CHAPTER 1

SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL

PROCESSES IN SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION leisure opportunities s/he avails, the

health access s/he has, i.e. her/his
You will recall that the earlier book lifestyle in general. As in the case of
Introducing Sociology, Class XI had social structure, social stratification
begun with a discussion on the constrains individual action.
relationship between personal One of the central concerns of the
problems and social issues. We also sociological perspective has been to
saw how individuals are located within understand the dialectical relationship
collectivities such as groups, classes, between the individual and society. You
gender, castes and tribes. Indeed each will recall C.Wright Mill’s elaboration of
of you, is a member of not just one the sociological imagination that seeks
kind of collectivity, but many to unfold the interplay between an
overlapping ones. For instance, you are individual’s biography and society’s
a member of your own peer group, history. It is towards understanding
your family and kin, your class and this dialectical relationship between the
gender, your country and region. Each society and individual that we need to
individual thus has a specific location discuss the three central concepts of
in the social structure and social structure, stratification and social
stratification system (see pages 28-35 processes in this chapter. In the next
in Introducing Sociology). This also few chapters we then move on to how
implies that they have different levels social structure in rural and urban
and types of access to social resources. societies are different, to broader
In other words the choices an individual relationships between environment and
has in life in terms of the school s/he society. In the last two chapters we look
goes to — or if s/he goes to school at at western social thinkers and Indian
all — would depend on the social sociologists and their writings that
s t r a t u m t h a t s/ h e b e l o n g s t o . would help us further understand the
Likewise with the clothes s/he gets to ideas of social structure, stratification
wear, the food s/he consumes, the as well as social processes.

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 2 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

The central question that this regularities that the concept of social
chapter seeks to discuss is to what structure refers. Upto a point, it is
extent the individual constrained by, helpful to think of the structural
and to what extent s/he is free of, the characteristics of societies as
social structure? To what extent does resembling the structure of a building.
one’s position in society or location in A building has walls, a floor and a roof,
the stratification system govern which together give it a particular
individual choice? Do social structure ‘shape’ or form (Giddens 2004: 667).
and social stratification influence the But the metaphor can be a very
manner people act? Do they shape the misleading one if applied too strictly.
way individuals cooperate, compete Social structures are made up of
and conflict with each other? human actions and relationships.
In this chapter we deal briefly with What gives these their patterning is
the terms ‘social structure’ and ‘social their repetition across periods of time
stratification’. You have already and distances of space. Thus, the ideas
discussed social stratification in some of social reproduction and social
detail in Chapter 2 of the earlier structure are very closely related to one
book Introducing Sociology, Class XI another in sociological analysis. For
(NCERT, 2006). We then move on to example, consider a school and a
focus on three social processes namely; family structure. In a school certain
cooperation, competition and conflict. ways of behaving are repeated over the
In dealing with each of these processes years and become institutions. For
we shall try and see how social structure instance admission procedures, codes
and stratification impinge themselves on of conduct, annual functions, daily
the social processes. In other words how assemblies and in some cases even
individuals and groups cooperate, school anthems. Likewise in families
compete and conflict depending upon certain ways of behaving, marriage
their position within the social structure
practices, notions of relationships,
and stratification system.
duties and expectations are set. Even
as old members of the family or school
SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND STRATIFICATION may pass away and new members
The term social structure points to the enter, the institution goes on. Yet we
fact that society is structured — i.e., also know that changes do take place
organised or arranged — in particular within the family and in schools.
ways. The social environments in The above discussion and activity
which we exist do not just consist of should help us understand human
random assortments of events or societies as buildings that are at every
actions. There are underlying moment being reconstructed by the
regularities, or patterns, in how people very bricks that compose them. For as
behave and in the relationships they we saw for ourselves human beings in
have with one another. It is to these schools or families do bring changes

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 3

Different types of buildings in rural and urban areas

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 4 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

Activity 1
Discuss with your grandparents and others of that generation to find out about
the ways in which families/schools have changed and the ways in which they
have remained the same.
Compare descriptions of families in old films/television serials/novels with
contemporary depictions.
Can you observe patterns and regularities of social behaviour in your family? In
other words, can you describe the structure of your family?
Discuss with your teachers how they understand the school as a structure. Do
students, teachers and the staff have to act in certain ways to maintain or reproduce
the structure? Can you think of any changes in either your school or family? Were
these changes resisted? Who resisted them and why?

