Tudung Akar
Tudung Akar
Tudung Akar
Article
Strigolactones Control Root System Architecture and
Tip Anatomy in Solanum Lycopersicum L. Plants
under P Starvation
Veronica Santoro 1, Michela Schiavon 2,*, Francesco Gresta 1, Andrea Ertani 1,
Francesca Cardinale 1, Craig J. Sturrock 3, Luisella Celi 1 and Andrea Schubert 1
1 Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari (DISAFA), Largo Paolo Braccini 2
(già Via Leonardo da Vinci, 44), 10095 Grugliasco (Torino), Italy; veronica.santoro@unito.it (V.S.);
francesco.gresta@unito.it (F.G.); andrea.ertani@unito.it (A.E.); francesca.cardinale@unito.it (F.C.);
luisella.celi@unito.it (L.C.); andrea.schubert@unito.it (A.S.)
2 Dipartimento di Agronomia, Animali, Alimenti, Risorse Naturali e Ambiente (DAFNAE),
Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Legnaro (Padova), Italy
3 School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK;
Craig.Sturrock@nottingham.ac.uk (C.J.S.)
* Correspondence: michela.schiavon@unipd.it; Tel.: +39‐049‐827‐2845
Received: 15 April 2020; Accepted: 06 May 2020; Published: 11 May 2020
Abstract: The hormones strigolactones accumulate in plant roots under phosphorus (P) shortage,
inducing variations in plant phenotype. In this study, we aimed at understanding whether
strigolactones control morphological and anatomical changes in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)
roots under varying P supply. Root traits were evaluated in wild‐type seedlings grown in high vs
low P, with or without exogenous strigolactones, and in wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted plants
grown first under high vs no P, and then under high vs no P after acclimation on low P. Exogenous
strigolactones stimulated primary root and lateral root number under low P. Root growth was
reduced in strigolactone‐depleted plants maintained under continuous P deprivation. Total root
and root hair length, lateral root number and root tip anatomy were impaired by low strigolactone
biosynthesis in plants grown under low P or transferred from low to no P. Under adequate P
conditions, root traits of strigolactone‐depleted and wild‐type plants were similar. Concluding, our
results indicate that strigolactones i) control macro‐ and microscopic changes of root in tomato
depending on P supply; and ii) do not affect root traits significantly when plants are supplemented
with adequate P, but are needed for acclimation to no P and typical responses to low P.
Keywords: phosphorus; strigolactones; root architecture; root anatomy; tomato
1. Introduction
Strigolactones are a group of carotenoid‐derived compounds [1,2] whose presence has been
confirmed in a broad variety of plant species, including monocots, dicots, and ancestral plants [3,4].
Strigolactone biosynthesis takes place mainly in the roots, where they are produced at extremely low
concentrations, i.e., in the pico‐ and nanomolar range, usually as a blend of molecules that is typical
of the species. The core biosynthetic module comprises an isomerase (D27) and two carotenoid
cleavage dioxygenases (CCD7 and CCD8) that sequentially act to convert β‐carotene to carlactone.
Downstream of carlactone, the pathway diversifies in different species, but one or more cytochrome
P450s along with oxidase(s) are thought to further convert carlactone to different strigolactones [5].
Originally, strigolactones were discovered as stimulatory compounds for seed germination of
root parasitic plants, such as Striga, after which they are named [6]. Later, they were recognized as
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pivotal host detection signals for symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi [7]. Only more
recently, strigolactones have been classified as a new class of plant hormones with key regulatory
roles in development [8]. Specifically, strigolactones can inhibit shoot branching and reproductive
maturity, promote leaf senescence and affect seed germination [9,10]. They were also suggested to
promote primary root growth, lateral and adventitious root formation and root hair development,
but with differences among plant species. Notably, in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, their role
has been recently disentangled from that played by the sibling pathway dependent on KARRIKIN
INSENSITIVE2 (KAI2) action [11]. The KAI2 receptor and its unidentified strigolactone‐like ligand
seem to be ultimately responsible for the regulation of root hair length and density under normal
growth conditions, while strigolactones regulate lateral root density [11]. Whether this is true also in
other species is not known at present. Because of their inducibility by low phosphorus (P) and, with
exceptions, by low nitrogen, strigolactones have been long thought to be involved in the responses
to nutrient deprivation, among other abiotic stresses [1,10,12–14]. Phosphorus deficiency can also
stimulate strigolactone exudation from the roots; this, in turn, is suggested to promote the
establishment of AM symbioses and thus, indirectly, relieve P stress [13].
