Signal Modulation

Updated: 10/29/2014
Typical Modulation and Coding
Schemes in Wireless

Encoder Medium Decoder

Digital/Analog Digital
g(t) Digital g(t)
x(t)

Modulator Medium Demodulator

Digital/Analog Analog
m(t) Analog m(t)
s(t)

Signal Transmitted

Digital Analog

ASK
Original Data

Digital

FSK/BFSK/MFSK
PSK/BPSK/MPSK
Analog

PCM AM
PAM PM
DM FM
What is Modulation or Encoding?
Modulated
Modulating signal
signal Modulator With carrier
Digital/Analog
frequency
m(t) Analog
(fc)
s(t)

Changing signal characteristics including

- Phase
- Amplitude
- Frequency

Depending on the medium, signal range, and data

Properties different encoding techniques can be used
Reasons for Choosing Encoding/
Modulation
Techniques

o  Digital data, digital signal

n  Less complex equipments
n  Less expensive than digital-to-analog
modulation equipment
o  Analog data, digital signal
n  Permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
n  Requires conversion to analog prior to wireless
transmission
 Reasons for Choosing
Encoding Techniques
o  Digital data, analog signal Used in Wireless!

n  Some transmission media will only

propagate analog signals
n  E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
o  Analog data, analog signal
n  Analog data in electrical form can be
transmitted easily and cheaply
n  Done with voice transmission over voice-
grade lines

A- Refer to notes!
 Signal Encoding Criteria
o  What determines how successful a receiver will
be in interpreting an incoming signal?
n  Signal-to-noise ratio
1- R ∝ BER
n  Data rate 2- SNR ∝ 1/BER
n  Bandwidth 3- BW ∝ R

o  An increase in data rate increases bit error rate

o  An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
o  An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in
data rate
Signal Spectrum
Time

Frequency
Basic Modulation Techniques
- Digital data to analog signal

o  Applications
n  Public telephone (300-3400 Hz)
n  Modems and microwave signals
o  Modulation Techniques
n  Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
o  Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
n  Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
o  Frequency difference near carrier frequency
n  Phase-shift keying (PSK)
o  Phase of carrier signal shifted

Refer to notes!
Modulating
signal Bit period

Basic Encoding Techniques

Frequency
Amplitude difference
difference near
of carrier carrier
frequency frequency

Rb = 1
Phase of bpsà
carrier
Tc = .5
signal secà fc=2
shifted
Question: If data rate is 1 what is the frequency of the carrier in ASK?
Amplitude-Shift Keying
o  One binary digit represented by presence of
carrier, at constant amplitude
o  Other binary digit represented by absence
of carrier

! A cos(2πf c t )
$ binary 1
s (t ) = #
! 0 binary 0
"
o  where the carrier signal is Acos(2πfct)
Amplitude-Shift Keying
o  Susceptible to sudden gain changes
o  Inefficient modulation technique
o  On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200
bps
o  Used to transmit digital data over
optical fiber
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
o  Two binary digits represented by two
different frequencies near the carrier
frequency
! A cos(2πf1t )
$ binary 1
s (t ) = #
binary 0
" A cos(2πf 2t )
!
o  where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency
fc by equal but opposite amounts
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
o  Less susceptible to error than ASK
o  On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
o  Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
radio transmission
o  Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs
that use coaxial cable
o  Different frequencies can be used to
support FULL DUPLEX transmission
n  TX: 1070-1270 Hz
n  RX: 2025-2225 Hz (1200 Hz)
1170 2125
 Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
o  More than two frequencies are used
o  More bandwidth efficient but more
susceptible to error fc

2fd
fi fm

fc
si (t ) = A cos 2πf i t 1≤ i ≤ M
o  f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
o  f c = the carrier frequency
o  f d = the difference frequency (freq. separation)
Symbols/
Levels o  M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
o  L = number of bits per signal element
Example:
o  Assume fc = 250 Khz
o  Required frequency separation is 25 KHz (fd=25KHz)
o  8 levels of signals (M=8)
o  Use Multi-FSK
o  Answer the following questions:
1.  What is the center frequency of the modulated signal?
2.  How many different frequencies do we need for this system?
3.  How many bits do we need to generate the data?
4.  What are M different frequencies?
5.  What is the period of each symbol (How many bits per
symbol)?
6.  What is the BW of each symbol?
7.  What is the total BW required?
8.  What is the data rate (total BW/bit)?

