Chapter2 Instructions Architecture Set

Computer Architecture
Faculty of Computer Science & Engineering - HCMUT
Chapter 2
Instructions: Language of the
Computer
Binh Tran-Thanh
thanhbinh@hcmut.edu.vn
Objectives
swap(int v[], int k){ swap: multi $2, $5, 4
int temp; add $2, $4, $2
temp = v[k]; lw $15, 0($2)
v[k] = v[k+1]; Compiler lw $16, 4($2)
v[k+1] = temp; sw $16, 0($2)
} sw $15, 4($2)
jr $31
00000000101000100000000100011000
00000000100000100001000000100001
10001101111000100000000000000000
10001110000100100000000000000100 Assembler
10101110000100100000000000000000
10101101111000100000000000000100
00000011111000000000000000001000
8/13/2021 Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering 2

Abstract layer of ISA
▪ Coordination of many levels (layers) of abstraction
Application (ex: browser)
Software Operating
Compiler System
Assembler (Mac OSX)
Instruction Set
Architecture
Processor Memory I/O system
Hardware Datapath & Control
Digital Design
Circuit Design
8/13/2021 transistors
Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering 3
Von Neumann Architecture
▪ Stored program concept
Central
▪ Instruction category Processing Unit
▪ Arithmetic Control unit
▪ Data transfer input ALU output
▪ Logical
▪ Conditional branch
▪ Unconditional jump Memory unit

Harvard architecture
ALU
Instruction
Data memory Control unit
memory
Input/
output

Computer Components
CPU Main Memory
PC MAR
IR MBR Instruction
Instruction
I/O AR …
Instruction
ALU
I/O BR
data
data
I/O Module …
data
PC: Program Counter
IR: Instruction Register
MAR: Memory Address Register
MBR: Memory Buffers Register
I/O AR: Input Output Address Register
Buffers I/O BR: Input Output Buffer Register
Instruction execution process
Fetch Stage Execute Stage
Fetch next Execute

start halt
instruction instruction
Basic instruction cycle
▪ Fetch: from memory

▪ PC increases after the fetch
▪ PC holds the address of the next instruction
▪ Execution: Encode & Execution
Instruction Set
▪ The repertoire of instructions of a computer
▪ Different computers have different instruction sets
▪ But with many aspects in common
▪ Early computers had very simple instruction sets
▪ Simplified implementation
▪ Many modern computers also have simple
instruction sets

RISC vs. CISC Architectures
RISC CISC
▪ Reduced Instruction Set ▪ Complex Instruction Set
Computers Computers
▪ Emphasis on software ▪ Emphasis on hardware
▪ Single-clock, ▪ Includes multi-clock,
reduced instruction only complex instructions
▪ Low cycles per second, ▪ Small code sizes,
large code sizes high cycles per second
▪ Spends more transistors ▪ Transistors used for storing
on memory registers complex instructions

The MIPS Instruction Set
▪ Used as the example throughout the book
▪ Stanford MIPS commercialized by MIPS
Technologies (www.mips.com)
▪ Large share of embedded core market
▪ Applications in consumer electronics,
network/storage equipment, cameras, printers, …
▪ Typical of many modern ISAs
▪ See MIPS Reference Data tear-out card, and
Appendixes B and E

Design Principles of ISA
Simplicity favors regularity
Smaller is faster
Make the common case fast
Good design demands good compromises

Arithmetic Operations
▪ Add and subtract, three operands
▪ Two sources and one destination
add a, b, c # a gets b + c
▪ All arithmetic operations have this form
▪ Design Principle 1: Simplicity favors regularity
▪ Regularity makes implementation simpler
▪ Simplicity enables higher performance at lower
cost

Arithmetic Example
C code:
f = (g + h) - (i + j);
Compiled MIPS code:
add $t0, $s1, $s2 # t0 = g + h
add $t1, $s3, $s4 # t1 = i + j
sub $s0, $t0, $t1 # f = t0 - t1
Register Operands
▪ Arithmetic instructions use register operands
▪ MIPS has a 32 × 32-bit register file
▪ Use for frequently accessed data
▪ Numbered 0 to 31
▪ 32-bit data called a “word”
▪ Assembler names
▪ $t0, $t1, …, $t9 for temporary values
▪ $s0, $s1, …, $s7 for saved variables
▪ Design Principle 2: Smaller is faster
▪ c.f. main memory: millions of locations
Register Operand Example
C code:
f = (g + h) - (i + j);
f, g, h, i, j in $s0, $s1, $s2,
$s3, $s4, respectively
Compiled MIPS code:
add $t0, $s1, $s2 # t0 = g + h
add $t1, $s3, $s4 # t1 = i + j
sub $s0, $t0, $t1 # f = t0 - t1

Memory Operands
▪ Main memory used for composite data
▪ Arrays, structures, dynamic data
▪ To apply arithmetic operations
▪ Load values from memory into registers
▪ Store result from register to memory
▪ Memory is byte addressed
▪ Each address identifies an 8-bit byte
▪ Words are aligned in memory
▪ Address must be a multiple of 4
▪ MIPS is Big Endian
▪ Most-significant byte at least address of a word
▪ c.f. Little Endian: least-significant byte at least address