Phosphorus is one of the essential macronutrients required by plants for their growth and
development [15], being a structural component of key biomolecules [16,17] and taking part in
primary cellular metabolic processes [15,18,19]. Therefore, whole‐plant growth is substantially
reduced or inhibited by P limitation [2]. It is noteworthy that P deficiency represents one of the major
restraints in agricultural production, as P in soil is one of the most immobile, inaccessible, and
unavailable among all nutrient elements [17,20]. Phosphorus is absorbed and assimilated by plants
as phosphate (Pi), which occurs at fairly low concentrations in the soil solution, typically in the 1–10
μM range [16,21–23]. This is because Pi tends to establish strong interactions with soil colloids
(mainly Fe and Al oxides), on which it can be almost irreversibly adsorbed or occluded [24]. The
concentrations of available P in soil can thus range from null to values that remain anyway well below
the critical level needed for optimal plant growth, which corresponds to tens of μM for the most
demanding species [23]. Different studies have underlined how slight variations of P concentration
during plant growth can bring about evident differences in the overall plant development [25].
Dramatic effects on root architecture are reported, for instance, when P available for plant uptake is
lower than 50 μM [26]. These effects are apparently dependent on the intensity of P deficiency [27,28].
Previous studies have indicated a major role for strigolactones as signaling molecules able to
trigger morphological, physiological and biochemical responses associated with plant acclimation to
P deficiency conditions [9,14,29]. In P‐starved A. thaliana plants especially, strigolactones have been
proposed to suppress bud outgrowth and shoot branching to reduce internal P utilization, while
initial reports have suggested that strigolactones promote lateral root development and root hair
formation to increase the root surface area in contact with soil, while inhibiting the primary root
growth [9,30]. In light of recent reassessment of the strigolactone role in shaping root morphology
under non‐stressful conditions, as mentioned above [11], these findings would require further
validation both in A. thaliana and in other plants for which the appropriate genetic tools are available.
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), beyond being a valuable crop worldwide, has become an
important model species for research on strigolactones. The blend of the major strigolactones
produced by this species has been determined [31,32] and the prompt increase of biosynthesis in roots
in response to P starvation is confirmed [31,33]. Furthermore, the shoot phenotype of strigolactone‐
depleted tomato plants is consistent with the conserved role of strigolactones in development [34–
36]. However, whether strigolactones affect morphological adjustments to P deprivation in tomato
has not yet been thoroughly investigated.
Based on the previous considerations, we hypothesized that the effect of P stress on root
architecture and morphology may be mediated by strigolactones in tomato. Therefore, the current
study aims at understanding the impact of strigolactones on macro‐ and microscopic root features,
as a response to P starvation in this plant. We first investigated the effect of exogenous strigolactone
on wild‐type plants under moderate P deprivation, and further contrasted a wild‐type with a
strigolactone‐depleted transgenic line, assessing primary and lateral root growth under conditions of
Plants 2020, 9, 612 3 of 17
continuous P deprivation — either complete or moderate. We then assessed the effects of
progressively decreasing P supply, to better mimic P availability to plants in field conditions. Finally,
we studied in detail the morphology and root tip anatomy of these genotypes under progressive P
deficit. Based on our results, we conclude that strigolactones may mediate macroscopic root
architecture changes induced by P deprivation, enhancing the traits that generally account for better
soil exploration, such as root number, length and volume. Additionally, strigolactones seem
responsible for changes in root anatomy, which relate to adjustments in root development under P
shortage.
2. Results
2.1. Exogenous Strigolactones Increase Primary Root Length and Lateral Root Number under Continuously
Low P Availability
As a first step to assess whether strigolactones affect root morphology depending on the P status,
we scored root biometrics on M82 seedlings grown in vitro in the presence or absence of 5 μM
exogenous strigolactone (in the form of the synthetic analogue rac‐GR24), under high and low P
conditions. No significant differences in primary root length were observed following treatment with
rac‐GR24 in high P seedlings; conversely, rac‐GR24 treatment significantly increased primary root
length of low‐P seedlings (Figure 1A). The lateral root number also increased in rac‐GR24‐treated
seedlings only at low P (Figure 1B). Accordingly, root fresh weight increased following strigolactone
treatment at low P compared to high P, rac‐GR24‐treated seedlings, suggesting that the effects of rac‐
GR24 treatment on root diameter depend on the P status (Figure 1C). No appreciable changes in shoot
biomass were observed under any condition (Figure 1D).
Figure 1. Main biometrics of two‐week‐old wild‐type (WT) seedlings grown either in a standard MS
(high P, HP) or in Pi‐deprived conditions (low P, LP), with (+ GR24) or without (− GR24) 5 μM rac‐
GR24: (A) primary root length; (B) number of lateral roots; (C) root fresh biomass; (D) shoot fresh
biomass. Each column represents the average of three (C,D) to six seedlings (A,B) with standard error.
Statistical significance of differences between means is indicated by different letters above bars (p ≤
0.05).
