MMW 0001 – 65 Mathematics in the Modern World

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Variables

Example: Rewriting a Universal Conditional

Statement

Fill the blanks to rewrite the following

statement:

Universal Conditional Statement.

a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square
Universal statements contain some _____.
variation of the words “for all” and b. For all nonzero real numbers x, _____.
conditional statements contain versions of
c. If x _____, then _____.
the words “if-then.” d. The square of any nonzero real number is
_____.
A universal conditional statement is a e. All nonzero real numbers have _____.
statement that is both universal and
conditional. SOLUTIONS
a. is positive
b. x2 is positive
c. is a nonzero real number, x2 is positive
d. positive
e. positive squares (or: squares that are
positive)

Example: Rewriting a Universal Existential

Universal Existential Statement. A Statement
universal existential statement is a
statement that is universal because its first Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following
part says that a certain property is true for statement: “Every pot has a lid.”
all objects of a given type, and it is
existential because its second part asserts a. All pots _____.
the existence of something. b. For all pots P, there is _____.
c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that _____.

SOLUTIONS
a. have lids
b. a lid for P
c. L is a lid for P
 Example: Rewriting an Existential Universal
Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following

statement in three different ways: “There is a
person in my class who is at least as old as every
Existential Universal Statement. An person in my class.”
existential universal statement is a
statement that is existential because its a. Some _____ is at least as old as _____.
first part asserts that a certain object b. There is a person p in my class such that p is
exists and is universal because its second _____.
part says that the object satisfies a certain c. There is a person p in my class with the
property for all things of a certain kind. property that for every person q in my class,
p is _____.

SOLUTIONS
a. person in my class; every person in my class
b. at least as old as every person in my class
c. at least as old as q
2.2 The Language of Sets

Example: Using the Set-Roster Notation

a. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2}, and C = {1, 1, 2,

3, 3, 3}. What are the elements of A, B, and
C? How are A, B, and C related?
b. Is {0} = 0?
c. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?
d. For each nonnegative integer n, let Un = {n,
-n). Find U1, U2, and U0.
Set-Roster Notation. A set may be
specified using the set-roster notation by
SOLUTIONS
writing all of its elements between
a. A, B, and C have exactly the same three
braces.
elements: 1, 2, and 3. Therefore, A, B, and C are
simply different ways to represent the same set.
b. {0} ≠ 0 because {0} is a set with one element,
namely 0, whereas 0 is just the symbol that
represents the number zero.
c. The set {1, {1}} has two elements: 1 and the
set whose only element is 1.
d. U1 = {1, -1}, U2 = {2, -2), U0 = {0, -0} = (0, 0} =
{0}

Example: Using the Set-Builder Notation

Set-Builder Notation. Let S denote a set
and let P(x) be a property that elements
Given that R denotes the set of all real numbers,
of S may or may not satisfy. We may
Z the set of all integers, and Z+ the set of all
define a new set to be the set of all
positive integers, describe each of the following
elements x in S such that P(X) is true.
sets:
We denote this set as follows:
a. { x ∈ R|−2< x<5 }
b. { x ∈ Z|−2< x< 5}
{ x ∈ S| P( x)}
c. ¿
 SOLUTIONS
a. { x ∈ R|−2< x<5 } is the open interval of real
numbers (strictly) between -2 and 5. It is
pictured as follows:

b. { x ∈ Z|−2< x< 5} is the set of all integers

(strictly) between -2 and 5. It is equal to the
set {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
c. Since all the integers in Z+ are positive, ¿ = {1,
2, 3, 4}

Example: Subsets

Let A = Z+, B = {n ∈ Z | 0 ≤ n ≤ 100}, and C = {100,

200, 300, 400, 500}. Evaluate the truth and falsity
of each of the following statements.

a. B ⊆ A
b. C is a proper subset of A
c. C and B have at least one element in common
d. C ⊆ B
Subset. If A and B are sets, then A is e. C ⊆ C
called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if and
only if, every element of A is also an SOLUTIONS
element of B. a. False. Zero is not a positive integer. Thus,
zero is in B but zero is not in A, and so B ⊈ A.
b. True. Each element in C is a positive integer
and, hence, is in A, but there are elements in
A that are not in C. For instance, 1 is in A and
not in C.
c. True. For example, 100 is in both C and B.
d. False. For example, 200 is in C but not in B.
e. True. Every element in C is in C. In general,
the definition of subset implies that all sets
are subsets of themselves.
 Example: Distinction between ∈ and ⊆

Which of the following are true statements?

a. 2 ∈ {1, 2, 3}
b. {2} ∈ {1, 2, 3}
c. 2 ⊆ [1, 2, 3}
d. {2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}
e. {2} ⊆ {{1}, {2}}
f. {2} ∈ {{1}, {2}}

SOLUTIONS
Only (a), (d), and (f) are true.

For (b) to be true, the set {1, 2, 3} would have to

contain the element {2}. But the only elements of
{1, 2, 3} are 1, 2, and 3, and 2 is not equal to {2}.
Hence, (b) is false.

