical Units
Vocabulary
An explicit numeric, character string, date, or Boolean value that is not
represented by an identifier.
Symbols that have special meaning to an Oracle database.
Words that have special meaning to an Oracle database and cannot
be used as identifiers.
Describe the purpose and use of each code segment and are ignored
by PL/SQL.
Building blocks of any PL/SQL block and are sequences of characters
including letters, digits, tabs, returns, and symbols.
LESSON 2.2 – Recognizing PL/SQL Lexical Units
A name, up to 30 characters in length, given to a PL/SQL object.
Lexical Units in a PL/SQL Block
• Lexical units:
• Are the building blocks of any PL/SQL block
• Are sequences of characters including letters, digits, tabs, returns, and symbols
• Can be classified as:
- Identifiers
- Reserved words
- Delimiters
- Literals
- Comments
Identifiers
• An identifier is the name given to a PL/SQL object, including any of the
following:
• Do not be concerned if you do not know what all of the above objects are.
• You will learn about PL/SQL objects throughout this course.
Identifiers Highlighted
• Several identifiers are highlighted in the PL/SQL code shown below.
• Key: Variables Packages Procedures Functions
Identifier Properties
• Identifiers: Maximum
- 30 characters in length
- Must begin with a letter
- May include $ (dollar sign), _ (underscore), or # (hashtag)
- May not contain spaces
- Identifiers are NOT case sensitive
• Be sure to name your objects carefully. Ideally, the identifier name should
describe the
object and its purpose. Avoid using identifier names such as A, X, Y1, temp, etc.,
because they make your code more difficult to read.
Valid and Invalid Identifiers
• Examples of valid identifiers:
• Examples of valid identifiers:
Reserved Words
• Reserved words are words that have special meaning to the Oracle database.
• Reserved words cannot be used as identifiers in a PL/SQL program.
Partial List of Reserved Words
• The following is a partial list of reserved words.
• Note: For more information, refer to the “PL/SQL User’s Guide and Reference.”
Using Reserved Words
• What happens when you try to use a reserved word as an identifier in a PL/SQL
program?
Delimiters
• Delimiters are symbols that have special meaning.
• Simple delimiters consist of one character.
• Compound delimeters consists of two characters.
Literals
• A literal is an explicit numeric, character string, date, or Boolean value that
might be
stored in a variable.
• Literals are classified as:
- Character (also known as string literals)
- Numeric
- Boolean
Character Literals
• May include any printable character in the PL/SQL character set: letters,
numerals,
spaces, and symbols
• Typically defined using the VARCHAR2 data type
• Must be enclosed by character string delimiters (')
• Can be composed of zero or more characters
• Are case sensitive; therefore, PL/SQL is NOT equivalent to pl/sql
• The following are examples of character literals being assigned to variables.
• The literals are the characters between the single quotes (the character string
delimiters)
and are shown here in red text for emphasis
Numeric Literals
• Literals that represent numbers are numeric literals.
• Numeric literals can be a simple value (ex. 5, -32.5, 127634, 3.141592)
• Scientific notation also may be used(ex. 2E5, meaning 2*(10 to the power of 5).
• Typically defined using the NUMBER data type
• The following are examples of numeric literals being assigned to variables (and
one
constant).
• The literals are shown here in red text for emphasis.
Boolean Literals
• Values that are assigned to Boolean variables are Boolean literals.
• TRUE, FALSE, and NULL are the Boolean literals
• Note that character string delimiters are not required.
Comments
• Comments explain what a piece of code is trying to achieve.
• Well-placed comments are extremely valuable for code readability and future code
maintenance.
• Comments should describe the purpose and use of each block of code.
• It is good programming practice to comment code.
• Comments are ignored by PL/SQL.
• They make no difference to how a PL/SQL block executes or the results it
displays.
Syntax for Commenting Code
• Two ways to indicate comments in PL/SQL
• When commenting a single line, use two dashes (--)
• When commenting multiple lines, begin the comment with /* and end the comment
with
*/
F. Assessment:
Try It / Solve It Questions
1. Identify each of the following identifiers as valid or invalid. If invalid,
specify why.
Identifier Valid
(X)
Invalid
(X)
Why Invalid?
Today
Last name
today’s_date
number_of_days_in_february_this_
year
Isleap$year
#number
NUMBER#
Number1to7
2. Identify the reserved words in the following list.
Word Reserved? Y/N
create
make
table
seat
alter
rename
row
number
web
3. What kind of lexical unit (for example Reserved word, Delimiter, Literal,
Comment) is each of
the following?
Value Lexical Unit
SELECT
:=
'TEST'
FALSE
-- new process
FROM
/* select the country with the
highest elevation */
v_test
4.09
G. References:
A. Introduction:
PL/SQL data types PL/SQL has two kinds of data types: scalar and composite. The
scalar types are types that store single values such as number, Boolean, character,
and
datetime whereas the composite types are types that store multiple values, for
example,
record and collection.
B. Objectives
• Define data type and explain why it is needed
• List and describe categories of data types
• Give examples of scalar and composite data types
• BFILE
• BLOB
• CLOB
• Composite
• LOB
D. Pre-Test:
Store large blocks of single-byte or fixed width multi-byte
NCHAR data in the database.
Hold values, called locators, that specify the location of large
objects (such as graphic images) that are stored out of line.
Hold a single value with no internal components.
Store large unstructured or structured binary objects.
Contain internal elements that are either scalar (record) or
composite (record and table)
Store large binary files outside of the database.
Hold values, called pointers, that point to a storage location.
A schema object with a name, attributes, and methods.
Store large blocks of character data in the database.
LESSON 2.3 – Recognizing Data Types
PL/SQL Data Types
• PL/SQL supports five categories of data type.
• A data type specifies a storage format, constraints, and a valid range of values.
Data Type Description

