Satellite & Cable TV

SATELLITE ,CABLE AND DTH SYSTEM
Unit-1
SATELLITE SYSTEM:
 In general, a satellite is anything that orbits something else, as, for example, the moon orbits the
earth.
 In a communications context, a satellite is a specialized wireless receiver/transmitter that is

launched by a rocket and placed in orbit around the earth.
 There are hundreds of satellites currently in operation. They are used for such diverse purposes
as weather forecasting, television broadcast, amateur radio communications, Internet
communications, and the Global Positioning System, (GPS).
 The first artificial satellite, launched by Russia (then known as the Soviet Union) in the late
1950s, was about the size of a basketball. It did nothing but transmit a simple Morse code signal
over and over.
 In contrast, modern satellites can receive and re-transmit thousands of signals simultaneously,
from simple digital data to the most complex television programming.
Commonly There are three types of communications satellite systems.
 Geocentric orbit (geo)

 Medium earth orbit (meo)
 Low earth orbit (leo)
GEO-STATIONARY SATELLITE:
A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be stationary with respect to the earth, hence the name
geostationary.
Three conditions are required for an orbit to be geostationary:
1. The satellite must travel eastward at the same rotational speed as the earth.
2. The orbit must be circular.
3. The inclination of the orbit must be zero.
 The first condition is obvious. If the satellite is to appear stationary, it must rotate at the same
speed as the earth, which is constant.
 The second condition follows from this and from Kepler ’s second law. Constant speed means
that equal areas must be swept out in equal times, and this can only occur with a circular orbit.
 The third condition, that the inclination must be zero, follows from the fact that any inclination
would have the satellite moving north and south, and hence it would not be geostationary.
Movement north and south can be avoided only with zero inclination, which means that the
orbit lies in the earth’s equatorial plane.
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GEO-STATIONARY SATELLITE:
 One very popular orbit format is the geostationary satellite orbit. The geostationary orbit is
used by many applications including direct broadcast as well as communications or relay
systems.
 The geostationary orbit has the advantage that the satellite remains in the same position
throughout the day, and antennas can be directed towards the satellite and remain on track.
 This factor is of particular importance for applications such as direct broadcast TV where
changing directions for the antenna would not be practicable.
 It is necessary to take care over the use of the abbreviations for geostationary orbit. Both GEO
and GSO are seen, and both also used for geosynchronous orbit.
Geostationary orbit development

 One of the possible originators of the basic idea was a Russian theorist and science fiction
writer, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.
 However it was Herman Oberth and Herman Potocnik who wrote about orbiting stations at an
altitude of 35 900 km above the Earth that had a rotational period of 24 hours making it appear
to hover over a fixed point on the equator.
 The next major step forwards occurred when Arthur C Clarke, the science fiction writer,
published a serious article in Wireless World, a major UK electronics and radio publication, in
October 1945.
 The article was entitled "Extra-Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give World Coverage?"
 Clarke extrapolated what could be done with the German rocket technology of the day and
looked at what might be possible in the future.
 He postulated that it would be possible to provide complete global coverage with just three
geostationary satellites.
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Arthur C Clarke's Geostationary Orbiting Satellites Concept
 In the article, Clarke determined the orbital characteristics required as well as the transmitter
power levels, the generation of solar power could be used, even calculating the impact of solar
eclipses.
 Clarke's article was well ahead of its time. It took until 1963 before NASA was able to start
launching satellites that could test the theory.
 The first serviceable satellite able to start testing the theory was Syncom 2 which was launched
on 26 July 1963. [Syncom 1 failed as it was unable to reach its correct geostationary orbit].
Geostationary orbit basics

 As the height of a satellite increases, so the time for the satellite to orbit increases. At a height of
35790 km, it takes 24 hours for the satellite to orbit. This type of orbit is known as a
geosynchronous orbit, i.e. it is synchronized with the Earth.
 One particular form of geosynchronous orbit is known as a geostationary orbit. In this type of
orbit the satellite rotates in the same direction as the rotation of the Earth and has an
approximate 24 hour period.
 This means that it revolves at the same angular velocity as the Earth and in the same direction
and therefore remains in the same position relative to the Earth.
 In order to ensure that the satellite rotates at exactly the same speed as the Earth, it is necessary
to clarify exactly what the time is for the rotation of the Earth.
 For most timekeeping applications, the Earth's rotation is measured relative to the Sun's mean
position, and the rotation of the earth combined with the rotation around the Sun provides the
length of time for a day.
 However this is not the exact rotation that we are interested in to give a geostationary orbit - the
time required is just that for one rotation. This time period is known as a sidereal day and it is
23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds long.
 Geometry dictates that the only way in which an orbit that rotates once per day can remain over
exactly the same spot on the Earth's surface is that it moves in the same direction as the earth's
rotation.
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 Also it must not move north or south for any of its orbit. This can only occur if it remains over
the equator.
Geostationary orbit can only be over the Equator
 Different orbits can be seen from the diagram. As all orbital planes need to pass through the geo-
centre of the Earth, the two options available are shown.
 Even if both orbits rotate at the same speed as the Earth, the one labelled geosynchronous will
move north of the equator for part of the day, and below for the other half - it will not be stationary.
For a satellite to be stationary, it must be above the Equator.
Geostationary satellite drift

 Even when satellites are placed into a geostationary orbit, there are several forces that can act on
it to change its position slowly over time. Factors including the earth's elliptical shape, the pull of
the Sun and Moon and others act to increase the satellite orbital inclination.
 In particular the non-circular shape of the of the Earth around the Equator tends to draw the
satellites towards two stable equilibrium points, one above the Indian Ocean and the other very
roughly around the other side of the World.. This results in what is termed as an east-west
libration or movement back and forth.
 To overcome these movements, fuel is carried by the satellites to enable them to carry out
"station-keeping" where the satellite is returned to its desired position.
 The period between station-keeping manoeuvres is determined by the allowable tolerance on the
satellite which is mainly determined by the ground antenna beamwidth. This will mean that no
re-adjustment of the antennas is required.
 Often the useful life of a satellite is determined by the time for which fuel will allow the station-
keeping to be undertaken. Often this will be several years.
 After this the satellite can drift towards one of the two equilibrium points, and possibly re-enter
the Earth's atmosphere. The preferred option is for the satellites to utilise some last fuel to lift
them into a higher and increasing orbit to prevent them from interfering with other satellites.
Geostationary orbit coverage

 A single geostationary satellite obviously cannot provide complete global coverage. However, a
single geostationary satellite can see approximately 42% of the Earth's surface with coverage
falling off towards the satellite is not able to "see" the surface.
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 This occurs around the equator and also towards the polar regions.
Geostationary satellite coverage

 For a constellation of three satellites equally spaced around the globe, it is possible to provide
complete coverage around the equator and up to latitudes of 81° both north and south.
 The lack of polar coverage is not a problem for most users, although where polar coverage is
needed, satellites using other forms of orbit are needed.
Geostationary orbit and path length / delay

 One of the issues with using satellites in a geostationary orbit is the delay introduced by the path
length.
 The path length to any geostationary satellite is a minimum of 22300 miles.
 This assumes that the user is directly underneath the satellite to provide the shortest path length.
In reality the user is unlikely to be in this position and the path length will be longer.
 Assuming the shortest path length, this gives a single trip i.e. to the satellite or back of a
minimum of around 120 milli-seconds. This means that the round trip from the ground to the
satellite and back is roughly a quarter of a second.
 Therefore to obtain a response in a conversation can take half a second as the signal must pass
through the satellite twice - once on the outward journey to the remote listener, and then again
with the response.
 This delay can make telephone conversations rather difficult when satellite links are used.
 It can also be seen when news reporters as using satellite links. When asked a question from the
broadcasters studio, the reporter appears to take some time to answer.
 This delay is the reason why many long distance links use cables rather than satellites as the
delays incurred are far less.
Advantages and disadvantages of geostationary orbit satellites

 While the geostationary orbit is widely used for many satellite applications it is not suitable for
all situations.
 There are several advantages and disadvantages to be taken into consideration:
Geocentric circular orbit:
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 Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi). The period of the
orbit equals one sidereal day, coinciding with the rotation period of the Earth.
 The speed is approximately 3,000 metres per second (9,800 ft/s).
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
 In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done with the
help of satellite.
 In this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the
satellite. Then the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the receiver’s antenna present
on the earth’s surface.
 So, all the signal transferring is happening in space. This type of communication is known as
space communication.
 Two satellites which are commonly used in satellite communication are Active and passive
satellites.
Passive satellites: It is just a plastic balloon having a metal coated over it. This sphere reflects
the coming microwave signals coming from one part of the earth to other part. This is also
known as passive sphere. Our earth also has a passive satellite i.e. moon.
Active satellites: It basically does the work of amplifying the microwave signals coming. In
active satellites an antenna system, transmitter, power supply and a receiver is used. These
satellites are also called as transponders.
 The transmitters fitted on the earth generate the microwaves. These rays are received by the
transponders attached to the satellite. Then after amplifying, these signals are transmitted back to
earth. This sending can be done at the same time or after some delay.
 These amplified signals are stored in the memory of the satellites, when earth properly faces the
satellite. Then the satellite starts sending the signals to earth. Some active satellites also have
programming and recording features. Then these recording can be easily played and watched.
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 The first active satellite was launched by Russia in 1957. The signals coming from the satellite
when reach the earth, are of very low intensity. Their amplification is done by the receivers
themselves. After amplification these become available for further use.
 Microwave communication is possible only if the position of satellite becomes stationary with
respect to the position of earth. So, these types of satellites are known as geostationary
satellites.
The requirements for a satellite to be geostationary:
1. Its revolutionary direction must be same as that of the earth, i.e. from west to east.
2. The time period of satellite’s revolution must be same to the time period of the rotation of earth
along its polar axis, which is equal to 24 hours.
3. The equatorial plane of earth must be coplanar with the orbital plane of the satellitesrevolution.
 The name given to the orbit of the geo-stationary satellites is synchronous orbit. Due to this
geo-stationary satellites are also called as geo-synchronous satellites.
 Geo-synchronous orbit is at a height of nearly 36000km from the surface of earth. These orbits
are capable of giving a successful communication link between two stations present on the
earth.
 These satellites can handle communication up to large distances. But it is impossible for a single
geo-stationary satellite to cover the whole earth and provide acommunication link. Due
to curvature of earth the stations will be out of sight after coveringsome distance.
 If we want to cover the whole earth then we have to put three satellites onto the geosynchronous
orbit. These satellites can cover the earth if all are inclined at an angle of 120 oto each other.
SATELLITE ELECTRONICS:
 In telecommunication, a transponder is one of two types of devices. In air navigation or radio