to reproduce the structure even while his or her possible activities. The
introducing changes. They cooperate placing of the walls and doors, for
at various levels in their everyday lives example defines the routes of exit and
towards this reproduction. No less true entry. Social structure, according to
is the fact that they also compete with Durkheim, constrains our activities in
each other, often viciously and a parallel way, setting limits to what
ruthlessly. The fact remains that along we can do as individuals. It is ‘external’
with cooperative behaviour we also to us just as the walls of the room are.
witness serious conflict. And as we Other social thinkers like Karl Marx
shall find later in this chapter, would emphasise the constraints of
cooperation can be enforced and social structure but would at the same
thereby serve to conceal conflict. time stress human creativity or agency
A major theme pursued by Emile to both reproduce and change social
Durkheim (and by many other structure. Marx argued that human
sociologists authors since) is that the beings make history, but not as they
societies exert social constraint over wish to or in conditions of their choice,
the actions of their members. but within the constraints and
Durkheim argued that society has possibilities of the historical and
primacy over the individual person. structural situation that they are in.
Society is far more than the sum of To recall the concept of social
individual acts; it has a ‘firmness’ or strati-fication in Chapter 2 of
‘solidity’ comparable to structures in Introducing Sociology, Class XI, Social
the material environment. stratification refers to the existence of
Think of a person standing in a structured inequalities between
room with several doors. The structure groups in society, in terms of their
of the room constrains the range of access to material or symbolic

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 5

This point of view is expressed by Durkheim in his famous statement: When I

perform my duties as a brother, a husband or a citizen and carry out the
commitments I have entered into, I fulfil my obligations which are defined in law
and custom and which are external to myself and my actions…Similarly, the believer
has discovered from birth, ready fashioned, the beliefs and practices of his religious
life; if they existed before he did, it follows that they exist outside him. The systems
of signs that I employ to express my thoughts, the monetary system I use to pay
my debts, the credit instruments I utilise in my commercial relationships, the
practices I follow in my profession, etc. all function independently of the use I
make of them. Considering in turn each member of society, the following remarks
could be made for every single one of them.
Source: Durkheim, Emile,1933, The Division of Labour in Society, pp.50-1, A Free
Press Paperback, The MacMillan Company, New York.

likewise characterised by a certain

Activity 2 pattern of inequality. Inequality is not
Think of examples that reveal both something which is randomly
how human beings are constrained by distributed between individuals in
social structure and also of examples society. It is systematically linked to
where individuals defy social structure membership in different kinds of social
and transfor m it. Recall our groups. Members of a given group will
discussion on socialisation in have features in common, and if they
Introducing Sociology (pages 78-79).
are in a superior position they will
usually see to it that their privileged
rewards. While all societies involve position is passed on to their children.
some forms of social stratification, The concept of stratification, then,
modern societies are often marked by refers to the idea that society is divided
wide differences in wealth and power. into a patterned structure of unequal
While the most evident forms of groups, and usually implies that this
stratification in modern societies structure tends to persist across
involve class divisions, others like generations (Jayaram 1987:22).
race and caste, re g i o n a n d It is necessary to distinguish
community, tribe and gender also between different advantages which
continue to matter as bases of social can be distributed unequally. There
stratification. are three basic forms of advantage
You will recall that social structure which privileged groups may enjoy:
implied a certain patterning of social (i) Life Chances: All those material
behaviour. Social stratification as part advantages which improve the
of the broader social structure is quality of life of the recipient — this

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 6 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

may include not only economic humans compete or cooperate or

advantages of wealth and income, conflict as the case may be because it
but also benefits such as health, is human nature to do so. The
job security and recreation. assumption behind such explanations
(ii) Social Status: Prestige or high is that there is something intrinsic and
standing in the eyes of other universal in human nature that
members of the society. accounts for these processes. However,
as we have seen earlier, sociology is not
(iii) Political Influence: The ability of
satisfied with either psychological or
one group to dominate others, or
naturalist explanations (see pages 7-8
to have preponderant influence
of Introducing Sociology. Sociology
over decision-making, or to benefit
seeks to explain these processes of
advantageously from decisions.
cooperation, competition and conflict
The above discussion on the three in terms of the actual social structure
social processes will repeatedly draw of society.
attention to the manner that different
bases of social stratification like Activity 3
gender or class constrain social
Think of examples of cooperation,
processes. The opportunities and
competition and conflict in your
resources available to individuals and everyday life
groups to engage in competition,
cooperation or conflict are shaped by
I n Introducing Sociology we
social structure and social
discussed how there are differences and
stratification. At the same time,
plural understandings of society (pages
humans do act to modify the structure
24-25, 36). We saw how functionalist
and system of stratification that exists.
and conflict perspectives varied in their
understanding of different institutions,
TWO WAYS OF UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL be it the family, the economy or social
PROCESSES IN SOCIOLOGY stratification and social control. Not
In the earlier book Introducing surprisingly therefore, these two
Sociology, Class XI you have seen the perspectives seek to understand these
limitations of common sense processes a bit differently. But both Karl
knowledge. The problem is not that Marx (usually associated with a conflict
commonsense knowledge is perspective) and Emile Durkheim
necessarily false, but that it is (usually identified with a functionalist
unexamined and taken for granted. perspective) presume that human
B y contrast, the sociological beings have to cooperate to meet their
perspective questions everything and basic needs, and to produce and
accepts nothing as a given. It would reproduce themselves and their world.
therefore not rest content with an The conflict perspective emphasises
explanation which suggests that how these forms of co operation