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2.2. Strigolactone Depletion Alters Primary and Lateral Root Growth under Continously High or No P
Conditions
In order to confirm data obtained with exogenous strigolactones, we contrasted the response of
a wild‐type genotype (M82) with a strigolactone‐depleted transgenic line grown under conditions of
zero P (no P addition) and high P (Figure 2A) using X‐ray computed tomography (CT). Differences
in root traits were evident between wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted plants, both under zero P
and high P conditions (Figures 2B–G). Total root length (Figure 2B) strongly correlated with the
average lateral root length (r2=0.995). Average lateral root length, root surface area, volume and
lateral root number (Figure 2B,C,E,F,G) followed a similar trend, whereby impairment of
strigolactone synthesis weakly decreased these parameters under both P regimes. On the contrary, in
this experimental set up, primary root length was not affected by impairment of strigolactone
biosynthesis under either P supply status (Figure 2D).
Figure 2. (A) Image of root architecture displayed by X‐ray CT; (B–G) Root growth‐associated
parameters of wild‐type (WT) and strigolactone‐depleted plants (SL–) grown for 10 days inside
columns filled with quartz sand and daily watered with modified Hoagland solution containing
either high P (HP) or no P (–P). Data represent the means of measurements on 3 independent
replicates per genotype and condition (± SE) obtained via X‐ray CT. Different letters above bars
indicate significant differences between treatments (p ≤ 0.05).
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2.3. Strigolactone Depletion Affects Root System Architecture of Plants Grown under Increasingly Severe P
Starvation
Constant P provision or sudden P unavailability may not be common conditions for plants in
field environments, as P availability in soils can be progressively reduced due to plant uptake or
fixation processes, eventually leading to P deficiency. Thus we set up an experiment where wild‐type
and strigolactone‐depleted plants were first grown in vitro for 10 days under low or high P supply;
then high P plants were transplanted to an agar medium with the same P concentration, while low‐
P plants were transplanted onto agar medium containing no P.
After 10 days of growth in low P, wild‐type plants displayed higher values of total root length
compared to strigolactone‐depleted plants (Figure 3A). No differences in root length were observed
between wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted plants under high P supply. This trend was similar as
for root surface area (although not significantly in this case, Figure 3B) and root tip number (Figure
3C). Root volume (Figure 3D) and diameter only significantly decreased in strigolactone‐depleted
plants under low P conditions with respect to high P (Figure 3E). No significant variation in lateral
root number was revealed between plants under any conditions (Figure 3F).
Figure 3. Root growth‐associated parameters of wild‐type (WT) and strigolactone‐depleted plants
(SL–) grown for 10 days in MS medium with either high P (HP) or low P (LP). (A) Root length; (B)
surface area; (C) tip number; (D) root volume; (E) root diameter; (F) lateral root number. Data
represent the means of 14 measurements per treatment (± SE) obtained via WinRHIZO. Different
letters above bars indicate significant differences between treatments (p ≤ 0.05).
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When wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted plants were transferred to new agar plates to either
maintain high P or further decrease low P to no P status (hereby called zero P), differences in root
traits became more prominent (Figure 4). Specifically, total root length of plants grown at zero P was
substantially lower in strigolactone‐depleted than in wild‐type while still no differences were
recorded between genotypes under high P (Figure 4A). The root tip number (Figure 4C) and the root
volume (Figure 4D) showed the same behavior, with values significantly increasing in wild‐type
plants under no P, but not in strigolactone‐depleted plants. This trend was similar for root surface
area, although with no significant differences in this case (Figure 4B). Differences were not significant
for root diameter (Figure 4E), while lateral root number decreased significantly in the strigolactone‐
depleted plants at zero P reinforcing a non‐significant trend observed also in wild‐type plants (Figure
4F). This suggests that acclimation to zero P (in terms of greater root volume and higher lateral root
number) is promoted by a period of growth on low P, and that such acclimation process is favored
by strigolactones.
Figure 4. Root growth‐associated parameters of wild‐type (WT) and strigolactone‐depleted plants
(SL–) grown for 10 days in MS medium with either high P or low P and further transferred for one
week to MS medium containing either high P (HP) or no P (–P), respectively. (A) Root length; (B)
surface area; (C) tip number; (D) root volume; (E) root diameter; (F) lateral root number. Data
represent the means of 3 measurements per treatment (± SE) obtained via WinRHIZO. Different letters
above bars indicate significant differences between treatments (p ≤ 0.05).
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2.4. Strigolactone Depletion Alters Root Tip Morphology and Anatomy under Different P Availability
As strigolactone depletion was shown to reduce root growth under low P availability, we
hypothesized that this may be linked to anatomical modifications. We thus analyzed root tip
morphology and anatomy in wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted plants grown under the same
experimental set‐up as in the previous experiment, i.e., either with high P or no P supply, in the latter
case after transfer from low P (acclimation period). The root tips of the wild‐type plants were similar
in shape, irrespective of P supply (Figures 5A,B), with abundant root hairs along the differentiation
zone without visible differences in length (Figures 5E,F). However, wild‐type plants seemingly
produced more root rhizodeposition at the area of cell division and along the elongation zone when
grown at zero P after an acclimation period on low P than when kept under high P conditions. This
is suggested by the more abundant rhizodeposition on the fine hairs of wild‐type plants under zero
vs high P (Figures 5A,B and Figure S1).