Memory Operand Example 1
C code:
g = h + A[8];
g in $s1, h in $s2, base address of A
in $s3
Compiled MIPS code:
Index 8 requires offset of 32 base register
4 bytes per word
lw $t0, 32($s3) # load word
add $s1, $s2, $t0
offset
Memory Operand Example 2
C code:
A[12] = h + A[8];
▪ H in $s2, base address of A in $s3
Compiled MIPS code:
Index 8 requires offset of 32
lw $t0, 32($s3) # load word
add $t0, $s2, $t0
sw $t0, 48($s3) # store word
Registers vs. Memory
▪ Registers are faster to access than memory
▪ Operating on memory data requires loads and
stores
▪ More instructions to be executed
▪ Compiler must use registers for variables as
much as possible
▪ Only spill to memory for less frequently used
variables
▪ Register optimization is important!

Immediate Operands
▪ Constant data specified in an instruction
▪ addi $s3, $s3, 4
▪ No subtract immediate instruction
▪ Just use a negative constant
▪ addi $s2, $s1, -1
▪ Design Principle 3: Make the common case fast
▪ Small constants are common
▪ Immediate operand avoids a load instruction

The Constant Zero
▪ MIPS register 0 ($zero) is the constant 0
▪ Cannot be overwritten
▪ Useful for common operations
▪ Move between registers
▪ add $a0, $t0, $zero # move $t0 to $a0
▪ Assign immediate to registers
▪ addi $a0, $zero, 100 # $a0 = 100

Unsigned Binary Integers
▪ Given an n-bit number
x = xn−12n−1 + xn−2 2n−2 +  + x121 + x0 20
▪ Range: 0 to +2n – 1
▪ Example
▪ 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 10112
= 0 + … + 1×23 + 0×22 +1×21 +1×20
= 0 + … + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 1110
▪ Using 32 bits
▪ 0 to +4,294,967,295

2s-Complement Signed Integers
▪ Given an n-bit number
x = −xn−12n−1 + xn−2 2n−2 +  + x121 + x0 20
▪ Range: –2n - 1 to +2n – 1 – 1
▪ Example
▪ 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 11002
= –1×231 + 1×230 + … + 1×22 +0×21 +0×20
= –2,147,483,648 + 2,147,483,644 = –410
▪ Using 32 bits
▪ –2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647

2s-Complement Signed Integers
▪ Bit 31 is sign bit
▪ 1 for negative numbers
▪ 0 for non-negative numbers
▪ –(–2n - 1) can’t be represented
▪ Non-negative numbers have the same unsigned and 2s-
complement representation
▪ Some specific numbers
▪ 0: 0000 0000 … 0000
▪ –1: 1111 1111 … 1111
▪ Most-negative: 1000 0000 … 0000
▪ Most-positive: 0111 1111 … 1111
Signed Negation
▪ Complement and add 1
▪ Complement means 1 → 0, 0 → 1
x + x = 1111...1112 = −1
x + 1 = −x
▪ Example: negate +2
▪ +2 = 0000 0000 … 00102
▪ –2 = 1111 1111 … 11012 + 1
= 1111 1111 … 11102
Sign Extension
▪ Representing a number using more bits
▪ Preserve the numeric value
▪ In MIPS instruction set
▪ addi: extend immediate value
▪ lb, lh: extend loaded byte/halfword
▪ beq, bne: extend the displacement
▪ Replicate the sign bit to the left
▪ c.f. unsigned values: extend with 0s
▪ Examples: extend 8-bit to 16-bit for signed number
▪ +2: 0000 0010 => 0000 0000 0000 0010
▪ –2: 1111 1110 => 1111 1111 1111 1110
Representing Instructions
▪ Instructions are encoded in binary
▪ Called machine code
▪ MIPS instructions
▪ Encoded as 32-bit instruction words
▪ Small number of formats encoding operation code
(opcode), register numbers, …
▪ Regularity!
▪ Register numbers
▪ $t0 – $t7 are reg’s 8 – 15
▪ $t8 – $t9 are reg’s 24 – 25
▪ $s0 – $s7 are reg’s 16 – 23

Exercise
Given a piece of MIPS code as below:
.data
int_a: .word 0xCA002020
.text
la $s0, int_a
lb $t1, 0($s0)
lbu $t2, 0($s0)
lb $t3, 3($s0)
lbu $t4, 3($s0)
What are values of t1, t2, t3, t4?
MIPS R-format Instructions
op rs rt rd shamt funct
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 6 bits
▪ Instruction fields
▪ op: operation code (opcode)
▪ rs: first source register number
▪ rt: second source register number
▪ rd: destination register number
▪ shamt: shift amount (00000 for now)
▪ funct: function code (extends opcode)
R-format Example
add $t0, $s1, $s2

special $s1 $s2 $t0 0 add
0 17 18 8 0 32
000000 10001 10010 01000 00000 100000
000000100011001001000000001000002 = 0232402016