For (c) to be true, the number 2 would have to

be a set and every element in the set 2 would
have to be an element of {1, 2, 3}. This is not the
case, so (c) is false.

For (e) to be true, every element in the set

containing only the number 2 would have to be
an element of the set whose elements are {1}
and {2}. But 2 is not equal to either {1} or {2}, and
so (e) is false.

Ordered Pair. Given elements a and b,

Example: Ordered Pairs
the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered
pair consisting of a and b together with
a. Is (1, 2) = (2, 1)?
the specification that a is the first
5 1
element of the pair and b is the second b. Is (3, ) = (√ 9 , )?
10 2
element. Two-ordered pairs (a, b) and (c,
c. What is the first element of (1, 1)?
d) are equal if, and only if, a = c and b = d.
SOLUTIONS
a. No. By definition of equality of ordered pairs,
(1, 2) = (2, 1) if, and only if, 1 = 2 and 2 = 1.
b. Yes. By definition of equality of ordered pairs,
5 1 5
(3, ) = (√ 9 , ) if, and only if, 3 = √ 9 and
10 2 10
1
= . Because these equations are both true,
2
the ordered pairs are equal.
c. In the ordered pair (1, 1), the first and the
second elements are both 1.
 Example: Cartesian Products

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}

a. Find A x B
b. Find B x A
c. Find B x B
d. How many elements are in A x B, B x A, and B
x B?
e. Let R denote the set of all real numbers.
Describe R x R.

SOLUTIONS
a. A x B = {(1, u), (2, u), (3, u), (1, v), (2, v), (3, v)}
Cartesian Product. Given sets A and B, b. B x A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}
the Cartesian product of A and B, c. B x B = {{u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}
denoted A x B and read “A cross B,” is the d. A x B has six elements. Note that this is the
set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a is in number of elements in A times the number of
A and b is in B. elements in B. B x A has six elements, the
number of elements in B times the number of
elements in A. B x B has four elements, the
number of elements in B times the number of
elements in B.
e. R x R is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) where
both x and y are real numbers. If horizontal and
vertical axes are drawn on a plane and a unit
length is marked off, then each ordered pair in R
x R corresponds to a unique point in the plane,
with the first and second elements of the pair
indicating, respectively, the horizontal and
vertical positions of the point. The term Cartesian
plane is often used to refer to a plane with this
coordinate system, as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
2.3 The Language of Relations and Functions
Relation. Let A and B be sets. A relation R Example: A Relation as a Subset
from A to B is a subset of A x B. Given an
ordered pair (x, y) in A x B, x is related to y Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a
by R, written x R y, if, and only if, (x, y) is in relation R from A to B as follows:
R. The set A is called the domain of R and
the set B is called its co-domain. Given any (x, y) ∈ A x B,

x− y
(x, y) ∈ R means that is an integer.
2

a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A

x B and which are in R.
b. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
c. What are the domain and co-domain of R?

SOLUTIONS
a. A x B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2,
3)}. To determine explicitly the composition
of R, examine each ordered pair in A x B to
see whether its elements satisfy the defining
condition for R.

1−1 0
(1, 1) ∈ R because = = 0, which is an integer.
2 2
1−2 −1
(1, 2) ∉ R because = , which is not an
2 2
integer.
1−3 −2
(1, 3) ∈ R because = = -1, which is an
2 2
integer.
2−1 1
(2, 1) ∉ R because = , which is not an
2 2
integer.
2−2 0
(2, 2) ∈ R because = = 0, which is an integer.
2 2
2−3 −1
(2, 3) ∉ R because = , which is not an
2 2
integer.

Thus, R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2)}.

b. Yes, 1 R 3 because (1, 3) ∈ R
No, 2 R 3 because (2, 3) ∉ R
Yes, 2 R 2 because (2, 2) ∈ R
c. The domain of R is {1, 2} and the co-domain
is {1, 2, 3}
Example: The Circle Relation

Define a relation C from R to R as follows: For

any (x, y) ∈ R x R.

(x, y) ∈ C means that x2 + y2 = 1.

−1 √3
a. Is (1, 0) ∈ C? Is (0, 0) ∈ C? Is ( , )∈
2 2
C? Is -2 C 0? Is 0 C (-1)? Is 1 C 1?
b. What are the domain and co-domain of
C?
c. Draw a graph for C by plotting the points
of C in the Cartesian plane.

SOLUTIONS
a. Yes, (1, 0) ∈ C because 12 + 02 = 1.
No, (0,0) ∉ C because 02 + 02 ≠ 1.
−1 √3 3
, ) ∈ C because ( )2 + ( √ )2
−1
Yes, (
2 2 2 2
= ¼ + ¾ = 1.
No, -2 ⊄ 0 because (-2)2 + 02 = 4 ≠ 1.
Yes, 0 ⊂ (-1) because 02 + (-1)2 ≠ 1.
No, 1 ⊄ 1 because 12 + 12 = 2 ≠ 1.
b. The domain and co-domain of C are both
R, the set of all real numbers.

c.
 Example: Arrow Diagrams of Relations

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 3, 5} and define

relations S and T from A to B as follows:

For all (x, y) ∈ A x B,

(x, y) ∈ S means that x < y S is a “less than”

relation.
T = {(2, 1), (2, 5)}

Draw arrow diagrams for S and T.