Scalar Holds a single value with no internal elements.
Composite Contains multiple internal elements that can be manipulated
individually.
Large Object
(LOB)
Holds values called locators that specify the location of large objects
(such as graphic images) that are stored out of line.
Reference Holds values called pointers that point to a storage location.
Object Is a schema object with a name, attributes, and methods. An object
data type is similar to the class mechanism supported by C++ and
Java.
Scalar Data Types
Scalar data types:
• Hold a single value
• Have no internal components
• Can be classified into four categories:
- Character
- Number
- Date
- Boolean
Note: The BOOLEAN data type may be new to you, as it is not a column data type used
in table
definitions.
The different data types specify:
• What type and size of data can be stored in a particular location.
• The range of values the variable can have.
• The set of operations that can be applied to values of that type.
• The Character, Number, and Date categories include several data types.
• SCALAR CHARACTER data types:
- CHAR
- VARCHAR2
- LONG
• SCALAR NUMERIC data types
- NUMBER
- PLS_INTEGER
• SCALAR DATE data types
- DATE
- TIMESTAMP
- TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE
Scalar Data Types: Character (or String)
• Character data types also are known as strings and allow storage of alphanumeric
data
(letters, numbers, and symbols).
CHAR
[(maximum_length)]
Base type for fixed-length character data up to 32,767 characters.
If you do not specify a maximum_length, the default length is set to
1.
VARCHAR2
(maximum_length)
Base type for variable-length character data up to 32,767
characters. VARCHAR2is optimized for performance or efficiency,
depending on the size.
LONG Character data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes size.
• Ex.
Scalar Data Types: Number
• Number data types allow storage of integers, decimals, and a positive or negative
indicator.
v_first_name varchar2(20) :=
‘NENA’;
NUMBER Floating-point number from 1E-130 to 10E125.
NUMBER(p,s) Fixed-point number with precision p. Precision includes scale sand can
range from 1 to 38. Scale can range from –84 to 127 and determines
where rounding occurs as well as the fixed number of decimal places to
store.
NUMBER(p) Integers with maximum number of digits p(range 1-38).
PLS_INTEGE
R
Requires less storage and is faster than NUMBER.
• Ex.
Scalar Data Types: Date
• Date data types provide storage of dates and times.
DATE Base type for dates and times. DATE values include the time of
day in seconds since midnight. The range for dates is between
1-Jan-4712 BCE and 31-Dec-9999 CE.
TIMESTAMP TIMESTAMP extends the DATE data type to store the year,
month, day, hour, minute, second, and fraction of seconds.
TIMESTAMP WITH TIME
ZONE
TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE extends the TIMESTAMP
data type to include a time-zone displacement—that is, the
difference (in hours and minutes) between local time and
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
• Ex
Scalar Data Types: Boolean
• Use the BOOLEAN data type to store the logical values TRUE, FALSE, and NULL.
• Only logic operations are allowed on BOOLEAN variables.
• Column values cannot be fetched into a BOOLEAN variable and a table column cannot
be defined with a BOOLEAN data type.

• Ex.
• The BOOLEAN data type is available in PL/SQL, but is not valid in SQL.
Composite Data Types
• Composite data types have internal components, sometimes called elements, that
can
be manipulated individually.
• It may be helpful to think of a scalar type as being like a single column value
in a table,
while a record data type is like a whole row of a table.
• Composite data types includethe following:
- RECORD
- TABLE
v_salary NUMBER (8 , 2) :=
9999.99;
v_hire_date DATE := ‘ 15-Apr#2015’ ;
v_control BOOLEAN := TRUE ;
- VARRAY
Record Composite Data Type
• A composite variable that contains internal components that match the data
structure of
the EMPLOYEES table can be created using:
• The internal elements can be referenced by
prefixing the column-name with the record-name:
LOB (Large Object) Data Type
• LOB data types allow you to store blocks of unstructured data (such as text,
graphic
images, video, or audio) up to 4 gigabytes in size.
• A database column can be a LOB data type.
• There are four LOB data types:
- Character large object (CLOB)
- Binary large object (BLOB)
- Binary file (BFILE)
- National language character large object (NCLOB)
LOB Data Type
• LOB data types store locators, which point to large objects stored in an external
file.
• LOB data types allow efficient, random, piece-wise access to the data.
• CLOB, BLOB, and NCLOB data is stored in the database, either inside or outside of
the
row.
• BFILE data is stored in operating system files outside the database.
F. Assessment:
1. In your own words, describe what a data type is and explain why it is important.
2. Identify the three data type categories covered in this course.