Exercise (MIPS to machine code)
▪ What is machine code of nor $s0, $a0, $t1
000000 00100 01001 10000 00000 100111
000000001000100110000000001001112 = 0089802716
Function Code (Hex) Function Code (Hex) Function Code (Hex) Function Code (Hex)
Add 20 Sltu 2b Mflo 12 Divu 1b
Addu 21 Srl 02 Mfc0 0 Mfhi 10
And 24 Sub 22 Mult 18 Or 25
Jump register 08 Subu 23 Multu 19 Slt 2A
Nor 27 Div 1A Sra 03
Hexadecimal
▪ Base 16
▪ Compact representation of bit strings
▪ 4 bits per hex digit
0 0000 4 0100 8 1000 C 1100
1 0001 5 0101 9 1001 D 1101
2 0010 6 0110 A 1010 E 1110
3 0011 7 0111 B 1011 F 1111
▪ Example: 0xCAFE FACE
▪ 1100 1010 1111 1110 1111 1010 1100 1110

MIPS I-format Instructions
op rs rt constant or address
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 16 bits
▪ Immediate arithmetic and load/store instructions

▪ rt: destination or source register number
▪ Constant: -215 → +215 - 1
▪ Address: offset added to base address in $rs
▪ Design Principle 4: Good design demands good
compromises
▪ Different formats complicate decoding, but allow 32-bit
instructions uniformly
▪ Keep formats as similar as possible

Exercise
▪ Given a MIPS instruction: addi $s3, $s3, X
▪ What is the maximum value of X?
▪ How do we assign $s0 = 0x1234CA00 (=
305,449,472)

Stored Program Computers
Memory
Accounting
program
▪ Instructions represented in binary,
(machine code) just like data
Editor program
(machine code)
▪ Instructions and data stored in
memory
processor
C compiler
(machine code) ▪ Programs can operate on programs
▪ e.g., compilers, linkers, …
Payroll data
▪ Binary compatibility allows
compiled programs to work on
Book text
different computers
Source code in C ▪ Standardized ISAs
for editor program

Logical Operations
▪ Instructions for bitwise manipulation
Operation C Java MIPS
Shift left << << sll
Shift right >> >>> srl
Bitwise AND & & and, andi
Bitwise OR | | or, ori
Bitwise NOT ~ ~ nor
▪ Useful for extracting and inserting groups of bits in

a word
Shift Operations
▪ shamt: how many positions to shift

▪ Shift left logical
▪ Shift left and fill with 0 bits
▪ sll by i bits multiplies by 2i
▪ Shift right logical
▪ Shift right and fill with 0 bits
▪ srl by i bits divides by 2i (unsigned only)
AND Operations
▪ Useful to mask bits in a word
▪ Select some bits, clear others to 0
and $t0, $t1, $t2
$t2 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101 1100 0000
$t1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000
$t0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100 0000 0000

OR Operations
▪ Useful to include bits in a word
▪ Set some bits to 1, leave others unchanged
or $t0, $t1, $t2
$t2 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101 1100 0000
$t1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000
$t0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1101 1100 0000

NOT Operations
▪ Useful to invert bits in a word
▪ Change 0 to 1, and 1 to 0
▪ MIPS has NOR 3-operand instruction
▪ a NOR b == NOT (a OR b) Register 0
($zero): always
nor $t0, $t1, $zero read as zero
$zero 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

$t1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000
$t0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1100 0011 1111 1111
Conditional Operations
▪ Branch to a labeled instruction if a condition is
true. Otherwise, continue sequentially
▪ beq rs, rt, Label
▪ if (rs == rt) branch to instruction labeled;
▪ bne rs, rt, Label
▪ if (rs != rt) branch to instruction labeled;
▪ j Label
▪ unconditional jump to instruction labeled;

Compiling If Statement
C code: MIPS assembly:
int x, y; slt $t0, $a0, $a1
if (x < y) { beqz $t0, endif
y = y – x; sub $a1, $a1, $a0
} endif:
▪ x in $a0, y: $a1

Compiling If-else Statement
int x, y; slt $t0, $a0, $a1
if (x < y) { beqz $t0, else
y = y – x; sub $a1, $a1, $a0
}else{ j end_if
else:
y = y * 4;
sll $a1, $a1, 2
}
end_if:
▪ # x in $a0, y in
$a1
Compiling Loop Statement
Example
while (save[i] == k){ while: sll $t1, $s3, 2
i += 1; add $t1, $t1, $s6
} lw $t0, 0($t1)
bne $t0, $s5,
i in $s3, k in $s5, endwhile
address of save in $s6
addi $s3, $s3, 1
j while
endwhile:

Basic Blocks
▪ A basic block is a sequence of
instructions with
▪ No embedded branches
(except at end)
▪ No branch targets (except at
beginning)
▪ A compiler identifies basic
blocks for optimization
▪ An advanced processor can
accelerate execution of basic
blocks
More Conditional Operations
▪ Set result to 1 if a condition is true. Otherwise, set to 0
▪ slt rd, rs, rt
▪ if rs < rt then rd = 1
▪ else rd = 0
▪ slti rt, rs, constant
▪ if rs < constant then rt = 1
▪ else rt = 0;
▪ Use in combination with beq, bne
▪ slt $t0, $s1, $s2 # if ($s1 < $s2)
▪ bne $t0, $zero, L # branch to L

Branch Instruction Design
▪ Why not blt, bge, etc?
▪ Hardware for <, ≥, … slower than =, ≠
▪ Combining with branch involves more work
per instruction, requiring a slower clock
▪ All instructions penalized!
▪ beq and bne are the common case
▪ This is a good design compromise
▪ (Design Principle 4)
Signed vs. Unsigned
▪ Signed comparison: slt, slti
▪ Unsigned comparison: sltu, sltui
▪ Example:
$s0 = 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
$s1 = 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001
▪ slt $t0, $s0, $s1 # signed
▪ –1 < +1  $t0 = 1
▪ sltu $t0, $s0, $s1 # unsigned
▪ +4,294,967,295 > +1  $t0 = 0
Exercise
▪ Assume $s0 = 0xCA002020.
▪ Given MIPS instruction:
andi $t0, $s0, 0xFFFF
▪ Which instruction type does the given
instruction belong to?
▪ What is value of $t0?

Procedure Calling
▪ Steps required
▪ Place parameters in registers
▪ Transfer control to procedure
▪ Acquire storage for procedure
▪ Perform procedure’s operations
▪ Place result in register for caller
▪ Return to place of call
Register Usage
$a0 – $a3: arguments (reg’s 4 – 7)
$v0 - $v1: result values (reg’s 2 and 3)
$t0 – $t9: Temporaries (Can be overwritten by callee)
$s0 – $s7: Saved (Must be saved/restored by callee)
$gp: global pointer for static data (reg 28)
$sp: stack pointer (reg 29)
$fp: frame pointer (reg 30)
$ra: return address (reg 31)

Procedure Call Instructions
▪ Procedure call: jump and link
jal ProcedureLabel
▪ Address of following instruction put in $ra
▪ Jumps to target address
▪ Procedure return: jump register
jr $ra
▪ Copies $ra to program counter
▪ Can also be used for computed jumps
▪ e.g., for case/switch statements

Leaf Procedure Example
C code:
int leaf_example (int g, h, i, j){
int f;
f = (g + h) - (i + j);
return f;
}
▪ Arguments g, …, j in $a0, …, $a3
▪ f in $s0 (hence, need to save $s0 on
stack)
▪ Result in $v0
Leaf Procedure Example
MIPS code:
leaf_example:
addi $sp, $sp, -4
sw $s0, 0($sp) # Save $s0 on stack
add $t0, $a0, $a1
add $t1, $a2, $a3 #Procedure body
sub $s0, $t0, $t1
add $v0, $s0, $zero # Result
lw $s0, 0($sp) # Restore $s0
addi $sp, $sp, 4
jr $ra # Return
Non-Leaf Procedures
▪ Procedures that call other procedures
▪ For nested call, caller needs to save on the
stack:
▪ Its return address
▪ Any arguments and temporaries needed after
the call
▪ Restore from the stack after the call
Non-Leaf Procedure Example
C code:
int fact(int n){
if (n < 1){
return f;
}else{
return n * fact(n - 1);
}
}
▪ Argument n in $a0
▪ Result in $v0
Non-Leaf Procedure Example
fact:
MIPS: addi $sp, $sp, -8 # adjust stack for 2 items
sw $ra, 4($sp) # save return address
sw $a0, 0($sp) # save argument
slti $t0, $a0, 1 # test for n < 1
beq $t0, $zero, L1
addi $v0, $zero, 1 # if so, result is 1
addi $sp, $sp, 8 # pop 2 items from stack
L1:
addi $a0, $a0, -1 # else decrement n
jal fact # recursive call
lw $a0, 0($sp) # restore original n
lw $ra, 4($sp) # and return address
addi $sp, $sp, 8 # pop 2 items from stack
mul $v0, $a0, $v0 # multiply to get result
jr $ra # and return
Local Data on the Stack
High address
$fp $fp
$sp $sp
$fp Saved argument
register (if any)
Saved return
address
Saved saved
register (if any)
Local arrays and
$sp structure (if any)
low address
▪ Local data allocated by callee

▪ e.g., C automatic variables
▪ Procedure frame (activation record)
▪ Used by some compilers to manage stack storage
Memory Layout
Main memory
0x7fff fffc
Stack
▪ Text: program code
$sp ▪ Static data: global variables
Unused ▪ e.g., static variables in C, constant
arrays and strings
Dynamic data ▪ $gp initialized to address allowing
$gp ±offsets into this segment
0x1000 8000 Static data ▪ Dynamic data: heap
0x1000 0000
Text (code) ▪ E.g., malloc in C, new in Java
pc
0x0040 0000 Reserved ▪ Stack: automatic storage
0x00

