Geostationary orbit

A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous

equatorial orbit[a] (GEO), is a circular geosynchronous orbit
35,786 kilometres (22,236 miles) in altitude above Earth's equator
(42,164 kilometers in radius from Earth's center) and following the
direction of Earth's rotation.

An object in such an orbit has an orbital period equal to the Earth's

rotational period, one sidereal day, and so to ground observers it
appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. The concept of a
geostationary orbit was popularised by the science fiction writer
Arthur C. Clarke in the 1940s as a way to revolutionise
telecommunications, and the first satellite to be placed in this kind
of orbit was launched in 1963.
Two geostationary satellites in the
same orbit
Communications satellites are often placed in a geostationary orbit
so that Earth-based satellite antennas (located on Earth) do not
have to rotate to track them but can be pointed permanently at the
position in the sky where the satellites are located. Weather
satellites are also placed in this orbit for real-time monitoring and
data collection, and navigation satellites to provide a known
calibration point and enhance GPS accuracy.

Geostationary satellites are launched via a temporary orbit, and

placed in a slot above a particular point on the Earth's surface. The
orbit requires some stationkeeping to keep its position, and modern
retired satellites are placed in a higher graveyard orbit to avoid
collisions.

Contents
History
A 5° × 6° view of a part of the
Uses
geostationary belt, showing several
Communications
geostationary satellites. Those with
Meteorology inclination 0° form a diagonal belt
Navigation across the image; a few objects with
small inclinations to the Equator are
Implementation
visible above this line. The satellites
Launch are pinpoint, while stars have created
Orbit allocation star trails due to Earth's rotation.
Statite proposal
Retired satellites
Space debris
Properties
 Inclination
Period
Eccentricity
Orbital stability
Derivation of geostationary altitude
Mars
See also
Explanatory notes
References
External links

History
In 1929 Herman Potočnik described both geosynchronous orbits in general
and the special case of the geostationary Earth orbit in particular as useful
orbits for space stations.[1] The first appearance of a geostationary orbit in
popular literature was in October 1942, in the first Venus Equilateral story
by George O. Smith,[2] but Smith did not go into details. British science
fiction author Arthur C. Clarke popularised and expanded the concept in a
1945 paper entitled Extra-Terrestrial Relays – Can Rocket Stations Give
Worldwide Radio Coverage?, published in Wireless World magazine.
Clarke acknowledged the connection in his introduction to The Complete
Venus Equilateral.[3][4] The orbit, which Clarke first described as useful
for broadcast and relay communications satellites,[4] is sometimes called
the Clarke Orbit.[5] Similarly, the collection of artificial satellites in this
orbit is known as the Clarke Belt.[6]
Syncom 2, the first
geosynchronous satellite
In technical terminology the orbit is referred to as either a geostationary or
geosynchronous equatorial orbit, with the terms used somewhat
interchangeably.[7]

The first geostationary satellite was designed by Harold Rosen while he was working at Hughes Aircraft in
1959. Inspired by Sputnik 1, he wanted to use a geostationary satellite to globalise communications.
Telecommunications between the US and Europe was then possible between just 136 people at a time, and
reliant on high frequency radios and an undersea cable.[8]

Conventional wisdom at the time was that it would require too much rocket power to place a satellite in a
geostationary orbit and it would not survive long enough to justify the expense,[9] so early efforts were put
towards constellations of satellites in low or medium Earth orbit.[10] The first of these were the passive
Echo balloon satellites in 1960, followed by Telstar 1 in 1962.[11] Although these projects had difficulties
with signal strength and tracking, that could be solved through geostationary satellites, the concept was
seen as impractical, so Hughes often withheld funds and support.[10][8]

By 1961, Rosen and his team had produced a cylindrical prototype with a diameter of 76 centimetres
(30 in), height of 38 centimetres (15 in), weighing 11.3 kilograms (25 lb), light and small enough to be
placed into orbit. It was spin stabilised with a dipole antenna producing a pancake shaped waveform.[12] In
August 1961, they were contracted to begin building the real satellite.[8] They lost Syncom 1 to electronics
failure, but Syncom 2 was successfully placed into a geosynchronous orbit in 1963. Although its inclined
orbit still required moving antennas, it was able to relay TV transmissions, and allowed for US President
John F. Kennedy to phone Nigerian prime minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa from a ship on August 23,
1963.[10][13]

The first satellite placed in a geostationary orbit was Syncom 3, which was launched by a Delta D rocket in
1964.[14] With its increased bandwidth, this satellite was able to transmit live coverage of the Summer
Olympics from Japan to America. Geostationary orbits have been in common use ever since, in particular
for satellite television.[10]

Today there are hundreds of geostationary satellites providing remote sensing and communications.[8][15]

