AW1 Workbook 2014

Academic Writing 1
!!!!!!!!
!!!
!
!Information!Gathering,!!Processing and Production
STUDENTS’
WORKBOOK
4th
Edition
© Judith Orogun, Clover Jones

McKenzie
Lois Kirton, Desiree Bernard

Johnson
2014
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without written
permission from the authors.
Printed in Kingston, Jamaica, 2014

Acknowledgements
Writing and publishing this workbook took much hard work, dedication
and voluntary time commitment of the authors. However, this would have
been more difficult to achieve without the valuable support of many
others.
We thank God for sustaining us through some challenging periods in the

writing and production phase of this project.
• To our spouses, children and other family members who

supported us and assumed some additional responsibilities at
home, while the workbook was being written and finalized, we
are grateful.
• To Audene Henry--‐Harvey for contribution to the first edition of this

workbook, we say thanks.
• To Esmine Lundy for contribution to the first and second editions

of this workbook, we say thanks.
• To the reviewers who provided valuable comments on structure and

organization of the workbook, thanks.
• To our colleagues and friends who provided insight, encouragement

and other forms of support, we say thanks.
Judith Orogun
Clover Jones McKenzie
Lois Kirton
Desiree Bernard--‐Johnson
!Table!of!Content!
!
Welcome!Message! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!!!1!
!
Unit%1%
The%Basics%of%Message%Production% .! .! .! .! .! .! .!!!2!
Human!Communication! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!!!3!
The!Communication!Process!!.! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!!!5!!
Interrelated!Language!Skills! ! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!!!8!
Factors!which!enhance/hinder!message!production!.! .! .! .! .!10!
!
Unit%2%
Producing%Grammatical%Messages%in%Standard%English! .! .! .! .!26!
Language!varieties!within!the!Jamaican!context! .! .! .! .! .!31!
Features!of!Jamaican!Creole!and!Standard!Jamaican!English! .! .! .!36!
Additional!Problems!in!Language!use!.! .! .! .! .! .! .!57!
%
Unit%3%
Producing%Expository%Essays! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!58!
Characteristics!of!Expository!Messages! .! .! .! .! .! .!59!
Rhetorical!Strategies!for!Organizing!Expository!Messages! .! .! .! .!61!
The!Writing!Process!in!Message!Production! .! .! .! .! .! .!68!
! PreTWriting! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!70!
! Drafting/Writing! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!76!
! Assessing!and!Editing/ReTWriting! .! .! .! .! .! .!76!
Developing!Effective!Thesis!Statements! .! .! .! .! .! .!77!
Parts!of!the!Expository!Essay! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!! .!79!
!
Unit%4%
Planning%the%Academic%Expository%Essay% .% .% .% .% .%% .%85!
Acquiring!Information!.! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!! .!86!
Types!of!Sources! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!86!
Strategies!for!extracting!meaning!from!written!sources! .! .! .! .!90!
Comprehension!Skills! .! .! .! .! .! .!! .!90!
Summarizing!information!from!written!sources!! .! .! .!98!
Synthesizing!Information! .! .! .! .! .!!!!!!!!!!!!115!
Strategies!for!Writing!the!Expository!Sentence!Outline!! .! .! .!!!!!!!!!!!!121!
Guidelines!for!Preparing!the!Reference!List! .! .! .! .!!!!!!!!!!!!.! 123!
!
Unit%5%
Writing%the%Academic%Expository%Essay! .! .! .! .! .!!!!!!!!!!!!125!
Ways!of!Citing!Sources! .! .! .! .! .! .! .!!!!!!!!!!!!125!
Welcome to Academic Writing 1
Welcome to Academic Writing 1, a module that will significantly impact on
your academic performance at the University of Technology, Jamaica and even
after graduation. Effective communication is rated very highly within academic,
professional and business settings. Hence this module is designed to assist
secondary school graduates, as well as working adults, to improve their capacity
to effectively communicate within formal contexts. The module introduces
students to the formal message production process, with emphasis on exposition.
Since language use depends on a set of skills, which involves receiving and
transmitting messages, and English is the official language of Jamaica, the focus
of this module is on improving your ability to access, process and generate
information in Standard English. In order to achieve this purpose, it is necessary
to concentrate on the inter-relatedness of the receptive and expressive skills
within a framework of student-centred learning. Thus this module places strong
emphasis on activities that will allow you, the learner, to perform tasks that will
lead to an improvement in your listening, reading, speaking and writing skills.
Strong focus, however, will be on writing.
Remember that while there is usually some theory behind how things work, for
example, how to drive a car or bake a cake, much more is gained from actually
practising the activity. While language use is considered skill development, it is
far more complex than driving a car or baking a cake; it demands greater time
and effort. Consequently, it will be your responsibility, as adult learners, to do all
within your power, both in and out-of-class to maximize all that this module can
offer. You will mainly determine the level of skill development you achieve.
Judith Orogun
August 2014
School of Humanities and Social Sciences August 2014 Page 1
UNIT ONE
THE BASICS OF MESSAGE PRODUCTION
Introduction
Persons speak so effortlessly in their native languages that they may not
recognize the complexities of human communication. When one considers the
fact that children, once there are no problems interfering with language
development, appear to effortlessly learn to speak a language, there seems to be
no big deal about receiving or passing on messages. But is it really that simple?
Think about when you are asked to answer questions in class or at an interview,
provide directions to someone who is completely unfamiliar with the location of
their intended destination, or convince someone, or an institution, to give you a
loan. Could these all be considered simple tasks? In answering this question,
one would have to consider a number of factors. This Unit provides the
opportunity for an exploration of some of these considerations.
About this Unit
Unit One seeks to highlight the fact that effective communication, especially
within formal contexts, is far more complicated than some persons may realize.
It briefly examines communication as a process, which involves a number of
steps. Since the module focuses on writing, one of the four communication skills,
the unit also provides details on the writing process. The Unit ends with an
attempt to highlight the significance of knowledge of the communication and
writing processes.
Guiding Questions
1. What is involved in human communication?

2. What are the features of the communication process?
3. What are some of the hindrances to and enhancers of effective

communication?
4. How does knowledge of the elements and steps in the communication

processes assist the communicator?
What is involved in Human Communication?

Communication at its most basic definition is the giving and receiving of
messages. Once a message is being sent and received, communication is
occurring. This definition suggests that various things within the environment
send messages. Traffic lights, clouds, a yellowing lawn, a trail of ants and odours
all provide some type of information. However, humans are the ones who have
attached meanings to these signs. Trees and odours have not devised their own
communication systems.
Animals, including dogs, cats and bees also send and receive messages. You can
tell when a dog is excited, hurt or sees a possible competitor. No sane person
would go near a dog that is snarling and baring its teeth in a threatening
manner. However, is animal and human communication the same? Can you
name the similarities and differences?
Activity 1 Animal Versus Human Communication

Identify some of the differences between animal and human communication.
1 ___________________________________________________________________
2 ___________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________

An examination of the nature of human communication will assist in
understanding how complex this task can be. Human
beings use various means of communicating their
thoughts, feelings, ideas, knowledge or desire about
matters that affect others and them. These methods
include writing, speaking, gesticulating, or the using
of symbols. Humans can also use different languages
and can communicate a variety of ideas on a single
concept across varying time lines (past, present, future, conditional). Animal
communication does not include all of these features. The following table shows
some of the main differences between human and animal communication.
Compare the listed items with your responses in Activity 1.
Differences between Animal and Human Communication
Animal Communication Human Communication

Arbitrary yet complex rule governed
Non-arbitrary systems
Context specific Has displacement feature
Has restricted patterns Unlimited possibilities/ recursive
Each human system is learnable by
Species specific other human beings
Adapted from University of Technology, Jamaica (2009), Language and Communication. (Online Module)
Successful Communication
In passing on messages, humans also have to be concerned with the successful reception of
the message. If the person for whom the message is intended does not understand it, then
communication was not successful. Communication is a two-sided activity; it involves
transmitting thoughts, ideas and emotions to another person or other people, as well as
ensuring that the listener has understood what was said by paying attention to the message
being transmitted by the receiver. Both the receiver and the sender have to perform various
activities to ensure that the interaction is successful. Due to the nature of communication, it
cannot be seen as a simple, straight-lined activity. Instead, communication is seen as a

process that involves making choices about the creation and presentation of the message,
based on certain factors. The diagram on the previous page, therefore, does not present the
complete picture of the communication process.
What are the Features of the Communication Process?

1. Elements
Communication is described as a process because it involves a series of steps,
each of which impacts and is impacted by the other. For communication to be
effective, especially within the formal context, the steps in the process must be
efficiently carried out. In order to do this, one must have some knowledge of
what is involved in the process. This awareness building should start with the
elements, which include the following.
• Sender • Feedback
• Receiver • Noise/Barrier
• Message • Channel and Medium
• Context
Activity 2 Elements in the Communication Process
Place the correct element from the list above beside each of the following.
1. The method used to pass on the message _____________
2. Thing that can interfere with the reception of the message _____________
3. Verbal or non-verbal reaction to what is seen or heard _____________
4. Information about a topic _____________
5. The individual transmitting the message _____________
6. Physical, psychological and social setting _____________
7. The person to whom the message is directed _____________

2. The Steps in the Communication Process
While knowledge of the elements

will be helpful, it is useless
without an awareness of how the
process works. This means that
attention must be paid to the role
of each element and the tasks that
have to be performed. As expected,
the sender and receiver will be
performing different actions as
indicated in the diagram to the
right. Learn a little more about the tasks to be done both the sender and the
receiver by completing Activity 3.
Activity 3A Steps in the Communication Process
Use the clues on the left, along with vocabulary items in the diagram under
the Steps in the Communication to complete the “Find the Word” puzzle on the
right. Write the word on the space provided.
Clues M N O I S E S O C T
1. Give meaning to sounds or symbols U 1 N T E R P R E T

____________
2. The type of system through which the I C U C H A N N E L
message will be sent ____________
D A I E T N N
3. The specific instrument used to pass on
the message ____________ E D O C E D L I O P
4. To work out the exact meaning of a
message _____________ M K C A B D E E F Z
5. Response given to a message _________
6. Place message in a form which will 7. Things that may interfere with message
allow for transmission _____________ reception ________________

Activity 3B Steps in the Communication Process
1. Use the remaining letters to spell the name of one of the tasks to be
carried out by the sender.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Describe what this task would involve.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Barriers to Effective Communication

Included in the diagram of the communication process (page 6 of this text), is the
notion of noise. Think of a situation in which you are trying to listen to a lecture
but someone is mowing the lawn outside or there are mosquitoes in the room
trying to get at your arms or legs, or your stomach is growling from hunger.
These things will impact your ability to listen well. So too will being unable to
read the material if the message is given in a language you do not speak, the
information is poorly organized or there are many grammatical errors in the
message. Anything that interferes with, or forms a barrier against, the
successful transmission and reception of the message is referred to as noise.
Noise can originate from the sender, receiver or environment. The sender
creates noise when the message has flaws in its production or delivery. However,
the receiver may also block effective reception by mentally shutting out the
message, for example, when the topic is deemed to be boring or the subject
matter is seen as being too difficult. Sometimes, the receiver may really want to
pay attention to the message, but is suffering from psychological trauma, stress
or other physical problems. Environmental barriers may include external noises,
such as persons speaking loudly nearby and the room being too hot or cold.

Activity 4 Barriers to Effective Communication
1. Describe a situation where noises or barriers to effective message reception

prevented you from concentrating on or understanding a message. Be
sure to name the barriers.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Describe a situation in which someone had difficulty understanding your

message. Identify the type of noise that existed.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Language Skills and the Communication Process
Effective communication involves the receiving and sending of information.

Implicit in these activities is the use of language skills. To be more precise,
getting information is related to the receptive skills of listening and reading. On
the other hand, the giving of information involves reading and writing. In the
same way that the sender and receiver roles are interdependent, so too are the
two sets of language skills. In order to improve your ability to communicate
effectively, you must possess efficient receptive and expressive skills, as one set
of skills cannot be developed without the other.
Interrelatedness of Language Skills
As mentioned on page 8, language skills can be broadly divided into two

categories: receptive (reading and listening) and expressive (writing and
speaking).
Linguists generally agree that our ability to speak and write well is dependent
on our ability to listen and read effectively. A student who is able to listen well is
more likely to speak well and one who reads well is more likely to write better
than those who are less skilled readers.
Receptive Skills
The first step in the communication process: conceptualization involves

thinking about what one wants to say and then developing the message or idea to
be transmitted. Very often, our knowledge of a topic will not be sufficient to
create effective messages. In such instances, it is natural to expect that effort
will be made to acquire as much information as possible, so one can produce a
sensible and effective message. If an effort is not made to source relevant
information, communication will not be effective. Also, in order to provide
responsible feedback or to benefit from feedback that you receive in a
communication process, you sometimes need to have background information.
At the tertiary level, what you think you know about a topic is often not
sufficient. You will have to listen to others attentively. You may also have to
read the ideas of others and consider all of these in developing your own
messages. Speaking and writing at this level are demanding tasks. The good
news, however, is that there are strategies that can be used to enhance your
receptive skills. Persons who want to be seen as being educated should be able to
gather and process information from a variety of sources. The greater your
capacity to access information, the more likely it is that you will become better
writers and speakers.
Does lack of background knowledge affect understanding?

Activity 5 Usefulness of Receptive Skills
Think of a time when you could not understand what your lecturer or someone
else was saying because you did not have background knowledge of the topic.
Briefly describe the situation and say how it made you feel?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Factors that may Enhance or Hinder Message Reception
Communication has always been a very important part of living. In fact human
civilization would not survive if we had no way to communicate. We realize
therefore that the importance of communication cannot be overstated, especially
with the rapid growth of technology that has placed us in a virtual global village
where we interact and communicate continuously with others within and outside
of our own cultures and languages. Your survival, and ultimately your success in
college and beyond, will depend to a great extent on your becoming adept at
transmitting clear messages in fulfilling your college requirements, and at
understanding information that is being communicated to you by those involved
in your academic development. What are some factors, therefore, that will help
you to understand how to receive and send clear messages? Some of these factors
are discussed in the following section.
1. Nonverbal Factors and Para-language
When we attempt to communicate or when others attempt to communicate

with us, we must take into consideration not just the language and speech
that they will use, but we must also be aware of non-language factors that

may help us to understand or help others to understand the message being
sent. One non-language factor is our body and the way we use it to express
ourselves, consciously or subconsciously. We must therefore make ourselves
aware of the following
A. Nonverbal Factors
• Body Language
• Making Eye Contact,
• Body Posture.
B. Para-verbal communication
• Voice pitch
• Tone and rate of speech
• Particular stresses on certain syllables
Can you say how the above factors would impact message reception?
2. Verbal Factors
Verbal factors are highly important to your efforts at having your message
received in an effective manner. Verbal factors influence both writing and
speaking contexts in which you seek to convey your message. You must
therefore pay great attention to those verbal aspects of communication, which
are indicated below.
Language style, grammar and word choice. These elements help control
the message being presented, greatly affecting the quality and formation of
the message. Remember that the style of language you will use is dependent
on your style. It is the way in which you choose to formulate the language at
your disposal. You may liken language style to your own personal style of how
you choose to dress; the type of clothes you find attractive, the combination of
colours you choose and the way you seek to present them to the world. This is

your style. In much the same way your choice of language, the way you
combine the words and present them to the world is your style of either
writing or speaking. If your style is attractive, is ‘coloured’ with appropriate
vocabulary and is effectively ‘dressed’ up in correct grammar then it is quite
likely that your audience will be eager to receive your message. Be aware that
as you become more experienced in both speaking and writing effectively,
choosing the most suitable words and using correct grammar, your style may
be modified or changed.
One way in which style change may manifest itself is how you will choose to
present and order the ideas you are presenting. In conveying your message,
consider that it is important to get your ideas across in manageable chunks.
Many times we load our sentences and our paragraphs with too many ideas
and this makes it difficult for our audience to ‘swallow’ all at one time.
Concentrate therefore on ‘feeding’ your audience ‘bite sized’ information. To
demonstrate this, look at the following two ways of reporting the same
information:
Compare these two examples of the same story. Notice how version A tries to
pack all the ideas into one sentence, whereas version B splits them into three
separate sentences:
Story A
Four aircraft passengers, the pilot and three people travelling in a car
were killed when a twin-engined Beechcraft Baron aircraft hit an electric
power line and crashed near Nadi airport this week.
Story B
Eight people died when an aircraft crashed near Nadi airport this week.
The pilot and four passengers died when their twin-engined Beechcraft
Baron hit a power line. The plane then crashed into a car on a road near
the airport, killing three more people.

Notice that, although Story B is 12 words longer than Story A, it is split into
three sentences. None of the sentences in Story B is longer than 20 words. Get
someone to read both stories out loud to you, and you will quickly see that Story
B is easier to understand.
The reason is simple. Story A contains six separate ideas for the reader or
listener to understand at one time:
1. the people in the plane; 4. the cause of the crash;
2. the people in the car; 5. the location of the crash;
3. the type of plane; 6. the time of the crash
Story B, by comparison, has fewer ideas in each sentence. The first sentence has
just four simple ideas:
1. the total number of dead;
2. a simple description of the type of plane;
3. when it crashed.
The second sentence tells us:

1. how many died in the plane;
2. the exact type of plane;
3. the exact cause of the crash.
The third sentence tells us:

1. how the people in the car died;
2. where the car was;
3. how many died in the car.
(Taken from: The News Manual

http://thenewsmanual.net/Manuals%20Volume%201/volume1_10.htm)

• Effective word organization and choice can increase the clarity and
effectiveness of your message through formal and informal cues
contained within the language. There are some words that are the same
words but mean different things to different people: this is a
common barrier, and it may be experienced whenever any two people
attempt to communicate.
For example, to me the temperature in my office may be ‘quite

comfortable’. My ‘quite comfortable,’ may however be uncomfortable
to you. 80 degrees may be comfortable for me while 90 degrees is
comfortable for you.
Or
I may say to a friend that I want a ‘couple’ of the mangoes, but

mean that I want a few (more than two), that is four or five.
Someone from another culture would however understand it to
mean ‘two’.
• There are different words that sometimes mean the same thing. There are
many things called by more than one name as seen in the example below.
For example ‘soft drink’ ‘soda’ and ‘pop’ are names applied to the same
fizzy drink retailed in bottles. The name used depends on the setting and
the culture of the user. Think about the many things that are called by
different names in the English Language. Approximately the 500 most
commonly used words have about 15,000 definitions, 30 per word (The
Process of Listening).