Fc=250Khz / 8 diff. freq. / 3 bits/ f1 to f8:75K(000),125(001),

175(101) …/3 bits per symbol / (next slide)
Example:
Each Symbol BW = 2fd

Ts=LT
2fd
3 bits / Symbol
fd

1 1 1 0 0 0
fd fd

Tb=T

fc8 fc2 fc1 Ts=1/(2fd)

Total BW = M x 2fd
Minimum Frequency Separation:
2fd = 1/Ts
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
o  To match data rate of input bit stream, each
output signal element is held for:
Ts=LT seconds
o  where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
o  So, one signal element encodes L bits
Ts=LT

3 bits / Symbol

1 1 1 0 0 0

Tb=T

Ts=1/(2fd)
 Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
o  Total bandwidth required
(# of symbols x BW/symbol)=2Mfd
Minimum frequency separation
required BW/symbol =2fd=1/Ts
o  Therefore, modulator requires a
bandwidth of
Wd=2L/LT=M/Ts
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
 Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK) - Example
Assume M=4 à 4 frequencies
20 bit stream: we send 2 bits per frequency
Note: Ts = 2Tb = Symbol period
Total BW = 2M.fd
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
o  Two-level PSK (BPSK)
n  Uses two phases to represent binary
digits
⎪ A cos(2πf ct )
⎧ binary 1
s (t ) = ⎨
⎪ A cos (2πf c t + π ) binary 0
⎩

! A cos(2πf c t )
$ binary 1
=#
"− A cos(2πf c t )
! binary 0

In General: s(t ) = Ad (t ) cos(2πf ct )

Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

Change phase 180 deg.

When a ONE is transmitted
 Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) -
Variations
o  Differential PSK (DPSK)
n  Phase shift with
reference to previous bit
o  Binary 0 – signal
burst of same phase
as previous signal
burst
o  Binary 1 – signal
burst of opposite
phase to previous
signal burst
Change phase 90 deg.
When a ONE is transmitted

NRZ-L*: 0à +V ; 1à -V

* Nonreturn zero, level

 Four-level
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
3p/4 p/4

o  Four-level PSK (QPSK)

n  Each element represents more -­‐ 3p/4
-­‐ p/4

than one bit

& π#
A cos$ 2πf c t + ! 45 deg. = 11

% 4"
! & 3π #
# A cos$ 2πf c t + !
4 "
135 deg. = 10

s (t ) = " %
& 3π #
A cos$ 2πf c t − !
#
$ % 4 " 225 deg. = 01

& π#
A cos$ 2πf c t − !
% 4" 315 deg. = 00
On bit changing at a time
 3p/4 p/4

Four-level
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
-­‐ p/4
-­‐ 3p/4
data=[0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1]; % information
QPSK and OQPSK Modulators
In Phase (I) 11
3p/4 p/4

-­‐ p/4
-­‐ 3p/4
Out Phase (Q) 10

QPSK 1 1
s(t ) = I (t ) cos(2πf ct ) − Q(t ) sin(2πf ct )
2 2
1 1
OQPSK s(t ) = I (t ) cos(2πf ct ) − Q(t − Tb) sin(2πf ct )
2 2
 11
3p/4 p/4

QPSK Modulator - Example -­‐ 3p/4

-­‐ p/4

1 3 5 7 9
2 4 6 8 10

I=1;Q=1 / π/4

1 1
s(t ) = I (t ) cos(2πf ct ) − Q(t ) sin(2πf ct )
2 2
Phase change never exceeds 180 deg! à
Large phase shift is hard to implement in HW (imaging going from 00à 11)
 11
3p/4 p/4

OQPSK Modulator - Example -­‐ 3p/4

-­‐ p/4

1 3 5 7 9
2 4 6 8 10

-pi/4 -pi/4 pi/4 3pi/4 -3pi/4 -3pi/4 3pi/4

1 1
OQPSK s(t ) = I (t ) cos(2πf ct ) − Q(t − Tb) sin(2πf ct )
2 2
Phase change never exceeds 90 deg!
 11
3p/4 p/4