Although most populated land locations on the planet now have terrestrial communications facilities
(microwave, fiber-optic), with telephone access covering 96% of the population and internet access
90%,[16] some rural and remote areas in developed countries are still reliant on satellite
communications.[17][18]

Uses
Most commercial communications satellites, broadcast satellites and SBAS satellites operate in
geostationary orbits.[19][20][21]

Communications

Geostationary communication satellites are useful because they are visible from a large area of the earth's
surface, extending 81° away in both latitude and longitude.[22] They appear stationary in the sky, which
eliminates the need for ground stations to have movable antennas. This means that Earth-based observers
can erect small, cheap and stationary antennas that are always directed at the desired satellite.[23]: 537
However, latency becomes significant as it takes about 240 ms for a signal to pass from a ground based
transmitter on the equator to the satellite and back again.[23]: 538 This delay presents problems for latency-
sensitive applications such as voice communication,[24] so geostationary communication satellites are
primarily used for unidirectional entertainment and applications where low latency alternatives are not
available.[25]

Geostationary satellites are directly overhead at the equator and appear lower in the sky to an observer
nearer the poles. As the observer's latitude increases, communication becomes more difficult due to factors
such as atmospheric refraction, Earth's thermal emission, line-of-sight obstructions, and signal reflections
from the ground or nearby structures. At latitudes above about 81°, geostationary satellites are below the
horizon and cannot be seen at all.[22] Because of this, some Russian communication satellites have used
elliptical Molniya and Tundra orbits, which have excellent visibility at high latitudes.[26]

Meteorology

A worldwide network of operational geostationary meteorological satellites is used to provide visible and
infrared images of Earth's surface and atmosphere for weather observation, oceanography, and atmospheric
tracking. As of 2019 there are 19 satellites in either operation or stand-by.[27] These satellite systems
include:

the United States' GOES series, operated by NOAA[28]

the Meteosat series, launched by the European Space Agency and operated by the
European Weather Satellite Organization, EUMETSAT[29]
 the Republic of Korea COMS-1 and[30] GK-2A multi mission satellites.[31]
the Russian Elektro-L satellites
the Japanese Himawari series[32]
Chinese Fengyun series[33]
India's INSAT series[34]

These satellites typically captures images in the visual and infrared spectrum with a spatial resolution
between 0.5 and 4 square kilometres.[35] The coverage is typically 70°,[35] and in some cases less.[36]

Geostationary satellite imagery has been used for tracking volcanic ash,[37] measuring cloud top
temperatures and water vapour, oceanography,[38] measuring land temperature and vegetation
coverage,[39][40] facilitating cyclone path prediction,[34] and providing real time cloud coverage and other
tracking data.[41] Some information has been incorporated into meteorological prediction models, but due
to their wide field of view, full-time monitoring and lower resolution, geostationary weather satellite images
are primarily used for short-term and real-time forecasting.[42][40]

Navigation

Geostationary satellites can be used to augment

GNSS systems by relaying clock, ephemeris and
ionospheric error corrections (calculated from ground
stations of a known position) and providing an
additional reference signal.[43] This improves position
accuracy from approximately 5m to 1m or less.[44]

Past and current navigation systems that use

geostationary satellites include: Service areas of satellite-based augmentation
systems (SBAS).[20]
The Wide Area Augmentation System
(WAAS), operated by the United States
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA);
The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), operated by the ESSP
(on behalf of EU's GSA);
The Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS), operated by Japan's Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure and Transport Japan Civil Aviation Bureau (JCAB);
The GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system being operated by
India.[45][46]
The commercial StarFire navigation system, operated by John Deere and C-Nav Positioning
Solutions (Oceaneering);
The commercial Starfix DGPS System and OmniSTAR system, operated by Fugro.[47]

Implementation

Launch

Geostationary satellites are launched to the east into a prograde orbit that matches the rotation rate of the
equator. The smallest inclination that a satellite can be launched into is that of the launch site's latitude, so
launching the satellite from close to the equator limits the amount of inclination change needed later.[48]
Additionally, launching from close to the equator
allows the speed of the Earth's rotation to give
the satellite a boost. A launch site should have
water or deserts to the east, so any failed rockets
do not fall on a populated area.[49]

Most launch vehicles place geostationary

satellites directly into a geostationary transfer
orbit (GTO), an elliptical orbit with an apogee at
GEO height and a low perigee. On-board
satellite propulsion is then used to raise the
perigee, circularise and reach GEO.[48][50]

Orbit allocation

Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a

single ring above the equator. The requirement to
space these satellites apart, to avoid harmful
radio-frequency interference during operations,
means that there are a limited number of orbital
slots available, and thus only a limited number of
satellites can be operated in geostationary orbit.
This has led to conflict between different
countries wishing access to the same orbital slots
(countries near the same longitude but differing An example of a transition from temporary GTO to GSO.
latitudes) and radio frequencies. These disputes EchoStar XVII · Earth.
are addressed through the International
Telecommunication Union's allocation
mechanism under the Radio Regulations.[51][52] In the 1976 Bogota Declaration, eight countries located on
the Earth's equator claimed sovereignty over the geostationary orbits above their territory, but the claims
gained no international recognition.[53]

Statite proposal

A statite is a hypothetical satellite that uses radiation pressure from the sun against a solar sail to modify its
orbit.