frequency identification, a flight transponder is a device that emits an identifying signal in
response to an interrogating received signal.
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 In a communications satellite, a transponder gathers signals over a range of uplink frequencies

and re-transmits them on a different set of downlink frequencies to receivers on Earth, often
without changing the content of the received signal or signals.
 A transponder is a broadband RF channel used to amplify one or more carriers on the downlink
side of a geostationary communications satellite. It is part of the microwave repeater and
antenna system that is housed onboard the operating satellite. Examples of these satellites
include AMC 4 and Telstar 5, located at 101 and 97 degrees west longitude, respectively.
 These satellites and most of their cohorts in the geostationary orbit have bent-pipe repeaters
using C and Ku bands; a bent pipe repeater is simply one that receives all signals in the uplink
beam, block translates them to the downlink band, and separates them into individual
transponders of a fixed bandwidth.
 Figure 1 shows the basic concept. Each transponder is amplified by either a traveling wave tube
amplifier (TWTA) or a solid state power amplifier (SSPA). Satellites of this type are very
popular for transmitting TV channels to broadcast stations, cable TV systems, and directly to the
home.
 Other applications include very small aperture terminal (VSAT) data communications networks,
international high bit rate pipes, and rural telephony. Integration of these information types is
becoming popular as satellite transponders can deliver data rates in the range of 50 to 150 Mbps.
 Achieving these high data rates requires careful consideration of the design and performance of
the repeater.
The nature and location of the various system impairments are also shown.
 The most significant impairments to digital transmission come about in the filtering, which
constrains bandwidth and introduces delay distortion, and the power amplification, which
produces AM/AM and AM/PM conversion. These effects will be discussed in detail later in this
article.
 For maximum power output with the highest efficiency (e.g., to minimize solar panel DC
supply), this amplifier should be operated at its saturation point. However, many services are
sensitive and susceptible to AM/AM and AM/PM conversion, for which backoff is necessary.
With such an operating point, intermodulation distortion can be held to an acceptable level;
however, backoff also reduces downlink power.
 The transponder itself is simply a repeater. It takes in the signal from the uplink at a frequency
f1, amplifies it and sends it back on a second frequency f2. Figure 2 shows a typical frequency
plan with 24-channel transponder.
 The uplink frequency is at 6 GHz, and the downlink frequency is at 4 GHz. The 24 channels are
separated by 40 MHz and have a 36 MHz useful bandwidth. The guard band of 4 MHz assures
that the transponders do not interact with each other.
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Satellite/broadcast communication.
 A communications satellite’s channels are called transponders, because each is a
separate transceiver or repeater. With digital video data compression and multiplexing,
several video and audio channels may travel through a single transponder on a
single wideband carrier.
 Original analog video only has one channel per transponder, with subcarriers for audio and
automatic transmission identification service (ATIS). Non-multiplexed radio stations can also
travel in single channel per carrier (SCPC) mode, with multiple carriers (analog or digital) per
transponder.
 This allows each station to transmit directly to the satellite, rather than paying for a whole
transponder, or using landlines to send it to an earth station for multiplexing with other
stations.
Optical communications:
In optical fiber communications, a transponder is the element that sends and receives the optical
signal from a fiber. A transponder is typically characterized by its data rate and the maximum distance
the signal can travel.
The term 'transponder' can apply to different items with important functional differences, mentioned
across academic and commercial literature:
 According to one description,[ a transponder and transceiver are both functionally similar
devices that convert a full-duplex electrical signal into a full-duplex optical signal. The
difference between the two is that transceivers interface electrically with the host system
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using a serial interface, whereas transponders use a parallel interface to do so. In this view,
transponders provide easier-to-handle lower-rate parallel signals, but are bulkier and
consume more power than transceivers.
 According to another description,[3] transceivers are limited to providing an electrical-

optical function only (not differentiating between serial or parallel electrical interfaces),
whereas transponders convert an optical signal at one wavelength to an optical signal at
another wavelength (typically ITU standardized for DWDMcommunication).
 As such, transponders can be considered as two transceivers placed back-to-back. This view
also seems to be held by e.g. Fujitsu. As a result, difference in transponder functionality also
might influence the functional description of related optical modules
like transceivers and muxponders.
Marine
 The International Maritime Organization's International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea requires the Automatic Identification System (AIS) to be fitted aboard international
voyaging ships with gross tonnage (GT) of 300 or more, and all passenger ships regardless of
size.
 Although AIS transmitters/receivers are generally called transponders they generally transmit
autonomously, although coast stations can interrogate class B transponders on smaller vessels
for additional information.
 In addition, navigational aids often have transponders called RACON (radar beacons) designed
to make them stand out on a ship's radar screen.
 Passive and active RFID systems are used in off-road events such as Enduro and Hare and
Hounds racing, the riders have a transponder on their person, normally on their arm.
 When they complete a lap they swipe or touch the receiver which is connected to a computer
and log their lap time. The Casimo Group Ltd make a system which does this.
Underwater:
 Sonar transponders operate under water and are used to measure distance and form the basis of
underwater location marking, position tracking and navigation.
INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL DIRECT BROADCASTING SATELLITE:
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Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS)
 It is a type of artificial satellite which usually sends satellite television signals for home
reception. The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as
direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV) or direct-to-home television (DTHTV).
 This has initially distinguished the transmissions directly intended for home viewers from cable
television distribution services that are sometimes carried on the same satellite.
 The term DTH predates DBS and is often used in reference to services carried by lower power
satellites which required larger dishes (1.7 m diameter or greater) for reception.
 In Europe, prior to the launch of Astra 1A in 1988, the term DBS was commonly used to
describe the nationally commissioned satellites planned and launched to provide television
broadcasts to the home within several European countries (such as BSB in the United Kingdom
and TV-Sat in Germany).
 These services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with circular
polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country.
 Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels,
really intended for cable distribution, and requiring dishes typically of 1.2m.
 SES launched the Astra 1A satellite to provide services to homes across Europe receivable on
dishes of just 60-80 cm and, although these mostly used PAL video format and FSS frequencies
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with linear polarization, the DBS name slowly came to applied to all Astra satellites and
services too.
Direct-broadcoast satellite(DBS) can be used in two services:
 Commercial service
 Free service
COMMERCIAL SERVICE:
o
The second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc (now BSkyB after its merger
with British Satellite Broadcasting's five-channel network), was launched in 1989. Sky
TV started as a four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1Asatellite,
serving both Ireland and the United Kingdom.[4]
o
By 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay model, and launched a digital
service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing in 2001.
o
Since the DBS nomenclature is rarely used in the UK or Ireland, the popularity of Sky's
service has caused the terms "minidish" and "digibox" to be applied to products other
than Sky's hardware. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB.
o
PrimeStar began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was
joined by DirecTV (then owned by a division of General Motors, GM Hughes
Electronics), in 1994. At the time, DirecTV's introduction was the most
successfulconsumer electronics debut in American history.
o
Although PrimeStar transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to
compete with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more
programming. DirecTVpurchased PrimeStar in 1999 and moved all of that provider's
subscribers to DirecTV equipment.
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o
In a series of transactions consummated in 2003, Hughes Electronics was spun out of
GM and the News Corporation purchased a controlling interest in the new company,
which was renamed The DIRECTV Group.
o
In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporation's controlling interest
in DirecTV.
 In 1996, EchoStar's Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTV's primary
competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under.
 Astro was also started, using a direct broadcast satellite system. Dominion Video Satellite
Inc.'s Sky Angel launched on a satellite platform in the United States in 1996, with its DBS
service geared toward the faith and family market.
 It grew from six to 36 television and radio channels of family entertainment, Christian-
inspirational programming, and 24-hour news services.
 Dominion, under its former corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc., was actually the
second from among the first nine companies to apply to the FCC for a high-power DBS license
in 1981, and it was the sole surviving DBS company from the first round of applicants until the
sale of their license to EchoStar Communications Corporation in 2007 and departure from
satellite distribution in 2008.
 Sky Angel, although a separate and independent DBS service, used the same satellites,
transmission facilities and receiving equipment used for Dish Network through an agreement
with Echostar.
 Because of this, Sky Angel subscribers also had the option of subscribing to Dish Network's
channels as well.
 In 2003, EchoStar attempted to purchase DirecTV, but the FCC and U.S. Department of Justice
denied the purchase based on anti-competitive concerns. As of 2013, India has the most
competitive direct-broadcast satellite market with seven operators (six private DTH and one
Govertment-owned FTA DTH) vying for more than 110 million television homes.
FREESERVICE:
 Germany is likely the leader in free-to-air (FTA) DBS, with approximately 200 digital FTA
channels (including 18 HDTVchannels and various regional channels) broadcast from the Astra
19.2°E satellite constellation.
 These are not marketed as a DBS service, but are received in approximately 12 million homes, as
well as in any home using the Sky Deutschlandcommercial DBS system. All German analogue
satellite broadcasts ceased on April 30, 2012.
 The United Kingdom has approximately 160 digital channels (including the regional variations
of BBC channels, ITVchannels, Channel 4 and Channel 5) are broadcast without encryption
from the Astra 28.2°E satellite constellation, and receivable on any DVB-S-compliant receiver
(a DVB-S2 receiver is required for certain high definition television services).
 Most of these channels are included within the Sky EPG, and an increasing number within
the Freesat EPG.
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 India's national broadcaster, Doordarshan, promotes a free-to-air DBS package as "DD Direct
Plus", which is provided as in-fill for the country's terrestrial transmission network. It is
broadcast from Insat 4B at 93.5°E and contains about 57 FTA channels.
 While originally launched as backhaul for their digital terrestrial television service, a large
number of French channels are free-to-air on satellites at 5°W, and have recently been announced
as being official in-fill for the DTT network.
 In North America (United States, Canada and Mexico) there are over 80 FTA digital channels
available on Galaxy 19 (with the majority being ethnic or religious in nature).
 Other FTA satellites include AMC-4, AMC-6, Galaxy 18, and Satmex 5. A company
called GloryStar promotes FTA religious broadcasters on Galaxy 19.
INDIAN DOMESTIC SATELLITE
 The GSLV carrying the GSat-14 communications satellite lifted off Jan. 5 from the Satish
Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota on India’s southeastern coast. “We now have a totally
indigenous GSLV," ISRO Chairman Koppilli Radhakrishnan said.
 BANGALORE, India — The new year opened on a high note for the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) with the first successful flight of a rocket with a domestically built
cryogenic upper-stage engine.
 The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) carrying the GSat-14 communications
satellite lifted off Jan. 5 at 4:18 p.m. local time from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at
Sriharikota on India’s southeastern coast. The 1,982-kilogram satellite was released into
geosynchronous transfer orbit 17 minutes into the flight.
 The upper-stage engine burned for 720 seconds during the mission, boosting the
morale of ISRO scientists who had been struggling to build it for two decades.
 The engine was developed at ISRO’s Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre at
Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu at a cost of 3.36 billion rupees ($54 million), according
to ISRO. “It is an important day and a major achievement for ISRO and a proud
moment for India,” ISRO Chairman Koppilli Radhakrishnan said in an address
immediately after the nationally televised launch. “We now have a totally indigenous
GSLV.”
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 The three-stage GSLV rocket is 51 meters tall and weighs 418 metric tons.
 The first stage is powered by a solid-fueled core motor and four liquid-fueled
strap-on boosters;
 The second stage uses liquid fuel.
 The cryogenic third stage employs liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen
as the oxidizer. The latest launch was GSLV’s eighth flight and followed two
successive failures in 2010, one of which involved the homemade cryogenic
stage.
 The other previous GSLV flights used a Russian-designed cryogenic stage under an
agreement signed in 1991.
 ISRO began working on its own cryogenic engines in 1993 after Russia — under
pressure from Washington — refused to transfer the technology necessary for India
to produce the hardware domestically. The first test flight, in April 2010, went awry
when the domestically built engine failed to ignite, leading to the loss of the GSat-4
satellite.
 A scheduled test flight in August 2013 had to be aborted two hours before liftoff due
to a second-stage propellant leak.
 The second stage was replaced for the Jan. 5 flight. The upper stage, featuring
redesigned components, was put through several tests including one to assess its
performance at high altitude.
 ISRO reported Jan. 9 that the GSat-14, designed for a 15-year lifetime, had
successfully raised itself to geostationary orbit using its on-board propulsion system
and was drifting toward its operating location at 74 degrees east longitude.
 After commissioning, it will join ISRO’s fleet of nine operational communications