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 7

Different types of processes

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 8 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

changed from one historical society to refer to the fulfilment of the broadest
another. For instance, it would conditions which are necessary for a
recognise that in simple societies system’s existence (and which
where no surplus was produced, there therefore keep it alive and prevent its
was cooperation between individuals destruction) such as:
and groups who were not divided on
(i) The socialisation of new members;
class or caste or race lines. But in
societies where surplus is produced — (ii) A shared system of communication;
whether feudal or capitalist — the (iii) Methods of assigning individuals
dominant class appropriates the to roles.
surplus and cooperation would
You are well aware how the
necessarily involve potential conflict
functionalist perspective rests upon the
and competition. The conflict view thus
assumption that different parts or
emphasises that groups and
organs of society have a function or role
individuals are placed differentially
to play for the broader maintenance
and unequally within the system of
and functioning of the whole society.
production relations. Thus, the factory
Seen from this perspective, cooperation,
owner and the factory worker do
competition and conflict can be seen
cooperate in their everyday work. But
as universal features of all societies,
a certain conflict of interests would
explained as the result of the inevitable
define their relationship.
interactions among humans living in
The understanding that informs the
society and pursuing their ends. Since
conflict perspective is that in societies
the focus is on system sustenance,
divided by caste, or class or patriarchy,
some groups are disadvantaged and
discriminated against. Furthermore the Babul Mora. Naihar Chuto hi jai
dominant groups sustain this unequal Fears of the Natal home is left behind
order by a series of cultural norms, and
Babul ki dua-ein leti ja
often coercion or even violence. As you
Ja tujhko sukhi sansar mile
will see in the next paragraphs, it is
not that the functionalist perspective Maike ki kabhi na yaad aaye
fails to appreciate the role of such Sasural me itna pyar mile
norms or sanctions. But it understands Take your father’s blessings/prayer
their function in terms of the society as you go;
as a whole, and not in terms of the Go, and (may you) get a happy
dominant sections who control society. household;
The functionalist perspective is May you never be reminded of your
mother’s home;
mainly concerned with the ‘system
requirements’ of society — certain (Because of) all the love you receive
functional imperatives, functional At your in-laws’ place.
requisites and prerequisites. These (Basu 2001: 128)

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 9

Activity 4
Discuss whether women are cooperating, or refusing to engage in conflict or
competition because of a range of normative compulsions. Are they cooperating
with the given norm of male inheritance because of the fear of losing the affection
of their brothers if they behave otherwise? The song in the box on the previous
page is specific to a region, but evokes the more general fears of natal
abandonment for women in a patrilineal society.

competition and conflict is looked at the very contentious issue of women’s

with the understanding that in most right to property in their natal family.
cases they tend to get resolved without A study was conducted among different
too much distress, and that they may sections of society to understand the
even help society in various ways. attitude towards taking natal property
Sociological studies have also (see pages 41- 46 of Introducing
shown how norms and patterns of Sociology). A significant number of
socialisation often ensure that a women (41.7 per cent) evoked the
particular social order persists, even theme of a daughter’s love and love for
though it is skewed in the interests of a daughter when speaking about their
one section. In other words, the rights to property. But they emphasised
relationship between cooperation, apprehension rather than affection by
competition and conflict is often complex saying they would not claim full or any
and not easily separable. share of natal property because they
In order to understand how were afraid this would sour relations
cooperation may entail conflict, and the with their brothers or cause their
difference between ‘enforced’ and brothers’ wives to hate them, and that
‘voluntary’ cooperation, let us look at as a result they would no longer be

Bride leaving for groom’s house in a ‘Doli’

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10 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