It would hold its location over the dark side of the Earth at a latitude of approximately 30 degrees. A statite
is stationary relative to the Earth and Sun system rather than compared to surface of the Earth, and could
ease congestion in the geostationary ring.[54][55]

Retired satellites
Geostationary satellites require some station keeping to keep their position, and once they run out of
thruster fuel they are generally retired. The transponders and other onboard systems often outlive the
thruster fuel and by allowing the satellite to move naturally into an inclined geosynchronous orbit some
satellites can remain in use,[56] or else be elevated to a graveyard orbit. This process is becoming
increasingly regulated and satellites must have a 90% chance of moving over 200 km above the
geostationary belt at end of life.[57]
Space debris

Space debris at geostationary orbits typically has a lower collision

speed than at LEO since all GEO satellites orbit in the same plane,
altitude and speed; however, the presence of satellites in eccentric
orbits allows for collisions at up to 4 km/s. Although a collision is
comparatively unlikely, GEO satellites have a limited ability to
avoid any debris.[58]

Debris less than 10 cm in diameter cannot be seen from the Earth,

making it difficult to assess their prevalence.[59]
A computer-generated image of
Despite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. space debris. Two debris fields are
The European Space Agency telecom satellite Olympus-1 was shown: around geostationary space
struck by a meteoroid on August 11, 1993 and eventually moved and low Earth orbit.
to a graveyard orbit,[60] and in 2006 the Russian Express-AM11
communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and
rendered inoperable,[61] although its engineers had enough contact time with the satellite to send it into a
graveyard orbit. In 2017 both AMC-9 and Telkom-1 broke apart from an unknown cause.[62][59][63]

Properties
A typical geostationary orbit has the following properties:

Inclination: 0°
Period: 1436 minutes (one sidereal day)[23]: 121
Eccentricity: 0
Argument of perigee: undefined
Semi-major axis: 42,164 km

Inclination

An inclination of zero ensures that the orbit remains over the equator at all times, making it stationary with
respect to latitude from the point of view of a ground observer (and in the Earth-centered Earth-fixed
reference frame).[23]: 122

Period

The orbital period is equal to exactly one sidereal day. This means that the satellite will return to the same
point above the Earth's surface every (sidereal) day, regardless of other orbital properties. For a
geostationary orbit in particular, it ensures that it holds the same longitude over time.[23]: 121 This orbital
period, T, is directly related to the semi-major axis of the orbit through the formula:

where:
 a is the length of the orbit's semi-major axis
μ is the standard gravitational parameter of the central body[23]: 137

Eccentricity

The eccentricity is zero, which produces a circular orbit. This ensures that the satellite does not move closer
or further away from the Earth, which would cause it to track backwards and forwards across the
sky.[23]: 122

Orbital stability

A geostationary orbit can be achieved only at an altitude very close to 35,786 kilometres (22,236 miles) and
directly above the equator. This equates to an orbital speed of 3.07 kilometres per second (1.91 miles per
second) and an orbital period of 1,436 minutes, one sidereal day. This ensures that the satellite will match
the Earth's rotational period and has a stationary footprint on the ground. All geostationary satellites have to
be located on this ring.

A combination of lunar gravity, solar gravity, and the flattening of the Earth at its poles causes a precession
motion of the orbital plane of any geostationary object, with an orbital period of about 53 years and an
initial inclination gradient of about 0.85° per year, achieving a maximal inclination of 15° after 26.5
years.[64][23]: 156 To correct for this perturbation, regular orbital stationkeeping maneuvers are necessary,
amounting to a delta-v of approximately 50 m/s per year.[65]

A second effect to be taken into account is the longitudinal drift, caused by the asymmetry of the Earth –
the equator is slightly elliptical.[23]: 156 There are two stable equilibrium points (at 75.3°E and 108°W) and
two corresponding unstable points (at 165.3°E and 14.7°W). Any geostationary object placed between the
equilibrium points would (without any action) be slowly accelerated towards the stable equilibrium
position, causing a periodic longitude variation.[64] The correction of this effect requires station-keeping
maneuvers with a maximal delta-v of about 2 m/s per year, depending on the desired longitude.[65]

Solar wind and radiation pressure also exert small forces on satellites: over time, these cause them to slowly
drift away from their prescribed orbits.[66]