Activity 6
Choose a word and supply as many synonyms (same meanings) that you
can think of for this word.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
• Tone
This feature refers to the attitude that the reader/listener “hears” when
from the message. It speaks to the way the sender is perceived to be
feeling towards the reader or the subject matter. Is there anger,
indifference, seriousness, lack of trust or rudeness? The word choice as
well as content and strategies used will impact the tone of the message.
3. Contextual Factors:
• These are conditions, which precede or surround the communication in

transmitting your message. You need to give consideration to the
events/factors that come before and after what you have to communicate.
These factors also influence the meaning of your message. You therefore
have to be aware of the context/setting within which you are speaking and
sending your message. This is also important in the case of written
communications where your audience’s understanding of your message may
depend upon the statements preceding and following the actual kernel
(essence) of the message you are sending. In using contextual cues your

audience will be practicing the use of literal or implied meanings to help
understand messages.
To help you to understand how this works you may want to answer the
following questions when you are receiving or sending your information:
When you are the receiver:

• Do I understand the context or background in which the message is
being sent?
• Am I aware of the nuances (cultural and otherwise) that may be
influencing the meaning of the message?
When you are the sender:
• Am I aware of the cultural nuances of the context
• Am I explicit in what I am saying?
• Do I make my words speak for themselves?
4. Factors within the receiver. If your audience is relatively free from illness,
stress, fatigue, is comfortable, has the right attitude and is properly prepared
for receiving the message you are transmitting then chances are that you will
be more effective in getting your ideas across. Take into consideration the
features that are listed below which may positively impact the receptivity of
your message:
• Interest of the receiver

• Positive attitude to the sender: respect, admiration, liking for the sender
• Receiver ‘tuned into’ the sender: active listening or reading
• Attendance to the message
5. Mutual understanding/comprehension
• When the sender and the receiver share meanings for the symbols (words,
verbal or non-verbal) that are used, this enhances the receptivity of your

message. A good communicator will want to keep the audience in the ‘loop’.
Mutual understanding of the denotative and connotative (associative)
meanings of words used in the communication process is important for your
audience and you. When you are on the ‘same page’ communication becomes
more effective. Sometimes understanding the message becomes difficult
when we use language, which is culture or age specific. Some of these
include slangs and idiomatic expressions.
For example if you say to one of your peers, “buil’ nuh, Miss!” an older
person may find it difficult to understand what you are talking about.
Activity 7 Enhancing the Communication Process
List three expressions, which you have found to make a speaker’s

or writer’s message difficult to understand.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Below are some features that will help to enhance the

receptivity of your message.
• A clearly composed message that has relevant content
• Proper organization and support for the message
• Interest of the sender
• Knowledge and expertise of the sender

Planning
By now, you should be recognizing that message construction just cannot be done
on the spur of the moment, especially at the academic and professional levels.
Some amount of planning has to be done. Planning is a word with which we are
all familiar. Is there anything we can do without planning? Even some of the
most basic things we do in life, such as cooking, hosting a party, organizing a day
out with friends or completing an assignment, require planning. The basic steps
that we have to consider in the planning stages, often determine the degree of
success to be attained upon completion of the activity, event or thing. For
example, if you want to plan a day out with friends, you will have to consider
some of the following.
• What can we do?

• Where should we go?
• Why should we go there?
• What can we do there?
• How many of us need to go to make the most out of the experience?
As basic as these questions may seem, ignoring them could result in either an
absence of the trip, or a situation where you go and you do not have fun because
some things did not quite work right. Let us apply this planning process to the
basics of message production. Before we speak or write, we need to determine:
• what we want to say or write – the message

• who we want to speak or write to – the audience
• why we want to way or write it – the purpose
• when and how we want to say or write it – the context
The role of audience, purpose and context in effective communication
As already explained, we cannot construct a message without paying attention to

“who” the message is meant for, why the message is constructed and the context

in which we will use the message; that is, when and how should we deliver this
message? If we do not pay enough attention to these questions, some things can
potentially go wrong and that can defeat the whole essence of the message. For
messages to achieve their purpose we have to pay keen attention to the
audience – the person for whom the message is built – to ensure that the person
understands and gives us feedback that confirms the message did what it was
supposed to do.
When speaking to, or writing for small children, our style, vocabulary and even
layout will be presented in such a way that it will appeal to children so they can
understand what we want to say. However, if we were to make a presentation to
the Governor General, we will have to be formal both in our outlook and
language, as the position this office represents, requires us to communicate in a
highly formal and respectful manner.
The way you speak to your parents will differ from the way you speak to your
friends and also different from the way you speak to your lecturers. The way you
write is different from the way you speak. Similarly, the way you write a text
message is different from the way you write an essay. Tone plays a major role in
message production. Explain why you think this is so, in Activity 8.
Activity 8 Audience and Tone

1. Explain what is meant by “tone” as used in the final paragraph above
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the relationship between audience and the use of appropriate tone.
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Use the following details to construct two sets of messages, one for the
lecturer versus one for a friend.
• I have no bus fare

• I cannot attend classes today
• I have an assignment that is due today
• I will ask for time
Lecturer
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Friend
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Determining the message (Content)
Oftentimes, we speak and then regret what we have said. This can sometimes
happen when we have not given enough thought to what we want to say. Can
you recall a time when this happened to you? If we are honest, it has probably
happened to all of us at one time or another. The more we get involved with
higher education, the more we come to realize that it is extremely important for
our messages to convey exactly what we want to say and to do so just how we
want to say it.
It is important that we package a message in the most appropriate way so that

the purpose of communication is served. This is why it is crucial that the
purpose of the message is clear. If you want to educate someone on how to eat
right, you cannot, for example, be attacking the person by criticizing the way
they eat. This may become a barrier to the reception of the message. Framing
the message effectively is important because there are implications for those who
will receive the message, and sometimes for the sender as well. For example,
suppose I want to communicate to you, that you are too casual with your studies.
I could say it in a few ways. Consider the following and see what your response
will be like, to each of them.
i. At the rate you are going you will fail this module and maybe even other
courses, because you are too casual about your studies.
ii. I have observed that you are taking your work a bit too casually. If you
consider the reason for which you are here, you need to work harder and
more consistently, if your time at university is to have any value.

Activity 9 Message Generation
Explain how (i) differs from (ii).
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
To which of them are you more likely to respond positively? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
The Context
Like audience, the context, or situation, in which the communication act is
taking place, significantly impacts on the effective construction and transmission
of the message. The sender must ask the following questions.
• Where will I be delivering the message?

• What are the culture of or requirements for this type of situation?
• At what time of day or month will the message be delivered?
At the tertiary and professional levels, formal messages that fit certain criteria
are required. To produce messages at the academic level, you have to become
familiar with the features of academic writing, for example. Consult the
following online text named in Activity 10 for information on the characteristics
of academic writing, and then complete the activity.

Activity 10 The Features of Academic Writing
Consult the following text, then list some of the features of academic writing.
http://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/academic-writing-e-book.php
1._________________________________________________________________
2._________________________________________________________________
3._________________________________________________________________
4._________________________________________________________________
5. _________________________________________________________________
6. _________________________________________________________________
The Usefulness of Knowledge of the Features of the Communication

Process
Commanding effective communication skills often spells the difference between

the average person and the individual who succeeds at assigned tasks. The
communication process helps us to understand the factors at play whenever we
have to communicate. It also enables us to understand how to manipulate the
process to achieve our goals. For example, knowing what is involved in encoding
a message, determining the best channel to deliver the message and the receiver,
will better prepare us to construct messages so that they achieve their purpose.
Communication is so vital to life that some persons have argued that without
communication, life would not exist. As unreal as this might sound, it seems
logical that if you have an idea and there is no way of demonstrating that you
have it, no one will know of its existence. What would happen if there were no
means of passing on ideas in medicine and technology? Would we still all be
alive? Would there be smartphones, cars and video games? The sure way to
transfer information is to communicate it in one form or another, in acceptable
ways given the context in which the communication is taking place.
The various elements of communication must work together if communication is

to be effective. For example, if you generate a message and the receiver did not
understand it, would you consider communication to have taken place? The
answer is obviously “no”. To minimize occasions where we get the unexpected
feedback, we have to give enough thought into what the message is, how to frame
it to avoid confusion, how to package it so it goes to the right person/people,
through the right channel, to reduce the possibilities of barriers that could
interfere with the process.
The intention in this module is to direct your attention to consciously apply the
writing process to every writing activity you will be involved in, at university.
Not only will you end up producing messages of value and quality, you will also
become engaged in a more integrated thinking process before applying yourself
to message production either in the academic or business context.
Activity 11
Usefulness of Knowledge of the Communication Process
List ways in which knowledge of the Communication Process will

benefit you.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Activity 12
Setting Your Goals for Academic Writing 1
List your goals for this module, and what you will do to achieve them.
Goals
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Actions
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NOTES
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

UNIT TWO
Producing Grammatical Messages in Standard English
Unit One focused on the elements and steps in the communication process, as well
as factors that may hinder or promote effective communication. Language skills
were cited as one set of factors that can serve to enhance or disrupt a message. As
a university student, and hopefully, graduate in the near future, you have to be
able to master the dominant languages within the community, at an advanced
level. This unit serves to pull your attention to some of the relevant language
related issues within the Jamaican language context.
About this Unit

Unit Two aims to provide some guidance in identifying the features of Standard
Jamaican English (SJE) as against those of Jamaican Creole (JC), in an effort to
highlight some of the possible problem areas. The focus is on getting you to
identify the features that are most problematic for you and to encourage you to
find creative ways to help yourself to overcome these difficulties. Along with this,
is a set of other problems outside of the differences between JC and SJE, which
tend to occur in the English Language output of post-secondary/CSEC students.
Guiding Questions
1. What are the major language varieties that exist in Jamaica?

2. What are the differences between the features of these varieties?
3. What is the likely impact of these differences on the JC speakers’ attempt
to produce grammatical English messages?
4. What are some other difficulties that may occur in the English Language
output of Jamaican tertiary students?

a. Thanx 4 da stuff. Feel 2 tired 2 come now. See you lata tonite. Kk.
b. Tanks fi di tings dem. Mi too tiaad fi come now so see you lata before nite come
down.
c. Thanks for the items you sent. I am too tired to come now though, so I will see
you before nightfall.
Inside the box above are three different ways in which we could say the same
thing. Do you use any or all of them? When and where?
All the utterances can adequately convey the intended message, but this depends
on the context. There is nothing wrong with any of these messages, but they are
not suitable for all occasions. The trick is to be able to select and correctly use the
required language according to context, audience and purpose. Some of us are
already very well acquainted with at least two of the ways above. What some of
us have problems with is the efficient use of the third method, Standard Jamaican
English, (SJE).
So what?
So, why do I need to be more proficient in the use of SJE? I already speak a
language; I am able to communicate; I passed CSEC English, even literature
and Communication Studies at CAPE.
How can this help me to be a successful computer specialist, business

administrator, dietitian, engineer and so?

Well language is a tool that is used according to specific contexts. The
specifications regarding the type of language to be used in what situation are
dictated by the society. As you climb the academic ladder and gain certain
positions within the business world, you are expected to be able to use the
required language effectively. It has been ordained by our society that SJE is the
language of education, the courts and formal business. A pass in CSEC English A,
does not provide you with the necessary skills to perform at the expected academic
and professional levels.
As a matter of fact, research has shown that some successful CSEC English
students still have not mastered some of the basic structures of English. This
does not mean that the student who has not mastered English sufficiently is
“stupid or dunce” as English is not a marker of intelligence. People have strengths
and weaknesses in different areas; students who are weak in English may be
strong in mathematics, science or mechanical and electrical engineering among
other things. The student who is struggling with the use of English will just have
to identify a number of strategies that may help him/her to better cope with the
pertinent (relevant) language demands.
The second and equally important reason is that while Jamaican Creole (JC) could
possibly help you to carry out all the language needs that you may have within
Jamaica, we are increasingly thinking of ourselves as citizens not just of Jamaica,
but of the world. While Jamaican Creole is gaining ascendency in some countries
due to our strong music culture and athletic fame, it is far from being an
international language of business. English is certainly the most prominent global
language and is being learnt by speakers of much more dominant languages such
as Spanish, French, Japanese and Chinese/Mandarin.

So why is it so hard?
As long as nothing is physically or mentally wrong with a child, he/she will learn
the language of the environment without much effort. The child does not have to
go to school or sit down with a book to learn it. This is because all normal human
beings are born with the capacity to learn to speak a language. As long as the
child hears a language around him/her, the child will learn it. However, the child
tends to learn faster if he/she is within an environment that allows him/her to
hear and use the language in meaningful conversation.
So if language is so easy to learn, why is it so difficult for some of us to master

Standard English? Well English is not the first language for most Jamaicans,
that is, the language they first learn as children and use to fulfill all language
needs. While English is Jamaica’s official language and is taught in schools, there
are usually not enough opportunities to hear and practice this language.
Meaningful contexts are not usually provided outside of the classroom, and we
could even dare to say, inside the classroom sometimes. In addition, there are
many things within the Jamaican context that deter some of us from wanting to
learn English.
Many Jamaicans believe that they already speak English because the languages
so closely look like each other because of the shared lexicon (vocabulary). Others
are not really interested in learning English, as they do not see the value. They
are already getting by with the language they speak. Also, our vibrant reggae and
dancehall culture which use Jamaican Creole, the entrance of JC into contexts
that were once strictly reserved for SJE, (which are all good things), as well as
the decrease in the habit of reading have all added to the necessity for extra
efforts to be made in the drive to improve proficiency in SJE.

In addition, many of us get by with the form of English we speak; however, formal
written English, especially within the academic and professional arenas, is much
more demanding. Incorrect use of the language may be missed in oral discourse,
but not so much in writing. This is true for the learning of the written form of any
language. Even some students from first world countries, such as the USA and
England, face the same problem.
Let’s stop for a moment to answer the following question.
Activity 13 Value of Proficient use of English
Write three ways in which effective use of SJE will assist you in your studies
and later with your profession.
Now that you have decided that the ability to use SJE well is a valuable asset, the
a._______________________________________________________________________
question now is: “If I am experiencing problems, what do I now do? Language
_______________________________________________________________________
specialists recommend that the adult second language learner, (a learner who
______________________________________________________________________
already speaks a first language and is trying to learn another that is being used in
his/her environment), can seek to help him/herself by
b. ______________________________________________________________________
a. trying to become aware of the features of the language that are posing or
_______________________________________________________________________
may pose difficulties for him/her.
_______________________________________________________________________
b. identifying how these features work.
c._______________________________________________________________________
c. consciously monitoring his/her use of the patterns until the required
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Now that you have accepted that the ability to use SJE efficiently is a valuable
asset, the question is: “If I am experiencing problems, what do I do?” Language
specialists recommend that the adult second language learner (a learner who
already speaks a first language and is trying to learn another that is spoken
within the environment), can find help by:
• trying to become aware of the features of the language that are posing
or may pose difficulties
• identifying how these features work
• consciously monitoring use of the troublesome patterns until the

required level of competence is delivered
• considering help through available channels such as books, teachers
and the Internet.
In other words, you, the adult language learner, have to try to take on the
responsibility for improving your language skills. In an attempt to “watch over”
yourself, you must know what the requirements for effective subject verb
agreement, sentence construction, or paragraphing in English are, for example, if
those are the areas causing problems.
However, although the onus is on you as an adult learner, you should ask for
assistance if necessary from colleagues, friends, relatives and the tutor. Do not be
afraid to share your work so that you can get feedback. The learning process is
about taking risks. Language is a skill that must be practiced and you cannot
only practice by yourself; you need to test your skills by having others hear, read
and react to your output. You may even need a language coach, someone to
assist you as you attempt to develop your language skills.
1. The Language varieties within the Jamaican Context
Have you ever wondered why Jamaica is said to be an English speaking country,
while Cuba is Spanish and Haiti is French? This all has to do with the fact that
Europeans colonized the Caribbean islands. Based on the fact that they were the
rulers and most powerful within the colonized state, the citizens of these countries
had to adopt their language. Depending on the country that ruled each territory,
the associated European language became the official language. The British from
1655 to 1962 ruled Jamaica, over 300 years. When Jamaica gained independence
in 1962, English was kept as the official language.
But a non-Jamaican speaker of English will find it difficult to understand what

many Jamaicans are saying. This is because some Jamaicans may not even be
speaking English. The words may sound like that language, but there are
differences. This other way of speaking uses predominantly English words but the
ways the sounds and words are pronounced and structured are usually quite
different. Let’s examine the following to decide whether they are acceptable
examples of SJE.
Bring mango and banana fi mi.
Carry di bag bring come gi mi.
A come you come to come take away the table.
Me sick an tiaad a him foolishness.
A large percentage of the vocabulary above, are English words and others bear
some resemblance to English words. But are the above utterances examples of
SJE? Does the order of the words and the manner in which they are used matter
when deciding on whether a particular language is a version of the other?
Linguists (persons who study language), have examined the languages spoken by
former Caribbean colonies and found that their structure, (the way they put
together and use the relevant European sounds and words), is related to
languages in Africa. These Caribbean languages have features from both the
European and African ways of speaking. They were thus classified as Creoles. In
Jamaica, the Creole Language is referred to as Jamaican, Jamaican Creole (JC) or

Patois. There is much more to this story of the development of language in
Jamaica; perhaps you could try to find out more. The questions below are just
some of the interesting things you may want to explore.
Activity 14 Do you know?
a. Why Caribbean Creole languages are related to

languages in Africa?
__________________________________________________
b. How the word Creole originated?
___________________________________________________
c. What it means?
___________________________________________________
Due to the presence of the official language, Standard Jamaican English, and
Jamaican Creole, (JC), or Patois, Jamaica can best be described as a bilingual
country (Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture, 2001). However, not all
Jamaicans have mastery in both languages; each person will have varying degrees
of mastery in each language. While a number of Jamaicans may be very fluent in
both, some may know predominantly JC and just a little SJE; for others, this may
be the reverse.
Because of the fact that both languages share vocabulary for the most part, some
persons do not accept that Jamaica is bilingual. They believe that Patois is simply
broken English or English produced in a simplistic or watered down manner. The
latter belief is of course not true. Jamaican Creole is a language in its own right.