In strigolactone‐depleted plants, the undifferentiated zone of the root tip was shorter compared
to wild‐type plants, with a different shape compared to wild‐type plants and depending on P supply
(Figures 5A–D,K). Specifically, the root tip was clearly cone‐shaped in strigolactone‐depleted plants
under high P (Figures 5C,K), but club‐shaped and rounder under zero P (Figure 5D). Under zero P,
the root tip in strigolactone‐depleted plants was abundantly coated by root exudates and displayed
shorter root hairs (Figure 5H,J) compared with plants gown at high P (Figure 5G) and with wild‐type
plants under either P condition (Figures 5E,F,I). Conversely, root hairs in strigolactone‐depleted
plants were only slightly shorter compared to wild‐type plants under high P conditions, but their
density seemed to be higher than in the wild‐type under any condition and especially under zero P.
Figure 5. Root tip morphology of wild‐type (WT) and strigolactone‐depleted plants (SL–) grown for
10 days in MS medium with either high P or low P and further transferred for one week to MS medium
containing either high P (HP) or no P (–P), respectively. (A–D) Root primary morphology,
differentiation zone and tip of plants: (A) WT under HP (B) WT under –P (C) SL– under HP (D) SL–
under –P. (E–H) zoom‐in on the root differentiation zone of plants: (E) WT under HP (F) WT under –
P (G) SL– under HP (H) SL– under –P. (I) Higher magnification of WT HP differentiated root primary
structure; (K) Higher magnification of SL– –P differentiated root primary structure; (K) Higher
magnification of SL–HP root tip. Scale bars: 200μm (A–H); 1 mm (I–K).
Plants 2020, 9, 612 8 of 17
These observations were further confirmed by transmission light microscopy analyses (Figure
6, Figure 7). The root tips of wild‐type plants grown under high P conditions showed the expected
anatomical organization (Figure 6). The meristematic apex at the root tip consisted of small cells with
isodiametric shape and a large nucleus in the center. The meristematic zone was longitudinally
shorter compared to that observed at the root tip of P‐starved wild‐type plants. In the elongation
zone, cells showed juvenile characteristics with diffuse vacuolization suggesting ongoing
differentiation processes. In the differentiation zone, cells larger in size were evident, each one
enclosing a prominent central vacuole, which is a typical feature of adult cells (Figure 6, Figure 7B).
Phosphorus starvation caused anatomical changes in the root tips of wild‐type plants, such as the
extension of the meristematic zone along the longitudinal axis. This zone was, however, well
organized, characterized by typical small cells, each one with a large nucleus in the centre (Figures 6,
Figures 7C,D). In the elongation zone, cells maintained the nucleus in central position with several
vacuoles scattered in the cytoplasm, which is typical of cells that are differentiating, but are not yet
adult. The formation of large adult cells containing one or few vacuoles was clearly delayed
compared to wild‐type plants under high P conditions.
Figure 6. Light micrographs of longitudinally sectioned root tips of wild‐type (WT) and strigolactone‐
depleted plants (SL–) grown for 10 days in MS medium with either high P or low P and further
transferred for one week to MS medium containing either high P (HP) or no P (–P), respectively. In
WT HP plants, the postmitotic isodiametric growth zone is reduced in length compared to WT –P
plants, and the cells acquire an elongated shape closer to the apical meristem (am). In WT –P plants,
an extended postmitotic isodiametric growth, with cells maintaining their isodiametric shape, is
visible throughout the root tip. Note the wider root tip diameter compared to WT HP plants. In SL–
HP plants, note the root cap (rc) with cells enclosing several small vacuoles, the cone shape of the root
apex, and the maintenance of cells with meristematic features along the root longitudinal axis. Above
the apical meristem are many cells with isodiametric shape and several vacuoles scattered in the
cytoplasm. The root tip of SL– –P plants is swollen and displays high levels of disorganization. A
small apical meristem is visible in the center. Above it, most cells are elongated, with a large central
vacuole. Below it, cells are isodiametric with several small vacuoles.