Character Data
▪ Byte-encoded character sets
▪ ASCII: 128 characters
▪ 95 graphic, 33 control
▪ Latin-1: 256 characters
▪ ASCII, +96 more graphic characters
▪ Unicode: 32-bit character set
▪ Used in Java, C++ wide characters, …
▪ Most of the world’s alphabets, plus symbols
▪ UTF-8, UTF-16: variable-length encodings
Byte/Halfword Operations
▪ Could use bitwise operations
▪ MIPS byte/halfword load/store
▪ String processing is a common case
▪ lb rt, offset(rs) ; lh rt, offset(rs)
▪ Sign extend to 32 bits in rt
▪ lbu rt, offset(rs); lhu rt, offset(rs)
▪ Zero extend to 32 bits in rt
▪ sb rt, offset(rs); sh rt, offset(rs)
▪ Store just rightmost byte/halfword
String Copy Example
C code (naïve):
▪ Null-terminated string
void strcpy (char x[], char y[]){
int i;
i = 0;
while ( (x[i]=y[i]) != ‘\0’ )
i += 1;
}
▪ Addresses of x, y in $a0, $a1
▪ i in $s0
String Copy Example
MIPS code:
strcpy:
addi $sp, $sp, -4 # adjust stack for item
sw $s0, 0($sp) # save $s0
add $s0, $zero, $zero # i = 0
L1: add $t1, $s0, $a1 # addr of y[i] in $t1
lbu $t2, 0($t1) # $t2 = y[i]
add $t3, $s0, $a0 # addr of x[i] in $t3
sb $t2, 0($t3) # x[i] = y[i]
beq $t2, $zero, L2 # exit loop if y[i]== 0
addi $s0, $s0, 1 # i = i + 1
j L1 # next iteration of loop
L2: lw $s0, 0($sp) # restore saved $s0
addi $sp, $sp, 4 # pop 1 item from stack
jr $ra # and return
32-bit Constants
▪ Most constants are small
▪ 16-bit immediate is sufficient
▪ For the occasional 32-bit constant
lui rt, constant
▪ Copies 16-bit constant to left 16 bits of rt
▪ Clears right 16 bits of rt to 0
Below shows how to assign 32 bits constant (4 000 000
DEC) to a register (s0)
4 000 000 Dec = 3D 0900 HEX;
3D hex = 60 DEC, 0900 Hex = 2304 Dec
lui $s0, 61 0000 0000 0011 1101 0000 0000 0000 0000
ori $s0, $s0, 2304 0000 0000 0011 1101 0000 1001 0000 0000
Branch Addressing
▪ Branch instructions specify
▪ Opcode, two registers, target address
▪ Most branch targets are near branch
▪ Forward or backward
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 16 bits
▪ PC-relative addressing
▪ Target address = PC + 4 + offset × 4
▪ PC already incremented by 4 by this time

Jump Addressing
▪ Jump (j and jal) targets could be anywhere
in text segment
▪ Encode full address in instruction
op address
6 bits 26 bits
▪ (Pseudo)Direct jump addressing

▪ Target address = PC31…28 : (address × 4)
Target Addressing Example
▪ Loop code from earlier example
▪ Assume Loop at location 80000
MIPS code Address Instruction memory
Loop: sll $t1, $s3, 2 80000 0 0 19 9 4 0
add $t1, $t1, $s6 80004 0 9 22 9 0 32
lw $t0, 0($t1) 80008 35 9 8 0
bne $t0, $s5, Exit 80012 5 8 21 2
addi $s3, $s3, 1 80016 8 19 19 1
j Loop 80020 2 20000
Exit: … 80024
Branching Far Away
▪ If branch target is too far to encode with 16-bit
offset, assembler rewrites the code
▪ Example
beq $s0,$s1, L1
↓
bne $s0,$s1, L2
j L1
L2:

Addressing Mode Summary
1. Immediate addressing
2. Register addressing
Register
3.Immediate addressing
Memory
Register byte halfword Word
4. Pc-relative addressing
Memory
PC Word
5. Pseudo-direct addressing
op address
Memory
PC Word
Synchronization
▪ Two processors sharing an area of memory
▪ P1 writes, then P2 reads
▪ Data race if P1 and P2 don’t synchronize
▪ Result depends of order of accesses
▪ Hardware support required
▪ Atomic read/write memory operation
▪ No other access to the location allowed between the read
and write
▪ Could be a single instruction
▪ E.g., atomic swap of register  memory
▪ Or an atomic pair of instructions

Synchronization in MIPS
▪ Load linked: ll rt, offset(rs)
▪ Store conditional: sc rt, offset(rs)
▪ Succeeds if location not changed since the ll
▪ Returns 1 in rt
▪ Fails if location is changed
▪ Returns 0 in rt
▪ Example: atomic swap (to test/set lock variable)
try: add $t0, $zero, $s4 # copy exchange value
ll $t1, 0($s1) # load linked
sc $t0, 0($s1) # store conditional
beq $t0, $zero, try # branch store fails
add $s4, $zero, $t1 # put load value in $s4
Translation and Startup
Many compilers produce
object modules directly
Static linking