In the absence of servicing missions from the Earth or a renewable propulsion method, the consumption of
thruster propellant for station-keeping places a limitation on the lifetime of the satellite. Hall-effect thrusters,
which are currently in use, have the potential to prolong the service life of a satellite by providing high-
efficiency electric propulsion.[65]

Derivation of geostationary altitude

For circular orbits around a body, the centripetal force required to maintain the orbit (Fc) is equal to the
gravitational force acting on the satellite (Fg ):[67]

From Isaac Newton's Universal law of gravitation,

,
where Fg is the gravitational force acting between
two objects, ME is the mass of the Earth,
5.9736 × 1024 kg, ms is the mass of the satellite, r is
the distance between the centers of their masses, and
G is the gravitational constant,
(6.674 28 ± 0.000 67) × 10 −11 3 −1
m kg s . −2 [67]

The magnitude of the acceleration, a, of a body

moving in a circle is given by:

where v is the magnitude of the velocity (i.e. the

speed) of the satellite. From Newton's Second law
of Motion, the centripetal force Fc is given by:

Comparison of geostationary Earth orbit with GPS,

.[67] GLONASS, Galileo and Compass (medium Earth
orbit) satellite navigation system orbits with the
As Fc = Fg , International Space Station, Hubble Space
Telescope and Iridium constellation orbits, and the
nominal size of the Earth.[b] The Moon's orbit is
, around 9 times larger (in radius and length) than
geostationary orbit.[c]

so that

Replacing v with the equation for the speed of an object moving around a circle produces:

where T is the orbital period (i.e. one sidereal day), and is equal to 86 164.090 54 s.[68] This gives an
equation for r:[69]

The product GME is known with much greater precision than either factor alone; it is known as the
geocentric gravitational constant μ = 398 600.4418 ± 0.0008 km3 s−2 . Hence

The resulting orbital radius is 42,164 kilometres (26,199 miles). Subtracting the Earth's equatorial radius,
6,378 kilometres (3,963 miles), gives the altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 miles).[70]

The orbital speed is calculated by multiplying the angular speed by the orbital radius:
Mars

By the same method, we can determine the orbital altitude for any similar pair of bodies, including the
areostationary orbit of an object in relation to Mars, if it is assumed that it is spherical (which it is not).[71]
The gravitational constant GM (μ) for Mars has the value of 42 830 km3 s−2 , its equatorial radius is
3 389.50 km and the known rotational period (T) of the planet is 1.025 956 76 Earth days (88 642.66 s).
Using these values, Mars' orbital altitude is equal to 17 039 km.[72]

See also
List of orbits
List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit
Orbital stationkeeping
Space elevator, which ultimately reaches a geostationary orbit

Explanatory notes
a. Geostationary orbit and Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit are used somewhat
interchangeably in sources.
b. Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4π2R3 = T2GM and V2R = GM,
where R is the radius of orbit in metres; T, the orbital period in seconds; V, the orbital speed
in m/s; G, the gravitational constant ≈ 6.673 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2; M, the mass of Earth ≈
5.98 × 1024 kg.
c. The Moon's orbit is not perfectly circular, and is approximately 8.6 times further away from
the Earth than the geostationary ring when the Moon is at perigee (363 104 km ÷ 42 164 km)
and 9.6 times further away when the Moon is at apogee (405,696 km ÷ 42,164 km).

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This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document:
"Federal Standard 1037C" (http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm). (in support of MIL-STD-
188)

External links
How to get a satellite to geostationary orbit (http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/2014
0116-how-to-get-a-satellite-to-gto.html)
Orbital Mechanics (https://www.webcitation.org/65E4LELlX?url=http://www.braeunig.us/spac
e/orbmech.htm) (Rocket and Space Technology)
List of satellites in geostationary orbit (http://www.satsig.net/sslist.htm)
Clarke Belt Snapshot Calculator (https://web.archive.org/web/20060626002953/http://www.g
olombek.com/sat/)
3D Real Time Satellite Tracking (https://web.archive.org/web/20130904234835/http://scienc
e1.nasa.gov/realtime/jtrack/3d/JTrack3D.html/)
Geostationary satellite orbit overview (https://web.archive.org/web/20140404194939/http://w
ww.radio-electronics.com/info/satellite/satellite-orbits/geostationary-earth-orbit.php)
Daily animation of the Earth, made by geostationary satellite 'Electro L' photos (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20141218004537/http://p-l-a.net/) Satellite shoots 48 images of the planet
every day.
Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rzw4wOH
DpjQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=physics+of+geostationary+orbits&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahU
KEwjp0f_er_jkAhXOVhUIHfIRAv4Q6AEIUjAG#v=onepage&q&f=false)

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