One of the major fuels to the misconception is the fact that Jamaican Creole is
what linguists refer to as an “English Lexicon Creole”. This means that most of
the lexicon or words in the language are derived from English. In fact, close to
90% of Jamaican Creole vocabulary items come from English.
It is important to understand though, that languages are not defined as alike or

different simply by the number of lexical items that they share. As an example,
English and Latin are separate languages, yet it is estimated that approximately
60% of the words currently being used in English are derived from Latin.
The fact that JC is considered an oral language because it does not have a
standard written form, further promotes this view of JC being a corrupt version of
English. When a language is written it tends to carry more prestige. In order for
JC to have a set written version, a set means of representing the sounds/words
would have to be agreed upon. However, having a writing system is not one of the
required features of a language.
Features of human language
Why do linguists insist that Jamaican Creole is a language? Well, language is a

tool for passing on messages from one person to another. In order to do so the
sender and receiver must share the same meaning of the sounds and symbols. In
order for this to happen, the form of communication being used must have a set
pattern of features. Linguists have agreed that all human languages share the
following features.
1. A system of sounds
2. Lexicon (set of words, vocabulary)

The sounds and words (the combination of sounds) of a language are arbitrary.
That is, there is no connection between a specific word such as book and the object
it represents. This word was randomly selected to represent the object by the first
users of the word. We were not born knowing that b-o-o-k stands for the thing
with pages that we read; this has to be learnt. The lexicon of a human language is
always expanding as new inventions, changes in in technology and slangs come
into being.
3. A set pattern or structure/grammar
Human language, though arbitrary in nature, must have a systematic way in

which it operates. Sounds and words cannot be placed anywhere and anyhow,
within an utterance. There must be a specific pattern governing what sounds are
permissible, where the sounds may occur, what word functions where and how
particular meanings such as time and number are indicated.
Let us think for just a moment why this has to be so.
Do you know?
Activity 15
Explain why human language must have a set of rules, which
govern the use of sounds and words within particular languages?
1. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Linguists claim that when trying to determine whether a means of communication

is a language or not, one has to examine the features and determine whether it

has all the required characteristics of human language. Jamaican Creole is said
to be a language since it has a system of sounds, lexicon and a particular
grammatical pattern of its own that serve similar purposes as those seen in
European languages. The set of rules that govern each language is the most
significant factor in distinguishing between languages. Once these rules vary,
then even though two languages may share words, they are said to be different.
Although some persons believe that Jamaican Creole has no grammar or

structure, a close examination of the way this language works will show that this
is not true. As you stated in your answer to the questions above, without a set
pattern there is no way Creole speakers would be able to effectively pass on
messages to each other; also children and other persons would not be able to learn
the language if there were no rules. The sections below will help us to focus on
some of the differences between SJE and JC.
The Features of Jamaican Creole (JC) and Standard Jamaican English

(SJE)
A. Vocabulary (Meanings)
As it relates to English words borrowed into Jamaican Creole, there are several
significant observations that may be made.
1. Many Jamaican Creole words that are derived from English have
meanings, which are expanded beyond the English meanings.
Here are some of these words and their meanings in JC and SJE.
i. dark shares the English meaning of having very little or no light,
however, it also means shy or backward, a meaning which does not exist
in English
ii. tea has been expanded to include any kind of hot drink that is had with
breakfast

iii. fresh shares the meanings of newly made or unsalted with English, but
also means to be rude
iv. a salad is a tomato and vegetable is a salad that usually accompanies a

meal.
2. Many Jamaican Creole words that are derived from English have
meanings, which are different from the meanings of those same words
in English.
The table below provides examples of English words, which have added meanings
in Creole. As native speakers of Jamaican Creole and speakers of English, you
should be able to come up with many other examples of your own.
Word JC Meaning English Meaning

Favour To look like someone To do something out of
“im favour im mada” kindness
“she granted him a
special favour”
Miserable To be fussy or easily Wretched, unhappy,
annoyed uncomfortable
“yu too miserable, “they lead a miserable
evriting yu mek bada yu” existence”
Ignorant Bad-tempered Lacking in knowledge
“mi neighbor ignorant, “I am ignorant about
evri day im beat up im scientific matters”
wife”
Prime To act overly mature Of greatest relevance or
(usually of children) significance
“go sit down one side, you “a prime example”
too prime”

Activity 16 Do you know?
Write 3 English words that have different meanings in Jamaican Creole and state the
meanings in Jamaican Creole. Be sure not to use any word that has already been given
in the examples above.
English Word JC Meaning
a. __________________ ____________________________________________
b. _________________ _____________________________________________
c. _________________ _____________________________________________
The Features of Jamaican Creole – Vocabulary (contd.)
3. Many Jamaican Creole words that are derived from English belong to a word
class that is different from the word class of that same word in English.
This means that a word may be a noun in English, but through the process of
adoption by Jamaican Creole, the word may be used as a verb or an adjective. An
excellent example of this is the word advantage. In English, advantage may
either be a noun or a verb. In both instances it has a positive meaning. As a noun
it refers to “any state that is favourable to success” and as a verb it means “to be of
service to, or to benefit”. In Jamaican Creole however, advantage is always a verb,
and has a distinctly negative meaning. When you “tek advantage of someone” in
Jamaican Creole, it means that you are exploiting, manipulating, or imposing on
them in some way.

B. The Structure of Language (Grammar)
Over the next few pages, we will examine some areas of grammar that operate
differently in Jamaican Creole than they do in English. These areas are usually
the most problematic areas for Creole speakers who use English as a second
language. It is hoped that by focusing on the differences, you will begin to monitor
your language production more carefully, especially when it is English you intend
to use.
Languages are made up of sounds, which are then combined to create words and
words are then put together to make sentences. A sentence is a set of words that
convey a complete thought. If I say book, this is not a complete thought unless it
was said within the context of another sentence or set of sentences that would give
it some meaning. The words within a sentence perform various functions. Some
of these functions include the following, which are illustrated with the use of
English forms.
a. i. Identifying the name of a person or a thing

For example: Pam, girl, class, car, flowers, dog, animal
ii. Naming a concept
For example: love, beauty, greed, nutrition, punctuality
(This naming function is performed by NOUNS)
In some cases, the naming function is performed by PRONOUNS such

as he, she, it they, you, I, we, everybody, nobody, whoever, me.
b. Identifying the action being performed or a state of being (VERBS)
For example: play, run, write, ride (action)

is, are, was, were (state of being)
c. Describing a person, object or situation (ADJECTIVES)

For example: pretty, industrious, fair, troublesome, troubling, interesting
d. Telling the time, place, frequency, degree or manner in which

something was done (ADVERBS)
For example: quietly, fast, always, sometimes, clearly, well, yesterday
e. Showing the relationship between the subject and the object

(PREPOSITIONS)
For example: in, at, over, between, until, after
The above are just some very simplistic descriptions of the functions played by
words within a sentence. The function of a word is dependent on the situation in
which it is being used. “Run” in English for instance, can play the role of a verb
and a noun depending on the specific context within which it is placed. For
example
John went for a run. (NOUN)

John and Jack run around the track. (VERB)
In addition to performing specific functions in sentences, words have particular

places in which they can occur. In English, for instance,
Walks hands on his John
is not an acceptable English sentence. Added to this is the fact that languages
require certain modifications to be made to chiefly nouns and verbs to convey
features such as quantity, gender and time. We frequently perform these actions
quite unconsciously, but when we face difficulties, we need to find out how the
feature works in order to fix our problem.
The grammatical features of the English Language are too numerous to mention
here. But do explore this area in grammar books at the library or Language

Training and Research Centre, (TTRC). You don’t need to know all the names and
terminologies, all you need to know is how a specific feature works. We will now
turn to some of the major grammatical differences between SJE and JC.
1. Subject Verb Agreement: What is it? How does it work?
In order to grasp the meaning of a sentence, the listener or reader has to be able
to identify who or what the message is about, as well as what is being said about
this person, thing or concept. If any of these two components is missing, then the
message will make no sense. Let’s examine the dialogue below.
Farah: Bag.
Gahn: What?
Farah: For my birthday
Gahn: What about it?
Farah: I want a bag for my birthday.
Gahn: Oh, OK.
Gahn could have probably understood the message from the very beginning if
there was a preset context. For example, if he had asked earlier in the
conversation, what Farah wanted for her birthday. But her just blurting out the
word bag outside of a context would be very confusing. From her final sentence,
Gahn is able to discern that Farah is talking about herself (I, The SUBJECT) and
what she wants for her birthday.
Simplistically, the subject of the sentence refers to the person or thing the
sentence is talking about, that can either be
a. the performer of the action

b. the person or thing that is experiencing the action or state
For example: (the subjects are in bold)

John is a big boy.
The little boy with the bottles of water is my son.
Getting wet in the rain does not bother me.
Sun-ripened fruits taste delicious.
Everybody has to leave by tomorrow afternoon.
NOTE
You may have noticed that the subject is not always just a single word.
The subject can also be comprised of a group of words or phrase.
As was mentioned above, in some languages, the form of words can vary
depending on factors such as number, gender and time. The extent to which this
is done is dependent on the language. Spanish, for instance, has various forms of
verbs than English as it also marks verbs for gender, not just because the subject
is plural or singular. In the following example, the Spanish definite articles (el,
las, los, la), nouns and verbs change form depending on number and gender. In
English, change is only marked for number. The English article the keeps its base
(usual) form.
Spanish English
La niña está aquí. The girl is here.
Las niñas están aquí. The girls are here.
Los chicos están aquí. The boys are here.
El muchacho está aquí. The boy is here.
You will notice also that the use of the Spanish verbs esta and estan varies
depending on the number of the subject. In other words, the verb must look

different for a subject referring to one person or thing from it would when there is
a plural subject. This is true for many languages; but not all.
Subject Verb Agreement in Jamaican Creole
In Jamaican Creole, verbs are not inflected to reflect the number of the subject.
This means that the form of the verb remains the same whether it appears in a
sentence with a singular subject or a plural subject. The following examples
illustrate this characteristic.
Singular Plural
Mi read di buk Wi read di buk
Yu read di buk Yu read di buk
She/he read di buk Dem read di buk
Di man read di buk Di man dem read di buk
In the sentences above, you can see that even when the nouns or pronouns that
represent the subjects of the sentences change from singular to plural, the verb
remains as read. This is because Jamaican Creole verbs do not change form. In
fact the same is true for most of the Creoles to be found elsewhere in the
Caribbean. Thus there is no worry about agreement of subject and verb in JC
since there is no change in the verb form.
Subject Verb Agreement in English
One key feature of English is the fact that the subject of the sentence and the verb
in the sentence must agree based upon whether the subject is singular or plural.
When there is only one person or thing being spoken of, or in other words, the
subject is singular, the verb usually carries an “s” at the end. This idea is
portrayed in the example below.

Singular The girl speaks Spanish well.
noun verb
Singular subject
no “s” add “s”
_______________________________________________________________________
Plural The girls speak Spanish well.
noun verb
plural subject
add “s” no “s”
This sounds quite easy, right! No! It is not. The first thing one has to do is to be
able to locate the subject and decide whether it is singular or plural. But is this
always an easy task? How quickly can you complete the task below?
Can you do it?
Activity 17
Examine the following sentences and identify the subject in each; then, say whether it
is singular or plural.
Identify the subject then say whether it is singular or plural. Circle the subject then
tick the space under singular or plural to show the number of the subject. Select the
correct verb.
Singular Plural
1. The mangoes in the basket (look, looks) green.
2. Everybody who lives in those houses (eat, eats) mangoes.
3. Not one of the men (has, have) the money to pay the rent.
4. Taking all those books to school (is, are) not good for my back.
5. While reading and speaking seem easy, writing two essays

(make, makes) me want to cry.

It was not as easy as it looks, right? Or was it actually easy?
If you are a native Creole speaker, you may find that you repeatedly forget to
place the “s” on the verb when it is required. This means that you have to
consciously check your subjects and verbs to decide whether the “s” is needed or
not. There may be a method that you can use to help you to remember.
In English, messages depict someone speaking, someone being spoken to, or

someone being spoken about. This gives us three categories of persons: first,
second and third. As far as subjects are concerned, the persons are:
Person Number Verb
First Person Singular I walk

Person who is
speaking
Plural We walk
Second Person Singular You walk

Person being
spoken to
Plural You walk
Third Person Singular He/She/It

Person/thing The Child walks
being spoken The big handsome boy
about Everybody
Mary/Joe/Mrs. Small
Plural They
The children walk
The handsome boys
Look carefully at the table above. What do you notice?

Activity 18 Place your observation here!
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Yes! You got it. The third person singular is the only set of subjects requiring the
“s” on the verb. So, a good rule to follow when writing sentences in English is that
the verb takes “s” only when the subject is the third person singular. In other
words, “s” is only used when you (the writer) are speaking ABOUT just ONE
person, ONE place, ONE thing or ONE idea. John, Sarah, the book, the old
broom in the corner, he, it, the money in the bank, one of the boys who lives in
Kingston are all examples of subjects that require an “s” on the verb.
The following examples illustrate this idea.
1. The dream lives on.

2. Education elevates a population.
3. The river always meets the sea.
What is common in these three examples? If we decided to substitute each of the
subjects in these sentences with pronouns, they will all take the pronoun “it”. For
example, “The dream”, “Education” and “the river” in sentences 1, 2 and 3 can be
replaced by “it”.
It is extremely important to note however, that this rule applies to

regular verbs such as walk, talk, read, slide and jump only. These are regular
action verbs. Remember we also mentioned in the section above that there are
verbs that refer to states of being. Therefore, it is important that you read an

English grammar book, or do an online search to discover the rules for using verbs
such as “to be” and “to have”.
Activity 19
Read up on the various forms of the verbs “to be” and “to have”. Based
on the information gathered, complete the table below using the appropriate forms
of these verbs.
Person Number Verb
To be To have
First Person Singular I

Person who is
speaking Plural We
Second Person Singular You

Person being
spoken to
Plural You
Third Person Singular He/She/It

Person/thing being The Child
spoken about The big handsome boy
Everybody
Mary/Joe/Mrs. Small
Plural They
The children
The handsome boys
Activity 20 Which set of verbs behave differently?
________________________________________________________________________
Now that we have focused on subject verb agreement in individual sentences and
phrases, let us now see how well we can proofread a passage with errors in subject

verb agreement. Go back to the notes and examples whenever you wish in order
to try to ensure that you correctly locate and fix the errors.
Activity 21
Read the following attempt to create an article using SJE. There are some
errors with subject verb agreement. Try to locate and correct these errors.
Language Learning
Human beings has a very sophisticated means of communication. This thing that allow
us to send messages across time and borders are made up of sounds, words and rules
for putting it together. If one wish to learn the language of another culture, this is not a
problem as the rules are there to guide us.
However, just reading the rules will not allow for effective use of the target language.
For instance, Patrick is an English speaker and he want to learn German. Patrick will
not succeed by just buying a book on the rules of German and reading it; unless his
only goal is to know the rules. Language learning requires the learner to seek to use
the language meaningfully through conversation with others as well as by listening,
speaking, reading and writing in the language.
Success in becoming competent in non-native languages involve taking risks. The

learner has to “try out” his skill in the language. A child can acquire the spoken
version of languages so easily because s/he try to use the language even when s/he are
not yet competent. The learner’s attitude to learning new languages is key. Each of
these learners have to practise using the language.
Are you a committed language learner? What do a committed language learner have to
do? Determine why you need to become competent in this language. Immerse
yourself in the language by trying to read and listen to effective users of the language.
Practice using the language in speech and writing. The making of errors help to
facilitate learning. The making of errors is a part of the experience for ALL language
learners. There are nothing to be ashamed of.
So, set your goals for language development and create a plan of action. You has to do
the learning; a teacher cannot do it for you.