3. Identify three data types covered in the Database Programming with SQL course.
4. What data type can be used in PL/SQL, but can’t be used to define a table
column?
v_emp_recordemployee%ROWTYPE ;
v_emp_record.first_name
5. Which data type indicates a large data object that is stored outside of the
database?
6. Identify the data type category (LOB, Scalar, or Composite) for each data type.
Each
category may be used more than once.
Data Type
CLOB
VARCHAR2
BLOB
NUMBER
BFILE
TIMESTAMP
NCLOB
RECORD
PLS_INTEGER
LONG
TABLE
BOOLEAN
7. Enter the data type category and the data type for each value. The first one has
been done
for you.
Value Data Type Category Data Type
‘Switzerland’ Scalar VARCHAR2
Text of a resume
100.20
A picture
1053
11-June-2016
‘Computer science is the
science of the 21st century.’
Index Last_name
1 ‘Newman’
2 ‘Raman’
3 ‘Han’
A movie
A sound byte
FALSE
G. References:
A. Introduction:
The scalar types are types that store single values such as number, Boolean,
character,
and datetime whereas the composite types are types that store multiple values, for
example,
B. Objectives:
1. Declare and use scalar data types in PL/SQL
2. Define guidelines for declaring and initializing PL/SQL variables
3. Identify the benefits of anchoring data types with the %TYPE attribute
• %TYPE
• BOOLEAN
D. Pre-Test:
A datatype that stores one of the three possible values
used for logical calculations: TRUE, FALSE, or NULL.
Attribute used to declare a variable according to another
previously declared variable or database column.
Declaring Character Variables
• All variables must be declared.
• The data itself will determine what data type you assign to each variable.
• Commonly used character data types include CHAR and VARCHAR2.
• Columns that may exceed the 32,767 character limit of a VARCHAR2 could be defined
using LONG, but should be defined using CLOB.

LESSON 2.4 – Using Scalar Data Types
DECLARE
v_country_id char (2) ;
v_country_name VARCHAR2 (70) ;
v_country_rpt CLOB ;
. . .
Declaring Number Variables
• Number data types include NUMBER, INTEGER, PLS_INTEGER, BINARY_FLOAT and
several others.
• Adding the keyword CONSTANT constrains the variable so that its value cannot
change.
• Constants must be initialized.
DECLARE
v_employee_id NUMBER(6,0);
v_loop_count INTEGER := 0;
c_tax_rate CONSTANT NUMBER(3,2) := 8.25;
...
Declaring Date Variables
• Date data types include DATE, TIMESTAMP, and TIMESTAMPWITHTIMEZONE.
DECLARE
v_date1 DATE := '05-Apr-2015';
v_date2 DATE := v_date1 + 7;
v_date3 TIMESTAMP := SYSDATE;
v_date4 TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE := SYSDATE;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_date1);
END;
• Choosing between DATE, TIMESTAMP, etc., is determined by what data you need to
know in the future.
Declaring BOOLEAN Variables
• BOOLEAN is a data type that stores one of the three possible values used for
logical
calculations: TRUE, FALSE, or NULL.
DECLARE
v_valid1 BOOLEAN := TRUE;
v_valid2 BOOLEAN;
v_valid3 BOOLEAN NOT NULL := FALSE;
BEGIN
IF v_valid1 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Test is TRUE');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Test is FALSE');
END IF;
END;
Using BOOLEAN Variables
When using BOOLEAN variables:
• Only the values TRUE, FALSE, and NULL can be assigned to a BOOLEAN variable.
• Conditional expressions use the logical operators AND and OR, and the operator
NOT
to check the variable values.
• The variables always yield TRUE, FALSE, or NULL.
• You can use arithmetic, character, and date expressions to return a BOOLEAN
value.
Guidelines for Declaring PL/SQL Variables
• Use meaningful and appropriate variable names.
• Follow naming conventions. Use v_name to represent a variable and c_name to
represent a constant.
• Declare one identifier per line for better readability, code maintenance, and
easier
commenting.
• Use the NOT NULL constraint when the variable must hold a value.
• Use the CONSTANT constraint when the variable value should not change within the
block.
• Set initial values for BOOLEANs and NUMBERs.
• Avoid using column names as identifiers.
DECLARE
first_name VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
SELECT first_name
INTO first_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name= 'Vargas' ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (first_name);
END;
Defining Variables with the %TYPE Attribute
• Variables derived from database fields should be defined using the %TYPE
attribute,
which has several advantages.
• For example, in the EMPLOYEES table, the column first_name is defined as
VARCHAR2(20).
• In a PL/SQL block, you could define a matching variable with either:
v_first_nameVARCHAR2(20);
• Or
v_first_name employees.last_name%TYPE;
Using the %TYPE Attribute
• Look at this partial table definition from the EMPLOYEES table.
• Then look at the code in the next slide.
• This PL/SQL block storesthe correct first name in the v_first_namevariable.
• But what if the table column is lateraltered to be VARCHAR2(25) and a name longer
than 20 characters is added?