welcome in their natal homes. This we witness cooperation, whether they

attitude represents one of the dominant be ants or bees or mammals.
metaphors mediating women’s refusal Comparison with the animal world
of property… A woman demanding her should however be done carefully. We
share is the greedy shrew or ‘hak lene look at two very different theoretical
wali’. There was also a close connection traditions in sociology to illustrate the
between these feelings and the point, those represented by Emile
apparently obverse ones of the desire Durkheim and Karl Marx.
to continue to be part of the natal family Sociology for the most part did not
by actively contributing to its prosperity agree with the assumption that human
or being available to deal with its crises. nature is necessarily nasty and
Activity 2 would enable you to brutish. Emile Durkheim argues
appreciate how apparently cooperative against a vision of “primitive humanity
behaviour can also be seen as a whose hunger and thirst, always badly
product of deep conflicts in society. But satisfied, were their only passions”.
when these conflicts are not expressed Instead he argued:
openly or challenged, the impression
remains that there is no conflict, but They overlook the essential element
only cooperation. A functionalist view of moral life, that is, the moderating
often uses the term accommodation to influence that society exercises over
explain situations such as the one its members, which tempers and
described above, where women would neutralises the brutal action of the
prefer not to claim property rights in struggle for existence and selection.
their natal home. It would be seen as Wherever there are societies, there
an effort to compromise and co-exist is altruism, because there is
despite conflict. solidarity. Thus, we find altruism
from the beginning of humanity and
Activity 5 even in truly intemperate form.
Think of other kinds of social (Durkheim 1933)
behaviour which may appear as co- For Durkheim solidarity, the moral
operative but may conceal deeper force of society, is fundamental for our
conflicts of society.
understanding of cooperation and
thereby the functioning of society. The
role of division of labour — which
COOPERATION AND DIVISION OF LABOUR
implies cooperation — is precisely to
The idea of cooperation rests on certain fulfill certain needs of society. The
assumptions about human behaviour. division of labour is at the same time
It is argued that without human a law of nature and also a moral rule
cooperation it would be difficult for of human conduct.
human life to survive. Further it is Durkheim distinguished between
argued that even in the animal world mechanical and organic solidarity that

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 11

characterised pre-industrial and means of subsistence men are

complex industrial societies respectively. indirectly producing their material life
Both are forms of cooperation in (Marx 1972:37).
society. Mechanical solidarity is the The above quote from Marx may
for m of cohesion that is based appear difficult but will help us
fundamentally on sameness. Most of understand how cooperation in
the members of such societies live very human life is dif ferent from
similar lives, with little specialisation cooperation in animal life. For humans
or division of labour beyond that not only adjust and accommodate to
associated with age and sex. Members cooperate but also alter society in that
feel bonded together essentially by process. For example, men and women
their shared beliefs and sentiments, over the ages had to adjust to natural
their common conscience and constraints. Various technological
consciousness. Organic solidarity is innovations over time not only
that form of social cohesion that is transformed human life but in some
based on division of labour and the sense nature too. Humans in
resulting interdependence of members cooperating thus do not passively
of society. As people become more adjust and accommodate but also
specialised, they also become more change the natural or social world to
dependent upon each other. A family which they adjust. We had discussed
engaged in subsistence farming may in the Chapter on Culture and
survive with little or no help from Socialisation in earlier book,
similar homesteaders. But specialised Introducing Sociology how Indians had
workers in a gar ment or a car to adjust and accommodate and co-
manufacturing factory cannot survive operate with the English language
without a host of other specialised because of our experience with British
workers supplying their basic needs. Colonialism. But also how in that
Karl Marx too distinguishes human process Hinglish has emerged as a
life from animal life. While Durkheim living social entity (page 72).
emphasised altruism and solidarity as While both Durkheim from a
distinctive of the human world, Marx functionalist view and Marx from a
emphasised consciousness. He writes: conflict perspective emphasise
cooperation, they also differ. For Marx
Men can be distinguished from cooperation is not voluntary in a
animals by consciousness, by religion society where class exists. He argues,
or anything else you like. They
“The social power, i.e., the multiplied
themselves begin to distinguish
themselves from animals as soon as productive force, which arises through
they begin to produce their means of the cooperation of different individuals
subsistence, a step which is as it is caused by the division of labour,
conditioned by their physical appears to these individuals, since
organisation. By producing their their cooperation is not voluntary but

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12 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

has come about naturally, not as their attention to the fact that competition
own united power, but as an alien force itself has to be explained sociologically
existing outside them…” (Marx 1972: and not as a natural phenomena. The
53). Marx used the term alienation to anecdote refers to the teacher’s
refer to the loss of control on the part assumption that the children will
of workers over the concrete content naturally rejoice at the idea of a
of labour, and over the products of competitive race where the winner
their labour. In other words, workers would get a chocolate as a prize. To her
lose control over how to organise their surprise, her suggestion not only did
own work; and they lose control over not evoke any enthusiasm but instead
the fruits of their labour. Contrast, for seemed to cause considerable anxiety
example, the feeling of fulfillment and and distress. On probing further they
creativity of a weaver or potter or express their distaste for a game where
ironsmith with that of a worker there would be ‘winners’ and ‘losers’. This
involved in a factory whose sole task went against their idea of fun, which
may be to pull a lever or press a button meant for them a necessarily cooperative
throughout the day. Cooperation in and collective experience, and not a
such a situation would be enforced. competitive one where the rewards
necessarily exclude some and reward
COMPETITION AS AN IDEA AND PRACTICE one or few.
As in the case of cooperation, In the contemporary world
discussions on the concept of however competition is the dominant
competition often proceed with the idea nor m and practice. Classical
that competition is universal and sociological thinkers such as Emile
natural. But going back to our Durkheim and Karl Marx have noted
discussion on how sociological the growth of individualism and
explanation is dif ferent from competition respectively in modern
naturalistic ones, it is important to societies. Both developments are
understand competition as a social intrinsic to the way modern capitalist
entity that emerges and becomes society functions. The stress is on
dominant in society at a particular greater efficiency and greater profit
historical point of time. In the maximisation. The underlying
contemporary period it is a assumptions of capitalism are:
predominant idea and often we find it (i) expansion of trade;
difficult to think that there can be any (ii) division of labour;
society where competition is not a
(iii) specialisation; and
guiding force.
An anecdote of a school teacher who (iv) hence rising productivity.
recounted her experience with children And these processes of self-
in a remote area in Africa draws sustaining growth are fuelled by the