For additional information on Subject verb agreement, visit the following:
http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/grammar/subverag.html
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/599/01/
Tense
Tense refers to the time that the action or state of the verb in a sentence occurs.
This could be some time in the past, it could be present, or it could be future.
The time frame of an action is usually established in relation to the present. In
other words, an action is identified as past if it occurred before right now and it is
a future action if it has not yet taken place as of now. Tense usually does not show
clear co-relations between languages if they are lined up against each other. This
is because while all languages have verbs, and express tense, languages often
have unique tense marking systems.
If we examine the three (3) time references that are possibly expressed in English
and Jamaican Creole, and the different ways in which each language expresses
them, we can begin to address the problem of correctly expressing ideas according
to the rules of each of the languages.
English verbs typically express tense in relation to the following:
Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future

The students study The students studied The students will study
English at school English at school English at school
Activity 22
Can you explain the different time references in the examples above?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

By extension, future tense refers to the fact that an action has not yet occurred,
and indicates that at some time in the future, the action will take place. As you
can see in the example given, English verbs do not themselves change or inflect to
reflect future tense. This is done through the use of a modal verb. In this
instance, the modal used is “will”.
By comparison to English, Jamaican Creole indicates tense or time in a different

way.
Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future

Di pickney dem study Di pickney dem did Di pickney dem a go
English a school study English a school study English a school
When there is a plural subject, the tense marking system in Jamaican Creole and
English seem the same for the simple present tense in that the verb remains
unchanged in both. However, there is a difference in the simple past where
Jamaican Creole uses a separate word “did”, added before the verb, which remains
unchanged, to indicate that the time of the action was at a past time.
The examples below further demonstrate that even where the action is
continuous, whether past or present continuous, the verb remains unchanged.
Past Past continuous Present continuous

Mi did read di buk mi did a read di buk mi a read the buk
The important difference between Jamaican Creole tense and tense in English is
that Jamaican Creole uses a separate word before the verb to indicate past tense
while English usually adds “ed” to most of the verbs. This is important to note
because often in our Jamaican context, persons will produce a sentence like:

*I did went to the store
This sentence is incorrect because it seems to be combining rules from both

English and Jamaican Creole to create simple past tense sentences. Remember
that in English, all you need to create a simple sentence that is past tense is to use
only the past tense version of the verb. The following example is the correct
version of the sentence above.
√ I went to the store
Note
Much of what was examined under the section on subject verb agreement above
applies only to the simple present tense. When portraying past action, the
English verb remains the same (required “ed”), whether the subject is singular or
plural. In the future tense or to express possibility, the verb form also remains
the same, a modal (will, can, shall, may, might, could) is placed before the main
verb.
Again, the very brief description of the behaviour of verbs in the English
Language cannot adequately help you to become proficient in using them
correctly. Depending on your areas of difficulty, you need to identify helpful
resources so that you can help yourself. Try out your skills in the following
activities.
When attempting to produce messages in Standard English, we sometimes

unconsciously use Jamaican Creole features. Identify the Jamaican Creole
features in this attempt at producing a message in Standard English.

Activity 23 A
Identify the JC features. Rewrite the following paragraphs in Standard
English
From I born I do not seen anything like it. She favour her mother bad.
Punchie father have none of her features. Not one of the habits she have
come from him. Last week she did see me out the road and tell me that all
the mangoes on the tree belongs to her grandmother so I could not got any of
them. She have to learn that she grow up here so she must not be so
miserable. Look how she use to go on like she dark when she live here.
After all she did lived here for many years.
_____________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
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Activity 23 B
Last week things went really bad. I miss the bus on two occasion and lost my bag
with some important documents. To make matters worst, I catch a very bad cold.
Me and my sister was both sick at the same time. Things were real bad for her
because she have to take her daughter to the clinic every Thursday. On her way to
the clinic the taxi man try to take advantage of her by charging three time the real
fare because it was raining.

Sentences
A sentence is a group of
words that makes sense
and has a subject and a
verb.
How many times have you recited these words? And you really believe them,
right? So what about: Come! Run! OK.? These are sentences too; but they are
informal ways of speaking. In Come, Run, and OK, the subject is assumed. The
speaker and listener know who is being spoken to. This kind of language is suited
for some occasions such as informal conversations, articles in the newspaper or
other magazine, dialogue within a play and so on.
For academic writing this is not the case. The sentence must have all its requisite
parts clearly stated. Let’s look at a few examples.
Roy: When do you like to have dinner?
Patsy: As soon as I get home.
Now, both participants understand this conversation; therefore; the message was
clear. This however, is an informal context. In academic writing what Patsy says
is ungrammatical. It is what we call a sentence fragment, since it has no

subject. Because language use is predominantly oral, we sometimes tend to write
the way we speak. This sometimes gets us into trouble as we may produce
fragments.
Examine the attempts at creating SJE sentences below. Say which are complete
sentences.
Activity 24
Write S beside the sentences and F beside the fragments.
1. Especially when I am tired. _______

2. Morris the father of Pam and Kelly. _______
. the wrong way to be putting on my shoes
3. Although this is
4. Which is why I am going. ________
5. Dinosaurs existed. _______
6. Gullies stink. ________
7. As a part of the new revolutionary team ________
8. While this pot is boiling ________
9. Because it is the right thing to do for your friend _________
10. Even though I took the very long journey yesterday _______
11. Patrick sick _________
12. Coming to class at eight in the morning hard _________
Other Types of problems

There are some other types of errors seen in students’ writing include:
a. Comma splices
b. Run-on sentences
c. Faulty use of apostrophes
d. Faults in the use of homonyms
Use the Internet or available tests to discover the meaning of each of the type of
error mentioned at the end of page 30. Then identify which of these problems
appear in your work? How are you going to get help? Identify the path you will
take. Use the space provided to document your problems and path to
improvement.
Activity 25 A
The problems I face in seeking to produce SJE structures.

1__________________________________________________________________
2__________________________________________________________________
3__________________________________________________________________
4__________________________________________________________________
5__________________________________________________________________
6__________________________________________________________________
7__________________________________________________________________
8__________________________________________________________________
9__________________________________________________________________
10_________________________________________________________________

Activity 25 B My Journey to Improvement
Outline the actions you intent to take to assist yourself.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Document your improvement (A journal could be used instead)
__________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Additional Problems in Language Use
Apart from the influence which sometimes slips into our writing from JC, as well
as errors related to the normal course of language acquisition, there are many
other forms of writing which tend to confuse students. You must remember that
the academic setting functions in the formal domain. Make every effort to avoid
• contractions or abbreviations,
• text message style of writing and spelling
i) no “4” for “for”
ii) no “u” for “you”
iii) no “ur” for “your”
iv) no “thru” for “through”
• and some of the other creative variations of written communication to
which some of you have become accustomed.
There are a number of web sites and language books, especially those you may
have used at primary school, Junior English Revised and First Aid in English that
may be of assistance. Remember, the Academic Writing 1 module does not aim to
teach English Language. It focuses on academic writing, which demands the
efficient use of English. Discover as many ways as possible to improve your use of
this important language variety.
Notes
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

UNIT THREE
Producing Expository Messages
Persons communicate for a variety of reasons. At times, it may just be to

establish contact or show respect. Police officers, teachers, parents and
librarians, for example, also give directions on a daily basis. While there is a
long list of purposes for which persons may communicate, attention will be paid
to three main categories. The above pictures suggest these purposes. Can you
guess what these purposes are? Write your responses below.
____________________ ______________________ ____________________
As discussed in Unit 1, the message has to be created in order to meet a specific

purpose. Based on this purpose, certain choices about content, organization and
style would be made. This unit focuses on messages that aim to educate or
inform.
About this Unit

In Unit three, you will be exposed to the features of expository writing. This is
the type of discourse (discussion) that you will most likely need to produce at the

university and professional levels. The Unit exposes you to how expository
messages may be organized, and then directs your attention to consciously
applying the writing process to all your writing activities. Not only will you end
up producing messages of quality and value, you will also become engaged in a
more integrated thinking process before applying yourself to message production,
either in the academic or business context.
Guiding Questions
1. What are the characteristics of expository messages?
2. How can expository messages be organized?
3. What are the steps in the writing process?
4. What content should be placed in the various sections of the expository
essay?
The Characteristics of Expository Messages
The third picture from left on page 67, provides information about the segments
seen in the ackee. There is no way that the reader can determine whether the
writer was a Jamaican and loved to eat ackee, or not. The details appear to be
devoid of emotions, personal involvement, or bias. These are some of the features
of expository messages, since they aim to explain, educate or inform, not
convince or entertain. The following is a list of some of the main characteristics
of expository messages. Exposition
• is used when the aim is to give information on a topic or subject

• is used when the primary purpose is to explain without bias and without
aiming to influence; no judgmental statements should be included
• aims at being objective, therefore third person (they, them, he, she, it, the
man, Jamaicans, Ms. Brendon) is normally used, especially within the
academic context
• provides factual information as far as possible
• contains no judgmental statements
Activity 26 Features of Expository Messages
Circle the non-expository element in each of the following.
1. Julie mangoes are the sweetest type of mangoes one can find in Jamaica.
These fruits tend to be found in more than one parish. They are sometimes
sold in the markets and on roadside stalls. Prices for Julie mangoes will vary
depending on the location.
2. There is a difference in how some students view Academic Writing. There are
some of us who think that it is not necessary since we have passes in CSEC
English. Others believe that it can be useful in some ways as effective writing
skills is said to be useful both at university and in the world of work.
3. Jamaica is one of those countries in which lifestyle diseases plague some

citizens. The reason for this is that most Jamaicans are ignorant of the causes
and effects of these diseases.
Knowledge and Skills Required for the Production of Expository

Messages
In order to produce accurate expository messages, you need to be
• aware of the characteristics of exposition

• able to distinguish fact from opinion
• able to write in the 3rd person
• aware of and use relevant organizational strategies
• aware of words that may cause intended expository messages to seem
arguable, for example, majority, most, best, main.

Rhetorical Strategies for Organizing Information within the Expository
Message
Based on the demands of communication and the fact that exposition aims to
educate, there has to be a very careful effort to make the message clear and easy
to follow. One way to do this is to employ appropriate organizational strategies.
Exposition enables us to adopt varying strategies by which to develop our
message. Based on the topic and purpose, the writer would select the most
suitable method. The strategies are numerous but for the purpose of this
module, you will be exposed to a few, which you may find very useful at this
stage.
• Cause and effect

• Classification
• Comparison and contrast
• Extended Definition
• Illustration
• Process Analysis
Cause and Effect

Whenever our focus is on the causes, the effects, the implications or
consequences of an action or a series of actions, the best strategy to answer this
will be the Cause and Effect approach. Topics that leave us to wonder about what
has caused something to happen will lend themselves well to this approach.
For example, let us use Crime and Violence. Types of cause and effect essays
could be the
• causes of crime and violence
• the implications of crime and violence on the Jamaican economy
• the possible cause(s) and effect(s) of crime and violence in Jamaican

You will notice that the first two topics do not focus on both cause and effect.
The writer can focus on just cause or effect. In writing a message that says that
it is focusing on both cause and effect, it is important to pay attention to the
causes as well as the effects. You must, however, be careful that you do not
directly link a cause to an effect, if there is no scientific evidence to prove it. For
example, instead of saying that “poverty causes crime and violence”, it will be
safer to say, “poverty may be a contributory factor to crime and violence”. Here,
language is very important.
For this type of writing, you need to
1. ensure that the effect is really a result of the cause. Establish the
link; do not make unsubstantiated claims.
2. avoid jumping to conclusions
3. limit your scope to one that can be reasonably addressed in the context
and the word limit provided
4. sequence information carefully
5. make sure that you have adequate information to support a probable
cause or effect
Before deciding to adopt this strategy, you must ensure that the issue on which
you are about to write will lend itself well to a cause and effect approach. Here
again, you need to be sure to think it through as clearly as you can.
Classification/Analysis by Division
Classification is a strategy, in which the writer organizes, or sorts, things into

categories or groups. The selected categories must be useful, meaningful and
contain elements that are related. It also helps to make sure that you classify,
using a single organizing principle. For example, if you want to classify tourism,

you might classify types of tourists or the activities in which tourists are likely to
participate.
Finding the right categories is a key step in writing classification messages. To
classify, or sort, things in a logical way, the writer must find the categories to put
them into. If you need to sort the stack of papers on your desk, the task will be
made much easier if you created categories before you begin the task. The
categories could be ‘papers’:
• to be thrown away
• that need immediate action
• to be read
• to pass on to coworkers
• to be filed
(Information adapted from http://essayinfo.com/essays/classification_essay.php)
Possible topics that will lend themselves to classification include:
• Types of Investments
• Types of Illnesses
• Modes of transportation
• Types of Sporting Activities
Analysis by division, on the other hand, is a strategy in which the writer

breaks down a broad or major topic into manageable sections to make it easier to
explain. For example, religion can be divided into Eastern or Western Religions,
according to the place of origin. It can also be divided into the broad religions
such as Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Rastafarianism and others.
Comparison and Contrast
Adopting this strategy in an essay essentially suggests that you want to compare
two objects, events, occasions or phenomena by writing on their similarities and
or differences. To use this approach you have to be sure that there is enough
basis for comparison and that you are comparing ideas or things that are
comparable. For example, you can compare a BMW and a Mercedes Benz
because they are both cars; they are both expensive and share a few more
qualities in terms of performance, cost and safety features. However, you cannot
compare a house and a car.
Note:
Essentially, for you to write an effective comparison and contrast essay, you
must have similar variables to compare and or contrast.
A Comparison or Contrast message is one in which you either compare

something or contrast something. A comparison essay is an essay in which you
emphasize the similarities, and a contrast essay is one in which you emphasize
the differences. We use comparison and contrast strategy when deciding which
university to attend, which car to buy, or whether to drive a car or take a bus or
an airplane to a vacation site. Suppose you are interested in showing the
differences between vacationing in the mountains and vacationing at the beach.
You will then write a contrast composition.
(Information adapted from http://www.eslbee.com/compcont.htm)
Let us consider the topic: Crime and Violence. If you decided to write on this
topic using the comparison and contrast approach, you may want to compare
Crime and Violence in Jamaica to Crime and Violence in Trinidad and Tobago,
for example. In this instance you will be comparing two Caribbean countries that
share some similar features. You can also attempt to compare the Caribbean
with other regions and you can consider types of crime, motives for crime, and so
on. A similar approach can be applied to the contrast process.

Point-by-Point or Block Compare/contrast
There are two ways in which comparison/contrast may be presented.

1. Point-by-point
The two subjects are named and the similarities or differences
discussed in the same paragraph or section.
2. Block
One subject is identified and the features discussed. No mention is made
of the other subject in that paragraph or section. Subject two is discussed
in the next section.
Extended Definition
As the name suggests, the extended definition method of exposition involves
explaining an idea or concept, based on a defining features. The message always
begins with a regular definition; however, this definition is then extended to
provide features of the concept being defined. This strategy answers two or more
of the following questions, based on the concept under discussion.
• What is this thing? (definition)

• How does it look?
• What can it be used for?
• What are its causes or effects?
Illustration/Exemplification
By now you will notice that the names of the strategies very often suggest their
content. In illustration or exemplification, the message creator provides
examples to illustrate the point being made. Care must be taken in choosing the
examples to be used, as they must clearly support the point being made. In
completing a message on “UTech’s Expansion of Programme offerings,” the

examples must be new programmes that have been put in place (use a set time
frame), or new aspects to old programmes.
Process Analysis
As the name suggests, a process analysis essay is usually one in which

information is given systematically, about the process of implementing or
performing a task or how something happens. For example, if you are a student
of education, you may be asked to write a process essay on how to write effective
lesson notes. By the time the reader has finished reading your essay, he or she
should be able to understand the process involved in writing effective lesson
notes. Similarly, a student of Business Studies may be asked to explain how to
write an effective Business Plan. This will be considered a process document
because in it, the student will have to provide clear instructions as to how to
write an effective Business Plan. By using process transition words such as;
first, second, third, before, finally, during, you can clearly signal to the reader
when you are moving from one step to the next.
Keep in mind that a process essay is not necessarily intended to provide the
readers with enough instruction to allow them to reconstruct the process. At the
same time, they should have a clear understanding of the process that was used.
In order to write effective process essays, you must
1. ensure that this strategy will apply to the subject matter;

2. be familiar with the subject matter;
3. understand the process well enough yourself, so you can inform others;
about how to implement such processes
4. determine the best order in which to present the information;
5. utilize simple and clear language;
6. use process transitions such as; “firstly”, “secondly”, “finally” .

Note: Some helpful resources on essay writing strategies
http://www.nvcc.edu/home/lshulman/rhetoric.htm
http://www1.english.montana.edu/wc/Information/rhetorical-strategies
http://www.eslbee.com/compcont.htm
http://essayinfo.com/essays/classification_essay.php
Activity 27
Rhetorical Strategies for Organizing Information
Use the topic Education to produce topics for use with each of the following
rhetorical strategies.
Cause/Effect _________________________________________________
Classification _________________________________________________
Compare/Contrast __________________________________________________
Extended Definition __________________________________________________
Illustration _________________________________________________
Process _________________________________________________
Activity 28 Transitional Strategies
Research the concept of transitional devices in organizing information. Identify these

devices and link them to the relevant rhetorical strategies, where applicable. Write
your notes below.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
The Writing Process in Message Production
Writing is one of the four language skills that are employed in the
communication process. It is a very important means of passing information,
especially within the academic context. Majority of the assignments and
examinations usually takes the form of written discourse. Like the general
communication process, writing proficiently requires going through a number of
steps or procedures.
Writing, as a means of communication, is more likely to serve its full purpose, if

we subject it to the writing process. What does this mean? The writing process
suggests that we must plan; that is, think about
• what we want to say,

• how we want to say it,
• who we want to say it to,
• and the best possible way to say it,
before actually saying it. When we have completed the planning process, we
usually end up with a draft. This draft has to be edited and proofread to be sure
it is free of major grammatical and content errors before we deliver the message.