Assembler Pseudo-instructions
▪ Most assembler instructions represent machine
instructions one-to-one
▪ Pseudo-instructions: figments of the assembler’s
imagination
move $t0, $t1 → add $t0, $zero, $t1
blt $t0, $t1, L → slt $at, $t0, $t1
bne $at, $zero, L
$at (register 1): assembler temporary

Producing an Object Module
▪ Assembler (or compiler) translates program into machine
instructions
▪ Provides information for building a complete program
from the pieces
▪ Header: described contents of object module
▪ Text segment: translated instructions
▪ Static data segment: data allocated for the life of the
program
▪ Relocation info: for contents that depend on absolute
location of loaded program
▪ Symbol table: global definitions and external refs
▪ Debug info: for associating with source code
Linking Object Modules
▪ Produces an executable image
▪ Merges segments
▪ Resolve labels (determine their addresses)
▪ Patch location-dependent and external refs
▪ Could leave location dependencies for fixing by
a relocating loader
▪ But with virtual memory, no need to do this
▪ Program can be loaded into absolute location in
virtual memory space
Loading a Program
▪ Load from image file on disk into memory
▪ 1.Read header to determine segment sizes
▪ 2.Create virtual address space
▪ 3.Copy text and initialized data into memory
▪ Or set page table entries so they can be faulted in
▪ 4.Set up arguments on stack
▪ 5.Initialize registers (including $sp, $fp, $gp)
▪ 6.Jump to startup routine
▪ Copies arguments to $a0, … and calls main
▪ When main returns, do exit syscall

Dynamic Linking
▪ Only link/load library procedure when it is
called
▪ Requires procedure code to be relocatable
▪ Avoids image bloat caused by static linking of
all (transitively) referenced libraries
▪ Automatically picks up new library versions

Lazy Linkage
Indirection table
Stub: Loads routine ID,

Jump to linker/loader
Linker/loader code
Dynamically
mapped code

Starting Java Applications
Simple portable
instruction set for
the JVM
Compiles
Interprets
bytecodes of
bytecodes
“hot” methods
into native
code for host
machine

C Sort Example
▪ Illustrates use of assembly instructions for a C bubble sort
function
▪ Swap procedure (leaf)
void swap(int v[], int k){
int temp;
temp = v[k];
v[k] = v[k+1];
v[k+1] = temp;
}
▪ v, k, temp in $a0, $a1, and $t0, respectively

The Procedure Swap
swap:
sll $t1, $a1, 2 # $t1 = k * 4
add $t1, $a0, $t1 # $t1 = v+(k*4)
# (address of v[k])
lw $t0, 0($t1) # $t0 (temp) = v[k]
lw $t2, 4($t1) # $t2 = v[k+1]
sw $t2, 0($t1) # v[k] = $t2 (v[k+1])
sw $t0, 4($t1) # v[k+1] = $t0 (temp)
jr $ra #return to calling routine
The Sort Procedure in C
Non-leaf (calls swap)
void sort (int v[], int n){
int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i += 1) {
for(j = i – 1;
j >= 0 && v[j] > v[j + 1];
j -= 1) {
swap(v,j);
}
}
}
▪ v, k, temp in $a0, $a1, and $t0, respectively

The Procedure Body
move $s2, $a0 # save $a0 into $s2
move $s3, $a1 # save $a1 into $s3
move $s0, $zero # i = 0
for1tst: slt $t0, $s0, $s3 # $t0 = 0 if $s0 ≥ $s3 (i ≥ n)
beq $t0, $zero, exit1 # go to exit1 if $s0 ≥ $s3 (i ≥ n)
addi $s1, $s0, –1 # j = i – 1
for2tst: slti $t0, $s1, 0 # $t0 = 1 if $s1 < 0 (j < 0)
bne $t0, $zero, exit2 # go to exit2 if $s1 < 0 (j < 0)
sll $t1, $s1, 2 # $t1 = j * 4
add $t2, $s2, $t1 # $t2 = v + (j * 4)
lw $t3, 0($t2) # $t3 = v[j]
lw $t4, 4($t2) # $t4 = v[j + 1]
slt $t0, $t4, $t3 # $t0 = 0 if $t4 ≥ $t3
beq $t0, $zero, exit2 # go to exit2 if $t4 ≥ $t3
move $a0, $s2 # 1st param of swap is v (old $a0)
move $a1, $s1 # 2nd param of swap is j
jal swap # call swap procedure
addi $s1, $s1, –1 # j –= 1
j for2tst # jump to test of inner loop
exit2: addi $s0, $s0, 1 # i += 1
8/13/2021j for1tst # jump
Faculty to test Science
of Computer of outerandloop
Engineering 83
The Full Procedure
sort: addi $sp,$sp, –20 # make room on stack
# for 5 registers
sw $ra, 16($sp) # save $ra on stack
sw $s3,12($sp) # save $s3 on stack
sw $s2, 8($sp) # save $s2 on stack
… # procedure body
…
exit1: lw $s0, 0($sp) # restore $s0 from stack
lw $s1, 4($sp) # restore $s1 from stack
lw $s2, 8($sp) # restore $s2 from stack
lw $s3,12($sp) # restore $s3 from stack
lw $ra,16($sp) # restore $ra from stack
addi $sp,$sp, 20 # restore stack pointer
jr $ra # return to calling routine