Plants 2020, 9, 612 9 of 17
Figure 7. Light micrographs of selected areas of longitudinally sectioned root tips of wild‐type (WT)
and strigolactone‐depleted (SL–) plants grown as in Figures 5,6. High magnification images of (A) the
root apex (mc: meristematic cells) and (B) elongation/differentiation zones of WT HP plants (about
100 μm above the apical meristem); (C) the root apex and (D) elongation zone (about 200 μm above
the apical meristem) of WT –P plants. Cells have a big central nucleus (n), isodiametric shape, and
some are still dividing; (E) the root cap (rc) and (F) elongation zone (about 200 μm above the apical
meristem) of SL– HP plants. Note the presence of numerous vacuoles (v). The cells show very juvenile
characteristics, with large nuclei and numerous small vacuoles scattered in the cytoplasm; (G) the
root apex of SL– –P plants. Note the small cells enclosing numerous vacuoles in the root cap and
below the root apex; (H) the area about 100 μm above the apical meristem in SL– –P plants. Note the
transition from cells with several vacuoles to cells bigger in size with one central vacuole.
3. Discussion
In this study, we investigated the effects of strigolactones on root growth and architecture,
morphology and anatomy by comparing wild‐type and strigolactone‐treated or strigolactone‐
depleted tomato plants under different P supplies. We first examined the effects of the exogenous
application of rac‐GR24 on root development of wild‐type plants grown under either P‐sufficiency or
low P. Then, we assayed the effects of impaired strigolactone synthesis on architecture and anatomy
of roots adjusting to different P nutrition supply during growth.
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rac‐GR24 is the most widely used synthetic strigolactone analogue, with similar biological
activity to that of endogenous strigolactones [8,37]. In this study, rac‐GR24 application to wild‐type
tomato plants grown under P‐limiting conditions increased the primary root length and number of
lateral roots, and favored biomass allocation to the roots (Figure 1). Conversely, wild‐type plants
grown at high P were apparently not sensitive to exogenous rac‐GR24 with respect to such traits. rac‐
GR24‐induced root elongation was previously observed in tomato [35] and A. thaliana [38] plants, and
was ascribed to the increase in number and length of cells located in the root meristem and transition
zone, according to the auxin status of the plants [38,39]. In A. thaliana, primary root elongation was
accompanied with a decrease of lateral root density and delayed development [14,30,38]. In these
studies, strigolactones were proposed to act as modulators of the auxin flux, thus altering the auxin
optima for lateral root formation. Therefore, under low P conditions, changes in root system
architecture were attributed to increased sensitivity to auxin [38,39]. Interestingly, rac‐GR24
application was reported to determine not completely overlapping effects in P‐deprived rice plants,
where it decreases primary root length and increases lateral root density [40]. However, it is
noteworthy that P shortage inversely modulates these parameters in rice compared to A. thaliana, by
increasing primary root length and reducing lateral root density [40–42]. In both species, variation in
primary root length and lateral root density were ascribed to the (either promoting or inhibiting)
effects of strigolactones on auxin transport within the root [39,40,43]. In our study, we suppose that
exogenous rac‐GR24 may have acted in roots of tomato plants via a crosstalk with auxin similarly to
other species, and we suggest that, in tomato, strigolactones contribute to adjust those root traits that
may favor soil exploration under low P availability. Additional mechanisms governing strigolactones
effects on root development of tomato plants growing under P shortage, including the interaction of
strigolactones with key molecular players in the phosphate starvation response and/or other
phytohormones than auxins, cannot be excluded [1,11,44]. As a final note on this subset of data, it is
worth noting that the racemic mixture we employed contains two stereoisomers, one of which can
stimulate the KAI2‐dependent pathway in Arabidopsis [45]. This same pathway was recently proven
to influence specific root traits in this plant [11], with a possible confounding effect that is, however,
still unproven in tomato.
The important role of strigolactones in modifying root traits of tomato plants during acclimation
to P limiting conditions was also confirmed by the comparison between wild‐type and strigolactone‐
depleted plants grown with high P, no P, or low P levels. Plants continuously grown under no P since
soon after germination, as in the X‐ray CT experiment (Figure 2), had an overall less developed root
system; the typical responses to sudden or gradual P stress, such as decreased length of primary root,
increased lateral root length and topsoil foraging [21,46,47] were not visible in either genotype. This
apparent lack of response to nutritional stress both in the wild‐type and the strigolactone‐depleted
plants may be due to the fact that full root growth could not be supported in the complete absence of
P, hence preventing also meaningful morphological adjustments to stress in the wild‐type [25]. When
wild‐type plants were grown under low P conditions, instead, their total root length and tip number
were increased compared to wild‐type plants supplied with high P, as expected; such response was
not displayed by strigolactone‐depleted plants. Our experiments also indicate that, in tomato, low
strigolactone synthesis affects the ability of roots to respond to more gradual P decrease when plants
are transferred from low P to no P, i.e., when they are allowed to acclimate before being exposed to
complete P deprivation (Figure 4). Under these settings, a significant decrease in total root length was
observed in P‐starved strigolactone‐depleted plants compared to both strigolactone‐depleted plants
and wild‐type plants receiving high P. This decline was not due to less primary root elongation, but
rather to a decline in lateral root number and length. These results provide further evidence of the
role of strigolactones as regulators of lateral root formation and development, consistent with
observations reported in the A. thaliana strigolactone‐biosynthesis mutant max4‐1 [14]. As for
strigolactone‐dependent morphological responses at the root level reported in other plant species
[38,43], these may happen via the modulation of auxin fluxes and localized auxin levels along the
root axis of tomato as well.