DECLARE
v_first_name VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
SELECT first_name
INTO v_first_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Vargas' ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_first_name);
END;
Using the %TYPE Attribute
• Using the %TYPE attribute to define an "anchored data type" for v_first_name
would
solve the problem.
• Otherwise, a programmer would have to find and modify every place in every
program
with a variable defined to hold an employee's first name.
DECLARE
v_first_name employees.first_name%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT first_name
INTO v_first_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Vargas';
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_first_name) ;
END;15
• The %TYPE attribute:
• Is used to automatically give a variable the same data type and size as:
- A database column
- Another declared variable
• Is prefixed with either of the following:
- The database table name and column name
- The name of the other declared variable
• Syntax:
Identifier table_name.column_name%TYPE;
Identifier identifier%TYPE;
• Examples:
DECLARE
v_first_name employees.first_name%TYPE;
v_salary employess.salary%TYPE;
v_old_salary v_salary%TYPE;
v_new_salary v_salary%TYPE;
v_balance NUMBER(10,2);
v_min_balance v_balance%TYPE:= 1000;
...
Advantages of the %TYPE Attribute
Advantages of the %TYPE attribute are:
• You can avoid errors caused by data type mismatch or wrong precision.
• You need not change the variable declaration if the table column definition
changes.
• Otherwise, if you have already declared some variables for a particular table
column
without using the %TYPE attribute, then the PL/SQL block can return errors if the
table
column is altered.
• When you use the %TYPE attribute, PL/SQL determines the data type and size of the
variable when the block is compiled.

• This ensures that such a variable is always compatible with the column that is
used to
populate it.
F. Assessment:
1. Declarations:
A. Which of the following variable declarations are valid?
Declaration Valid or Invalid
a number_of_students PLS_INTEGER;
b STUDENT_NAME VARCHAR2(10) = Johnson;
c `stu_per_class CONSTANT NUMBER;
d tomorrow DATE := SYSDATE+1;
B. For the invalid declarations above, describe why they are invalid.
Write an anonymous block in which you declare and print (on the screen) each of the
variables in 1A above, correcting the invalid declarations and adding information