Effect of Compiler Optimization Compiled with gcc for Pentium 4 under Linux
3 Relative Performance 140000 Instruction count

2.37 2.38 2.41 114938
2.5 120000
100000
2
80000
1.5
1 60000 44993
1 37470 39993
40000
0.5 20000
0 0
none O1 O2 O3 none O1 O2 O3
180000 Clock Cycles 2 CPI

158615 1.79
160000 1.8 1.66
140000 1.6 1.38 1.46
120000 1.4
1.2
100000
1
80000 66990 66521 65747
0.8
60000 0.6
40000 0.4
20000 0.2
0 0
none O1 O2 O3 none O1 O2 O3

Effect of Language and Algorithm
3
2.37
Bubblesort Relative Performance
2.38 2.41
2.5 2.13
2
1.5
1
1
0.5 0.12
0
C/none C/O1 C/O2 C/O3 Java/int Java/JIT
2.5 Quicksort Relative Performance

1.91
2
1.5 1.5
1.5
1
1
0.5 0.29
0.05
0
3000 Quicksort vs. Bubblesort Speedup

2468
2500
1955
2000
1562 1555
1500
1050
1000
500 338
0

Lessons Learnt
▪ Instruction count and CPI are not good
performance indicators in isolation
▪ Compiler optimizations are sensitive to the
algorithm
▪ Java/JIT compiled code is significantly faster
than JVM interpreted
▪ Comparable to optimized C in some cases
▪ Nothing can fix a dumb algorithm!
Arrays vs. Pointers
▪ Array indexing involves
▪ Multiplying index by element size
▪ Adding to array base address
▪ Pointers correspond directly to memory
addresses
▪ Can avoid indexing complexity

Example: Clearing and Array
clear1(int array[], int size) { clear2(int *array, int size) {
int *p;
int i;
for (p = &array[0]; p < &array[size];
for (i = 0; i < size; i += 1) p = p + 1)
array[i] = 0; *p = 0;
}
}
move $t0,$zero # i = 0 move $t0,$a0 # p = & array[0]
loop1: sll $t1,$t0,2 # $t1 = i * 4 sll $t1,$a1,2 # $t1 = size * 4
add $t2,$a0,$t1 # $t2 = &array[i] add $t2,$a0,$t1 # $t2 =
sw $zero, 0($t2) # array[i] = 0 # &array[size]
addi $t0,$t0,1 # i = i + 1 loop2: sw $zero,0($t0) # Memory[p] = 0
slt $t3,$t0,$a1 # $t3 = (i < size) addi $t0,$t0,4 # p = p + 4
bne $t3,$zero,loop1 # if (…) goto loop1 slt $t3,$t0,$t2 # $t3 = (p<&array[size])
bne $t3,$zero,loop2 # if (…) goto loop2

Comparison of Array vs. Ptr
▪ Multiply “strength reduced” to shift
▪ Array version requires shift to be inside loop
▪ Part of index calculation for incremented i
▪ c.f. incrementing pointer
▪ Compiler can achieve same effect as manual
use of pointers
▪ Induction variable elimination
▪ Better to make program clearer and safer
ARM & MIPS Similarities
▪ ARM: the most popular embedded core
▪ Similar basic set of instructions to MIPS
ARM MIPS
Date announced 1985 1985
Instruction size 32 bits 32 bits
Address space 32-bit flat 32-bit flat
Data alignment Aligned Aligned
Data addressing modes 9 3
Registers 15 × 32-bit 31 × 32-bit
Input/output Memory mapped Memory mapped
Compare and Branch in ARM
▪ Uses condition codes for result of an
arithmetic/logical instruction
▪ Negative, zero, carry, overflow
▪ Compare instructions to set condition codes
without keeping the result
▪ Each instruction can be conditional
▪ Top 4 bits of instruction word: condition value
▪ Can avoid branches over single instructions
Instruction Encoding

The Intel x86 ISA
▪ Evolution with backward compatibility
▪ 8080 (1974): 8-bit microprocessor
▪ Accumulator, plus 3 index-register pairs
▪ 8086 (1978): 16-bit extension to 8080
▪ Complex instruction set (CISC)
▪ 8087 (1980): floating-point coprocessor
▪ Adds FP instructions and register stack
▪ 80286 (1982): 24-bit addresses, MMU
▪ Segmented memory mapping and protection
▪ 80386 (1985): 32-bit extension (now IA-32)
▪ Additional addressing modes and operations
▪ Paged memory mapping as well as segments