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 13

central theme of capitalism: rational

individuals in free competition in the Liberals like J.S. Mill felt that the
marketplace, each striving to effects of competition were generally
maximise profits. harmful. However, he felt that though
modern competition ‘is described as
The ideology of competition is the
the fight of all against all, but at the
dominant ideology in capitalism. The same time it is the fight for all’; this in
logic of this ideology is that the market the sense that economic competition
operates in a manner that ensures is directed toward maximum output
greatest ef ficiency. For example at minimum cost. Furthermore, ‘given
competition ensures that the most the breadth and individualism of
efficient firm survives. Competition society, many kinds of interest, which
ensures that the students with higher eventually hold the group together
marks or best students get admission throughout its members, seem to
into prestigious colleges. And then get come alive and stay alive only when
the urgency and requirements of the
the best jobs. In all cases the “best”
competitive struggle force them upon
refers to that which ensures the greatest the individual.’
material rewards.
Activity 6 critically like all other naturalist
India has recently witnessed intense explanations (see page 8 of earlier
debates on the government’s decision book). Competition as a desirable value
to ensure 27 per cent reservation for flourished with the onset of capitalism.
OBCs and 10 per cent reservation for Read the extracts in the box and
economically weaker sections among discuss.
the upper castes. Collect the different Competition, and the whole laissez-
arguments for and against this faire economy of 19th century
proposal that have been put forward
capitalism, may have been important
in newspapers, magazines and
television programmes. in promoting economic growth. The
Collect information about the exceptionally rapid development of the
drop-out rate in schools, and primary American economy may be
schools in particular (see pages attributable to the greater scope of
57-59 in the earlier book) competition in the United States. But
Given that mostly lower caste still we cannot produce any exact
students drop-out of school, and correlations between the extent of
most higher educational institutions competition, or the intensity of the
are dominated by the upper castes,
competitive spirit, and the rate of
discuss the concepts of cooperation,
competition and conflict in the
economic growth in different societies.
above context. A nd on the other hand, there are
grounds for supposing that
Views that humans naturally like competition has other less welcome
to compete has to be understood effects (Bottomore 1975: 174-5).

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14 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

Activity 7 are well aware of the range of conflicts

that exist in society. The scale and
Organise a debate for and against the
idea that competition is a necessary
nature of different conflicts that occur
good in society and is a must for are however different.
development. Draw upon school
experience to write an essay on the Activity 9
manner that competition impacts on Think of the different kinds of
different students.
conflicts that exist in the world today.
At the widest level there are conflicts
This ideology assumes that
between nations and blocs of nations.
individuals compete on an equal basis,
Many kinds of conflicts also exist
i.e. that all individuals are positioned
within nations. Make a list of them
equally in the competition for
and then discuss in what ways they
education, jobs, or resources. But as
are similar and in what ways
the earlier discussions on stratification
different.
or inequality showed, individuals are
placed differentially in society. If the A widely held commonsense
greater number of children in India do perception is that conflicts in society
not go to school or drop-out sooner
are new. Sociologists have drawn
rather than later, then they remain out
attention to the fact that conflicts
of the competition entirely.
change in nature and form at different
stages of social development. But
Activity 8 conflicts have always been part of any
Identify different occasions when society. Social change and greater
individuals have to compete in our assertion of democratic rights by
society. Begin with admission to disadvantaged and discriminated
school onwards through the different groups make the conflict more visible.
stages of life. But this does not mean that the causes
for conflict did not exist earlier. The
quote in the box emphasises this.
CONFLICT AND COOPERATION
The term conflict implies clash of Developing countries are today
interests. We have already seen how arenas for conflict between the old
conflict theorists believe that scarcity and the new. The old order is no
of resources in society produces longer able to meet the new forces,
conflict as groups struggle to gain nor the new wants and aspirations
access to and control over those of the people, but neither is it
resources. The bases of conflict vary. moribund — in fact, it is still very
It could be class or caste, tribe or much alive. The conflict produces
much unseemly argument, discord,
gender, ethnicity or r eligious
confusion, and on occasion, even
community. As young students you