satellites.
 According to ISRO, the satellite’s main objective is to augment India’s in-orbit

transponder capacity, which in recent years has been insufficient to meet surging
demand for satellite-based services, primarily for television broadcasting.
 GSat-14 carries six extended C-band and six Ku-band transponders covering the
entire Indian subcontinent, and two Ka-band beams operating at 20.2 and 30.5
gigahertz for studying the impact of weather on satellite communications links.
 India’s larger geostationary telecommunications satellites today are still launched by

foreign rockets, usually Europe’s Ariane 5, but ISRO is working on a larger version
of the GSLV to handle these missions.
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 ISRO also harbors ambitions to launch commercial telecommunications satellites. In

addition, the GSLV will be used for future ISRO space ventures including a robotic
mission to the Moon slated to launch in 2015 or 2016.
 The latest launch was GSLV’s eighth flight and followed two successive failures in
2010, one of which involved the homemade cryogenic stage.
 The other previous GSLV flights used a Russian-designed cryogenic stage under an
agreement signed in 1991.
 ISRO began working on its own cryogenic engines in 1993 after Russia – under
pressure from Washington – refused to transfer the technology necessary for India to
produce the hardware domestically.
 The first test flight, in April 2010, went awry when the domestically built engine
failed to ignite, leading to the loss of the GSat-4 satellite.
 A scheduled test flight in August 2013 had to be aborted two hours before liftoff due
to a second-stage propellant leak.
 The second stage was replaced for the Jan. 5 flight. The upper stage, featuring
redesigned components, was put through several tests including one to assess its
performance at high altitude. ISRO said the GSAT-14, designed to operate for 15
years, will use its own propulsion system to reach its geostationary orbital home at
74 degrees east longitude over the next few days. After commissioning, it will join
ISRO’s fleet of nine operational communications satellites.
 According to ISRO, the satellite’s main objective is to augment India’s in-orbit

transponder capacity, which in recent years has been insufficient to meet surging
demand for satellite-based services, primarily for television broadcasting.
 The GSat-14 carries six extended C-band and six Ku-band transponders covering the
entire Indian subcontinent, and two Ka-band beams operating at 20.2 and 30.5
gigahertz for studying the impact of weather on satellite communications links.
 India’s larger geostationary telecommunications satellites today are still launched by

foreign rockets, usually Europe’s Ariane 5, but ISRO is working on a larger version
of the GSLV to handle these missions.
 ISRO also harbors ambitions to launch commercial telecommunications satellites. In

addition, the GSLV will be used for future ISRO space ventures including a robotic
mission to the Moon slated to launch in 2015 or 2016.
DOMESTIC BROAD COASTING SYSTEM:
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Radio broadcasting:
 Radio broadcasting is a one-way wireless transmission over radio waves intended to reach a
wide audience. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast a common radio format,
either in broadcast syndication or simulcast or both.
 Audio broadcasting also can be done via cable radio, local wire television networks, satellite
radio, and internet radio via streaming media on the Internet. The signal types can be
either analog audio or digital audio.
 In 2009, there were 3,494 radio broadcasting stations in the United States.
 Broadcasting by radio takes several forms. These include AM and FM stations. There are
several subtypes, namely commercial broadcasting, non-commercial educational (NCE) public
broadcasting and non-profit varieties as well as community radio, student-run campus
radio stations and hospital radio stations can be found throughout the world.
 Many stations broadcast on shortwave bands using AM technology that can be received over
thousands of miles (especially at night). For example, the BBC, VOA, VOR, and Deutsche
Welle have transmitted via shortwave to Africa and Asia. These broadcasts are very sensitive to
atmospheric conditions and solar activity.
 Arbitron, the United States-based company that reports on radio audiences, defines a "radio
station" as a government-licensed AM or FM station; an HD Radio (primary or multicast)
station; an internet stream of an existing government-licensed station; one of the satellite radio
channels from XM Satellite Radio or Sirius Satellite Radio; or, potentially, a station that is not
government licensed.
AM:
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 AM stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM refers to amplitude