The Intel x86 ISA
▪ Further evolution…
▪ i486 (1989): pipelined, on-chip caches and FPU
▪ Compatible competitors: AMD, Cyrix, …
▪ Pentium (1993): superscalar, 64-bit datapath
▪ Later versions added MMX (Multi-Media eXtension) instructions
▪ The infamous FDIV bug
▪ Pentium Pro (1995), Pentium II (1997)
▪ New microarchitecture (see Colwell, The Pentium Chronicles)
▪ Pentium III (1999)
▪ Added SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions) and associated registers
▪ Pentium 4 (2001)
▪ New microarchitecture
▪ Added SSE2 instructions

The Intel x86 ISA
▪ And further…
▪ AMD64 (2003): extended architecture to 64 bits
▪ EM64T – Extended Memory 64 Technology (2004)
▪ AMD64 adopted by Intel (with refinements)
▪ Added SSE3 instructions
▪ Intel Core (2006)
▪ Added SSE4 instructions, virtual machine support
▪ AMD64 (announced 2007): SSE5 instructions
▪ Intel declined to follow, instead…
▪ Advanced Vector Extension (announced 2008)
▪ Longer SSE registers, more instructions
▪ If Intel didn’t extend with compatibility, its competitors would!
▪ Technical elegance ≠ market success

Basic x86 Addressing Modes
▪ Two operands per instruction
Source/dest operand Second source operand
Register Register
Register Immediate
Register Memory
Memory Register
Memory Immediate
▪ Memory addressing modes

▪ Address in register
▪ Address = Rbase + displacement
▪ Address = Rbase + 2scale × Rindex (scale = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
▪ Address = Rbase + 2scale × Rindex + displacement

x86 Instruction Encoding
▪ Variable length encoding
▪ Postfix bytes specify
addressing mode
▪ Prefix bytes modify
operation
▪ Operand length, repetition,
locking, …

Implementing IA-32
▪ Complex instruction set makes implementation
difficult
▪ Hardware translates instructions to simpler
microoperations
▪ Simple instructions: 1–1
▪ Complex instructions: 1–many
▪ Microengine similar to RISC
▪ Market share makes this economically viable
▪ Comparable performance to RISC
▪ Compilers avoid complex instructions
ARM v8 Instructions
▪ In moving to 64-bit, ARM did a complete overhaul
▪ ARM v8 resembles MIPS
▪ Changes from v7:
▪ No conditional execution field
▪ Immediate field is 12-bit constant
▪ Dropped load/store multiple
▪ PC is no longer a GPR
▪ GPR set expanded to 32
▪ Addressing modes work for all word sizes
▪ Divide instruction
▪ Branch if equal/branch if not equal instructions

Fallacies
▪ Powerful instruction  higher performance
▪ Fewer instructions required
▪ But complex instructions are hard to implement
▪ May slow down all instructions, including simple ones
▪ Compilers are good at making fast code from simple
instructions
▪ Use assembly code for high performance
▪ But modern compilers are better at dealing with
modern processors
▪ More lines of code  more errors and less productivity

Fallacies
▪ Backward compatibility  instruction set
doesn’t change
▪ But they do accrete more instructions
x86 instruction set

Pitfalls
▪ Sequential words are not at sequential
addresses
▪ Increment by 4, not by 1!
▪ Keeping a pointer to an automatic variable
after procedure returns
▪ e.g., passing pointer back via an argument
▪ Pointer becomes invalid when stack popped
Concluding Remarks
▪ Design principles
▪ 1.Simplicity favors regularity
▪ 2.Smaller is faster
▪ 3.Make the common case fast
▪ 4.Good design demands good compromises
▪ Layers of software/hardware
▪ Compiler, assembler, hardware
▪ MIPS: typical of RISC ISAs
▪ c.f. x86

Concluding Remarks
▪ Measure MIPS instruction executions in
benchmark programs
▪ Consider making the common case fast
▪ Consider compromises
Instruction class MIPS examples SPEC2006 Int SPEC2006 FP
Arithmetic add, sub, addi 16% 48%
Data transfer lw, sw, lb, lbu, lh, lhu, sb 35% 36%
Logical and, or, nor, andi, ori, sll, srl, sra 12% 4%
Cond. Branch beq, bne, slt, slti, sltiu 34% 8%
Jump j, jr, jal 2% 0%

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Computer Architecture

Faculty of Computer Science & Engineering - HCMUT

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Fetch next Execute

Basic instruction cycle

▪ Fetch: from memory

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Make the common case fast

Good design demands good compromises

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add $t0, $s1, $s2

000000 10001 10010 01000 00000 100000

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▪ Immediate arithmetic and load/store instructions

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▪ Useful for extracting and inserting groups of bits in

▪ shamt: how many positions to shift

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$zero 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

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▪ Local data allocated by callee

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▪ (Pseudo)Direct jump addressing

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Stub: Loads routine ID,

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3 Relative Performance 140000 Instruction count