The steps within the writing process
Some authors agree that there are three broad stages in the writing process
namely Pre-writing, Writing and Re-writing. However, for ease of
comprehension and application of this very useful skill, we are presenting it here
as four stages: Pre-writing, Drafting, Editing/Assessment, Re-writing.
The Link between the Communication and Writing Processes
Being one of the communication skills, the writing process meets the
requirements of the communication process. The table below illustrates this
point.
Communication Writing Factors to be

considered
Conceptualization Pre-writing: topic Audience

selection, purpose, Context
information selection
Drafting/Writing Audience
Encoding Organizing information Context
into a clear, Topic/Purpose
transportable means
Channel/Medium Channel already selected

selection since writing Audience
Context
Need to select medium Topic/Purpose
dependent on the context

Step 1 Prewriting:
This involves the writer doing the following.
(i) Choosing the topic on which the message will be developed

(ii) Determining the audience
(iii) Determining the aim
(iv) Researching the topic – gathering and processing information
(v) Deciding on what aspects of the topic will be developed
(vi) Producing ideas that could be included in the message
(vii) Making some early decisions about how the material that may be
used will be sequenced;
Pre-Writing Strategies (Narrowing the topic)
Sometimes, a clearly defined topic is given. These include topics such as: “The
possible effects of not attending class regularly” or “The different types of water
borne diseases”. Often the topic or subject of an expository assignment is too
wide for the writer to cover all its aspects in a limited time. The wider the
treatment of the topic, the less possible it will be for it to be covered in depth.
A broad topic such as Crime and Violence, for example, has so many possible
approaches that trying to cover all of them will not be successful given the time
and word limit. The writer will need to determine what slant or aspect of such a
wide topic is interesting and what can be covered within the constraints of time
and length. This leads to what we call “Narrowing the topic”. At times, when
you may have a very broad, general topic, the situation requires that the topic be
narrowed. There are a number of strategies that can be employed to assist in
this process. These include:

• brainstorming
• cluster diagram
• questioning
• free writing
Brainstorming
A brainstorm is a random listing of ideas in no particular order. This list aids

the writer to physically “see” the material that is there and facilitates ideas
about its possible use. A brainstorm begins by thinking about the topic and all of
the aspects that could be relevant. These are jotted down in any order or form
until one has exhausted all ideas on the topic. The brainstorm can then be
reviewed and manageable aspects chosen to suit a thesis. Below is an example of
a brainstorm for the topic, Jamaican Rivers.
• Some long, some short • Economic value – quantifiable?
• How many? • Personal use – drinking,
cleaning
• Locations
• Shipment
• Uses in Slavery era vs. today
• Personal
• Transportation
• Recreation – tourism
• Export of commodities
• Environmental issues
*** Negatives: pollution, flooding, destruction
Cluster Diagram
A cluster diagram is a sketch or graphic, which begins with the topic being
written in the middle of a page and surrounded by a box or an air bubble. Lines
or ‘off-shoots’ radiate from the topic circle/box and each offshoot is labeled and
encircled/squared. It may be possible to generate many tiers or levels of idea
from some of the offshoot ideas. The same items in the previous brainstorm

could be arranged in blocks or air bubbles or lines radiating from a central block
or bubble labeled with the topic – Jamaican Rivers
Questioning
The wh questions can be very useful, especially if the writer is not sure of what
to write. These questions referred to as, the reporter’s questions, normally begin
with the wh words: what, when, where, why. However, “how” is sometimes
used, although it is not a wh word. For the topic on Jamaican Rivers, the
following questions could be written.
• How were rivers used during the 1800s?

• Where can rivers be found in Jamaica?
• What is the economic value of rivers?
Free writing
The free writing technique allows the writer to express ideas on the topic
without regard to spelling, sentence structure, punctuation or any other
convention of writing, hence the name “free writing”. From the free written piece
the writer may choose relevant ideas for composing the message.

Jamaica is an island so the sea is an ever present, if sometimes forgotten,
physical reality. For city dwellers our towns and their ‘land’ features
gain our attention but rivers run through our space too. What of
them? We have rivers running in rural and urban areas throughout the
island. There are n (find out how many) rivers; some are long (Black River
in St Elizabeth, n miles) and short ones (Plantain Garden in St Thomas, n
miles). We know that during slavery, rivers were important waterways
for transporting cargo and humans, for food, drink and personal
hygiene, so estates were often located near to these fresh water
sources. The economic value of the contribution of rivers in that era has
not been calculated (check), but it is clear the economy would have been
vastly different without the island’s rivers.
The free writer can then go through the information written and select details
that could lead to a topic.
Activity 29 Narrowing the Topic

Use the selected details from the free writing exercise on above to compose
narrowed topics for the general issue of Jamaican Rivers.
1. For city dwellers our towns and their ‘land’ features gain our
attention but rivers run through our space too.
______________________________________________________________
2. … rivers were important waterways for transporting cargo
and humans, for food, drink and personal hygiene, so
estates were often located near to these fresh water sources.
_______________________________________________________________

Activity 30 Narrowing the Topic
Write the narrowed topic for your final essay in the space below.
__________________________________________________________________
Pre-Writing Strategies (Getting Ideas)

The same strategies used for narrowing the topic may also be employed in
getting ideas about the topic. It may be useful to write down all you already
know about the topic through brainstorming or free writing. However, given the
fact that the expository essay, especially within the formal academic context,
requires facts, you will have to go beyond what you know. Research has to be
done to discover what available sources say about the narrowed topic. As well as
information from written sources, the research may include oral sources such as
interviews with experts on the topic, documentaries, films, or other electronic
media. The information must be
• relevant to the topic,
• current,
• produced by persons with qualifications and/or experience in the field, or
who consulted the experts.
When gathering information, you must take notes. These notes can consist of
summaries, paraphrased versions and short quotations from the original sources.
It is important to record the bibliographic details: title, author/editors, year of

publication, publisher and other necessary information. This information serves
the following purposes.
• It establishes that the message producer acknowledges and credits the

author of the source(s) used
• It enables the message producer to revisit the source without wasting
time or trying to rely on memory if it becomes necessary to re-use the
source material
• Provides records for your reference list, which is required when you use
other people’s work.
Activity 31 Locating Information
List 3 of the Sources from which you will obtain information for
your final essay.
1. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Stage 2 – Drafting/Writing
Once valid information has been gathered, you are now ready to organize the
information. The relevant organizational strategy will be used to “fix” the
information in order to allow for clarity. It may be useful to first outline the
essay before completing a full first draft. Outlining the essay will be dealt with
in the next unit.
Stage 3 - Assessing and Editing/Rewriting
In assessing the first draft, you will need to check and ensure that your essay:
a) is an accurate expansion of the ideas expressed in the thesis;
b) has paragraphs that build on (by using any of the various expository
devices) the numbered topic sentences that make up the outline;
c) expresses the ideas as fully as the word limit will allow;
d) acknowledges the source of any definitions, statistical data or other

information, as promptly as the information is used;
e) uses language that is accurate, clear, and can be read and understood
by the target audience;
f) observes unity of tense and number throughout, as well as the rules of

grammar, punctuation and spelling; and
g) does not exceed, by much, the stipulated word limit.
If any of these requirements is missing, the assessment/editing should be the

stage for correction and adjustment.
Note:
Ensure that you ask your lecturer to clarify any questions for which you still have
doubt.
Activity 32 The Writing Process
Discuss the importance of the writing process in message production. Get input
from your tutor and peers.
Strategies for developing effective Thesis Statement

Once a topic is narrowed, it will be easier to select the points that can be dealt
with under its heading. This is where the idea of a thesis statement comes in.
This statement tells what the writing will be about – the thesis.
The thesis is a sentence which says what the message will be about and what
ideas it will cover. In other words, the thesis must be an accurate summary of
the substance of the message. The thesis guides the writer to the inclusion of
relevant material, so the thesis must express only the ideas that the writing will
expand on. For example, on the topic of Crime and Violence, many approaches
can be applied. The writer may want to consider a “cause and effect” approach, in
which case the thesis will speak about the causes and effects of crime and
violence. It could be narrowed even further, to the effect on family life,
communities, children, education or the economy.
The thesis has to be formed according to certain specifications. It should

• be formulated as a statement (not a question)
• be given in one sentence
• (for the final essay), indicate three areas or aspects that will be
introduced in the body of the outline and developed in the body
paragraphs of the full-length essay.

• give the reader the focus which will be taken in the essay, so that what
will to be covered is clear.
The thesis has to be framed based on the context of the task, especially if
there is a restricted word (500 – 600 words) or time limit (1hour forty five
minutes). A thesis for a topic Crime and Violence, such as:
“Crime and violence in Jamaica may be attributed to many factors”
is too broad and vague because the reader does not know what to expect will be
covered in the essay. On the other hand, a thesis such as:
“The absence of a father in the Jamaican family is the main cause of

violent crime”
is too narrow, unless the writer has detailed, specific knowledge to give three
aspects of this thesis, which would need to be expressed in the statement. A more
satisfactory thesis has a main idea, which introduces the required aspects, which
will be developed. An example relevant to the topic Crime and Violence would be:
“The possible causes of violent crime in Jamaica may be found in

dysfunctional family life, economic and social factors”.
Activity 33 Thesis Statements
Write a thesis statement, which adequately indicates the scope of your final essay.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Parts of the Expository Essay
Again, due to the necessity to be clear, there is a strict requirement for effective
structuring of content and organization. As you are aware, the essay has to be
written using separate paragraphs. Each paragraph plays a specific role and has
required content.
Writing Effective Introductory Paragraphs
Like every well-organized paragraph, the introduction has a main idea, which is
expressed in the topic sentence; that sentence covers all that will be said in the
paragraph. The topic sentence of your introductory paragraph may be the thesis
of your essay and it may be the first sentence or appear in the middle or end of
the paragraph. However, for the Academic Writing essays to be written in this
module, you are asked to place the thesis sentence at the end of the introductory
paragraph. A well-written introductory paragraph should contain the following
elements.
• An arresting opening (attention grabber or lead-in) such as a shocking
statistic, a question, a quotation of something relevant to the topic or
thesis
• Background information on the topic which prepares the reader for the
discussion to come
• Definition (if necessary)
• Thesis statement
• Anecdote
An essay of five paragraphs may have an introduction of between three to six

sentences including the thesis.

Writing Effective Supporting/Body Paragraphs
An essay of 500-600 word essay will have three main ideas; therefore, there will
be at least three body paragraphs. These paragraphs must develop the ideas in
the thesis in the same order as they were introduced there. Each body paragraph
ideally develops one main idea that supports the thesis. Each body paragraph
will contain
• a topic sentence that alerts the reader to what the rest of the
paragraph is about and makes it easy for the writer to focus on what to
include in the paragraph.
• Explanation
• Example
• Evidence, where relevant
Each body paragraph may contain 3-6 sentences depending on the length of the
essay.
Transition
Connectives, also called transition words, are useful for linking the ideas in a
paragraph and in establishing the relationship between paragraphs. Each
sentence must be linked to the other; and each paragraph must connect to the
next. Some transition words follow:
Firstly in contrast
secondly as a result
thirdly in comparison
finally next
however nevertheless
on the other hand and
therefore but

Activity 34
Use transitions, which may be others than those from above, to fill the
blanks to complete the following paragraph:
Scientists from the University of the West Indies (UWI) Mona, are working feverishly to
determine if the deadly free-living ‘brain-eating amoeba’ is present in Jamaican waters, -
---------- how common it is. The UWI’s revelation comes on the heels of increased cases
worldwide of brain eating amoeba disease, ---------- so far research into its spread has
produced inconclusive results. Studies have revealed that the amoeba has been found in
public fresh water bodies like pools and rivers, sea water ------------- tap water. --------------
Australia is the only country so far where the amoeba has been associated with public
water supplies.
Writing Effective Conclusions
The conclusion is the last paragraph of the essay. It sums up the points of the
essay by reminding the reader of the main ideas. It should present new details,
advise readers about actions to be taken, nor express an opinion. The conclusion
must contain
• an opening statement which signals that one is about to end, without using “in
conclusion,” for example.
• a summary of the thesis and main points presented using different
words, as far as possible, from those which were used in the
introduction and body.
• a closing statement which does not ask for action by anyone

Sample 1
Essay Showing the Basic Structure of an Expository Essay
Comparison and Contrast of Fruit Juices and Fruit Drinks
1. Jamaica, as a tropical country, produces more than 1000 tons of 40 varieties of

fruits all year round. These fruits are not only eaten, they can also be made into
juices. A check at the various supermarkets and shops will show that some of
the products for sale are labelled fruit juices, while others are named fruit
drinks. So, why is there a difference in name? This occurs, as while both
fruit juices and drinks contain elements related to the relevant fruit,
there are differences in the type of components.
2. Both fruit juices and drinks have some feature of the fruit from which it
is named. Orange juice or drink, for example, is expected to contain something
from the orange, whether the juice or the colour. The label on the containers will
show what elements of the fruit may be in the product.
3. There are some differences between the elements contained in the juices and
drinks, however. Fruit juices tend to contain mostly genuine fruit juice.
The fruit is crushed and the juice extracted. Fruit drinks, on the other
hand, may contain very small portions of juice. Water and sugar may be the
main ingredients. In some cases, artificial flavouring and colourings are used in
making these drinks.
4. Fruits can assist in the provision of two main types of beverages, juices and
drinks. Each of these types will have parts of the original fruit on which it is
based. The difference lies in the fact that the quantities and types of these
components will differ. The label on the containers will inform the
consumer of the ingredients used.

Activity 35 Parts of the Expository Essay
Identify the role of the following components of the sample essay. Use the
information on the parts of the expository essay to assist you.
Paragraph 1
This occurs, as while both fruit juices and drinks contain elements related to
the relevant fruit, there are differences in the type of components.
__________________________
Paragraph 2
Both fruit juices and drinks have some feature of the fruit from which it is
named.
__________________________
Paragraph 3
Fruit juices tend to contain mostly genuine fruit juice. The fruit is crushed
and the juice extracted.
__________________________
Paragraph 4
The label on the containers will inform the consumer of the ingredients used.
_____________________________
____

Sample 2 of Basic Expository Essay Structure
A Possible Cause and Effect of Using Computer-aided Language Learning
“Computers have become the most empowering tool we've ever created” (Bill Gates).
This comment may be referring to the fact that computers have been used to assist
mankind in nearly every aspect of life. One area that computers are being used is
language learning. Students are learning completely on-line, or via a merger of
computer lessons and face-to-face classes referred to as computer-aided language
learning. Educators may resort to this form in order to increase
opportunities for individual learning and, therefore, allow for the
development of greater levels of proficiency by their students.
The need to cater to individual learning preferences and needs may lead to the use of
computer-aided language learning. Each learner is likely to be at different stages of
the learning process. The single teacher within a class of twenty or more students
may find it difficult to cope. Different types of lessons and activities can be stored on
the computer. Individual students can then select activities that best suit their
needs.
With the emphasis on individualized learning, computer-aided language learning

has the potential to lead to greater degrees of achievement. When learners are able
to work on their problems, it is likely that their learning will be more purposeful.
Learners who see the value of what is being learnt may take greater interest in the
activities and perform at a higher level. This may lead to these learners
accomplishing their goals at a much faster pace.
Computers appear to be more than just tools of communication and information

processing. They seem to be a potential means of assisting in language leaning.
The need for individualized learning may cause educators to turn to computer-aided
language learning. This action has the potential of allowing for greater productivity.
Educators and learners may stand to benefit from the use of this facility.
NOTE
• These essays are samples; they are not perfect. Please DO NOT copy
phrases from them.
• They pattern what is required for essay 1, not the final essay. They have
only two main points and no references.
Consult with your tutors to get further guidance as the semester progresses.

UNIT FOUR
Planning the Academic Expository Essay
The academic expository essay incorporates all the requirements of the basic
essay discussed in the previous units. The difference lies in its strict adherence
to the demand for
! facts
! use of valid sources of information
! in-text citation
! attachment of reference list
! formal language use
In order to increase your chances of producing academic expository essays that

meet the relevant requirements, you have to be able to complete the relevant
tasks in the planning process.
About this Unit

In Unit 4, the emphasis is on locating and processing information for inclusion in
the academic essay. The use of information from other persons’ work suggests
that means of acknowledging these sources also have to be highlighted. In
addition, the unit aims to facilitate the planning process for the final essay.
Guiding Questions
1. What are some of the methods for extracting meaning from various types
of sources?
2. What are the features of an effective summary?
3. What are features and function of a synthesis essay?
4. How does one produce the academic expository essay outline?
5. What are the components of the reference list based on APA (6th edition)
style of referencing?

Acquiring Information
Unit 1 emphasized the importance of careful and efficient planning in order to

better ensure successful communication. The writing process, which highlighted
the steps to be taken in the planning process, was then presented. According to
this process, the creator of the academic expository essay would first complete
the following tasks identified in the activity below.
√ Checklist
Place a check mark beside each task, if you have already
completed it.
Narrowed the topic

Identified the purpose
Identified the intended audience
Identified the context or requirements for the production of the
message. In the case of the final essay for this module, some of the
requirements were stated on the module outline and others were
discussed in class.
You are now ready to move on to step two, locating valid sources of information.
Some of you may have started examining the available information, especially if
you had problems narrowing the topic. The following sections take a more
organized approach to locating information in order to generate facts to support
ideas in the academic expository essay.
Types of sources
There are various types of sources from which information can be derived.
However, for the purpose of this module – Academic Writing 1 – we will be
expecting you to only refer to reliable sources as you research for your final essay

topic. You are also expected to incorporate these skills into other research
assignments or tasks undertaken while here at the university, or within the
professional context.
Sources are generally classified as primary and secondary, depending on their

origin. However, for ease of comprehension of this unit, we will consider sources
as being comprised broadly of 2 types: print and electronic.
Print
Print sources include material that has gone through some type of printer.
They exist in a physical format. These include books, journals, periodicals,
magazines, newspapers and other sources of this nature.
Electronic
Electronic sources will cover information that is derived from websites, the
television, radio and other such sources. Please note that the Internet
houses both print and electronic sources. Once the material exists in print
and the Internet just allows you to gain access, it is deemed a printed
source.
Choosing Sources
Careful choices must be made when selecting sources. Those used for academic
purposes are supposed to be valid and credible. Since not every source will be
suitable for the academic context, certain guidelines, as listed below, must be
used to assist in the selection.
Guidelines
! Examine the credibility of the source itself. Since the context of the
essay is academic, then sources of this nature would be more suitable.
Academic sources, such as journals, tend to include result of research
done by specialists in the field, and the information may have been
vetted by at least two other experts.