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 15

human behaviour. The last three

bloodshed. Under the circumstances,
it is tempting for the sociologist to decades have seen a great deal of
look to the good old peaceful days in questioning of this assumption by
sheer nostalgia. But a moment’s feminist analysis. Scholars such as
reflection should convince him that Amartya Sen have noted the possibility
the old order was not conflict-free and of enforced cooperation.
that it perpetrated inhuman cruelties
on vast sections of the population. A Not only do the different parties have
theoretical approach that regards much to gain from cooperation; their
conflict as abnormal, or that invests individual activities have to take the
equilibrium with a special value in the form of being overtly cooperative, even
name of science, can be a handicap when substantial conflicts exist…
in studying developing societies. Although serious conflicts of interests
Source: Srinivas, M.N., 1972, Social may be involved in the choice of ‘social
Change in Modern India, pp.159-160, technology’, the nature of the family
Orient Longman, New Delhi. organisation requires that these
conflicts be moulded in a general
It is also important to understand format of cooperation, with conflicts
that conflict appears as a discord or treated as aberrations or deviant
overt clash only when it is openly ex- behaviour (Sen 1990:147).
pressed. For example, the existence of
Since conflict is often not overtly
a peasant movement is an overt ex-
expressed, it has been found that
pression of a deep rooted conflict over
subaltern or subordinate sections,
land resources. But the absence of a
whether women in households or
movement does not imply the absence
peasants in agrarian societies, develop
of a conflict. Hence, this chapter has
different strategies to cope with conflict
emphasised the relationship between
and ensure cooperation. Findings of
conflict, involuntary cooperation and
many sociological studies seem to
also resistance.
suggest that covert conflict and overt
Let us examine some of the
cooperation is common. The extract
conflicts that exist in society, and also
below draws from many studies on
the close relationship that exists
women’s behaviour and interaction
between competition, cooperation and
within households.
conflict. We just take two instances
here. The first is the family and Material pressures and incentives to
household. The second is that of land cooperate extend to distribution
based conflict. and there is little evidence of overt
conflict over distributional processes.
T raditionally the family and
Instead there is a hierar chy of
household were often seen as
decision-making, needs and priorities
harmonious units where cooperation (associated with age, gender and
was the dominant process and lifecycle), a hierarchy to which both
altruism the driving principle of men and women appear to subscribe.

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16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

Thus, women appear to acquiesce purdah and motherhood, are some

to — and indeed actively perpetuate of the strategies by which women
— discriminatory practices in intra- have resisted male power (Abdullah
household distribution in order to and Zeidenstein, 1982; White,
assur e their own longer -ter m 1992). That their resistance takes
security. Denied access to extra- this clandestine form reflects their
household relationships and lack of options outside household
resources, it is in their material cooperation and the concomitant
interests to subscribe to the general high risks associated with open
son-preference which characterises conflict (Kabeer 1996:129).
this culture, and they invest in a
great deal of ‘selfless’ devotion in In keeping with the sociological
order to win their sons as allies and tradition of questioning taken for
insurance against an uncertain granted commonsense assumptions,
future. ‘Maternal altruism’ in the this chapter has critically examined the
northern Indian plain is likely to be processes of cooperation, competition
biased towards sons and can be and conflict. The sociological approach
seen as women’s response to does not see these processes as ‘natural’.
patriarchal risk. Women are not It further relates them to other social
entirely powerless, of course, but developments. In the following
their subversion of male decision- paragraphs you will read from a
making power tends to be covert. sociological study done on land relations
The use of trusted allies (relatives and the Bhoodan-Gramdan movement
or neighbours) to conduct small in India. Read box and see how
businesses on their behalf, the cooperation in society can be
secret lending and borrowing of sociologically related to technology and
money, and negotiations around the the economic arrangements of
meaning of gender ideologies of production.

Land Conflicts
Harbaksh, a Rajput had borrowed Rs100 from Nathu Ahir (Patel) in the year 1956,
by mortgaging (informally) 2 acres of land. In the same year Harbaksh died and
Ganpat, his successor, claimed the land back in 1958 and he offered Rs 200.
Nathu refused to return the land to Ganpat. Ganpat could not take to legal
proceedings as this exchange was not codified in the revenue records. Under the
circumstances Ganpat had resorted to violence and forcefully cultivated the land
in 1959 (one year after Gramdan). Ganpat, being a police constable, could influence
the police officials. When the Patel went to Phulera (the police thana headquarters)
he was taken to the police station and was forced to agree that he will give the
land back to Ganpat. Later a meeting of the villagers was convened when the
money was given to Patel and Ganpat received the land back.
Source: Oommen, T.K., 1972: Charisma, Stability and Change; An Analysis of
Bhoodan-Gramdan Movement in India, p.84. Thompson Press, New Delhi.