Plants 2020, 9, 612 11 of 17
Root hair development is under hormonal control [48] and increasing the amount of root hairs
is a common strategy adopted by P‐deprived plants to enhance the capacity of their roots to explore
the rhizosphere for P scavenging [16,49]. A strigolactone‐auxin crosstalk has been proposed to
regulate root hair formation and elongation, with strigolactones triggering the increase in auxin
accumulation in root epidermal cells through modulation of auxin flux from the root [9,26,39,50].
However, these reports were reassessed recently, leading to the conclusion that the sibling pathway
initiated by KAI2 is instead responsible for root hair elongation in Arabidopsis [11]. Whether this holds
true in tomato as well has not been addressed. In this work, we observed that, in addition to the
reduction of lateral root growth (a trait that was confirmed to depend on strigolactones in
Arabidopsis), strigolactone‐depleted plants grown under P starvation exhibit a dramatic decrease in
root hair elongation compared to the wild‐type (Figure 5). Thus, we propose that lower strigolactone
levels in tomato roots prevent root hair elongation under P deficiency, possibly by altering auxin
levels in epidermal cells. It is noteworthy that, although root tips of strigolactone‐depleted, P‐
sufficient plants were characterized by only slightly shorter root hairs compared to wild‐type plants,
their density was apparently higher.
If, on the one hand, root hairs are important to increase the root surface area and the portion of
soil explored by roots, on the other hand root tips are of primary importance in nutrient sensing. The
physical contact with low‐P media is necessary to reprogram the whole root architecture [51,52], with
inorganic P itself acting as a signaling molecule [53]. Therefore, analyzing changes in root tip
morphology and anatomy could help in elucidating the overall plant response to nutrient stress.
Clear alterations of root tip anatomy in strigolactone‐depleted, P‐starved plants were visible (Figure
6,7), which may explain why these plants were less efficient in developing their roots under P
starvation when compared to the wild‐type. The root tip was indeed characterized by extensive cell
and tissue disorganization, possibly due to unbalanced levels not only of strigolactones, but also
other hormones known to control cell division and differentiation processes at the root apex [17].
Tomato seems hypersensitive to P‐limitation stress when strigolactone biosynthesis is reduced. This
hypothesis is supported by the observation that, in P‐sufficient plants, low strigolactones caused
moderate anatomical changes in the root tip, which were similar to those observed in wild‐type plants
shifted to no P supply after acclimation at low P. In the latter group, the root meristem was more
developed than in wild‐type controls under adequate P, thus indicating that division processes of
wild‐type plants were not affected by P deficiency under our experimental conditions, at least at the
root apex. Additionally, the processes of cell differentiation and maturation were clearly delayed
compared to wild‐type plants kept under high P. Instead, the root apex of strigolactone‐depleted
plants was markedly altered under P stress. Low strigolactone biosynthesis along with P starvation,
and complex cross‐talks of strigolactones with other hormone pathways could be responsible for such
observed alterations. Strigolactones indeed proved to promote crown root elongation by stimulating
meristematic cell division, via modulation of the local auxin concentrations controlling meristem cell
number [42]. Auxins could further interact with the cytokinin signaling pathway that impacts stem
cells patterning. The overall shape was different and peculiarly club‐shaped; the internal anatomy
showed some hallmarks of the determinate developmental reprogramme that is induced by P
starvation in Arabidopsis [54]. Previous studies have shown indeed that the rates of cell division at the
root meristem and of root cell elongation decrease in A. thaliana with decreasing P availability, and
concomitantly the number of cells within the elongation zone is reduced while precocious
differentiation and meristem reduction is observed [55].
The activity of meristems within a plant is tightly coordinated to optimize root growth in
response to environmental conditions and many mobile signals, including auxin, cytokinins, and
possibly strigolactones can modulate cell growth and differentiation, as well as meristem shape
[17,56]. Interestingly, strigolactone‐depleted plants under P‐replete conditions exhibited a cone‐
shaped root tip, coated by a prominent root cap formed by cells with diffuse vacuolization, which
could contribute to rhizodeposition. Intense rhizodeposition in strigolactone‐depleted plants was
most pronounced under P starvation, where root tips presented not only vacuole‐rich cells in the root
Plants 2020, 9, 612 12 of 17
cap but also below/around the apical meristem. Rhizodeposition seemingly was also greater in wild‐
type plants in P deprivation compared to non‐stressed wild‐type, as revealed by stereomicroscopy.