! Note the qualification and/or experience of the writer in relation
to the specific subject matter. If information on the writer is not
available, run a Google check.
! Check the features of the message. Does the writer refer to other
experts in the field? How credible are those references? Does the writer
provide logical explanations and other supporting details for ideas
raised?
! How relevant is the information? The context of the final essay is

Caribbean or Jamaican. This does not mean that only material written
on these places must be used. An attempt has to be made, however, to
identify similarities between the contexts of the sources of information
and the context of the paper. Using examples from the local or regional
contexts can assist in this task. Frequently, newspaper articles,
television and radio broadcasts, as well as interviews and
questionnaires may be useful in this regard.
! Check to see whether the information differs or coincides with

what other sources are saying. One means of seeking to ensure that
your ideas are valid is to use information from a variety of sources. For
the final essay, you are expected to use as least 3 different types. This
allows you to better draw conclusions that can be supported.
For example, if you interview one person who tells you that the toll
being paid on the Portmore leg of Highway 2000 is too expensive, you
cannot on the basis of that ONE person’s experience conclude that this
is true. You would need more information to support this claim.
As you work your way through, with guidance from your lecturers, please
remember that some sources do not lend themselves to academic discourse. For
example, DO NOT USE Wikipedia or About.com or any blogs for your essays. If
you have to use Google, please use Google scholar where you can be sure that the
papers have some academic leaning and are more likely to be credible.

Having difficulties finding information?
Remember, you created the topic, so do not expect to find information with
the exact wording. Use keywords or phrases from the narrowed topic. If
you are still having difficulties,
! first use the broad topic to search
! pull out ideas or concepts from the general information that seem
relevant to your topic
! search for those concepts
Become familiar with the library offerings; both the physical and
electronic databases will be useful.
Activity 36 Sources of Information

List 2 advantages and disadvantages of both the print and
electronic media.
Print
Advantages ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Disadvantages ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Electronic
Advantages ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Disadvantages ____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Strategies for obtaining meaning from written sources
Comprehension Skills
Comprehension, which can also be described as the process of understanding, is often an

activity that students take for granted. Some students believe that comprehension only entails
reading a passage and answering the questions that are asked relating to the passage. While
this possibly describes comprehension to most people, it is a far more interactive and
demanding activity than most of you realize. It is for this reason that this unit of the
workbook is dedicated to equipping you with how to acquire the required comprehension
skills, which will facilitate your life as students in a university.
Developing Reading Comprehension Skills
When you read, in order to comprehend you need to think. Reading comprehension is,
therefore, a thinking activity. You must, therefore, think about and understand the symbols
used in print in order to get meaning from them. As a college student the requirement is that
you should be able to read at all levels of meaning or, in other words, comprehend at all
levels. This means that you should display varying depths of understanding, being able to
analyze meanings on different levels. To put it another way, you should be able to read at the
three comprehension levels; literal level, interpretive level and applied level.
Comprehension Levels
A. Literal Comprehension Levels
This means when one reads what is actually stated. Literal comprehension content
measures the ability to understand accurately and completely what is directly stated in a
written or spoken message. For you to effectively acquire this skill, you need to be able to
develop the following skills.
Skills to be developed
1. Finding the main idea: Identify the main idea, thesis, theme or primary purpose of a
selection. This selection could be a piece of writing, speech or other
communicative means.

2. Finding supporting details and important facts: Identify the supporting ideas or
specific details in a selection that develop the main idea.
3. Organization/sequencing:
(a) Identify how a selection is organized in terms of
! cause/effect
! comparison/contrast ! illustration
! process analysis ! problem/solution
(b) Identify key transition words and phrases in a selection and how they are used.
4. Vocabulary Development: Identify the meanings of words as they are used in the
context of a selection
5. Summarizing
Common questions used to elicit thinking at the literal comprehension levels are who, what,
when, and where questions.
Activity 37A Main Idea (paragraph 1)

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
Because the Internet exists in a world that is already regulated with policies and laws, in
the hands of Internet users who vote – they, along with the officials elected to serve
them, make up the global community. Voters have the ability to elect responsible
individuals to the government officials, upholders of current laws, should be the people
responsible for the regulation of the Internet. With this responsibility comes the great
task of managing the protection of freedom of speech, and honoring social and public
interests across the world. That being said, the ultimate responsibility still rests with the
appropriate posts, and the elected officials have the responsibility to act on the will of
the people. (Adapted from Find the Main Idea of the Paragraph)
Questions
1. Find and write the topic sentence of the paragraph.
_________________________________________________________________

2. Using the topic sentence as a guide, identify and state the main idea of
the paragraph
_________________________________________________________________
3. List the details that support the main idea.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. Provide a suitable title for the paragraph

_________________________________________________________________
Activity 37B Main Idea (paragraph 2)
The idea that women are not equal to men has been a prevailing, common
theme in literature since the beginning of time. Like their predecessors,
Renaissance writers staunchly laid down the tenet that women were less
valuable throughout the pages of effusive literary writings, where women are
alternately idolized as virtuous or shunned as harlots. One man proved to be
a glaring contradiction to this falsity. That man was William Shakespeare
and he had the courage in those turbulent days to recognize the value and
equality of women. His portrayal of women differed from that of many of his
contemporaries during the Renaissance era.
(Adapted from Find the Main Idea of the Paragraph)

Questions
1. Find and write the topic sentence of the paragraph.
_________________________________________________________________
2. Using the topic sentence as a guide, identify and state the main idea of
the paragraph
_________________________________________________________________
3. List the details that support the main idea.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. Provide a suitable title for the paragraph
__________________________________________________________________
a. Inferential Comprehension Level
This involves reading between the lines; what is implied or meant, rather than
what is actually stated. Inferential comprehension content measures the ability
to evaluate a selection and its messages. To effectively apply inferential
comprehension skills the following will need to be developed.
Skills to be developed:
1. Evaluation
To complete an effective evaluation of messages, you will need to be able to

(a) determine whether evidence strengthens, weakens, or is relevant to
the main and supporting ideas in a selection;
(b) determine the role that an idea, reference, or piece of information

plays in an author’s/speaker’s discussion or presentation;
(c) determine whether information presented in a selection is presented

as fact or opinion;
(d) identify the relationship among ideas presented in a selection.
2. Inferential Reasoning: This involves being able to:
(a) draw inferences and implications from the directly stated content of a
selection
(b) determine the logical assumptions upon which a conclusion is based
(c) determine the author’s/speaker’s attitude toward material discussed

or presented.
3. Generalization: This involves being able to
a) recognize or predict ideas that are extensions of, or similar to, what
has been presented in a selection;
b) draw conclusions from material presented in a selection;
c) apply ideas presented in a selection to other situations.
Common questions used to elicit thinking at the inferential level are open-ended,
thought-provoking questions such as why, what if, and how.

Activity 38 What is It? (Adapted from Reading Workshop, n. d.)
Cucumber Cues
The following sentences have the word cucumber incorrectly used.
1. Re-write the sentences, changing cucumber to a word that makes better

sense.
A. I like to eat peanut cucumber.

________________________________________________________________
B. Clean your cucumber with a toothbrush.
__________________________________________________________________
C. A dog has four cucumbers.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Now, identify words that gave you clues to the word you substituted.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Activity 39
Who’s Who? (Adapted from Redance, Bean, & Baldwin, 1989)
The manager, the accountant, the teller, and the auditor at our local bank are
Mr. Smith, Mr. Brown, Mr. Jones, and Mr. Foster, not necessarily in that
order.
• Mr. Brown is taller than the auditor and the teller.

• The manager lunches alone.
• Mr. Jones plays bridge with Mr. Smith.
• The tallest of the four plays basketball.
• Mr. Foster lunches with the auditor and teller.
• Mr. Smith is older than the auditor.
• Mr. Brown plays no sports.

Which job does each man perform? First put circles in the squares to eliminate choices.
Then put an X when you find a match.
M A T A
A C E U
N C L D
A O L I
G U E T
E N R O
R T R
A
N
T
Mr. Smith
Mr. Brown
Mr. Jones
Mr. Foster
C. Applied Comprehension Levels
This involves reading beyond the lines; that is, taking what was said (literal)
and then what was meant by what was said (interpretive) and then extending
(apply) the concepts or ideas beyond the situation. To acquire this
comprehension level, you need to be able to develop the following skills.
Skills to be developed
Applied comprehension requires the readers to
a) combine ideas
b) draw conclusions
c) interpret and evaluate information
d) identify tone and voice

A higher and more complex level of applied comprehension involves critical
analysis, which requires readers to
a. be critical
b. form opinions
c. identify authors’ points of view and attitudes
d. identify and consider the authority of texts and their messages
e. infer motives of characters and themes
At this level we are analyzing or synthesizing information and applying it to

other information.
Activity 40
Determine the marital status of each of the three men in this scenario.
Give reasons for your answers
The Singles Bar
While sitting in a club where all single men tell the truth and all married men lie,
a woman is approached by three men. She asks the first guy if he is married, but
the music is so loud that she can't hear his answer. So she turns to the second guy,
who tells her, "The first guy said, 'I am married,' but he really is single." Then she
turns to the third guy, who says, "The second guy is single."
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Summarizing information from written sources
What is a summary?
A summary has been described as
a. “a brief statement of the main points of something” (The Pocket

Oxford Dictionaray)
b. “a brief account or an abridgement” (The Concise Oxford Dictionary,

9th edition)
Pay attention to the words “brief statement”, “main points”, “abridgement”.
A summary provides the bare essentials of someone’s ideas, stripped of

descriptions, examples, illustrations and figurative language. It tests your
understanding of the original text and your ability to re-state the ideas in your
own words. Having a broad vocabulary is important if one is to paraphrase
ideas expressed in the original text, accurately. If one has a limited vocabulary it
may be difficult to find the right words or phrases to represent an idea.
By now, I am sure you realize that in order to write effective summaries, you
need to make a conscious effort to expand your vocabulary. Vocabulary
development exercises can be found everywhere, including your textbooks,
novels, newspapers and even listening to everyday conversations. When you
come upon a word that you are not familiar with, it is important that you check it
out, in the dictionary and pay attention to how it is used to get the full range of
the meaning so you can use it appropriately, when necessary.
Why do we need to acquire summary writing skills?
• Note taking at the tertiary level is inevitable. We need summary writing

skills for academic purposes.

• Everyone needs to concisely and accurately record information at varying
times and for different purposes (e.g. during classes, while studying or for
research purposes).
• Contracted information saves on time and space and promotes your
understanding of the original material since it has to be re-worded by you.
How can we write effective summaries?
a. Examine the topic. What does it suggest about the content of the passage?
Bear in mind, however, that the title may not always bear a close
relationship to the content.
b. Turn the topic into a question.
c. First, speed read the original passage to get familiar with its content.
d. Then, re-read the passage for answers to the question suggested by the
topic. Underline or highlight the areas where these answers exist.
e. Paraphrase the information and write them down.
f. Read through the details to arrive at the writer’s thesis or main message,
if this is not explicitly stated.
g. Put away the original article and begin to write the summary.
Writing the summary

a. Begin with a sentence that supplies the following information.
• Title of the passage
• Author
• Date
• Thesis
b. Use the selected details to support the thesis presented in sentence one.
Present only the writer’s ideas as presented in the original as accurately
as you can, in the same order, but use your own words.

DO NOT include examples, illustrations, descriptions and figurative
language – those were used in the original to flesh out the ideas.
c. Proofread and edit to ensure that you do not have any irrelevant details in
your summary.
i. Check for sentence fragments and run-ons.
ii. Identify the subject and verb of every sentence to ensure that
there are complete sentences between every two “periods” or
“full stops”.
iii. Check every verb to ensure that subjects and verbs agree.
iv. Check that pronouns agree with their antecedents and that the reference
is clear.
v. Check your spellings.
vi. Check your punctuations.
d. Finally, count the number of words to ensure that you have observed the guidelines
provided. If no word limit is given, aim to achieve a summary, which works out to
no more than one-third of the original passage, in length.
Note:
Remember, in any skill acquisition process, we get better by practising. Endeavour to include
this skill in your regular note taking activities in class and you will soon see improvement.
Comprehension skills also require us to understand fully so we can capture our

understanding and apply them as appropriate. Summary writing skills are also
integral to comprehension. Examine the following sample summary with the
attached steps then work through the following practice comprehension passages
in class with guidance from your lecturer.

Passage
Venom Extract from The Bite That Heals
By Jennifer S. Holland, National Geographic, February, 2013
Retrieved from ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2013/02/venom/holland-text
1. Michael decided to go for a swim. He was on vacation with his family in Guerrero,
Mexico, and it was hotter than blazes. He grabbed his swimming trunks from where
they had been drying on a chair, slid them on, and jumped into the pool. Instead of
cool relief, a burning pain ripped through the back of his thigh. Tearing off his
trunks, he leaped naked from the pool, his leg on fire.
2. Behind him a small, ugly, yellow creature was treading water. He scooped it into a
Tupperware container, and the caretaker of the house rushed him to the local Red
Cross facility, where doctors immediately identified his attacker: a bark scorpion,
Centruroides sculpturatus, one of the most venomous species in North America. The
fierce pain from a sting is typically followed by what feels like electric shocks
racking the body. Occasionally victims die. Luckily for Michael, the bark scorpion is
common in the area, and anti venom was readily available. He had an injection and
was released a few hours later. In about 30 hours the pain was gone.
3. What happened next could not have been predicted. For eight years Michael had
endured a condition called ankylosing spondylitis, a chronic autoimmune disease of
the skeleton, a sort of spinal arthritis. No one knows what triggers it. In the worst
cases the spine may fuse, leaving the patient forever stooped and in anguish. “My
back hurt every morning, and during bad flare-ups it was so horrible I couldn’t even
walk,” he says.
4. But days after the scorpion sting, the pain went away, and now, two years later, he
remains essentially pain free and off most of his medications. As a doctor himself,
Michael is cautious about overstating the role of the scorpion’s venom in his
remission. Still, he says, “if my pain came back, I’d let that scorpion sting me again.”
5. Venom—the substance that drips from the fangs and stingers of creatures
lurking on the hiking trail or hiding in the cellar or under the woodpile—is
nature’s most efficient killer. Venom is exquisitely honed to stop a body in its
tracks. The complex soup swirls with toxic proteins and peptides—short strings of
amino acids similar to proteins. The molecules may have different targets and
effects, but they work synergistically for the mightiest punch. Some go for the
nervous system, paralyzing by blocking messages between nerves and muscle. Some
eat away at molecules so that cells and tissues collapse. Venom can kill by clotting
blood and stopping the heart or by preventing clotting and triggering a killer bleed.

6. All venom is multifaceted and multitasking. (The difference between venom and
poison is that venom is injected, or dibbled, into victims by way of specialized body
parts, and poison is ingested.) Dozens, even hundreds, of toxins can be delivered in a
single bite, some with redundant jobs and others with unique ones. Drastically potent
concoctions can result: Imagine administering poison to an adversary, then jabbing
him with a knife, then finishing him off with a bullet to the head. That’s venom at
work.
7. More than 100,000 animals have evolved to produce venom, along with the glands to
house it and the apparatuses to expel it: snakes, scorpions, spiders, a few lizards,
bees, sea creatures such as octopuses, numerous species of fish, and cone snails. The
male duck-billed platypus, which carries venom inside ankle spurs, is one of the few
venomous mammals. Venom and its components emerged independently, again and
again, in different animal groups. The composition of the venom of a single snake
species varies from place to place and between adults and their young. An individual
snake’s venom may even change with its diet.
8. Not all venom kills, of course—bees have it as a nonlethal defense, and the male
platypus uses it to show a rival male who is boss during mating season. But mostly
it’s for killing, or at least immobilizing an animal’s next meal. Humans are often
accidental victims. The World Health Organization estimates that every year some
five million bites kill 100,000 people, although the actual number is presumed to be
much higher.
9. Ironically, the properties that make venom deadly are also what make it so valuable
for medicine. Many venom toxins target the same molecules that need to be controlled
to treat diseases. Venom works fast and is highly specific. Its active components—those
peptides and proteins, working as toxins and enzymes—target particular molecules,
fitting into them like keys into locks. Most medicines work the same way, fitting into and
controlling molecular locks to thwart ill effects.
10. It is a challenge to find the toxin that hits only a certain target, but already top
medicines for heart disease and diabetes have been derived from venom. New
treatments for autoimmune diseases, cancer, and pain could be available within a
decade. Zoltan Takacs, a toxinologist and herpetologist says “There could be
upwards of 20 million venom toxins out there waiting to be screened. “It’s huge.
Venom has opened up whole new avenues of pharmacology.”

Steps to Summarizing Article
1. Scrutinize topic. It is general; therefore it does not provide much help.
Although one could ask the question: What is the writer saying about
venom?”
2. Scan passage: Look at introductory paragraph, after the anecdote.
Examine first sentence of each paragraph. These are highlighted in the
passage on page 104.
Note! Not all passages will provide clear topic sentences. In this
case, you have to use the details to arrive at the main ideas.
3. Identify the purpose of the passage and the writer’s organizational

strategy based on the details given.
Based on the results, it can be seen that definition and characteristics are being
given; thus, the strategy being used is extended definition.
Step 4: Turn the topic into a Question: What is vemon?