modulation, a mode of broadcasting radio waves by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal
in response to the amplitude of the signal to be transmitted.
 The medium-wave band is used worldwide for AM broadcasting. Europe also uses the long
wave band. In response to the growing popularity of FM stereo radio stations in the late 1980s
and early 1990s, some North American stations began broadcasting in AM stereo, though this
never gained popularity, and very few receivers were ever sold.
 One of the advantages of AM is that its signal can be detected (turned into sound) with simple
equipment. If a signal is strong enough, not even a power source is needed; building an
unpowered crystal radio receiver was a common childhood project in the early decades of AM
broadcasting.
 AM broadcasts occur on North American airwaves in the medium wave frequency range of 530
to 1700 kHz (known as the “standard broadcast band”).
 The band was expanded in the 1990s by adding nine channels from 1620 to 1700 kHz. Channels
are spaced every 10 kHz in the Americas, and generally every 9 kHz everywhere else.
 The signal is subject to interference from electrical storms (lightning) and other electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
 AM transmissions cannot be ionospherically propagated during the day due to strong absorption
in the D-layer of the ionosphere. In a crowded channel environment this means that the power
of regional channels which share a frequency must be reduced at night or directionally beamed
in order to avoid interference, which reduces the potential nighttime audience.
 Some stations have frequencies unshared with other stations in North America; these are
called clear-channel stations. Many of them can be heard across much of the country at night.
 During the night, absorption largely disappears and permits signals to travel to much more
distant locations via ionospheric reflections. However, fading of the signal can be severe at
night.
 AM radio transmitters can transmit audio frequencies up to 15 kHz (now limited to 10 kHz in
the US due to FCC rules designed to reduce interference), but most receivers are only capable of
reproducing frequencies up to 5 kHz or less. At the time that AM broadcasting began in the
1920s, this provided adequate fidelity for existing microphones, 78 rpm recordings, and
loudspeakers.
 The fidelity of sound equipment subsequently improved considerably, but the receivers did not.
Reducing the bandwidth of the receivers reduces the cost of manufacturing and makes them less
prone to interference.
 AM stations are never assigned adjacent channels in the same service area. This prevents the
sideband power generated by two stations from interfering with each other.
 Bob Carver created an AM stereo tuner employing notch filtering that demonstrated that an
AM broadcast can meet or exceed the 15 kHz baseband bandwidth allotted to FM stations
without objectionable interference.
 After several years, the tuner was discontinued. Bob Carver had left the company and the
Carver Corporation later cut the number of models produced before discontinuing production
completely.
FM :
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 FM refers to frequency modulation, and occurs on VHF airwaves in the frequency range of 88
to 108 MHz everywhere except Japan and Russia.
 Japan uses the 76 to 90 MHz band. Russia has two bands, 65.9 to 74 MHz (which was widely
used in the former Soviet Union) and 87.5 to 108 MHz worldwide standard.
 FM stations are much more popular since higher sound fidelity and stereo broadcasting became
common in this format.
 FM radio was invented by Edwin H. Armstrong in the 1930s for the specific purpose of
overcoming the interference problem of AM radio, to which FM is relatively immune.
 At the same time, greater fidelity was made possible by spacing stations further apart. Instead of
10 kHz apart, as on the AM band in the US, FM channels are 200 kHz (0.2 MHz) apart. In other
countries greater spacing is sometimes mandatory, such as in New Zealand, which uses 700 kHz
spacing (previously 800 kHz).
 The improved fidelity made available was far in advance of the audio equipment of the 1940s,
but wide interchannel spacing was chosen to take advantage of the noise-suppressing feature of
wideband FM.
 Bandwidth of 200 kHz is not needed to accommodate an audio signal — 20 kHz to 30 kHz is all
that is necessary for a narrowband FM signal.
 The 200 kHz bandwidth allowed room for ±75 kHz signal deviation from the assigned
frequency, plus guard bands to reduce or eliminate adjacent channel interference. The larger
bandwidth allows for broadcasting a 15 kHz bandwidth audio signal plus a 38 kHz stereo
"subcarrier"—a piggyback signal that rides on the main signal.
 Additional unused capacity is used by some broadcasters to transmit utility functions such as
background music for public areas, GPS auxiliary signals, or financial market data.
 The AM radio problem of interference at night was addressed in a different way. At the time FM
was set up, the available frequencies were far higher in the spectrum than those used for AM
radio - by a factor of approximately 100.
 Using these frequencies meant that even at far higher power, the range of a given FM signal was
much shorter; thus its market was more local than for AM radio. The reception range at night is
the same as in the daytime.
 All FM broadcast transmissions are line-of-sight, and ionospheric bounce is not viable. The
much larger bandwidths, compared to AM and SSB, are more susceptible to phase dispersion.
Propagation speeds (celerities) are fastest in the ionosphere at the lowest sideband frequency.
 The celerity difference between the highest and lowest sidebands is quite apparent to the
listener. Such distortion occurs up to frequencies of approximately 50 MHz. Higher frequencies
do not reflect from the ionosphere, or from storm clouds. Moon reflections have been used in
some experiments, but require impractical power levels.
 The original FM radio service in the U.S. was the Yankee Network, located in New England.
Regular FM broadcasting began in 1939, but did not pose a significant threat to the AM
broadcasting industry. It required purchase of a special receiver.
 The frequencies used, 42 to 50 MHz, were not those used today. The change to the current
frequencies, 88 to 108 MHz, began after the end of World War II, and was to some extent
imposed by AM broadcasters as an attempt to cripple what was by now realized to be a
potentially serious threat.
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 FM radio on the new band had to begin from the ground floor. As a commercial venture it
remained a little-used audio enthusiasts' medium until the 1960s. The more prosperous AM
stations, or their owners, acquired FM licenses and often broadcast the same programming on
the FM station as on the AM station ("simulcasting").
 The FCC limited this practice in the 1960s. By the 1980s, since almost all new radios included
both AM and FM tuners, FM became the dominant medium, especially in cities. Because of its
greater range, AM remained more common in rural environments.
UNIT-2
CABLE T.V SYSTEM
 Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers

via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses
through fiber-optic cables.
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 This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the
air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television.
 FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television
services may also be provided through these cables.
 The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television.
 It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from
cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by
distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were
constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.
 The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming was distributed by
cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.
CABLE SIGNAL SOURCE:

 A set-top box (STB) or set-top unit (STU) is an information appliance device that generally
contains a TV-tuner input and displays output connects to a television set and an external source
of signal, turning the source signal into content in a form that can then be displayed on
the television screen or other display device.
 They are used in cable television, satellite television, and over-the-air television systems, as well
as other uses.
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T.V SIGNAL SOURCE:

 The signal source might be an Ethernet cable, a satellite dish, a coaxial cable (see cable
television), a telephone line (includingDSL connections), broadband over power lines (BPL), or
even an ordinary VHF or UHF antenna.
 Content, in this context, could mean any or all of video, audio, Internet web
pages, interactive video games, or other possibilities.
 Satellite and microwave-based services also require specific external receiver hardware, so the
use of set-top boxes of various formats has never completely disappeared. Set-top boxes can
also enhance source signal quality.
UHF CONVERTER:
 Before the All-Channel Receiver Act of 1962 required US television receivers to be able to tune
the entire VHF and UHF range (which in North America was NTSC-M channels 2 through
83 on 54 to 890 MHz), a set-top box known as a UHF converter would be installed at the
receiver to shift a portion of the UHF-TV spectrum onto low-VHF channels for viewing.
 As some 1960s-era 12-channel TV sets remained in use for many years,
and Canada and Mexico were slower than the US to require UHF tuners to be factory-installed
in new TVs, a market for these converters continued to exist for much of the 1970s.
CABLE CONVERTER:
 Cable television represented a possible alternative to deployment of UHF converters as
broadcasts could be frequency-shifted to VHF channels at the cable head-end instead of the
final viewing location.
 However, most cable systems could not accommodate the full 54-890 MHz VHF/UHF
frequency range and the twelve channels of VHF space were quickly exhausted on most
systems. Adding any additional channels therefore needed to be done by inserting the extra
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signals into cable systems on nonstandard frequencies, typically either below VHF channel
7 (midband) or directly above VHF channel 13 (superband).
 These frequencies corresponded to non-television services (such as two-way radio) over-the-air
and were therefore not on standard TV receivers. Before cable-ready TV sets became common
in the late 1980s, an electronic tuning device called a cable converter box was needed to receive
the additional analog cable TV channels and transpose or convert the selected channel
to analog radio frequency (RF) for viewing on a regular TV set on a single channel,
usually VHF channel 3 or 4.
 The box allowed an analog non-cable-ready television set to receive analog encrypted cable
channels and was a prototype topology for later date digital encryption devices.
 Newer televisions were then converted to be analog cypher cable-ready, with the standard
converter built-in for selling premium television (akapay per view). Several years later and
slowly marketed, the advent of digital cable continued and increased the need for various forms
of these devices.
 Block conversion of the entire affected frequency band onto UHF, while less common, was
used by some models to provide full VCR compatibility and the ability to drive multiple TV
sets, albeit with a somewhat nonstandard channel numbering scheme.
 Newer television receivers greatly reduced the need for external set-top boxes, although cable
converter boxes continue to be used to descramble premium cable channels according to carrier-
controlled access restrictions, and to receive digital cable channels, along with using interactive
services like video on demand, pay per view, and home shopping through television.
CABLE SIGNAL PROCESSING:
 Once a television signal is received, it must be processed. For digital satellite TV signals, a
dedicated commercial satellite receiver such as a GI DSR4400X or a Scientific
Atlanta/PowerVu satellite receiver is needed for each channel that is to be distributed by the
cable system; these are usually rack-mountable receivers that are designed to take up less space
than consumer receivers.
 They output video and stereo audio signals as well as a digital signal for digital plants.
 Analog terrestrial TV signals require a processor which is a RF receiver that outputs video and
audio. In some cases the processor will include a built-in modulator.
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Digital terrestrial TV signals require a special digital processor.

 Digital channels are usually received on an L band QAM stream from a satellite, which
uses multiplexing. Using special receivers such as the Motorola MPS, the signal can be
demultiplexed or "Demuxed" to extract specific channels from the multiplexed signal.
 At this point, local insertion may be performed to add content specifically targeted to the local
geographic area.
Modulation:
 Cable television signals are then mixed in accordance with the cable system's channel
numbering scheme using a series of cable modulators (one for each channel), which is in turn
fed into a frequency multiplexer or signal combiner.
 The mixed signals are sent into a broadband amplifier, then sent into the cable system by the
trunk line and continuously re-amplified as needed.
 Modulators essentially take an input signal and attach it to a specific frequency. For example in
North America,NTSC standards dictate that CH2 is a 6 MHz wide channel with its luminance
carrier at 55.25 MHz, so the modulator for channel 2 will impose the appropriate input signal on
to the 55.25 MHz frequency to be received by any TV tuned to Channel 2.
 Digital channels are modulated as well; however, instead of each channel being modulated on to
a specific frequency, multiple digital channels are modulated on to one specific NTSC
frequency.
 Using QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation), a CATV operator can place usually up to
eight channels on one specific frequency so channel 2 may actually be carrying channels 1 - 8 in
a viewer's city. STBs (Set top boxes) or CableCards are required to receive these digital signals
and are provided by the cable operator themselves.
Distribution plant:
 The plant consists of trunk lines that run from one distribution amplifier to the next. Feed lines
run from a bridge amplifier inside the distribution amplifier to taps that are placed in front of a
section of close together homes.
 From the taps a drop, consisting of a buried or aerial coax, runs to each home that wishes to
obtain service.
 Unused ports on a tap are normally terminated with anti-theft terminators. To extend the feed
lines even further line extenders are used which are small amplifiers.
 small systems have been built without trunk lines using only line extenders every few thousand
feet.
CABLE SIGNAL DISTRIBUTION:
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Single Cable Distribution is a satellite TV technology that enables the delivery of broadcast
programming to multiple users over a single coaxial cable, and eliminates the numerous cables required
to support consumer electronics devices such as twin-tuner Digital Video Recorders (DVRs) and high
end receivers.
 Without single cable distribution, providing full spectrum access for multiple receivers, or
receivers with multiple tuners, in a single family home has required a separate coaxial cable
feeding each tuner from the antenna equipment (either multiple LNBs, a multi-output LNB or a
multiswitch distribution system) because of the large bandwidth requirement of the signals.
 Single cable distribution technology enables one coaxial cable from the antenna equipment to
multiple tuners, to provide independent tuning across the whole range of satellite reception for
each tuner.
 A European industry standard for distributing satellite signals over a single coaxial cable -
CENELEC EN50494 - has been defined in 2007 and developed by a consortium led by SES.
 Single cable distribution technology can be found in commercial equipment with the Unicable
trademark from FTA Communications Technologies. Unicable uses an integrated software and
hardware solution that allows Unicable-certified Digital Video Recorders and receivers to
multiplex selected programming when using Unicable LNB or multiswitching products.
 The Unicable Interoperability Platform is open to companies designing and/or marketing
satellite and other broadcast-related products. The platform is designed to facilitate the
acceptance of Unicable-certified solutions in the consumer TV broadcast market.
How it works:

Each satellite receiver in the installation has a dedicated user band of
a bandwidth approximately the same as a transponder. The receiver requests a particular
transponder frequency via a DiSEqC-compliant command.

A mixer in the dish-end equipment (an LNB or distribution unit) converts the received signal to
the correct user band IF centre frequency for that receiver.[3]

The converted transponders of the various users are then combined, and sent via the single
coaxial cable to the receivers. The combined signal is tapped or split to reach every user.
Silicon vendors have developed complex Integrated Circuits that greatly reduce the cost of
implementing the single cable distribution function.
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
A Channel Stacking Switch IC is a multiple-input multiple-output device. It typically has N 1.2
GHz inputs that can be cascaded to additional chips as required (to expand output capacity).
 These inputs are fed into a large N-pole M-Throw switch that outputs to M mixers. Each mixer
path then translates only the user requested transponder to a predetermined fixed frequency
within the 950-2150 MHz band.
 This fixed frequency is unique for each tuner on the single cable output. Each tuner in the STB
always stays at this fixed frequency while the CSS IC translates the user requested content
down the cable to this exact frequency. This architecture requires no hardware change to the
STB design.
 Communications protocol between the CSS IC and the STB is handled via the CENELEC
EN50494 standard or proprietary systems.
Equipment:

Special LNBs have been developed for use in single cable distribution systems. All four sub-
bands of the Ku band (low frequency/horizontal polarity, high frequency/horizontal polarity,
low frequency/vertical polarity, high frequency/vertical polarity) are received by a conventional
front end, amplified and downconverted to the L-band, to be fed to a number of SatCR (Satellite
Channel Router) – one for each user that can be connected - to further downconvert the required
section of the received spectrum to centre on the user band IF frequency.

The LNB further includes a mixer to combine the user bands together and a microcontroller to
receive the instructions as to which frequency is required by each user and control the SatCR
chips. [5]

Alternatively, a single cable distribution system can use a conventional LNB feeding the four
sub-bands to a separate SatCR receivers, as a substitute for a traditional multiswitch, that needs
a dedicated coaxial cable for every receiver (or tuner) connected.

Unicable LNBs and SatCRs also include either a legacy mode of operation or a legacy output
which provides conventional LNB IF for use with an installation of non-Unicable receivers. A
receiver required to operate in a single cable distribution installation can be essentially
conventional.

It should be able to tune to the user channel (within the normal IF tuning range) and modulate
the LNB power voltage with the 22 kHz signal required for issuing DiSEqC commands. It will
then require only software modification to operate as a single cable distribution receiver.

For correct operation, two-way splitters are required to feed the combined signal to each
receiver. These allow bi-directional passage of both RF and DC signals, to provide for the
passing of DiSEqC commands between the LNB and receiver(s).

As of March 2010, SES' Single Cable Distribution factsheet lists 88 receivers as supporting
single cable distribution technology[6] although this list is not exhaustive. Several receivers for
the HD+ German high definition platform broadcast from Astra 19.2°E are compatible with the
SatCR system.
BIDIRECTIONAL NETWORKS:
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 The video sources to the head end typically include satellite signals, off air receivers,
microwave connections and other video feed signals.
 The video sources are scrambled to prevent unauthorized viewing before being sent to the cable
distribution system.
 The head end receives, decodes and decrypts these channels.
 This example shows that the programs that will be broadcasted are supplied to encoders and
modulators to produce television channels on multiple frequencies.
 These channels are combined onto a single transmission line by a channel combiner.
 This figure shows a basic cable modem system that consists of a head end (television receivers
and cable modem system), distribution lines with amplifiers, and cable modems that connect to
customers' computers. This diagram shows that the cable television operator's head end system
contains both analog and digital television channel transmitters that are connected to customers
through the distribution lines.
 The distribution lines (fiber and/or coaxial cable) carry over 100 television RF channels. Some
of the upper television RF channels are used for digital broadcast channels that transmit data to
customers and the lower frequency channels are used to transmit digital information from the
customer to the cable operator.
 Each of the upper digital channels can transfer 30 to 40 Mbps and each of the lower digital
channels can transfer data at approximately 2 Mbps. The cable operator has replaced its one-
way distribution amplifiers with precision (linear) high frequency bi-directional (two-way)
amplifiers. Each high-speed Internet customer has a cable modem that can communicate with
the cable modem termination system (CMTS) modem at the head end of the system where the
CMTS system is connected to the Internet.
SCRAMBLED OF T.V SIGNALS:
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 As you can see the video portion of the signal is between regular pulses. The high amplitude
regular shaped pulses are made up of several componets.
 The horizontal blanking pulse is the widest part and is used to turn off the CRT during the
vertical retrace. This prevents the vertical retrace lines from showing up on the screen.
 On top of the blanking pulse is the horizontal-sync pulse. Its purpose is to synchronize the
sweep circuitry in the TV with the video signal. After the horizontal-sync pulse's trailing edge
and before the blanking pulse's trailing edge is the color burst signal. This area is called the
"back porch".
 The color burst signal is a 3.58 Mhz sine wave that is used to synchronize the color circuitry in
the TV. In a standard picture signal there are 15,750 horizontal and 30 vertical frames per
second. To understand the many methods of scrambling it is important to remember that the
horizontal and vertical pulses and the color burst signal are used for timing and are needed to
reconstruct a TV picture.
 If any of those signals are absent, distorted or changed in any way the TV picture will not be
synchronized. The picture will be unwatchable. The picture will tear, roll, and the colors may be
incorrect and will appear like the picture at the beginning of this page.
 The audio in the NTSC format is frequency modulated on a 4.5 Mhz signal that is added to the
composite video signal. The audio portion of a TV works like a standard FM radio and therefore
the signal is similar.
Scrambling Techniques
 There are a few key components that can be altered to cause a picture to be unwatchable. These
key components are the sync pulses, color burst signal and the video signal also the audio
signal can be modified to disable the audio portion. Most scrambling today is done using a
form of sync suppression.
Video Inversion
 One of the simplest forms of scrambling is to reverse the polarity of the video information. This
may cause the TV not to sync up and the picture will tear and roll. If the TV does sync up then
the picture will appear as a negative picture. The dark areas will be light and light areas will be
dark.
 The colors will be reversed and cause faces to be blue and the sky to be brown. Inverted video is
very easy to fix; all that needs to be done is to re-invert the video again. A slightly more
sophisticated version of this method is to invert the video at different intervals during the frame.
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The picture would flicker or have a superimposed pattern. Typically this method is not used by
itself because it is very easy to disable, it is usually used with another form of scrambling.
Sine-Wave Scrambling:
 One way to alter the sync pulses is to add a sinewave to the video signal. With this method a
15.75khz sinewave is added. If the sinewave and the video signal is summed properly it is
posible for the sync pulse to reduce and the video signal to be higher.
 As shown in the picture below, the sync pulse ids now below the video signal. This will cause
the sync circuits in the TV not to function properly.
 To unscramble the signal all you need to do is mix a sinewave of the same type to the video
signal and it will cancel out and restore the video to normal. The sinewave is typicaly added to
the audio signal.
Gated-Sync Scrambling:
 This method is very similar to the sinewave scrambling except that a square wave is used to
reduce the signal level of the sync pulses. As you can see from the diagram a negative pulse is
added to the video signal so that the negative pulses will reduce the level of the sync pulses
below the video signal information.
 The result is a scrambled picture because the TV sync circuits cannot lock onto the sync signal.
 To descramble a gated-sync method, a proper square wave needs to be mixed to the scrambled
signal and the sync pulses will be restored to the orignal size.
 The most common way for the cable company to provide the square wave is to add it to the
audio signal and then all you need to do is strip it away.
 In the out band gated sync method the correcting wave can be attached to any frequency that the
cable can handle. With this method the frequency would have to be known and and then the
correcting wave could be extracted. Typical frequecys are 50MHz and any frequency between
90MHz and 114MHz.
SSAVI Scrambling
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 One of the most commonly used scrambling methods is the SSAVI system. SSAVI stands for
Scrambled Sync And Video Inversion. This system has four modes of operation.
1. Suppressed Sync Pulses and Inverted Video