as needed.
2. Evaluate the variables in the following code. Answer the following questions
about each
variable. Is it named well? Why or why not? If it is not named well, what would be
a better
name and why?
DECLARE
country_name VARCHAR2(50);
median_age NUMBER(6, 2);
BEGIN
SELECT country_name, median_age INTO country_name, median_age
FROM countries
WHERE country_name = 'Japan';
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The median age in '|| country_name || ' is '
|| median_age || '.');
END;
3. Change the declarations in #2 above so they use the %TYPE attribute.
4. In your own words, describe why using the %TYPE attribute is better than hard-
coding data
types. Can you explain how you could run into problems in the future by hard-coding
the
data types of the country_name and median_age variables in question 2?
5. Create the following anonymous block:
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Hello World');
END;
A. Add a declarative section to this PL/SQL block. In the declarative section,
declare the
following variables:
• A variable named TODAY of datatype DATE. Initialize TODAY with SYSDATE.
• A variable named TOMORROW with the same datatype as TODAY. Use the %TYPE
at-tribute to declare this variable.
B. In the executable section, initialize the TOMORROW variable with an expression
that
calculates tomorrow’s date (add 1 to the value in TODAY). Print the value of TODAY
and
TOMORROW after printing ‘Hello World’.
G. References:
v_name := ‘Henderson’;
v_start_date := ’12-Dec-2005’;
A. Introduction:
The scalar types are types that store single values such as number, Boolean,
character,
and datetime whereas the composite types are types that store multiple values, for
example,
B. Objectives:
1. Construct accurate variable assignment statements in PL/SQL
2. Construct accurate statements using built-in SQL functions in PL/SQL
3. Differentiate between implicit and explicit conversions of data types
4. Describe when implicit conversions of data types take place
5. List the drawbacks of implicit data type conversions
6. Construct accurate statements using functions to explicitly convert data types
7. Construct statements using operators in PL/SQL
• Explicit conversion
• Implicit conversion
D. Pre-Test:
Converts values from one data type to another by using
built-in functions.
Converts data types dynamically if they are mixed in a
statement.
Assigning New Values to Variables
• Character and date literals must be enclosed in single quotation marks.
LESSON 2.5 – Writing PL/SQL Executable Statements
v_quote:= 'The only thing that we can know is that we know nothing
and that is the highest flight of human reason.';
v_my_integer:= 100;
v_my_sci_not:= 2E5;
SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)
FROM DUAL;
DECLARE
v_last_day DATE
BEGIN
v_last_day := LAST_DAY (SYSDATE)
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_last_day);
END;
• Statements can continue over several lines.
• Numbers can be simple values or scientific notation (2E5 meaning 2x10 to the
power of
5 = 200,000).
SQL Functions in PL/SQL
You are already familiar with functions in SQL statements.
For example:
• You can also use these functions in PL/SQL procedural statements.
• For Example:
SQL Functions in PL/SQL
• Functions available in procedural statements:Single-row character
- Single-row number
- Date
- Data-type conversion
- Miscellaneous functions
• Not available in procedural statements:
- DECODE (CASE is used instead)
- Group functions (AVG, MIN, MAX etc. may be used ONLY within a SQL statement)
v_desc_size INTEGER (5) ;
v_prod_description_VARCHAR2 (70) := ‘You can use this product with your radios for
higher frequency’ ;
-- get the length of the string in prod_description
v_desc_size := LENGTH (v_prod_description)
v_capitol_name := UPPER (v_capitol_name) ;
v_emp_name := v_first_name | |’ ‘ | |v_last_name ;
SQL functions help you to manipulate data; they fall into the following categories:
• Character
• Number
• Date
• Conversion
• Miscellaneous
Character Functions
• Valid character functions in PL/SQL include:
ASCII LENGTH RPAD
CHR LOWER RTRIM
CONCAT LPAD SUBSTR
INITCAP LTRIM TRIM
INSTR REPLACE UPPER
• This is not an exhaustive list
Examples of Character Functions
• Get the length of the string:
• Convert the name of the country capitol to upper case:
• Concatenate the first and last names:
Number Functions
• Valid number functions in PL/SQL include:
DECLARE
v_my_num BINARY_INTEGER := 56664 ;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SIGN v_my_num) ) ;
END ;
DECLARE
v_median_age NUMBER(6,2);
BEGIN
SELECT median_age INTO v_median_age
FROM countries
WHERE country_id = 27;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(ROUND (v_median_age,0) );
END;
ABS EXP ROUND
ACOS LN SIGN
ASIN LOG SIN
ATAN MOD TAN
COS POWER TRUNC
Examples of Number Functions
• Get the sign of a number
• Round a number to 0 decimal places:
Date Functions
• Valid date functions in PL/SQL include:
ADD_MONTHS MONTHS_BETWEEN
CURRENT_DATE ROUND
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP SYSDATE
LAST_DAY TRUNC
DECLARE
v_new_date DATE ;
v_num_months NUMBER := 6 ;
BEGIN
v_new_date := ADD_MONTHS (SYSDATE, v_num_months) ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(ROUND (v_new_date );
END;
DECLARE
v_no_months PLS INTEGER := 0 ;
BEGIN
v_no_months := MONTHS_BETWEEN (‘ 31-Jan-2006 ’ , ’ 31-May-2005 ’) ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(ROUND (v_no_months );
END;
Example of Date Functions
• Add months to a date:
• Calculate the number of months between two dates:
Data-Type Conversion
• In any programming language, converting one data type to another is a common
requirement.
• PL/SQL can handle such conversions with scalar data types.
• Data-type conversions can be of two types:
- Implicit conversions
- Explicit conversions
Implicit Conversions
• In implicit conversions, PL/SQL attempts to convert data types dynamically if
they are
mixed in a statement.
DECLARE
v_salary NUMBER (6) := 6000 ;
v_sal_increase VARCHAR2 (5) := ‘1000’ ;
v_total_salary v_salary%TYPE;
BEGIN
v_total_salary := v_salary + v_sal_increase;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(ROUND (v_total_salary );
END;
• Implicit conversions can happen between many types in PL/SQL, as illustrated by
the
following chart.
DATE LONG NUMBER PLS_INTEGER VARCHAR2
DATE N / A X X
LONG N / A X
NUMBER X N / A X X
PLS_INTEGER X X N / A X
VARCHAR2 X X X X N / A
Example of implicit Conversion
• In this example, the variable v_sal_increaseis of type VARCHAR2.
• While calculating the total salary, PL/SQL first converts v_sal_increaseto NUMBER
and
then performs the operation.
• The result of the operation is the NUMBER type.
Drawbacks of Implicit Conversions
• At first glance, implicit conversions might seem useful; however, there are
several
drawbacks:
• Implicit conversions can be slower.
• When you use implicit conversions, you lose control over your program because you
are
making an assumption about how Oracle handles the data.