SOLUTION
Arrow Diagram of a Relation. Suppose R is
a relation from a set A to set B. The arrow
diagram for R is obtained as follows:

1. Represent the elements of A as points in

one region and the elements of B as points
in another region.
2. For each x in A and y in B, draw an arrow
from x to y if, and only if, x is related to y
by R.

These example relations illustrate that it is

possible to have several arrows coming out of
the same element of A pointing in different
directions. Also, it is quite possible to have an
element of A that does not have an arrow
coming out of it.
 Example: Functions and Relations on Finite
Sets

Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5}. Which of the

relations R, S, and T defined below are functions
from A to B?

a. R = {(2, 5), (4, 1), (4, 3), (6, 5)}

b. For all (x, y) ∈ A x B, (x, y) ∈ S means that y =
x+1
c. T is defined by the arrow diagram

Function. A function F from a set A to a set

B is a relation with domain A and co-
domain B that satisfies the following two
properties: SOLUTIONS
a. R is not a function because it does not satisfy
1. For every element x in A, there is an property (2). The ordered pairs (4, 1) and (4,
element y in B such that (x, y) ∈ F. 3) have the same first element but different
2. For all elements x in A and y and z in B, second elements. You can see this
if (x, y) ∈ F and (x, z) ∈ F, then y = z. graphically if you draw the arrow diagram
for R. There are two arrows coming out of 4:
One points to 1 and the other points to 3.

b. S is not a function because it does not satisfy

property (1). It is not true that every
element of A is the first element of an
ordered pair in S. For example, 6 ∈ A but
there is no y in B such that y = 6 + 1 = 7. You
can also see this graphically by drawing the
arrow diagram for S.
c. T is a function: Each element in {2, 4, 6} is
related to some element in {1, 3, 5} and no
element in {2, 4, 6} is related to more than
one element in {1, 3, 5}. When these
properties are stated in terms of the arrow
diagram, they become (1) there is an arrow
coming out of each element of the domain,
and (2) no element of the domain has more
than one arrow coming out of it. So, you can
write T (2) = 5, T (4) = 1, and T (6) = 1.

Example: Functions and Relations on Sets of

Real Numbers

a. In Example 2, the circle relation C was

defined as follows:

For all (x, y) ∈ R x R, (x, y) ∈ C means that x2

+ y2 = 1.

Is C a function? If it is, find C (0) and C (1).

b. Define a relation from R to R as follows:

For all (x, y) ∈ R x R, (x, y) ∈ L means that y =

x – 1.

Is L a function? If it is, find L (0) and L (1).

SOLUTION

a. The graph of C, shown below, indicates

that C does not satisfy either function
property. To see why C does not satisfy
property (1), observe that there are
many real numbers x such that (x, y) ∉ C
for any y.
For instance, when x = 2, there is no real number y so that

x2 + y2 = 22 + y2 = 4 + y2 = 1

because if there were, then it would have to be true that

y2 = -3.

Which is not the case for any real number y.

To see why C does not satisfy property (2), note that for some values of x there are two
distinct values of y so that (x, y) ∈ C. One way to see this graphically is to observe that there
1 1 √3
are vertical lines, such as x = , that intersect the graph of C at two separate points: ( , )
2 2 2
1 √3
and ( ,− ).
2 2

b. L is a function. For each real number x, y¸= x – 1 is a real number, and so there is a real
number y with (x, y) ∈ L. Also, if (x, y) ∈ L and (x, z) ∈ L, then y = x – 1 and z = x – 1, and so
y = z. In particular, L (0) = 0 – 1 = -1 and L (1) = 1 – 1 = 0…

You can also check these results by inspecting the graph of L, shown below. Note that for
every real number x, the vertical line through (x, 0) passes through the graph of L exactly
once. This indicates both that every real number x is the first element of an ordered pair in L
and also that no two distinct ordered pairs in L have the same first element.
 Example: Equality of Functions

Define f : R  R and g : R  R by the following

formulas:

f(x) = |x| for all x ∈ R.

Equality of Functions. If f and g are
g(x) = √ x2 for all x ∈ R.
functions from a set A to a set B then f =
{(x, y) ∈ A x B | y = f(x)} and g = {(x, y) ∈ A x
Does f = g?
B | y = g(x)}. It follows that f equals g,
written f = g¸ if, and only if, f(x) = g(x) for
SOLUTION
all x in A.
Yes. Because the absolute value of any real
number equals the square root of its square, |x|
= √ x2 for all x ∈ R. Hence, f = g.