2. Suppressed Sync Pulses and Normal Video
3. Normal Sync Pulses and Inverted Video
4. Normal Sync and Normal Video ( not scrambled )
CABLE SIGNAL CONVERTER:
TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION:
 A cable converter box or television converter box is an electronic tuning device that
transposes/converts any of the available channels from a cable television service to
an analog RF signal on a single channel, usually VHF channel 3 or 4, or to a different output
for digital televisions such as HDMI.
 The device allows a television set that is not “cable ready” to receive cable channels. While
later televisions were "cable ready" with a standard converter built-in, the existence of
premium television (aka pay per view) and the advent of digital cable have continued the need
for various forms of these devices for cable television reception.
 While not an explicit part of signal conversion, many cable converter boxes include forms
of descrambling to manage carrier-controlled access restriction to various channels.
 The basic converter box is passive and does not communicate back to the carrier. It simply
tunes to one of the channels being transmitted together over the wire and re-transmits it to a
television or other video device on a standard broadcast frequency (usually a customer-
selected, locally unused frequency between VHF 2and 4).
 Like other set-top boxes, converter boxes usually provide multiple options for the output
channel (either 2/3 or 3/4) so that the same box can be used, with simple configuration, in
multiple television markets.
 Despite not having a broadcast reception television antenna, a strong local television station
can cause interference with the TV's reception of the cable converter's signal, resulting in
undesired static or ghosting.
 Later cable boxes became addressable, allowing the carrier to independently identify one
cable box from another. In early systems, this permitted the carrier to send instructions to the
boxes by addressing them over the wire.
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 This allowed customers to subscribe to premium television and pay-per-view.

 More recent cable boxes, particularly those for digital cable, engage in two-way
communication with the carrier central office, allowing for more advanced
and interactive features.
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UNIT-3
DIGITAL SATELLITE T.V
Digital satellite system
Digital Satellite Transmission:
The four stages of digital satellite transmission are
(1) Signal encoding

(2) Processing
(3) Modulation and Transmission encoding of video and audio signal is detailed in the previous
section and modulation and 'transmission of processed signals is covered in chapter 26 titled
"Satellite Television Technology". As such, necessary details of signal processing are given here
with the, help of Fig. 30.5 which shows simplified UP-LINK set-up of a transmitting station
Signal Processing~:
The three stages of signal processing are
(i) Data compression

(ii)Encryption
iii) Packetising.
i) Data Compression:
The data rate required to transmit all the digital video and audio
a) information obtained' from the studio would exceed 200Mbps and if attempted will need a
channel bandwidth of around 50 MHz with provisions for very expensive process
equipment.
b) Therefore,data compression technique is used to reduce the average data rate to about 3 to 6
Mbps.,The comperession or reduction In data transfer-rate becomes possible because while
scanning any scene, the motion and background stays the same for many frames at a time and
its repetitive transmission can be avoided by curtailing the available data i.e., compressing it.
c) Such a compression is accomplished by predicting motion that occurs from one frame of the
video to the next and transmitting only this along with similar changes in the background of
scene being televised. The resulting data will of course change a bit depending on the motion
occurring in the scene.
Similarly, audio compression, is also done to reduce audio bit rate by eliminating soft sounds
That are near louds because their absence at the receiving end would not matter much on account of the
limitations of human ear. The resultant i.e., compressed audio data rate can vary from 50 Kbps for
mono signals to near 300kbps for stereo sounds.
ii) Data Encryption: To prevent unauthorized reception of channels for which a special fee is
to
be paid, their video signal are encrypted before up linking by inserting, special data , into the pulse train
to disturb its sequence and content with the aim to prevent normal reproduction of pictures on the
receiver screen.
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The keys for de-encryption are also transmitted with the channel data to enable authorized (paying)
customers to restore normal sequence of video signals. This is done by inserting in the decoder (satellite
receiver) a card called 'SMART CARD' which is supplied to the subscriber.
iii) Datapackets:_
Besides video and audio Signals, conditional information is also, transmitted

to the customer which includes conditional access data, PC compatible data and program guide.
Each set of information is combined in the form of a packet as shown in the figure which also contains
signals to register identity of each packet thus enabling their easy separation at the receiving end.
DIGITAL SATELLITE RECEPTION AND DECODING:
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DTH TV:
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DIGITAL T.V RECEIVER:
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MERITS OF DIGITAL T.V RECEIVER:
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Unit – 4
Working of DTH
To know the working of DTH better, take a look at the diagram below.
 For a DTH network to be transmitted and received, the following components are needed.
1. Broadcasting Centre
2. Satellites
3. Encoders
4. Multiplexers
5. Modulators
6. DTH receivers
 It must be noted the channels that are broadcasted from the broadcasting centre hare not created
by the DTH providers.
 The DTH providers pay other companies like HBO, Sony MAX and so on for the right to
broadcast their channel to the DTH consumers through satellite. Thus the DTH provider acts as
a mediator or broker between the consumers and the programme channels.
 The broadcast centre is the main part of the whole system. It is from the broadcast station that
the signals are sent to the satellites to be broadcasted. The broadcast station receives the signals
from various program channels.
 The satellite receives the signal from the broadcast centre and compresses the signals and makes
them suitable for re-transmission to the ground.
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 The DTH providers give dish receivers for the viewers to receive the signal from the satellites.
There may be one or multiple satellites that send the signals at the same time. The receiver
receives the signal from them and is passed on to the Set Top Box [STB] receiver in the
viewer’s house.
 The STB receiver changes the signal in a form suitable for our television and then passes it on
to our TV.
THE BROADCAST CENTER
 The broadcast center converts all of this programming into a high-quality, uncompressed
digital stream. At this point, the stream contains a vast quantity of data — about 270
megabits per second (Mbps) for each channel. In order to transmit the signal from there, the
broadcast center has to compress it. Otherwise, it would be too big for the satellite to
handle.
 The providers use the MPEG-2 compressed video format — the same format used to store
movies on
 DVDs. With MPEG-2 compression, the provider can reduce the 270-Mbps stream to about 3
or 10
 Mbps (depending on the type of programming). This is the crucial step that has made DTH
service a success. With digital compression, a typical satellite can transmit about 200
channels. Without digital compression, it can transmit about 30 channels.
 At the broadcast center, the high-quality digital stream of video goes through an MPEG-2
encoder, which converts the programming to MPEG-2 video of the correct size and format
for the satellite receiver in your house.
ENCRYPTION & TRANSMISION
 After the video is compressed, the provider needs to encrypt it in order to keep
people from accessing it for free. Encryption scrambles the digital data in such a
way that it can only be
 decrypted (converted back into usable data) if the receiver has the correct decoding satellite
receiver with decryption algorithm and security keys.
 Once the signal is compressed and encrypted, the broadcast center beams it directly to one of
its satellites. The satellite picks up the signal, amplifies it and beams it back to Earth, where
viewers can pick it up.
THE DISH
 A satellite dish is just a special kind of antenna designed to focus on a specific broadcast
source. The standard dish consists of a parabolic (bowl-shaped) surface and a central feed
horn. To transmit a signal, a controller sends it through the horn, and the dish focuses the
signal into a relatively narrow beam.
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 The dish on the receiving end can’t transmit information; it can only receive it. The
receiving dish works in the exact opposite way of the transmitter. When a beam hits the
curved dish, the parabola shape reflects the radio signal inward onto a particular point, just
like a concave mirror focuses light onto a particular point.
 The curved dish focuses incoming radio waves onto the feed horn.
 In this case, the point is the dish’s feed horn, which passes the signal onto the receiving
equipment. In an ideal setup, there aren’t any major obstacles between
 the satellite and the dish, so the dish receives a clear signal.
 In some systems, the dish needs to pick up signals from two or more satellites at the same
time. The satellites may be close enough together that a regular dish with a single horn can
pick up signals
 from both. This compromises quality somewhat, because the dish isn’t aimed directly at one
or more of the satellites. A new dish design uses two or more horns to pick up different
satellite signals. As the beams from different satellites hit the curved dish, they reflect at
different angles so that one beam hits one of the horns and another beam hits a different
horn.
 The central element in the feed horn is the low noise blockdown converter, or LNB. The LNB
amplifies the signal bouncing off the dish and filters out the noise (signals not carrying
programming). The LNB passes the amplified, filtered signal to the satellite receiver inside
the viewer’s house.
THE RECEIVER
 The end component in the entire satellite TV system is the receiver. The receiver has four
essential jobs:
 It de-scrambles the encrypted signal. In order to unlock the signal, the receiver needs the
proper decoder chip for that programming package. The provider can communicate with
the chip, via the satellite signal, to make necessary adjustments to its decoding programs.
The provider may occasionally send signals that disrupt illegal de-scramblers, as an
electronic counter measure (ECM) against illegal users.
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 It takes the digital MPEG-2 signal and converts it into an analog format that a standard
television can recognize. Since the receiver spits out only one channel at a time, you can’t
tape one program and watch another. You also can’t watch two different programs on two
TVs hooked up to the same receiver. In order to do these things, which are standard on
conventional cable, you need to buy an additional receiver.
 Some receivers have a number of other features as well. They pick up a programming
schedule signal from the provider and present this information in an onscreen
programming guide. Many receivers have parental lock-out options, and some have
built-in Digital Video Recorders(DVRs), which let you pause live television or record it
on a hard drive.
 While digital broadcast satellite service is still lacking some of the basic features of
conventional cable (the ability to easily split signals between different TVs and VCRs, for
example), its high-quality picture, varied programming selection and extended service areas
make it a good alternative for some. With the rise of digital cable, which also has improved
picture quality and extended channel selection, the TV war is really heating up. Just about
anything could happen in the next 10 years as
 all of these television providers battle it out.
WHAT IS AN LNB?
 Low Noise Block-downconvertor (so called

because it converts a whole band or “block” of
frequencies to a lower band).
 An LNB sits on the end of an arm and faces the

parabolic reflector (“dish”) which focusses the
signals from a satellite into the “feed horn” of the
LNB (see pictures below). The LNB converts the
signals to a lower frequency and sends them out
to the cable connector, which you connect to your
satellite receiver via coaxial cable.
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Advantages of DTH Technology
 The main advantage is that this technology is equally beneficial to everyone. As the process is
wireless, this system can be used in all remote or urban areas.
 High quality audio and video which are cost effective due to absence of mediators.
 Almost 4000 channels can be viewed along with 2000 radio channels. Thus the worldâ€™s
entire information including news and entertainment is available to you at home.
 As there are no mediators, a complaint can be directly expressed to the provider.
 With a single DTH service you will be able to use digital quality audio, video and also high
speed broadband.
HOW DOES DTH REALLY DIFFER FROM CABLE TV