5. Search the passage for answers to the question.
6. Write down answers in your own words.
7. Use answers to produce summaries.
Remember to link one point to the other through the use of transitions.
“Venom,” an extract from “The Bite that Heals” by Jennifer Holland and
published in the National Geographic, February 2013, identifies venom as a
substance found in varying parts of some creatures that serves dual, but
opposing purposes. Holland suggests that some types of venom function as the
most deadly killer found in nature. A small amount of this substance may
contain a multitude of poisons that may attack various parts of the victim
simultaneously. Thus resulting in sure death. Surprisingly, however, Holland
declares that this same potent killer may serve as a cure for many diseases that
plaque mankind.

Activity 41
Read this short paragraph and attempt to summarize it in not more than
30 words.
West Indian cuisine is the product of a whole range of culinary influences. The
islands were originally inhabited by the Tainos and Caribs, and the settlers who
succeeded them – Ashantis, Chinese, Dutch, English, French, Ibos, Indians, Irish,
Spanish, Syrians and many, many more – all brought their own distinctive
ingredients and customs. Before refrigerators, salted cod and mackerel were
imported from Portugal and Canada and are now such staples in the diet we have
almost forgotten their origins. Breadfruit was introduced by Captain Bligh form the
South Sea Islands. Cassava and sweet potatoes were being used by the Tainos
(Indigenous Indians)
Taken from Walkerswood Caribbean Kitchen, (2000)

Cook book By Virginia Burke
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Now try this longer passage.

Activity 42
Read the passage below and answer all the questions, which follow.
How Germ-Phobia Can Lead to Illness By Jane Brody in The New York Times, June 20,
2000
1. To listen to the manufacturers of an ever-growing list of germ-fighting products --

including antibacterial soaps and sprays, toothbrushes and toothpastes, pajamas and
slippers, sheets and mattresses, potty chairs, high chairs, toys, sponges, cutting boards
and even chopsticks and paper towels -- my family and I should have been riddled with
disease all these many years.
2. My husband is allergic to antibacterial soaps, so we abandoned them 34 years ago. I do

not have a dishwasher, so our dishes, glasses and utensils are not ''sterilized'' at high
temperatures. I had no clothes dryer for 20 years and still don't use one for drying and
''sterilizing'' our clothes. We use sponges to wipe the kitchen counters and cloth towels to
dry our hands. We ride the subways, often holding the poles that the ads tell us are
crawling with billions of germs. And we do not use instant ''hand sanitizer.''
3. As infants, our sons crawled around the streets and parks of New York, putting whatever
they happened to find into their mouths, which is how babies test their interest in all
manner of objects. Yet, to my knowledge, none of us has ever acquired an
''environmental'' infection or even spread microorganisms from one person to another.
In fact, we have been remarkably healthy for more than three decades, despite what the
manufacturers tell us: that everything from our hands to our counters to our supposedly
clean laundry is crawling with potentially pathogenic bacteria that their products can
wipe out.
4. But can they? And if they can, at what price does this superhygienic environment come?
People frightened by a microbial world that harbors superbugs they believe are out to
get them may be adopting an approach that actually fosters rather than suppresses
serious infections.

Resistant Organisms
5. Earlier this month at a conference sponsored by the American Medical Association, Dr.
Stuart B. Levy, director of the Center for Adaptation Genetics and Drug Resistance at Tufts
University in Boston, voiced serious concerns about the more than 700 antibacterial products
now crowding the marketplace. They do not, he said, kill all bacteria, only those that are
most susceptible. They upset the natural balance of microorganisms and they leave behind
the bacteria that are strong enough to survive and multiply. Furthermore, these surviving
bacteria may evolve resistance to both antimicrobials and antibiotics that could be
transferred to dangerous pathogens.
6. Last week, because of the growing concern about the emergence of antibiotic-resistant
germs, the American Medical Association urged the government to step up regulation of
antibacterial soaps, lotions and other household products.
7. Explaining the process two years ago in Scientific American, Dr. Levy wrote: ''Bacteria are a
natural, and needed, part of life. Most live blamelessly. In fact, they often protect us from
disease because they compete with, and thus limit the proliferation of, pathogenic bacteria.
The benign competitors can be important allies in the fight against antibiotic-resistant
pathogens.''
8. In making a case against products spiked with antibacterials, he explained: ''Like

antibiotics, antibacterials can alter the mix of bacteria; they simultaneously kill
susceptible bacteria and promote the growth of resistant strains. These resistant
microbes may include bacteria that were present from the start. But they can also include
ones that were unable to gain a foothold previously and are now able to thrive thanks to the
destruction of competing microbes.''
9. Given the chance to proliferate, some of these emergent organisms ''may become new agents
of disease,'' Dr. Levy said. The most frequently used antibacterial agent in consumer
products is triclosan. Laura McMurry and colleagues in Dr. Levy's laboratory have shown
that while triclosan wipes out the most sensitive bacteria, it also gives rise to bacteria that
resist its action by pumping the chemical out of their cells.
10. ''Residues are the potential problem,'' Dr. Levy said. ''We're talking about chemicals that can
stick around in the home and continue to select for resistance when the levels of these
chemicals drop. Then even high levels of the chemicals won't work.''
11. Another potential problem of creating a superhygienic environment is misdevelopment of

the immune system in children that persists throughout life. The developing immune

system may need to be primed to function properly
12. During their first year of life, babies need to be exposed to germs to foster the production
of T-helper 1 cells, which make antibodies to dangerous microorganisms. If the baby's
environment is too clean, the production of T-helper 1 cells is not adequately stimulated
and the immune system instead overproduces T-helper 2 cells, which create antibodies to
allergens and could result in lifelong allergies or asthma, a recent study in Italy showed.
Practicing Proper Hygiene

13. There is no need for an ordinary healthy person to be a fanatic about cleanliness, Dr.
Levy said. All you have to do is follow the basic rules of hygiene.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the writer’s thesis or main message?
a. Persons do not need to be health conscious.
b. Some bacteria are good while some are bad and will harm us.
c. Healthy persons do not need to go overboard with cleanliness.
d. Bacteria will not harm us as they are a part life and will help us.
2. What is the writer’s chief source of evidence for her thesis?

3. Expert opinion from doctors and medical associations.
4. Personal experiences that have occurred with her family.
5. The use of examples of what the antibacterial products can do.
6. The use of scientific information about the products.
3. According to the information given in the passage, what could be a likely age range of the
writer at the time she wrote the article? Give reasons for your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
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4. Based on the information in the passage, identify three (3) categories of duties we perform at
home for which there are designed “anti-germ” measures that the health-conscious person
should follow?
i. ____________________ ii. ____________________________
ii. _______________________________________________________

5. According to the information in the passage, why do babies put things in their mouths?
a. They like the feel of such objects.
b. They do not know any better; they are young.
c. They need to experiment with different objects.
d. They need to check to see what is fascinating to them.
6. What is the greatest concern voiced by the specialists and organizations mentioned in the
passage?
a. The number of antibacterial products is growing.
b. Manufacturers are spiking their products with anti-bacterial agents.
c. There are some persons who are germ fanatics.
d. There is an increase in germs that cannot be killed with antibiotics.
7. According to the passage what are the two main types of bacteria?
i. ____________________________ ii. ______________________________________
8. According to the writer, what is ironic about the actions of persons who are fanatical about
cleanliness?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
9. With close reference to the way in which they are used in the passage, give another word or
phrase that means the same as the following:
a. abandoned (Para 2) __________________________________________________
b. environmental infection (Para 4) __________________________________________________
c. promote (Para 9) __________________________________________________
d. simultaneously (Para 9) ______________________________________________
e. susceptible (Para 9) __________________________________________________
f. residues (Para 12) __________________________________________________
g. adequately stimulated Para 4) _________________________________________________
h. fanatic (Para 15) _________________________________________________

Summary
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Activity 43
Extract from Swapping Young Blood for Old Reverses Aging By Jennifer Frazer
1. In what could have profound implications for understanding the process of aging, a trio of
scientific papers published today show that infusing elderly mice with the blood of young
mice can reverse many of the mental and physical impairments of growing old.
2. Expanding on earlier research, the three studies—published concurrently in Nature

Medicine and Science—demonstrate rejuvenating effects in memory, muscle strength,
endurance, and sense of smell. Together, they suggest that there might be factors in the
young blood that can produce globally regenerating effects in older animals. In addition to
reversing the normal ravages of aging, the papers suggest, young blood might help turn
around declines in cognitive function associated with age-related conditions such as heart
enlargement and Alzheimer's disease.
3. The study in Nature Medicine, conducted by Saul Villeda at the University of California,
San Francisco, Tony Wyss-Coray at Stanford, and their colleagues, builds on earlier work
that showed young blood could stimulate the growth of brain stem cells and new neurons, as
well as work that indicated that giving old blood to young mice can have the opposite effect,
impairing their cognitive abilities.
4. As described in the Nature Medicine paper, Villeda and his colleagues physically connected
the circulatory systems of old mice to young mice via surgery that stitched their abdominal
cavities together. Over time, elderly mice tethered to young mice sprouted more new
connections between nerve cells in their brains than did controls tethered to other elderly
mice. Senior mice invigorated by their juniors' blood also produced proteins associated with
neuroplasticity—the ability of the brain to reorganize itself in response to experience. The
young mice were 3 months old; the elderly mice were 18 months old.
5. The UCSF and Stanford scientists also directly injected old mice with young-mouse blood
plasma, the yellowish liquid base of blood in which proteins and other solids are suspended.
Over the course of three weeks, the old mice received eight blood plasma injections from
young mice. Afterward, the treated mice remembered how to find a hidden resting platform in
a water maze better than the controls did. They also exhibited better recollection of a
chamber they had been conditioned to associate with a mild foot shock.
6. While the ingredient in the young blood responsible for these effects is still unknown, a clue
was provided when the scientists heated the plasma before injection, and no such benefits
were seen. Since proteins are deactivated by heat, the results are consistent with the
relevant circulating factor being a protein.

7. In the first of the two papers in Science, a team from Harvard found that by either connecting the
circulatory systems of young and old mice, or injecting old mice with a signaling protein isolated
from young blood, they could strengthen and rejuvenate aged muscles. The improvement was
measured in several ways, according to Amy Wagers, professor of stem cell and regenerative biology
at Harvard and one of the paper's chief authors. The DNA of old muscle stem cells was repaired;
muscle fibers and cell structures called mitochondria morphed into healthier, more youthful versions;
grip strength improved; and the mice were able to run on treadmills longer than their untreated
counterparts.
8. The protein used in the study, called GDF11, was already known to reduce age-related heart
enlargement, which is characteristic of heart failure. But Wagers said the new work shows that
GDF11 has a similar age-reversal effect on other tissue, in particular the skeletal muscle and brain.
9. In the second Science paper, another team from Harvard, led by research associate Lida
Katsimpardi, also transferred GDF11 from young mice to old ones either by surgically linking their
circulatory systems or through injections. They then looked at cells in the subventricular zone, an
area in the mouse brain related to odor perception. The young blood improved circulation in this
region, which in turn stimulated the production of new nerve cells. When these cells migrated to the
olfactory bulb and matured, the elderly mouse's sense of smell improved, reversing the loss in
sensitivity normally associated with aging.
10. What's most exciting about this work, said Katsimpardi, is that the bolstered blood flow was
observed not only in the olfactory regions but throughout the brain. This could also help explain the
improvement in memory and learning seen in the Nature Medicine paper. The Harvard researchers
plan to continue work to see whether GDF11 is the sole factor involved in the rejuvenation, or
whether it is one of several.
11.Bradley Wise, chief of the Neurobiology of Aging Branch at the National Institute on Aging and
the administrator of the team's grant, said it's too soon to recommend wholesale transfusion of
young human blood into elderly people. He said any treatments derived from this research
will likely come from individual blood factors, either administered directly or via
pharmaceuticals designed to mimic their effects. "The big question is: What are those
factors?" he said.
Questions
1. Which of the following best explains the purpose of the research reported in the scientific papers
referred to by the writer?
a. To discover how old mice would react to young blood
b. To discover means of lessening age-related impairments
c. To prevent mental and physical impairments in animals

d. To prevent age-related impairments from occurring (1 mark)
2. According to the passage, which of the following is TRUE concerning the trio of studies
referred to by the writer?
a. They found that young blood could cure age-related diseases
b. They provided profound information on how the aging process works.
c. Their findings show that old blood can cause deterioration of abilities.
d. Their results show that young blood may have revitalizing properties. (2 marks)
3. According to the information in paragraph 4, which of the following describes the category
of benefits reported in the paper in Nature Medicine?
a. physical
b. mental
c. brain
d. neurotic (2 marks)
4. Using information from the passage, say which of the following identifies a MAIN similarity
among the experiments reported on in Science and Nature Medicine?
a. Area of focus for possible improvement in the mice
b. The involvement of persons with similar expertise
c. Their use of information from previous studies
d. Methods used for the infusion of old and new blood (1 mark)
5. Given the information in paragraphs 9 and 10, select the option that BEST explains how the
findings of the second paper in Science help to clarify the results in Nature Medicine?
a. Both experiments had similar objectives and participants.

b. The scientists had similar qualifications and experience.
c. The Science paper, like the Nature Medicine article, focused on the use of young blood.
d. The Science paper had a possible justification for the result of the Nature Medicine study.
( 2 marks)
6. Which of the following is the most likely reason for the Harvard researchers wanting “to see
whether GDF11 is the sole factor involved in the rejuvenation?”
a. To better understand rejuvenation in mice.

b. GDF11 was not strong enough to work by itself.
c. They want to be able to produce the elements.
d. To develop greater understanding of aging. ( 2 marks)
7. What is the writer’s purpose? (2 marks)

________________________________________________________________________________
8. What dominant rhetorical strategy does the writer employ in trying to achieve this purpose?
(1 mark)
________________________________________________________________________________
9. Identify TWO strategies the writer uses to increase the credibility of the information within the
article? (2 marks)
a. __________________________________
b. __________________________________
10. Paraphrase the following extract from the passage (para. 11). (2 marks)
. . . any treatments derived from this research will likely come from individual blood factors,
either administered directly or via pharmaceuticals designed to mimic their effects.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
11. Give the meaning of each of the following words/phrases as used in the passage. (3 mks)
i profound implications (para. 1) __________________________________________________
ii concurrently (para. 2) ___________________________________________________
iii. tethered (para.4) ___________________________________________________
iv. deactivated by heat (para. 6) ____________________________________________________
v. age-reversal effect (para. 8) ____________________________________________________
vi. bolstered (para. 10) _____________________________________________________

Using your own words, summarize the passage in no more than
100 words.
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Notes
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Synthesizing Information
Acquiring information to be used in the creation of your own ideas is not a simple
task. You will have to summarize the ideas from the sources, being careful to
record the relevant bibliographic details. Since you are expected to use
information from a number of sources (at least 5 made up of a minimum of 3
different types), you will end up with no less than 5 summaries. The essay does
not just consist of your just putting down details from the sources. You will have
to analyze the information to discover the main messages coming out of the
sources; then see how you can use them to create your own ideas. Thus,
you need to synthesize the information.
What is a Synthesis
Synthesizing is one of the higher order comprehension skills. It involves pulling
information out of different sources (at least two), then pulling the different
pieces of information together for further use. In pulling the information
together, you look for similarities and differences.
Conducting the Synthesis

• Select at least two pieces of information that speak to a similar aspect of a
given topic. For example, they may both be examining possible causes of
crime in Jamaica or the potential impact of being frequently absent from
classes.
• Identify the thesis of each article
• Summarize the main points
• Examine the tone of the articles and note the features that help to project
the particular tone. This could be the language or the strategies used to
present the information, for example the use of academic research.

Completing these tasks will assist you in developing ideas for your essay. You
will be better able to
• see consistency (similarities) or variances (differences) in ideas within the
sources
• determine which points may be more valid
• decide which source could be better used to support different ideas
Writing the Synthesis Summary (Essay Format)
In helping you to develop your skills in synthesizing information, the module

requires you to produce a synthesize summary in essay format. The following
are the features of this essay.
• It must consist of 300-350 words.

• It should be made up of 5 paragraphs: introduction, 3 body paragraphs and
a conclusion.
• The Introduction consists of
" An opening sentence which introduces the topic or issue to which
the sources refer. This helps to prepare the reader for the topic of
discussion. This sentence does not begin to say anything about the
sources.
" A sentence, which introduces the sources that were synthesized. It

provides their titles, date of publication and the names of the
writers.
" A closing sentence in the paragraph, which identifies the results of

the synthesis. This is the thesis statement that alerts the reader to
the similarities and differences that you found when you compared
the two pieces of information. The thesis must provide 3 main
points that will be discussed in the essay.

• The Body
Each body paragraph discusses one of the main ideas presented in the
thesis statement. The ideas are presented in the same order as given in
the thesis in most cases. Sometimes the order has to change based on how
the similarities and differences occur.
Each body paragraph must
" begin with a topic sentence that states a similarity or difference in

the ideas or tone,
" supply supporting details from the sources to support the claim
made in the topic sentence,
" be a fully developed paragraph with an introductory topic sentence

and at least two sentences giving the details to support this topic
sentence.
When discussing a similarity the names of the writers don’t have to be

mentioned. However, when a single source is being singled out, the writer’s
name, along with the date, must be mentioned.
• Conclusion
The conclusion must also be a fully developed paragraph. It may
" begin with a statement which supplies a combined message from the
synthesized articles,
" then provide a summary of the findings of the synthesis, and
" end with another idea from the sources
Remember that the synthesis summary focuses predominantly on what the

writers say, not what they focus on or talk about. While tone and the strategies
that give rise to this feature are mentioned, they should not dominate the essay.
Examine the following example of a synthesis summary (essay). The

Sources used in the synthesis may be accessed using the information in the
reference list, which follow the sample.