• If Oracle changes the conversion rules, then your code can be affected.
• Code that uses implicit conversion is harder to read and understand.
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, ‘Month YYYY’ ) );
END;
Additional drawbacks:
• Implicit conversion rules depend upon the environment in which you are running.
- For example, the date format varies depending on the language setting and
installation type.
- Code that uses implicit conversion might not run on a different server or in a
different language.
• It is strongly recommended that you AVOID allowing SQL or PL/SQL to perform
implicit
conversions on your behalf.
• You should use conversion functions to guarantee that the right kinds of
conversions
take place.
• It is the programmer's responsibility to ensure that values can be converted.
• For instance, PL/SQL can convert the CHAR value '02-Jun-1992' to a DATE value,
but
cannot convert the CHAR value 'Yesterday' to a DATE value.
• Similarly, PL/SQL cannot convert a VARCHAR2 value containing alphabetic
characters
to a NUMBER value.
Valid? Statement
Yes v_new_date DATE := ’02-JUN-1992’ ;
No v_new_date DATE := ‘Yesterday’;
Yes v_my_number NUMBER := ‘123’ ;
No v_my_number NUMBER := ‘abc’;
Explicit Conversions
• Explicit conversions convert values from one data type to another by using built-
in
functions.
• Examples of conversion functions include:
TO_NUMBER ( ) ROWIDTONCHAR ( )
TO_CHAR ( ) HEXTORAW ( )
TO_CLOB ( ) RAWTOHEX ( )
CHARTOROWID ( ) RAWTONHEX ( )
ROWIDRTOCHAR ( ) TO_DATE ( )
Examples of Explicit Conversions
• TO_CHAR
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (TO_DATE (‘April-1999’ , ‘Month YYYY’ ) );
END;
DECLARE
v_a VARCHAR2 (10) := ‘-123456’ ;
v_a VARCHAR2 (10) := ‘+987654’ ;
v_c PLS_INTEGER
BEGIN
v_c := TO_NUMBER (v_a) + TO_NUMBER (v_b) ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ( v_c );
END;
v_date_of_joining DATE := ’02—Feb-2014’ ;
v_date_of_joining DATE := ‘February 02, 2014’ ;
v_date_of_joining DATE := TO_DATE ( ‘February 02, 2014’ , ‘Month DD, YYYY’) ;
• TO_DATE
• TO_NUMBER
• Note that the DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINEprocedure expects an argument with a
charactertype such as VARCHAR2.
• Variable v_c is a number, therefore we should explicitly
code:DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(TO_CHAR(v_c));
Data Type Conversion Samples
• Example #1
• Example #2
• Example #3
v_loop_count := v_loop_count + 1;
v_good_sal := v_sal_BETWEEN 50000 and 150000 ;
v_valid := (v_empno IS NOT NULL) ;
Operators in PL/SQL
• The operations within an expression are performed in a particular order depending
on
their precedence (priority).
Same as
In SQL
• The following table shows the default order of operations from high priority to
low
priority:
Operator Operation
** Exponentiation
+, - Identity, negation
*, / Multiplication, division
+, -, | | Addition, subtraction, concatenation
=, <, >, <=, >=, <>, !=, ~=, ^=, IS, NULL, LIKE,
BETWEEN, IN
Comparison
NOT Logical negation
AND Conjunction
OR Inclusion
• Increment the counter for the loop.
• Set the value of Boolean flag.
• Validate whether an employee number contains a value.
• Logical
• Arithmetic
• Concatenation
• Parentheses to control the order
of operations
• Exponential operator (**)
F. Assessment:
1. Examine the following code and then answer the questions.
DECLARE
x VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
x := '123' + '456' ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(x);
END;
A. What do you think the output will be when you run the above code?
B. Now, run the code. What is the output?
C. In your own words, describe what happened when you ran the code. Did any
implicit
conversions take place?
2. Write an anonymous PL/SQL block that assigns the programmer’s full name to a
variable,
and then displays the number of characters in the name.
3. Write an anonymous PL/SQL block that uses today's date and outputs it in the
format of
‘Month dd, yyyy’. Store the date in a DATE variable called my_date. Create another
variable
of the DATE type called v_last_day. Assign the last day of this month to
v_last_day. Display
the value of v_last_day.
4. Modify the program created in question 3 to add 45 days to today’s date and then
calculate
and display the number of months between the two dates.
5. Examine the following code and then answer the questions.
DECLARE
x NUMBER(6);
BEGIN
x := 5 + 3 * 2 ;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(x);
END;
A. What do you think the output will be when you run the above code?
B. Now run the code. What is the output?
C. In your own words, explain the results.
6. Examine the following code and then answer the question.
DECLARE
v_number NUMBER;
v_boolean BOOLEAN;
BEGIN
v_number := 25;
v_boolean := NOT(v_number > 30);
END;
What value is assigned to v_boolean?
7. List two drawbacks to relying on implicit data type conversions.
G. References:
A. Introduction:
A PL/SQL block contains a declare section and a code section. A block can contain
other
blocks and these blocks are termed nested blocks. A nested block may have an
optional
declare and exception section. A nested block is seen as a single statement to the
outer
block. A variable defined in the declare section of a block can be seen by all the
statements
in the block to include the nested blocks. This is referred to as the variable's
scope.
B. Objectives:
1. Understand the scope and visibility of variables
2. Write nested blocks and qualify variables with labels
3. Describe the rules for variable scope when a variable is nested in a block
4. Recognize a variable scope issue when a variable is used in nested blocks
5. Qualify a variable nested in a block with a label
• Block label
• Variable scope
• Variable visibility
D. Pre-Test:
A name given to a block of code which allows access
to the variables that have scope, but are not visible.
Consists of all the blocks in which the variable is either local
(the declaring block) or global (nested blocks within the
declaring block).
The portion of the program where the variable can be accessed
without using a qualifier.
LESSON 2.6 – Nested Blocks and Variable Scope
Nested Blocks
• PL/SQL is a block-structured language.
• The basic units (procedures, functions, and anonymous blocks) are logical blocks,
which
can contain any number of nested sub-blocks.
• Each logical block corresponds to a problem to be solved.
Nested Blocks Illustrated
• Nested blocks are blocks of code placed within other blocks of code.
• There is an outer block and an inner block.
• You can nest blocks within blocks as many times as you need to; there is no
practical
limit to the depth of nesting Oracle allows.
Nested Block Example
The example shown in the slide has an outer (parent) block (illustrated in blue
text) and a
nested (child) block (illustrated in red text).
The variable v_outer_variable is declared in the outer block and the variable
v_inner_variable is
declared in the inner block.
DECLARE