Despite the effects of defective strigolactone production combined with P starvation being clear
and consistent at the root level, differences between genotypes were in general not significant under
adequate P conditions. These results suggest that, at least when abundant P is available, strigolactone‐
depleted plants maintain their capacity to acquire P from the external medium to sustain their
growth.
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Plant Material
In this study, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) M82 was used (wild‐type) and contrasted with
line 6936, hereafter called strigolactone‐depleted [34]. In this genotype, the key strigolactone‐
biosynthetic gene SlCCD7 is knocked down by RNAi; production of the major strigolactones is thus
reduced by about 80%–90% with respect to its wild‐type M82. Both strigolactone‐depleted and M82
plants have been previously characterized in terms of strigolactone biosynthesis, shoot branching
and mycorrhiza‐induced apocarotenoid formation [34]. Plants were grown under different P
conditions and using different substrates, depending on the type of analysis performed, as described
below. In all experiments, seeds were surface sterilized in 70% (v/v) ethanol for 2 min, then in 3%
sodium hypochlorite for 20 min and washed five times for 10 min with deionized water. Unless
otherwise stated, seeds were pre‐germinated on wet Whatman filter paper in Petri dishes (10 cm
diameter) inside a growth chamber at 22 °C and in the dark for 4 days and then grown in growth
chambers with a 16/8 h light/dark cycle, air temperature of 22 °C and 50%–75% relative humidity
with a light intensity of 100 μmol m−2 s−1. P concentrations were chosen based on preliminary results
showing them to cause the most pronounced differences under each experimental set‐up.
4.2. Root System Architecture Changes in Response to Exogenous Application of the Synthetic Strigolactone
Analogue rac‐GR24
The dependence of root architecture features on strigolactone availability was studied in tomato
seedlings grown in vitro. Wild‐type seedlings were grown in square Petri dishes (12×12 cm)
containing either a full Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium [57] as a positive control (high P, 625 μM)
or a modified MS medium with low levels of KH2PO4 (low P, 6.25 μM). For each P condition, the
synthetic strigolactone analogue rac‐GR24 was dissolved in 0.1% acetone at 5 μM final concentration
(strigolactone‐treated groups) while comparable amounts of acetone solution were added to the
control groups for mock treatment. Pre‐germinated seeds of wild‐type plants were sown (6 seeds per
plate, 1 plate per treatment; each seedling a replicate) and the Petri dishes were placed vertically in a
walk‐in growth chamber. Two weeks after sowing, the length of the primary root and the number of
lateral roots were evaluated by scanning the plates and analyzing the images using the software
ImageJ. Fresh shoot and root biomass were also quantified at the end of the trials. To confirm results,
this experiment was repeated twice.
4.3. Root System Architecture Phenotyping of Wild‐Type and Strigolactone‐depleted Plants Grown under
Continuously High or No P Conditions
After germination, wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted seeds were transferred to columns (5
cm diameter × 12 cm height) containing quartz sand (< 1 mm) and placed inside a growth chamber
(Conviron A1000, Canada). Plants were watered daily with a modified Hoagland nutrient solution
containing either 80 μM KH2PO4 (high P) or no KH2PO4 (no P). After 10 days of growth, each column
was placed into the scanner (GE v|tome|x M 240 kV) and scanned using X‐ray energy settings of 140
kV and 160 μA, in “FAST” mode. Three individual scans were required to image the entire column
depth at a resolution of 35 μm. Scanned radiograph images were then reconstructed and combined
in DatosX REC software (GE Measurement & Control, Germany) and 3D images were visualized
with VGStudioMax v2.0 (Volume Graphics GmbH, Germany). The following root traits were
Plants 2020, 9, 612 13 of 17
recorded: total root length, primary root length, root surface area, root volume, average lateral root
length, root tip number (indicative of total root number). Root trait data were obtained with Rooth
software [58].
4.4. Root System Architecture Phenotyping of Wild‐Type and Strigolactone‐Depleted Plants Grown under
Increasing Levels of P Starvation
To evaluate the effect of increasing P nutritional stress on both root system architecture and
anatomy of wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted tomato plants, pre‐germinated seeds of the two
lines were transferred to square Petri dishes (10×10cm) filled with a modified half‐strength MS
medium [57], containing either high (80 μM) or low (10 μM) KH2PO4, at a density of 5 seeds per plate,
and allowed to grow for 10 days inside a growth chamber. Representative wild‐type and
strigolactone‐depleted plants grown under high or low P were then transferred for one week to sterile
boxes (13 cm length × 20 cm height × 2 cm depth), at a density of 3 plants per box, containing the same
MS medium as described previously, with either 80 μM KH2PO4 (high P) or no KH2PO4 (no P),
respectively. Specifically, wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted plants previously given with 80 μM
of KH2PO4 were grown under the same P concentration, while wild‐type and strigolactone‐depleted
plants initially treated with low P were transferred to MS medium without P. To obtain a full picture
of the root system, root scanning was performed using an Epson Expression 10000XL 1.0 system
(Regent Instruments Company, Canada) [59]. The following parameters were recorded with a root
image analysis system using the software WinRHIZO: Root length (cm), surface area (cm2), volume
(cm3), average diameter (mm), number of tips (referred to roots with a diameter < 2mm) and lateral
roots (referred to roots with a length varying from 0 to 4.5 cm).