OQPSK Modulator - Example -­‐ 3p/4

-­‐ p/4

1 1
OQPSK s(t ) = I (t ) cos(2πf ct ) − Q(t − Tb) sin(2πf ct )
2 2
Phase change never exceeds 90 deg!
So what is the difference in performance?
- QPSK and OQPSK Modulators

o  Both have the same spectral characteristics

and error performance
o  Max. phase change for QPSK is 180 deg.
o  Max. phase change for OQPSK is 90 deg.
n  Results in smaller sudden phase change à good
for limiting non-linearity impact
n  Less non-linearity à less signal spread à less
interference
 Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
o  Multilevel-PSK
n  Using multiple phase
angles with each angle
having more than one
amplitude, multiple
signals elements can be
achieved
n  Example: Standard
9600 baud used in
Modem
o  12 phase angles / four
of them have 2 diff.
amplitude levels à 16
levels 8-QPSK (same amplitude!)
Modulation Impact on
Performance

n  Modulation rate

n  Bit Error Ratio (rate)
n  Bit Energy Level
n  Bandwidth Efficiency
 Modulation Impact on
Performance
R R
D= =
L log 2 M
o  D = modulation rate, baud
o  R = data rate = 1/Tb, bps
o  M = number of different signal elements = 2L
o  L = number of bits per signal element

Example: We can support a data rate of 9600 bps

Using 2400 baud rate if M = 16, L = 4 using a complex modulation scheme!

This is how we can transmit more bits in the same medium!

 Signal Transmitted

Digital Analog

ASK

Original Data

Digital
FSK/BFSK/MFSK
PSK/BPSK/MPSK

Performance

Analog
AM
PCM
PM
DM
FM

o  For the same signal

energy BPSK can
achieve the best
performance in
C- Refer to notes!

terms of BER
o  Example:
n  Assume BER =
10^-7; SNR=12
dB; Find Bandwidth
Efficiency (R/BT).

Eb/No=(S/R)/No; N=NoBT; à Eb/No(dB) = S/N(dB) – R/BT (dB)

Eb/No is the ratio of energy per bit to noise power density per hertz
Performance Comparison
MFSK MPSK

Bandwidth Efficiency is proportional to BER

 Performance
o  Bandwidth of modulated
signal (BT)
n  ASK/PSK/FSK BT = (1 + r )R
n  MPSK &1+ r # & 1+ r #
BT = $ ! R = $$ !! R
% L " % log 2 M "
n  MFSK & (1 + r )M #
C- Refer to notes!

BT = $$ !! R
o  L = number of bits % log 2 M "
encoded per signal
element
o  M = number of
different signal BW Efficiency
elements = R/BT
o  r <1; a constant; = Modulation Rate/BT
depends on filtering

Remember: Larger number of states à higher data rate

à Higher potential error!
Example
Find BW_efficiency for PSK if BER 10^-7 with SNR = 12 dB

Eb/No = 11.2 from figure à Eb/No(dB) = S/N(dB) – R/BT (dB)

R/BT = BW_efficiency (dB) = 12 – 11.2 = 0.8
R/BT = 1.2
 Reasons for Analog Modulation
Signal Transmitted

o  Modulation of digital signals

Digital Analog

ASK

Original Data

Digital
FSK/BFSK/MFSK

n  When only analog transmission PSK/BPSK/MPSK

facilities are available, digital to

Analog
AM
PCM
PM
DM
analog conversion required FM

o  Modulation of analog signals

n  A higher frequency may be
needed for effective transmission
n  Modulation permits frequency
division multiplexing
 Basic Modulation Techniques
o  Analog data to analog signal
n  Amplitude modulation (AM)
n  Angle modulation
o  Frequency modulation (FM)
o  Phase modulation (PM)

http://mason.gmu.edu/~mlyons3/AM_FM/AM_FM_model.html
Amplitude modulation
 Frequency modulation (FM)
o  With frequency modulation,
the modulating signal and
the carrier are combined in
such a way that causes the
carrier FREQUENCY (fc) to
vary above and below its
normal (idling) frequency
o  As the voltage of the
modulating signal increases
in the positive direction
from A to B, the frequency
of the carrier is increased in
proportion to the to the
modulating voltage
o  The amplitude of the carrier
remains constant
 Phase modulation (PM)
o  The phase of the carrier
is changed by the
change in amplitude of
the modulating signal
o  The modulated carrier
wave is lagging the
carrier wave when the
modulating frequency is
positive (A and B)
lagging
o  When the modulating
frequency is negative,
the modulated carrier
wave is leading the
carrier wave (C and D)