v_outer_variable VARCHAR2(20):='GLOBAL
VARIABLE';
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_inner_variable VARCHAR2(20):='LOCAL
VARIABLE';
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_inner_variable);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_outer_variable);
END;
END;
Variable Scope
• The scope of a variable is the block or blocks in which the variable is
accessible, that is,
where it can be used.
• In PL/SQL, a variable’s scope is the block in which it is declared plus all
blocks nested
within the declaring block.
• What are the scopes of the two variables declared in this example?
Variable Scope Example
• Examine the following code.
• What is the scope of each of the variables?
Local and Global Variables
• Variables declared in a PL/SQL block are considered local to that block and
global to all
blocks nested within it.
• V_outer_variable is local to the outer block but global to the inner block.
DECLARE
v_outer_variable VARCHAR2(20):='GLOBAL VARIABLE';
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_inner_variable VARCHAR2(20):='LOCAL VARIABLE';
BEGIN
END;
END;
DECLARE
v_father_name VARCHAR2(20):='Patrick';
v_date_of_birth DATE:='20-Apr-1972';
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_child_name VARCHAR2(20):='Mike';
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Father''sName: '||v_father_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Date of Birth: '||v_date_of_birth);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Child''sName: '||v_child_name);
END;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Date of Birth: '||v_date_of_birth);
END;
Local and Global Variables
• When you access this variable in the inner block, PL/SQL first looks for a local
variable
in the inner block with that name.
• If there are no similarly named variables, PL/SQL looks for the variable in the
outer
block.
• The v_inner_variable variable is local to the inner block and is not global
because the
inner block does not have any nested blocks.
• This variable can be accessed only within the inner block.
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
BEGIN
END;
END;
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
BEGIN
END;
END;
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
BEGIN
END;
END;
• If PL/SQL does not find the variable declared locally, it looks upward in the
declarative
section of the parent blocks.
• PL/SQL does not look downward into the child blocks.
Variable Scope Accessible to Outer Block
• The variables v_father_name and v_date_of_birth are declared in the outer block.
• They are local to the outer block and global to the inner block.
• Their scope includes both blocks.
• The variable v_child_name is declared in the inner (nested) block.
• This variable is accessible only within the inner block and is not accessible in
the outer
block.
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
BEGIN
END;
END;
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
...
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
...
A Scoping Example
• Why this code not work correctly
A Second Scoping Example
• Will this code work correctly? Why or why not?
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_last_name VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
v_first_name:= 'Carmen';
v_last_name:= 'Miranda';
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE
(v_first_name|| ' '|| v_last_name);
END;
END;
DECLARE
v_last_name VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
BEGIN
v_first_name:= 'Carmen';
v_last_name:= 'Miranda';
END;
END;
Three Level of Nested Blocks
• What is the scope of each of these variables?
Variable Naming
• You cannot declare two variables with the same name in the sameblock.
• However, you can declare variables with the same name in two different blocks
when
one block is nested within the other block.
• The two items represented by the same name are distinct, and any change in one
does
not affect the other.
Example of Variable Naming
• Are the following declarations valid?
DECLARE -- outer block
v_outervar VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
DECLARE --middle block
v_middlevarVARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
BEGIN --inner block
v_outervar := 'Joachim';
v_middlevar := 'Chang';
END;
END;
END;
DECLARE --outer block
v_myvar VARCHAR2(20);
BEGIN
DECLARE --inner block
v_myvar VARCHAR2(15);
BEGIN
...
END;
END;
Variable Visibility
• What if the same name is used for two variables, one in each of the blocks?
• In this example, the variable v_date_of_birth is declared twice.
• The visibility of a variable is the portion of the program where the variable can
be
accessed without using a qualifier.
• What is the visibility of each of the variables?
• The v_date_of_birth variable declared in the outer block has scope even in the
inner
block.
• This variable is visible in the outer block.
• However, it is not visible in the inner block because the inner block has a local
variable
with the same name.
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_date_of_birth DATE:='12-Dec-2002';
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Date of Birth:' ||
v_date_of_birth);
...
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Father''sName: ' || v_father_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Date of Birth: ' || v_date_of_birth);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Child''sName: ' || v_child_name);
END;
END;
1
2
• The v_father_name variable is visible in the inner and outer blocks.
• The v_child_name variable is visible only in the inner block.
• What if you want to reference the outer block’s v_date_of_birth within the inner
block?
Qualifying an Identifier
• A qualifier is a label given to a block.
• You can use this qualifier to access the variables that have scope but are not
visible.
• The outer block below is labeled <<outer>>.
• Each nested inner block also can be labeled.
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
...
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
...
<<outer>>
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
...
• Using the outer label to qualify the v_date_of_birth identifier, you can now
print the
father’s date of birth using code in the inner block.
F. Assessment:
1. Evaluate the PL/SQL block below and determine the value of each of the following
variables
according to the rules of scoping.
DECLARE
Weight NUMBER(3) := 600;
Message VARCHAR2(255) := 'Product 10012';
BEGIN
DECLARE
weight NUMBER(3) := 1;
message VARCHAR2(255) := 'Product 11001';
new_locn VARCHAR2(50) := 'Europe';
BEGIN
weight := weight + 1;
new_locn := 'Western ' || new_locn;
<<outer>>
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_child_nameVARCHAR2(20):='Mike';
v_date_of_birthDATE:='12-Dec-2002';
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Father''sName: ' || v_father_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Date of Birth: ' || outer.v_date_of_birth);