4.5. Stereo and Light Microscopy
Roots were further analyzed via microscopy. The root tip of wild‐type and strigolactone‐
depleted plants initially grown with either high or low P and further transferred to either high P (80
μM KH2PO4) or no P (0 μM KH2PO4) were first subjected to observation under a stereo microscope
(Leica Microsystems). Root tip segments were collected for additional analyses of root anatomy, fixed
in 6% glutaraldehyde and processed for light microscopy as previously described [60]. Thin sections
(1 μm thick) were cut with an Ultracut Reichert‐Jung ultramicrotome, stained with 1% toluidine blue
and 1% tetraborate (1:1, v/v), and observed and photographed under a Leitz Ortholux microscope.
4.6. Statistics
For all datasets, the analysis of variance (one‐way ANOVA) was performed using the SPSS
software version 18.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA), and was followed by pair‐wise post‐hoc analyses
(Student–Newman–Keuls test) to determine which means differed significantly at p < 0.05 (± SD).
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, this work provides further evidence in support of the biological role of
strigolactones in mediating plant acclimation responses to P nutritional levels, and presents new
insights on their effects on the root system of tomato plants. Specifically, we show by pharmacological
and genetic means that, depending on whether plants are grown under totally P‐deprived conditions
or in suboptimal P levels, strigolactones significantly affect certain root traits, such as primary and
total root elongation, lateral root number, root volume and diameter, which all allow for enhanced
soil exploration by the roots (Figure 8). In particular, possibly due to unsustainable metabolic
limitations, complete P deprivation since germination impairs typical stress responses, with
strigolactone‐depleted plants drastically reducing their growth with respect to wild‐type. A period
of sub‐optimal P supply instead induces responses to P stress in wild‐type plants, while some features
of these responses are attenuated in strigolactone‐depleted plants. If P stress is imposed after an initial
acclimation period, these trait modifications are emphasized in wild‐type plants, while significantly
repressed in strigolactone‐deficient plants, similar to plants held under continuous P shortage.
Plants 2020, 9, 612 14 of 17
Phenotypic differences between the two genotypes were obvious both at the root morphology and
especially at the tip anatomy levels: hypersensitivity to P deprivation stress was clearly observed in
tips of strigolactone‐depleted roots, in terms of cell differentiation and tissue specification.
Figure 8. Conclusive conceptual summary. (1) Strigolactone (SL) analogue (rac‐GR24) application to
wild‐type (WT) tomato plants under low P promoted root morphological modification to favor P
acquisition; (2) the continuous growth under P stress (–P) limited root capacity to respond to P stress,
especially in the strigolactone‐depleted (SL–) plants; (3) under suboptimal P supply (LP), a detectable
role of SL in improving plants responses to P stress was highlighted: SL– plants showed an attenuated
capacity to respond to LP, for some specific features; (4) imposition of severe stress (no P, –P in the
scheme) after acclimation on LP revealed the inability of SL– plants to respond to P stress in the long
term, possibly because of root development impairment caused by the anatomical modifications
observed at the microscopic scale (5). Abbreviations: PR: primary root; TR: total root; LR: lateral root;
RV: root volume; RD: root diameter; RH: root hair.
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/2223‐7747/9/5/612/s1, Figure
S1: Root rhizodeposition (r) at the root tip (A) and at the differentiation zone (B) of P starved strigolactone‐
depleted plants. Note the short root hairs.
Funding: This research has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation
programme under grant agreement No 727929 (A novel and integrated approach to increase multiple and
combined stress tolerance in plants using tomato as a model—TOMRES).
Authors Contribution: Formal analysis, investigation: V.S., M.S., F.G., A.E., C.J.S.; resources, L.C., F.C., A.S.;
data curation, V.S., M.S., F.G.; writing—original draft preparation, V.S., M.S., F.G.; writing—review and editing,
L.C., F.C., A.S., C.J.S.; supervision, L.C., F.C., A.S., C.J.S.; funding acquisition: F.C., L.C., A.S. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank Dr. Christian Constán Aguilar and Prof. Francesca Dalla Vecchia
for experimental assistance.
Plants 2020, 9, 612 15 of 17
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.
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