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 17

The advent of technology had also reduced the necessity for cooperation. For
instance, for the operation of a Charas, an indigenous device of well irrigation, one
requires 2 pairs of bullocks and four men. An ordinary peasant cannot afford the
cost of four bullocks or an average household may not have the required manpower.
In such situations they resort to borrowing bullocks and men from other households
(kin, neighbours, friends, etc.) assuring similar services in return. But if a Charas
is replaced by a Rehat (persian wheel) for irrigation which calls for a heavier capital
investment, one needs only one pair of bullocks and one person for its operation.
The necessity of cooperation in the context of irrigation is reduced by a heavier capital
investment and an efficient technology. Thus, the level of technology in a system
may determine the need for cooperation between men and groups.
Source: Oommen, T.K., 1972, Charisma, Stability and Change; An Analysis of
Bhoodan-Gramdan Movement in India, p.88. Thompson Press, New Delhi.

that the three social processes are

Activity 10
different, yet they often co-exist,
Read the following account of land overlap and sometimes exist in a
conflict. Identify the different social concealed fashion, as evident in the
groups within it and notice the role above discussion about for ced
of power and access to resources.
c o o p e r a t i o n . We e n d w i t h t w o
activities that report real life events
Conclusion that help you to use your sociological
The ef fort in this chapter is to understanding to explore the manner
understand the relationship between in which the three processes operate
structure and stratification on the for social gro u p s t h a t a r e
one hand and the social processes of differentially located in the social
cooperation, competition and conflict structure and the stratification
on the other. You would have noticed system.

Activity 11
Read the report carefully and discuss the relationship between social structure,
stratification and social processes. Describe how the characters Santosh and Pushpa
are constrained by the social structure and stratification system. Is it possible to
identify the three social processes of cooperation, competition and conflict in their
lives? Can these marriages be seen as processes of cooperation? Can these marriages
be seen as actions that people consciously adopt in order to survive in the competitive
job market since married couples are preferred? Is there any sign of conflict?
Outlook 8 May 2006
“Meet the Parents: Teen marriages, migrant labour and cane factories in crisis.
A vicious cycle.”

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18 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

It is the same old story, only with a few twists. Santosh Shinde, 14, son of landless
labourers who take a loan of Rs 8,000 to educate him. Now the moneylender
wants the loan to be repaid, so the cash strapped Shindes take a salary advance
from the only man offering jobs around town, a sugarcane factory contractor.
Problem is that they are just a husband, a wife and gawky boy. So the Shindes
hurriedly find a bride for Santosh: another 14 year old, Pushpa, who accompanies
them from their village in Maharashtra’s Osmanabad district to Karnataka. They
stop en route for a no-frills marriage at a temple.
…There’s even a name for it, ‘gatekin’. It probably comes from the makeshift camps
these migrant labourers set up outside the factory gates in the cane-cutting season.
Contractors prefer married couples to single boys as they are more likely to stay on
at the factories for months.
…With western Maharashtra’s cane factories — which once produced nearly a third
of India’s sugar output — in a state of crisis, jobs for migrant labourers have dried up.
Some estimates say the factories have accumulated losses of over Rs 1,900 crore, and
this year 120 of the 177 sugar factories were forced to avail of the Centre’s Rs. 1,650
crore bailout package. But the trickle down has been harsher on the migrant labour,
out in the fields cutting cane feverishly during the six-month-long season. Their chances
of getting jobs have become harder, and wages have plummeted.
… Gangly Santosh, now 16 and sporting a straggly moustache, has just finished his
X exams while wife Pushpa took her XII exams. Pushpa, a good student, balances
her academic ambitions with caring for a one-and-a-half-year-old son. Then there’s
home and labour in the fields. As she says, “My marriage was so quick, I wonder
sometimes — when did I get married — when did all this happen?”. Asked if her
health has suffered, the young mother says “I try not to think about things I can’t
control. Instead I focus on what I can do now.” Her in-laws have said she can study
further only if she gets a scholarship. Otherwise, the young couple will migrate
to Mumbai to work at a construction site.

Activity 12
Read the report carefully and contrast the competition that Vikram and Nitin face
with that of Santosh and Pushpa in Activity 11.
The Week (7 May 2006) carried a special feature titled “The New Workaholics:
Their Goals, Money, Risks Health”.
As the Indian economy gallops at 8 per cent, firing on all cylinders, thousands
of jobs are being created in every sphere of business resulting in changing attitudes
and work styles. Young professionals want rewards instantly. Promotions must come
fast and quick. And money — exceptional salaries, perks and big increments —
the prime motivator, makes the world go round. Vikram Samant, 27, who recently
joined a BPO, makes no bones about quitting his last job for a better salary.
“Money is important but my new employers are fully aware that I’m worth every
rupee paid to me,” he reasons.