Sample Synthesis Essay
(Student, Academic Writing 1, UTech, April 2013).
Identification*of*
Introduction* synthesized*
of*topic* sources**
Some Jamaicans thinking of attending university have to wrestle with the issue of
INTRODUCTION*
how they are going to acquire funding. Mathews (2013) in the article “Need Cash for
College” and “Funding Your Education” (2007), both focus on accessing funding for
tertiary education within the Jamaican context. Both articles agree that there are
various available options for funding tertiary level education in Jamaica;
however, they differ in type of details given and in tone.
Thesis*of*synthesis*
The articles concur that there are different sources of funding in Jamaica.
The writers explain that eligible Jamaicans may get loans from the government-
funded student loan institution, banks or credit unions. Tertiary level students may
also access funding through scholarships and grants. In addition, both writers identify
self-funding through savings and employment as a possible option. Both articles
declare that prospective tertiary level students should carefully work out which
options will be pursued before embarking on their course of study.
Topic*
sentences* In addition, the writers suggest that the options for funding have different
benefits and requirements; however, each article varies in the types of
details provided. Mathews (2013), shows that each lending agency will have
different lending rates, requirements and restrictions. “Funding your Career” (2007),
in contrast, heavily focuses on the process to be followed when seeking to benefit from
each option. This article emphasizes the need for self-sacrifice and careful planning.
Therefore, although both articles are not very academic or formal in tone,
the degree of formality differs. “Funding your Career” (2007), is more
conversational with less formal language use, perhaps because the article aims to both
educate and instruct readers. Mathews (2013) uses a more formal sentence structure,
thereby projecting a higher level of formality.
CONCLUSION*
As suggested by both articles, there are different options for accessing funding for
tertiary education. Although there are differences between the articles, together they
show that there are different benefits and requirements attached to each source.
According to the articles, the individual seeking a means of acquiring funding has to
carefully weigh each option.

References
Career Development and Employment Facilitation (2007). Funding your education.

Retrieved from http://cardef.heart-nta.org/fundingyourcareer.aspx
Mathews, L. (2013, March 10). Need Cash for College? Choices Online.
Retrieved from
http://www.choicesmagazine.com/magazine/magazinecontent.asp?ArticleID=25&
MagI D=5
Sample Synthesis Summary (Essay)
Modified version of Essay done by Alton Wegner, Academic Writing 1

Student, Semester 2, 2013/4
When considering a construction project in the Caribbean, some thought may be given
to the use of the earth’s natural renewable resources as an alternative to traditional
methods, in order to decrease potential negative effects. Allen-Agostini (2013) in the
article “Green and pleasant lands Eco-friendly Caribbean living” and Gillson (2012)
“Eco-friendly Homes in the Caribbean,” each offer methods of lowering the negative
impact of construction within the Caribbean. Both articles agree on the various
eco-friendly techniques that can be incorporated; however, they differ in
details on cost and in the tone portrayed in their presentations.
The writers agree on the different eco-friendly construction techniques that

can be utilized. They explain that homeowners can employ energy saving measures
including those related to the better use of natural lighting and the purchasing of
energy efficient appliances. In relation to water conservation, the articles suggest that
water-saving bathroom and kitchen fixtures be used. These measures, according to the
articles, will not only save money, they will also reduce the homeowners’ carbon
footprint.
Although both writers state that there are two types of financial considerations that
come with the use of eco-friendly constructions, they differ in the types of details
given on this issue. The writers acknowledge that there is one cost associated with
actual construction and another with maintenance. Allen- Agostini (2013) focuses
more on showing that green building costs more during the construction phases; while
Gillson (2012) delivers greater details on savings to be gained in maintenance costs.
Both articles are very informative and formal in tone, but there are slight
differences. Gillson (2012) included detailed information that sought to help the
reader to understand the ideas. In contrast, Allen-Agostini (2013) uses more
persuasive strategies aimed at convincing the reader. This was seen, for example, in
the use of statistics.

As suggested by the articles, there are several eco-friendly construction measures
that may be used to minimize harmful effects on our health and the environment.
Both writers shared this message, although they had varying focus and employed
different techniques in some cases. They also agree that homeowners should do
their own research before going green.
References
Allen-Agostini, L. (2013). Green and pleasant lands: Eco-friendly
Caribbean living. Retrieved from http://caribbean-beat.com/issue-
114/green-and-pleasant-lands-eco-friendly-
caribbeanliving#axzz2wXvHYX95
Gillson, D. (2013). Eco-friendly homes in the Caribbean: 5 environmentally

safe development practices. Retrieved from
http://www.tonsvj.net/2012/12/Eco-friendly-Homes-in -the-
Caribbean-5-Environmentally-Safe-Development-Practices/
Activity 44
The samples are specimen of work done by other students. They have strengths and
weaknesses. Select one of the samples and identify some of its strong points
as well as areas that could be improved.
Strengths
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
For Improvement
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

Strategies for Writing the Expository Sentence Outline
Once the information has been carefully pulled from the sources, the thesis (as
discussed in Unit 3, page 77) can be finalized. When a thesis has been
formulated, it is easier to select points relevant to the topic. A structured account
of the main ideas and the order in which they will be treated in the writing can
then be presented in a numbered outline. This outline will present the points
organized in sections depicting main point and supporting details. It is then
easier to check that the content is relevant and logical before producing a lengthy
draft.
The most helpful outline is one that uses sentences rather than a topic outline,
which consists of phrases or half sentences. The sentence outline gives specific
information about ideas whereas the topic outline gives indefinite and vague
information. The example below should illustrate this.
Essay Outline
Narrowed Topic: Possible Effect of Marrying One’s High School or College Sweetheart
Purpose: To inform Jamaican young persons of the potential effects of marrying someone
with whom they had relationships since high school or college sweetheart
Thesis: Marrying one’s high school or college sweetheart can allow for familiarity
with each other’s personality traits and family history; however, there may
be problems stemming from lack of exposure to persons of the opposite sex.
I. Partners may be more familiar with each other’s personality traits.

A. They will have gone through different situations together (Marshall, 2012, p. 14).
B. Each can see how the other responds to situations.
C. This can help in dealing with similar encounters, or avoiding potentially negative
situations (Holland, 2013).

II. It is likely that the partners may be more familiar with each other’s family members.
A. During courtship, persons tend to visit each other’s home.
B. They can observe how the partner, parents and siblings interact.
C. This exposure can reveal some of the experiences, which shaped the partner’s
character (Mitchell, 2010).
III. On the other hand, this type of marriage may suffer from lack of exposure to other
relationships (Steadman, 2012).
A. Couples who are committed to each other are expected to remain faithful.
B. If this commitment comes very early in life, the individuals would only be
familiar with each other.
C. Later in the marriage, they may feel that they may have missed out on
something, or settled for “what was there” (Steer & Bradwell, 2013, p. 12).
Note:
• You will have observed that the thesis in the example, in one sentence,
introduces three responses to the question raised by the topic, which is:
“What are the possible benefits of marrying one’s high school or college
sweetheart?” The answers are:
1. familiarity with each other’s personality traits
2. familiarity with family history, and
3. problems stemming from lack of exposure to persons of the opposite sex
• The order of the main controlling points I, II, III, follows the order of the
three aspects exactly as expressed in the thesis and each controlling idea is
expressed in one complete sentence.
• Each controlling idea has a number of supporting points (A, B, C) which

expand and explain the controlling idea. These supporting points, which

must each be written as a sentence will be developed, and not merely copied
from the outline, in the final full length essay.
• The writer of the outline is careful to acknowledge at least one source of

information in each major point of the outline. This achieves two ends: it
avoids plagiarism since the source of information is acknowledged, and it
prompts the writer to know which source to include in the writing of the
full-length essay.
The Reference List
The ideas within the outline and, ultimately, the ideas in the essay were framed
using information from other persons’ work. Only the writer’s surname and the
date were included in the outline. It is therefore expected that the rest of the
bibliographic information would be identified elsewhere. This information is
provided on the reference list, which is always written on a page by itself and
attached to the outline and the essay at the end.
Guidelines for preparing the reference list
1. It should be typed in double line spacing, or double spaced between items, but single
within
2. It should be in alphabetical order by author’s surname
3. Subsequent lines of the same reference should be indented
4. It should NOT be numbered, neither should it be in bullet form
5. It should utilize 12 font size and Courier, Arial or Times New Roman – no fancy fonts
The Basic APA format, for documenting sources, is:
• Author surname and initial, (one after the other)

• year of publication
• title of book in italics
• edition, where appropriate, in bracket
• publisher’s name
There are different guidelines for quoting books, journals, newspaper articles,
Internet articles, interviews, survey findings and some other forms of data. Please consult
the following sites for assistance on how to write the various kinds of references according to
the APA style.
Reference List for Sample Essay Outline
References
Marshall, Q. (2012). Choosing a life partner. The Relationship Quarterly 1(2), 12-26.
https://relationshipmatters/papers/life
Mitchell, B. (2010). Should you take those vows. In F. Hinckly (Ed.), Handbook of
marriage counseling (pp. 10-24). Porson.
Steadman, W. (2012). Marriage: Bitter or sweet. Journal of Counseling 2, 24-40.
Steer, Y. & Bradwell, C. (2013). Marital joy or woes: The marriage story.
Bernstein.
Notes
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

UNIT FIVE
Writing Academic Expository Essay
Part of what separates ordinary writing from academic writing, is the fact that
we are required to give credit to the sources that we refer to, in our work. It is
not only wrong, it is disrespectful to use people’s ideas, words or phrases, and not
give them credit. As you know, the penalty for plagiarism is huge. (Refer to your
students’ handbook for the details on the regulations and penalties for
plagiarism).
The University of Technology, Jamaica, mostly works with the APA style of
referencing. Consequently, that is the style that is provided in this workbook. If,
however, your faculty or programme requires you to work with any other style,
please request assistance in those areas. However, for your mini-research essay
for Academic Writing 1, you will be judged using the APA style of referencing.
Ways of citing sources
There are several ways that we cite sources within an academic essay.
1. Direct quotation/Verbatim
2. Paraphrase
3. Summary
Direct quotation /Verbatim
When you want to use information from an author and you quote the author
“word for word” you are said to be using a direct quotation or quoting the author
verbatim. You must place the direct quote in quotation marks. In this instance
you must provide the author’s surname, year of publication, in bracket, and page
number. For example, according to Jones (2004), “education is the key to national
development” (p. 24).

Direct or Verbatim quotations containing less than 40 words must be placed in
quotation marks (“..”), and the page number placed in bracket, at the end of the
quote. For example, Krizan, Merrier & Jones (2005) state that “failure to listen is
a common barrier to successful oral communication” (p. 20).
Paraphrasing
When you want to use information from an author, but you do not want to
express it exactly the same way the author did in the original, you can
paraphrase. It means you will state the author’s idea in your own words. For
example; Jones (2004) supports the position that national development is
dependent on education.
*** Note that in this instance, I did not include any quotation marks. However,
APA styling suggests that the page number is given, where possible, even though
it is not a direct quote. This is so, because the idea is paraphrased. Some
indicators of paraphrased references include words such as “suggest”, “agree”,
“opine” or “support” and “alluded to”.
Summarizing
This form of referencing, suggests, for example, that you may have read an
author’s work and agreed with the author’s position, but you want to re-present
the ideas in your own words. In this instance you still need to provide the page
numbers from which the information was gleaned. For example, Jones (2004, p.
10) believes that education is a very important variable for national
development.
These forms of including references provide students with a variety of options on

how to give credit to works consulted in the process of research or writing
assignments, essays, projects or dissertations. Adopting these different styles in
your writing will create a variety that contributes to easier comprehension.

Citing multiple authors
When citing a book by more than one author, in text, you cite the authors’
surnames, before stating the year of publication. This applies for up to 3
authors. If there are more than 3 authors, you just cite the first author’s
surname and add “et al” before the year of publication.
For example:
Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003) agree that language plays a major role in
thinking, speaking and writing.
Citing interviews
In the course of your research or information gathering stage, if you conduct

interviews to get expert opinion on issues, they are to be cited in-text only. This
means that you are to refer to the interview in the message, but the information
is not to be included on your reference list.
For example, if you interviewed an epidemiologist about the rate of the spread of
the HIV/AIDS epidemic, you can quote him in the main body of your message in
this way. Dr. Roe, epidemiologist with the Ministry of Health, agreed that the
“HIV/AIDS virus is on the increase among the 15-23 year age groups in Jamaica”
(personal communication, August 25, 2009).
Activity 45
Examine the following sample essay for all the requirements we have discussed
during the course. Scrutinize the introduction, body and conclusion to ensure that
they contain all the relevant information. Check the use of in-text citation and the
accuracy of the language and style. Does the essay meet the requirements of an
academic essay?

The Possible Impact of Marrying One’s High School or College
Sweetheart (Dawn Martin, September 9, 2013)
“Well married, a person has wings; poorly married, shackles” (Henry Ward
Beecher). This quote appears to suggest that marriages, like many other things in life,
can turn out to be beneficial or a misery. A relevant question that may arise here is: are
there steps that a person could take to try to ensure that a marriage is beneficial to both
parties? Some persons may suggest getting to know the potential partner well before
rushing into marriage (Brown, 2011). Well, marrying one’s school or college sweetheart
after a long relationship may align with Brown’s suggestion as it offers the possibility of
the partners being familiar with each other’s personality traits and family history;
however, they may also suffer from lack of necessary exposure to other people.
Friendship from childhood or early adulthood may provide opportunities for
persons to see each other during good and bad situations within “real contexts”
(Marshall, 2012, p. 14). They may see how each other react to disappointment, for
example. This exposure, according to Holland (2013), can help to prepare the couple for
similar encounters during the marriage and may provide the opportunity for them to
know what actions will cause pleasure or pain.
This type of marriage may also benefit from familiarity of the partners with each
other’s family members. During the early friendship or courtship, the partners may be
exposed to family members. They can note the relationship with parents and siblings.
Mitchell (2010) suggests that this is one effective means of learning about the character
traits and seeing whether these are qualities that you admire or hate. The female can,
for instance, note whether the male is disrespectful to his mother or sisters. She could
also learn from the way the parents treat each other. This exposure can indicate the
type of experiences that helped to shape the husband’s character.
However, there may be disadvantages in marrying one’s high school or college
sweetheart. One negative outcome may be related to the lack of exposure to other
relationships (Steadman, 2012). When persons decide to go steady, they are expected to
shut off other intimate relationships. This means that they may not get to socialize with
other members of the opposite sex. Later on in the marriage, they may feel that they
just settled for “what was there,” without having many choices (Steer & Bradwell, 2013,
p 12). This feeling could lead to resentment and negatively impact on the marriage.
Marriage is said to be one of the most important commitments one could make
(Marshall, 2012). It is therefore understandable that persons may want to ensure that
they marry the right person. Marrying someone who one has been dating from early
adulthood may provide the advantage of prior exposure to character traits and family
history. However, this act may also appear to rob one of chances to explore other
options. This suggests that this might not be a sure way of guaranteeing that marriage
assists, not hinders, one’s happiness.

Works Consulted
Fawcett, S., & Sandberg, A. (2000). Evergreen: A guide to writing with

readings (6th ed.). Houghton Mifflin.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2003). An introduction to language (7th ed.).
Heinle.
Lalla, B. (1997). English for academic purposes: A course for Caribbean

students. University of West Indies Press.
Pollard, V. (2003). F rom Jamaican C reole to Standard English: A

handbook for teachers. University of the West Indies Press.
American Psychological Association (2009). Publication Manual of the

American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Author.
Robitaille, J & Connelly, R. (2002). Writer’s resource: From paragraph to

essay. Thomson Heinle.
Simmonds-McDonald, H., Fields, L. & Robert, P. (1997). Writing in English:

Course book for Caribbean students. Ian Randle.
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Academic Writing 1

© Judith Orogun, Clover Jones

Lois Kirton, Desiree Bernard

Printed in Kingston, Jamaica, 2014

We thank God for sustaining us through some challenging periods in the

• To our spouses, children and other family members who

• To Audene Henry--‐Harvey for contribution to the first edition of this

• To Esmine Lundy for contribution to the first and second editions

• To the reviewers who provided valuable comments on structure and

• To our colleagues and friends who provided insight, encouragement

THE BASICS OF MESSAGE PRODUCTION

About this Unit

1. What is involved in human communication?

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3. What are some of the hindrances to and enhancers of effective

4. How does knowledge of the elements and steps in the communication

What is involved in Human Communication?

Activity 1 Animal Versus Human Communication

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Differences between Animal and Human Communication

Animal Communication Human Communication

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What are the Features of the Communication Process?

Activity 2 Elements in the Communication Process

1. The method used to pass on the message _____________

3. Verbal or non-verbal reaction to what is seen or heard _____________

4. Information about a topic _____________

5. The individual transmitting the message _____________

6. Physical, psychological and social setting _____________

7. The person to whom the message is directed _____________

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While knowledge of the elements

Activity 3A Steps in the Communication Process

1. Give meaning to sounds or symbols U 1 N T E R P R E T

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Barriers to Effective Communication

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1. Describe a situation where noises or barriers to effective message reception

2. Describe a situation in which someone had difficulty understanding your

Language Skills and the Communication Process

Effective communication involves the receiving and sending of information.

Interrelatedness of Language Skills

As mentioned on page 8, language skills can be broadly divided into two

The first step in the communication process: conceptualization involves

Does lack of background knowledge affect understanding?

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Factors that may Enhance or Hinder Message Reception

1. Nonverbal Factors and Para-language

When we attempt to communicate or when others attempt to communicate

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The second sentence tells us:

The third sentence tells us:

(Taken from: The News Manual

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For example, to me the temperature in my office may be ‘quite

I may say to a friend that I want a ‘couple’ of the mangoes, but

School of Humanities and Social Sciences August 2014 Page 14