 The way DTH reaches a consumer's home is different from the way cable TV does.
 In DTH, TV channels would be transmitted from the satellite to a small dish antenna mounted
on the window or rooftop of the subscriber's home.
 So the broadcaster directly connects to the user. The middlemen like local cable operators are
not there in the picture.
 DTH can also reach the remotest of areas since it does away with the intermediate step of a
cable operator and the wires (cables) that come from the cable operator to your house. As we
explained above, in DTH signals directly come from the satellite to your DTH dish.
 There are four serious contenders for DTH services in India: Doordarshan, Star, Zee, and Data
Access.
 DTH offers better quality picture than cable TV. This is because cable TV in India is analog.
Despite digital transmission and reception, the cable transmission is still analog. DTH offers
stereophonic sound effects. It can also reach remote areas where terrestrial transmission and
cable TV have failed to penetrate. Apart from enhanced picture quality, DTH has also allows for
interactive TV services such as movie-on-demand, Internet access, video conferencing and e-
mail. But the thing that DTH has going for it is that the powerful broadcasting companies like
Star, Zee, etc are pushing for it.
 In DTH, the payments will be made directly by the subscriber to the satellite company offering
the service.
 A big problem that broadcasters face in India is the issue of under-reporting of subscribers by
cable operators.
 DTH where broadcasters directly connect to consumers and can actually grow revenues with a
growth in the subscriber base also reaping the benefits of more attractive tariffs.
 DTH be cheaper than cable or more expensive and it will be definitely more expensive than
cable as it exists today.
DTH ANTENNA
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 A satellite dish is a type of antenna that receives or transmits electromagnetic signals to and from another location
typically a satellite.
 A satellite dish is a type of microwave antenna.
 Satellite dishes come in varying sizes and designs, and are commonly used to receive satellite television.
Satellite Dish
The curved dish reflects energy from the feed horn, generating a narrow beam.
 When the signal reaches the viewer's house, it is captured by the satellite dish. A satellite dish is just
a special kind of antenna designed to focus on a specific broadcast source.
 The standard dish consists of a parabolic (bowl-shaped) surface and a central feed horn. To
transmit a signal, a controller sends it through the horn, and the dish focuses the signal into a
relatively narrow beam.
 The dish on the receiving end can't transmit information; it can only receive it. The receiving dish
works in the exact opposite way of the transmitter.
 When a beam hits the curved dish, the parabola shape reflects the radio signal inward onto a
particular point, just like a concave mirror focuses light onto a particular point.
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The curved dish focuses incoming radio waves onto the feed horn.
 In this case, the point is the dish's feed horn, which passes the signal on to the receiving equipment.
In an ideal setup, there aren't any major obstacles between the satellite and the dish, so the dish
receives a clear signal.
 In some systems, the dish needs to pick up signals from two or more satellites at the same time. The
satellites may be close enough together that a regular dish with a single horn can pick up signals
from both. This compromises quality somewhat, because the dish isn't aimed directly at one or more
of the satellites.
 A new dish design uses two or more horns to pick up different satellite signals. As the beams from
different satellites hit the curved dish, they reflect at different angles so that one beam hits one of the
horns and another beam hits a different horn.
 The central element in the feed horn is the low noise blockdown converter, or LNB.
 The LNB amplifies the radio signal bouncing off the dish and filters out the noise (radio signals not
carrying programming).
 The LNB passes the amplified, filtered signal to the satellite receiver inside the viewer's house.
Low noise block ( LNB )
 The abbreviation LNB stands for Low Noise Block.

 It is the device on the front of a satellite dish that receives the very low level microwave signal from the
satellite, amplifies it, changes the signals to a lower frequency band and sends them down the cable to
the indoor receiver.
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 The expression low noise refers the quality of the first stage input amplifier transistor.
 The expression Block refers to the conversion of a block of microwave frequencies as received from the
satellite being down-converted to a lower (block) range of frequencies in the cable to the receiver.
Satellites broadcast mainly in the range 4 to 12 to 21 GHz.
Low noise block downconverter (LNB) diagram
 The diagram shows the input waveguide on the left which is connected to the collecting feed or horn. As
shown there is a vertical pin through the broad side of the waveguide that extracts the vertical
polarisation signals as an electrical current.
 The satellite signals first go through a band pass filter which only allows the intended band of
microwave frequencies to pass through.
 The signals are then amplified by a Low Noise Amplifier and thence to the Mixer.
 At the mixer-stage, the signals let through by the input bandpass-filter are mixed with the signal
generated by the local-oscillator and this process creates a multitude of sum and difference signals.
 Amongst the mixer output products are the difference frequencies between the wanted input signal and
the local oscillator frequency. These are the ones of interest.
 The second band pass filter selects these and feeds them to the output L band amplifier and into the
cable. Typically the output frequency = input frequency - local oscillator frequency.
 In some cases it is the other way round so that the output frequency = local oscillator frequency - input
frequency. In this case the output spectrum is inverted.
DTH RECIEVERS
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A satellite dish is a dish-shaped type of parabolic antenna designed to receive

microwaves from communications satellites, which transmit data transmissions or broad casts, such
as satellite television.
Principle of operation
Schematics of reflection principles used in parabolic antennas.

 The parabolic shape of a dish reflects the signal to the dish’s focal point. Mounted on brackets
at the dish's focal point is a device called a feed horn.
 This feed horn is essentially the front-end of a waveguide that gathers the signals at or near the
focal point and 'conducts' them to a low-noise block down converter or LNB.
 The LNB converts the signals from electromagnetic or radio waves to electrical signals and
shifts the signals from the down linked C-band and/or K u-band to the L-band range. Direct
broadcast satellite dishes use an LNBF, which integrates the feed horn with the LNB.
 (A new form of Omni directional satellite antenna, which does not use a directed parabolic dish
and can be used on a mobile platform such as a vehicle was announced by the University of
Waterloo in 2004.
 Modern dishes intended for home television use are generally 43 cm (18 in) to 80 cm (31 in)
in diameter, and are fixed in one position, for Ku-band reception from one orbital position.
Prior to the existence of direct broadcast satellite services, home users would generally have a
motorized C-band dish of up to 3 metres in diameter for reception of channels from different
satellites.
 Overly small dishes can still cause problems, however, including rain fade and interference
from adjacent satellites.
Systems design
In a single receiver residential installation there is a single coaxial cable running from the
receiver set-top box in the building to the LNB on the dish. The DC electric power for the LNB is
provided through the same coaxial cable conductors that carry the signal to the receiver. In addition,
control signals are also transmitted from the receiver to the LNB through the cable.
The receiver uses different power supply voltages (13/18V) to select antenna polarization,
and pilot tones (22 kHz) to instruct the LNB to select one of the two frequency bands. In larger
installations each band and polarization is given its own cable, so there are 4 cables from the LNB to a
switching matrix, which allows the connection of multiple receivers in a star topology using the same
signaling method as in a single receiver installation.
Types--Motor-driven dish
A dish that is mounted on a pole and driven by a stepper motor or a servo can be controlled and
rotated to face any satellite position in the sky. Motor-driven dishes are popular with enthusiasts. There
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are three competing standards: DiSEqC,USALS, and 36v positioners. Many receivers support all of
these standards.
Multi-satellite
Special dish for up to 16 satellite positions (Ku-band).