Varying the phase of the carries linearly in proportion to the modulating signal such that maximum
phase shift occurs during positive and negative peaks of the modulating signal.
Comparison
o  FM and PM require greater bandwidth
than AM
o  Applet: http://engweb.info/courses/wdt/lecture07/wdt07-am-fm.html#AM_Applet_
Basic Encoding Techniques
Signal Transmitted

o  Analog data to digital signal Digital Analog

n  Pulse code modulation (PCM)

ASK

Original Data

Digital
FSK/BFSK/MFSK
PSK/BPSK/MPSK

n  Delta modulation (DM)

Analog
AM
PCM
PM
DM
o  Basic process of digitizing analog FM

data

The question is how to represent the digital data

Pulse Code Modulation
o  Based on the sampling theorem
o  Each analog sample is assigned a
binary code
n  Analog samples are referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
o  The digital signal consists of block of
n bits, where each n-bit number is
the amplitude of a PCM pulse
Pulse Code Modulation

1- Sampling frequency (two times fmax)

2- Quantization levels (number of bits available)
http://www.netbook.cs.purdue.edu/animations/convert%20analog%20to%20digital.html
Pulse Code Modulation
o  By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal
is only approximated
n  More quantization levels à more accurate signal
approximation à more complex system
o  Leads to quantizing noise
o  Signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise
SNR dB = 20 log 2 n + 1.76 dB = 6.02n + 1.76 dB

NOTE: each additional bit increases SNR by 6

dB, or a factor of 4
Example:
o  Assuming we use 7 bits to reconstruct the
voice signal. Bandwidth of voice signal is
4KHz.
n  How may quantization levels can we create?
n  What is the sampling rate for the voice signal?
n  What is the BW of the PCM-encoded digital
signal?
n  What is the minimum BW required using the
Nyquist criterion?
n  How much the s/N (in dB) will increase if we use
9 bits instead?
Example:
o  Assuming we use 7 bits to reconstruct the
voice signal. Bandwidth of voice signal is
4KHz. 2^7 = 128 levels
Sampling rate: 2B = 8KHz (8000 samples /
n  How may quantization
sec) ß according to the levels
samplingcan we create?
theorem
n  What Each
is the sampling
sample has 7 bitsrate for the voice signal?
n  What PCM
is theBW = 8000 sample/sec x 7 bit/
BW of the PCM-encoded digital
sample = 56 bit/sec
signal?
n  What is the minimum BW required using the
Nyquist criterion?
n  How much the s/N (in dB) will increase if we use
9 bits instead?
Delta Modulation
o  Analog input is approximated by
staircase function
n  Moves up or down by one quantization
level (δ) at each sampling interval
o  Only the change of information is sent
n  only an increase or decrease of the signal
amplitude from the previous sample is sent
n  a no-change condition causes the
modulated signal to remain at the same 0
or 1 state of the previous sample
Delta Modulation
o  Two important parameters
n  Size of step assigned to each binary digit (δ)
n  Sampling rate
o  Accuracy improved by increasing sampling
rate
n  However, this increases the data rate
o  Advantage of DM over PCM is the simplicity
of its implementation
References
o  Applets
n  PM and FM Applet:
o  http://cnyack.homestead.com/files/modulation/modfmpm.htm
o  http://williams.comp.ncat.edu/Networks/modulate.htm
o  Very good:
n 
http://sem.mosaic-service.com/electron2/frequency_conversion.htm
n  Learn about sampling theorem:
http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonshtml/Signal/
SignalNoteNyquistSampling.htm
o  Very good basic information about AM, FM:
http://cbdd.wsu.edu/kewlcontent/cdoutput/TR502/page21.htm
o  Read about The Nyquist Sampling Theorem
www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonshtml/Signal/
SignalNoteNyquistSampling.htm