Chap 6

Signal Encoding Techniques
Chapter 6
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
 Digital data, digital signal
 Equipment less complex and expensive than
digital-to-analog modulation equipment
 Analog data, digital signal
 Permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
 Digital data, analog signal
 Some transmission media will only propagate
analog signals
 E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
 Analog data, analog signal
 Analog data in electrical form can be
transmitted easily and cheaply
 Done with voice transmission over voice-grade
lines
Signal Encoding Criteria
 What determines how successful a receiver will be
in interpreting an incoming signal?
 Signal-to-noise ratio
 Data rate
 Bandwidth
 An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
 An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
 An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in
data rate
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
 Signal spectrum
 With lack of high-frequency components, less
bandwidth required
 With no dc component, ac coupling via transformer
possible
 Transfer function of a channel is worse near band edges
 Clocking
 Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit
position
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
 Signal interference and noise immunity
 Performance in the presence of noise
 Cost and complexity
 The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate,
the greater the cost
Basic Encoding Techniques
 Digital data to analog signal
 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
 Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
 Frequency difference near carrier frequency
 Phase-shift keying (PSK)
 Phase of carrier signal shifted
Amplitude-Shift Keying
 One binary digit represented by presence of
carrier, at constant amplitude
 Other binary digit represented by absence of
carrier
 A cos 2f c t 
 binary 1
s t   
 0 binary 0

 where the carrier signal is Acos(2πfct)
Amplitude-Shift Keying
 Susceptible to sudden gain changes
 Inefficient modulation technique
 On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps
 Used to transmit digital data over optical
fiber
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
 Two binary digits represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency
 A cos 2f1t 
 binary 1
s t   
 A cos 2f 2t 
 binary 0
 where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but

opposite amounts
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
 Less susceptible to error than ASK
 On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
 Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
radio transmission
 Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs
that use coaxial cable
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
 More than two frequencies are used
 More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to
error
si  t   A cos 2f i t 1 i  M
 f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
 f c = the carrier frequency
 f d = the difference frequency
 M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
 L = number of bits per signal element
(MFSK)
 To match data rate of input bit stream,
each output signal element is held for:
Ts=LT seconds
 where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
 So, one signal element encodes L bits
(MFSK)
 Total bandwidth required
2Mfd
 Minimum frequency separation required
2fd=1/Ts
 Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth
of
Wd=2L/LT=M/Ts
(MFSK)
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
 Two-level PSK (BPSK)
 Uses two phases to represent binary digits
 A cos 2f c t 
 binary 1
s t   
 A cos 2f c t   
 binary 0
 A cos 2f c t 
 binary 1

 A cos 2f c t 
 binary 0
 Differential PSK (DPSK)
 Phase shift with reference to previous bit
 Binary 0 – signal burst of same phase as previous
signal burst
 Binary 1 – signal burst of opposite phase to previous
signal burst
 Four-level PSK (QPSK)
 Each element represents more than one bit
 
A cos 2f c t  
  4
11
 
A cos 2f c t 
3 
 01
s t    

4 
3 
A cos 2f c t   00
  4 
 
A cos 2f c t  
 10
 4
 Multilevel PSK
 Using multiple phase angles with each angle
having more than one amplitude, multiple signals
elements can be achieved
R R
D 
L log 2 M
 D = modulation rate, baud
 R = data rate, bps
 M = number of different signal elements = 2L
 L = number of bits per signal element
Performance
 Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
 ASK, PSK BT=(1+r)R
 FSK BT=2DF+(1+r)R
 R = bit rate
 0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
 DF = f2-fc=fc-f1
Performance
 Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
1 r   1 r 
 MPSK BT    R    R
 L   log 2 M 
 MFSK  1  r  M 
BT    R
 log 2 M 
 L = number of bits encoded per signal element
 M = number of different signal elements
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
 QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
 Two different signals sent simultaneously on
the same carrier frequency
s t   d1  t  cos 2f c t  d 2  t  sin 2f c t

Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
Reasons for Analog Modulation
 Modulation of digital signals
 When only analog transmission facilities are
available, digital to analog conversion required
 Modulation of analog signals
 A higher frequency may be needed for effective
transmission
 Modulation permits frequency division
multiplexing
 Analog data to analog signal
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
 Angle modulation
 Frequency modulation (FM)
 Phase modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
s  t   1 na x t   cos 2f c t
 cos2fct = carrier
 x(t) = input signal
 na = modulation index
 Ratio of amplitude of input signal to carrier
 a.k.a double sideband transmitted carrier
(DSBTC)
Spectrum of AM signal
Amplitude Modulation
 Transmitted power
 na 2

Pt  Pc 1  

 2 
 Pt = total transmitted power in s(t)
 Pc = transmitted power in carrier
Single Sideband (SSB)
 Variant of AM is single sideband (SSB)
 Sends only one sideband
 Eliminates other sideband and carrier
 Advantages
 Only half the bandwidth is required
 Less power is required
 Disadvantages
 Suppressed carrier can’t be used for synchronization
purposes
Angle Modulation
 Angle modulation
s t   Ac cos 2f c t    t  
 Phase modulation
 Phase is proportional to modulating signal
  t   n p m t 
 np = phase modulation index
Angle Modulation
 Frequency modulation
 Derivative of the phase is proportional to
modulating signal
 '  t   n f m t 
 nf = frequency modulation index
Angle Modulation
 Compared to AM, FM and PM result in a
signal whose bandwidth:
 is also centered at fc
 but has a magnitude that is much different
 Angle modulation includes cos( (t)) which
produces a wide range of frequencies
 Thus, FM and PM require greater
bandwidth than AM
Angle Modulation
 Carson’s rule
where BT  2   1 B
 n p Am for PM

   F n f Am
 B  2B for FM
 The formula for FM becomes

BT  2F  2 B
 Analog data to digital signal
 Pulse code modulation (PCM)
 Delta modulation (DM)
Analog Data to Digital Signal
 Once analog data have been converted to
digital signals, the digital data:
 can be transmitted using NRZ-L
 can be encoded as a digital signal using a code
other than NRZ-L
 can be converted to an analog signal, using
previously discussed techniques
Pulse Code Modulation
 Based on the sampling theorem
 Each analog sample is assigned a binary
code
 Analog samples are referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
 The digital signal consists of block of n bits,
where each n-bit number is the amplitude of
a PCM pulse
 By quantizing the PAM pulse, original
signal is only approximated
 Leads to quantizing noise
 Signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise
SNR dB  20 log 2 n  1.76 dB  6.02n  1.76 dB
 Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by

6 dB, or a factor of 4
Delta Modulation
 Analog input is approximated by staircase
function
 Moves up or down by one quantization level ()
at each sampling interval
 The bit stream approximates derivative of
analog signal (rather than amplitude)
 1 is generated if function goes up
 0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation
 Two important parameters
 Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
 Sampling rate
 Accuracy improved by increasing sampling
rate
 However, this increases the data rate
 Advantage of DM over PCM is the
simplicity of its implementation
Reasons for Growth of Digital
Techniques
 Growth in popularity of digital techniques
for sending analog data
 Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
 No additive noise
 TDM is used instead of FDM
 No intermodulation noise
 Conversion to digital signaling allows use of
more efficient digital switching techniques

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Signal Encoding Techniques

 where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but

s t   d1  t  cos 2f c t  d 2  t  sin 2f c t

 The formula for FM becomes

 Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by

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