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 19

…What is also driving young workaholics is the need to sprint up the corporate ladder
rather than climb each rung at a measured pace. “Yes, I want the next designation
quickly, not when I am starting to go bald,” says Nitin, who refused to wait around
for the next big jump and hopped from ICICI to Standard Chartered with a promotion
and then to Optimix as zonal manager (emphasis original).

GLOSSARY

Altruism: The principle of acting to benefit others without any selfishness or

self-interest.
Alienation: Marx used the term to refer to the loss of control on the part of workers
over the nature of the labour task, and over the products of their labour.
Anomie: For Durkheim, a social condition where the norms guiding conduct break
down, leaving individuals without social restraint or guidance. A situation of
normlessness.
Capitalism: An economic system in which the means of production are privately
owned and organised to accumulate profits within a market framework, in which
labour is provided by waged workers.
Division of Labour: The specialisation of work tasks, by means of which different
occupations are combined within a production system. All societies have at
least some rudimentary form of division of labour especially between the tasks
allocated to men and those performed by women. With the development of
industrialism, however, the division of labour became more complex than in
any prior type of production system. In the modern world, the division of labour
is international in scope.
Dominant Ideology: Shared ideas or beliefs which serve to justify the interests of
dominant groups. Such ideologies are found in all societies in which they are
systematic and engrained inequalities between groups. The concept of ideology
connects closely with that of power, since ideological systems serve to legitimise
the differential power which groups hold.
Individualism: Doctrines or ways of thinking that focus on the autonomous
individual, rather than on the group.
Laissez-faire Liberalism: A political and economic approach based on the general
principle of non-interference in the economy by government and freedom for markets
and property owners.
Mechanical Solidarity: According to Durkheim, traditional cultures with a low
division of labour are characterised by mechanical solidarity. Because most members
of the society are involved in similar occupations, they are bound together by
common experience and shared beliefs.

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20 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

Modernity: A term designed to encapsulate the distinctiveness, complexity and

dynamism of social processes unleashed during the 18th and 19th centuries
which mark a distinct break from traditional ways of living.
Organic Solidarity: According to Durkheim, societies characterised by organic
solidarity are held together by people’s economic interdependence and a recognition
of the importance of others’ contributions. As the division of labour becomes more
complex, people become more and more dependent on one another, because each
person needs goods and services that those in other occupations supply.
Relationships of economic reciprocity and mutual dependency come to replace
shared beliefs in creating social consensus.
Social Constraint: A term referring to the fact that the groups and societies of
which we are a part exert a conditioning influence on our behaviour. Social constraint
was regarded by Durkheim as one of the distinctive properties of ‘social facts’.
Structures: Refers generally to constructed frameworks and patterns of
organisation, which in some way constrain or direct human behaviour.

EXERCISES

1. Discuss the different tasks that demand cooperation with reference to

agricultural or industrial operations.
2. Is cooperation always voluntary or is it enforced? If enforced, is it sanctions or
is the strength of norms that ensure cooperation? Discuss with examples.
3. Can you find illustrative examples of conflict drawn from Indian society?
Discuss the causes that led to conflict in each instance.
4. Write an essay based on examples to show how conflicts get resolved.
5. Imagine a society where there is no competition. Is it possible? If not,
why not?
6. Talk to your parents and elders, grandparents and their contemporaries and
discuss whether modern society is really more competitive or conflict ridden
than it used to be before. And if you think it is, how would you explain this
sociologically?

REFERENCES

ABDULLAH, T. and S. ZEIDENSTEIN. 1982. Village Men of Bangladesh: Prospects for

Change. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
BASU SRIMATI. 2001. She Comes to Take Her Rights: Indian Women, Property and
Propriety. Kali for Women, New Delhi.

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE, STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY 21

BOTTOMORE, T.B. 1975. Sociology as Social Criticism. George Allen and Unwin
Ltd., London
DURKHEIM EMILE. 1933. The Division of Labour in Society. A Free Press (Paperback),
The MacMillan Company, New York.
JAYARAM, N. 1987. Introductory Sociology. MacMillan India Ltd, Delhi.
HALE SYLVIA, M. 1990. Controversies in Sociology: A Canadian Introduction. Longman
Groups, London.
MARX KARL and FREDERICK E NGELS. 1974. The German Ideology. Selected Works,
Vol. 1. Peoples Publishing House, Moscow.
SEN AMARTYA. 1990. “Gender and Cooperative Conflicts” in Persistent Inequalities
(ed) II.Tinker, pp.123-49. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
SINGH YOGENDRA. 1973. Modernization of Indian Tradition. Thomson Press, Delhi.
SRINIVAS, M.N. 1972. Social Change in Modern India. Orient Longman, New Delhi.
OOMMEN, T.K. 1972. Charisma, Stability and Change; An Analysis of Bhoodan-
Gramdan Movement in India. Thomson Press, New Delhi.
WHITE, S.C. 1992. Arguing With the Crocodile, Gender and Class in Bangladesh,
Zed Books, London.

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