END;
END;
Father's Name: Patrick
Date of Birth: 20-Apr-1972
Child's Name: Mike
Date of Birth: 12-Dec-2002
Statement processed.
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Child''sName: ' || v_child_name);
-- Position 1 --
END;
weight := weight + 1;
message := message || ' is in stock';
-- Position 2 --
END;
A. The value of weight at position 1 is:
B. The value of new_locn at position 1 is:
C. The value of weight at position 2 is:
D. The value of message at position 2 is:
E. The value of new_locn at position 2 is:
2. Enter and run the following PL/SQL block, which contains a nested block. Look at
the output
and answer the questions.
DECLARE
v_employee_id employees.employee_id%TYPE;
v_job employees.job_id%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT employee_id, job_id INTO v_employee_id, v_job
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 100;
DECLARE
v_employee_id employees.employee_id%TYPE;
v_job employees.job_id%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT employee_id, job_id INTO v_employee_id, v_job
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 103;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_employee_id || ' is a(n) ' || v_job);
END;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(v_employee_id || ' is a(n) ' || v_job);
END;
A. Why does the inner block display the job_id of employee 103, not employee 100?
B. Why does the outer block display the job_id of employee 100, not employee 103?
C. Modify the code to display the details of employee 100 in the inner block. Use
block
labels.
G. References:
A. Introduction:
Good programming practices are techniques that you can follow to create the best
code
possible. Programming practices cover everything from making code more readable to
creating code with faster performance. Software engineering teams often follow a
style
guide so that everyone on the team uses the same techniques. This makes it easier
to read
and modify code written by others.
B. Objectives:
1. List examples of good programming practices
2. Accurately insert comments into PL/SQL code
3. Create PL/SQL code that follows formatting guidelines to produce readable code
• Good programming practices
• Programming guidelines
• Commenting code
• Variable case conventions
• Naming conventions
D. Pre-Test:
In your own words, what are the good programming practices.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________ .
Good Programming Practices
• Several examples of good programming practices have already been demonstrated
and/or discussed in this course:
• Use explicit data type conversions because implicit data type conversions can be
slower and the rules can change in later software releases.
• Use meaningful identifiers when declaring variables, constants, and parameters.
• Declare one variable or constant identifier per line for better readability and
code
maintenance.
LESSON 2.7 – Good Programming Practices
• Other good programming practices demonstrated and/or discussed:
• Avoid ambiguity when choosing identifiers.
• Use the %TYPE attribute to declare a variable according to another previously
declared variable or database column.
• Use the NOT NULL constraint when declaring a variable that must hold a value.
Programming Guidelines
• Other programming guidelines include:
• Documenting code with comments
• Developing a case convention for the code
• Developing naming conventions for identifiers and other objects
• Enhancing readability by indenting
Commenting Code
• Comments assist in future maintenance or modification by helping other
programmers
know what the original programmer intended by the code written.
• Even the original programmer will benefit from commenting his/her code when
returning
for the first time to that code six months hence.
• Comments are strictly informational and do not enforce any conditions or behavior
on
logic or data. They are ignored when code is compiled.
Commenting Code Example
• Prefix single-line comments with two dashes (--).
• Place multiple-line comments between the symbols " /* " and " */ ".
Variable Case Conventions
• Case Conventions are shown below.
• The following table provides guidelines for writing code in uppercase and
lowercase to
help you distinguish keywords from named objects.
Category Case Convention Examples
SQL keywords Uppercase SELECT, INSERT
PL/SQL keywords Uppercase DECLARE, BEGIN, IF
Data types Uppercase VARCHAR2, BOOLEAN
Identifiers (variables, etc.) Lowercase
v_salary, emp_cursor,
c_tax_rate, p_empno
Tables and columns Lowercase
employees, dept_id,
salary, hire_date
Naming Conventions
• The naming of identifiers should be clear, consistent, and unambiguous.
• One commonly-used convention is to name:
- Variables starting with v_
- Constants starting with c_
- Parameters starting with p_ (for passing to
procedures and functions)
Examples:
• v_date_of_birth
• v_last_name
• c_tax_rate
• c_commission_rate
• p_employee_id
• p_salary
Indenting Code
• For clarity, indent each level of code. Examples:
F. Assessment:
Try It / Solve It
1. Enter and run the following PL/SQL block. It will execute correctly if you have
entered it correctly, but
it contains some examples of bad programming practices.
A. Modify the block to use good programming practices, and re-run the block.
B. Your modified block should contain examples of the following good programming
practices:
explicit data type conversions, meaningful and consistent variable names, use of
%TYPE, upper and
lowercase conventions, single and multi-line comments, and clear indentation.
DECLARE
myvar1 VARCHAR2(20);
myvar2 number(4);
BEGIN
SELECT country_name INTO myvar1 FROM
countries WHERE country_id = 421;
myvar2 :=
'1234';
MYVAR2 := myvar2 * 2;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(myvar1);
End;
G. References:
https://academy.oracle.com/pages/programming_PLSQL_cdsadasdasdhhhheohuahrarh-
037097509-708958-57079-07-0k,ho=0,=0=se.pdf

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IT 6 – ADVANCE DATABASE SYSTEMS Module 2

MODULE 2 – DEFINING VARIABLES AND DATATYPES

subprograms are generally known as procedures or functions.

Data Type Description

be defined with a BOOLEAN data type.

2. Identify the three data type categories covered in this course.

using LONG, but should be defined using CLOB.

than 20 characters is added?

variable when the block is compiled.

variables in 1A above, correcting the invalid declarations and adding information

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Date of Birth: ' || v_date_of_birth);

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