Some designs enable simultaneous reception from multiple different satellite positions without
re-positioning the dish. The vertical axis operates as an off-axis concave parabolic concave
hyperbolic CASs grain reflector, while the horizontal axis operates as a concave convex Casse grain.
The spot from the main dish wanders across the secondary, which corrects astigmatism by its varying
curvature. The elliptic aperture of the primary is designed to fit the deformed illumination by the horns.
Due to double spill-over, this makes more sense for a large dish.
Vsat
A common type of dish is the very small aperture terminal (VSAT). This provides two way
satellite internet communications for both consumers and private networks for organizations. Today
most VSATs operate in Ku band; C band is restricted to less populated regions of the world. There is a
move which started in 2005 towards new Ka band satellites operating at higher frequencies, offering
greater performance at lower cost.
ADDITIONAL ACCESSORIES
Direct To home Accessories
1. LNB ( Low Noise Block Filter ) Ku-Band

2. Digital Satellite Receiver / Set Top Box / STB
3. 30cm/45cm/65cm/75cm/90cm/100cm Ku-Band Dish
4. Coxial Cable (Approx. 10-20 meter)
5. Connectors
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COMPLETE DTH PROCESS
CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE TV RECEIVER TO A SINGLE DISH
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Single Cable Distribution is a satellite TV technology that enables the delivery of

broadcast programming to multiple users over a single coaxial cable, and eliminates the numerous
cables required to support consumer electronics devices such as twin-tuner Digital Video
Recorders (DVRs) and high end receivers.
Without single cable distribution, providing full spectrum access for multiple receivers, or receivers
with multiple tuners, in a single family home has required a separate coaxial cable feeding each tuner
from the antenna equipment (either multiple LNBs, a multi-output LNB or a multi switch distribution
system) because of the large bandwidth requirement of the signals.
Single cable distribution technology enables one coaxial cable from the antenna equipment to
multiple tuners, to provide independent tuning across the whole range of satellite reception for each
tuner.
A European industry standard for distributing satellite signals over a single coaxial cable -
CENELEC EN50494 - has been defined in 2007and developed by a consortium led by SES.
Single cable distribution technology can be found in commercial equipment with the Unicable
trademark from FTA Communications Technologies. Uni cable uses an integrated software and
hardware solution that allows Uni cable-certified Digital Video Recorders and receivers to multiplex
selected programming when using Uni cable LNB or multi switching products.
The Unicable Interoperability Platform is open to companies designing and/or marketing
satellite and other broadcast-related products. The platform is designed to facilitate the acceptance of
Unicable-certified solutions in the consumer TV broadcast market.
How it works
Each satellite receiver in the installation has a dedicated user band of
a bandwidth approximately the same as a transponder. The receiver requests a particular transponder
frequency via a DiSEqC-compliant command. A mixer in the dish-end equipment (an LNB or
distribution unit) converts the received signal to the correct user band IF centre frequency for that
receiver.
The converted transponders of the various users are then combined, and sent via the single
coaxial cable to the receivers. The combined signal is tapped or split to reach every user.
Silicon vendors have developed complex Integrated Circuits that greatly reduce the cost of
implementing the single cable distribution function. A Channel Stacking Switch IC is a multiple-input
multiple-output device. It typically has N 1.2 GHz inputs that can be cascaded to additional chips as
required (to expand output capacity).
Equipment
Special LNBs have been developed for use in single cable distribution systems. All four sub-
bands of the Ku band (low frequency/horizontal polarity, high frequency/horizontal polarity, low
frequency/vertical polarity, high frequency/vertical polarity) are received by a conventional front end,
amplified and down converted to the L-band, to be fed to a number of Single Cable Router (SCR) chips
– one for each user that can be connected - to further down convert the required section of the received
spectrum to centre on the user band IF frequency.
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The LNB further includes a mixer to combine the user bands together and a microcontroller to
receive the instructions as to which frequency is required by each user and control the SCR chips.
Alternatively, a single cable distribution system can use a conventional LNB feeding the four
sub-bands to a separate SCR device, as a substitute for a traditional multi switch, that needs a dedicated
coaxial cable for every receiver (or tuner) connected.
Fiber Optic Alternative
An alternative approach to that provided by single cable distribution of the signal from a single
LNB to multiple receivers, or receivers with multiple tuners, is offered by the use of fiber satellite
distribution using optical fiber. The high bandwidth of optical connections allows for the full satellite
spectrum received at the dish to be accommodated on one fiber optic cable, which can be easily
optically split to provide that full spectrum signal to a large number of receivers.
UK company, Global Invacom (which also developed and markets SCR single cable distribution
equipment) has developed a low cost system of fiber optic distribution suitable for domestic
installations and small or medium commercial communal dish systems.
CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE DISH
Fibre satellite distribution is a technology that enables satellite TV signals from an antenna to
be distributed using an optical fibre cable infrastructure and then converted to electrical signals for use
with conventional set-top box receivers.
Particularly applicable to satellite TV distribution systems in a multi-dwelling unit, such as a
block of flats (but useful in smaller domestic distribution systems too), such a hybrid fibre/electrical
system reduces the cabling required, reduces signal noise and interference, and provides for an easy
upgrade to increase the number of tuners connected at each dwelling.
Conventional systems that distribute the electrical satellite IF signal via a star network
of coaxial cable require one relatively short cable run from the central distribution equipment to each
tuner connected to the system, whereas in a fiber system, cables can be very long, and split at
successive locations, in a tree structure without detriment to the reception.
Advantages
The primary benefit of using optical fiber for a satellite TV IF distribution system is that the
fiber can carry the entire received spectrum on one cable, which can then be split to provide for
multiple tuners, without requiring a separate feed from the antenna to each tuner. Additional outlets can
be added to increase the number of receivers within one home without accessing the central antenna or
main infrastructure.
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Fiber cable is cheap in long runs, retailing at about twice the price of equivalent copper coaxial
cable, but replacing four runs of coaxial cable with a single fiber cable. It is also much smaller than the
coaxial signal cable used for electrical IF distribution, but robust and flexible. The losses in a fiber
system are almost negligible so very long cable runs of hundreds of meters are possible without any
signal reinforcement.
Because the signal is carried as a beam of light, it is impervious to the electrical interference
that even the best coaxial satellite cable may suffer, and cables can be safely and conveniently run
alongside mains power cables. Power consumption is also lower than an equivalent electrical system.
Development
An eight-way optical signal splitter to feed eight virtual LNBs or further splitters from a single
optical feed.While optical fiber has been used for telephone and Internet backbone data, and even for
television and multimedia carriage for terrestrial cable, for many years, use for satellite IF distribution
has been held back by considerations of cost and installation convenience.
How it works
A virtual LNB with four electrical outputs for four tuners, The complete spectrum of Ku-band
satellite reception stretches from 10.70 GHz-12.75 GHz across two signal polarizations, or
a bandwidth of about 4000 MHz This cannot be carried on a single coaxial cable and so in a
conventional satellite reception system, just one of four sub-bands (received in vertical and horizontal
polarization, and high and low frequency,) is sent from the antenna to the indoor receiver as 0.95 GHz-
2.15 GHz IF.
Which sub-band is required is signaled from the receiver to the antenna’s LNB by a 13/18V and
0/22 kHz tone on the LNB supply sent up the same coaxial cable. In a single antenna distribution
system, special Quattro LNB supplies all four sub-bands at once, from four outputs and these are
supplied as required to each of the multiple outlets connected to an IF multiswitch
An optical fiber system “stacks” the four sub-bands in frequency, one above the other, at the
LNB, in the range 0.95 GHz-5.45 GHz (a bandwidth of 4500 MHz) and transmits them together as a
modulated optical signal down the fiber cable using a 1310 nm semiconductor laser.
The losses in the cable are extremely small (in the region of 0.3dB/km) and the Global Invacom
optical LNB output can be split up to 32 ways with a cable length of up to 10 km between the LNB and
the receiver.
CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE DISH/LNB TO SINGLE RECEIVER

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A low-noise block down converter (or LNB) is the receiving device mounted on satellite used
for satellite TV reception, which collects the radio waves from the dish. Also called a low-noise
block. LNC (for low-noise converter), or even LND (for low-noise down converter), the device is
sometimes wrongly called an LNA (low-noise amplifier).
The LNB is a combination of low-noise amplifier, frequency mixer, local oscillator and
IF amplifier. It receives the microwave signal from the satellite collected by the dish, amplifies it,
and down converts the block of frequencies to a lower block of intermediate frequencies (IF). This
down conversion allows the signal to be carried to the indoor satellite TV receiver using relatively
cheap coaxial cable; if the signal remained at its original microwave frequency it would require an
expensive and impractical waveguide line.
The LNB is usually a small box suspended on one or more short booms, or feed arms, in front
of the dish reflector, at its focus (although some dish designs have the LNB on or behind the reflector).
The microwave signal from the dish is picked up by a feed horn on the LNB and is fed to a section of
waveguide. One or more metal pins, or probes, protrude into the waveguide at right angles to the axis
and act as antennas, feeding the signal to a PCB inside the LNB's shielded box for processing. The
lower frequency IF output signal emerges from a socket on the box to which the coaxial cable connects.
LNBF disassembled (All Parts). The waveguide carrying the microwave radio signal collected
by the dish passes through the hole in the center. The pins visible at the top and left side of the hole
project into the waveguide and receive the signal, converting it to radio frequency switch are processed
by the circuit board.
a low-noise block down converter. fig(a). the pin and the horn antenna in a converter. fig(b)
The LNB gets its power from the receiver or set-top box inside the house. This phantom is sent
"up" the same coaxial cable that carries the received signals "down" to the receiver, eliminating the
need for a separate power cable.
A corresponding component, called a block up converter (BUC), is used at the satellite earth
station (uplink) dish to convert the band of television channels to the microwave uplink frequency.
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Amplification and noise

The signal received by the LNB is extremely weak and it has to be amplified before down
conversion. The low noise amplifier section of the LNB amplifies this weak signal while adding the
minimum possible amount of noise to the signal.
The low-noise quality of an LNB is expressed as the noise figure (or sometimes noise). This is
the ratio of the amount of noise in the output to the amount in the input, in decibels (dB). Every LNB
off the production line has a different noise figure because of manufacturing
tolerances.
The noise figure quoted in the specifications - important for determining the LNB's suitability -
is usually representative of neither that particular LNB nor the performance across the whole frequency
range, since the noise figure most often quoted is the typical figure averaged over the production batch.
Ku-band linear-polarized LNBF

Block down conversion
Satellites use comparatively high radio frequencies (microwaves) to transmit their TV signals.
As microwave satellite signals do not easily pass through walls, roofs, or even glass windows, it is
preferable for satellite antennas to be mounted outdoors. Plastic glazing however is transparent to
microwaves and residential satellite dishes have successfully been hidden indoors looking
through acrylic attic windows to preserve the aesthetics of the home.
The purpose of the LNB is to use the super heterodyne principle to take a block (or band) of
relatively high frequencies and convert them to similar signals carried at a much lower frequency
(called the intermediate frequency or IF). These lower frequencies travel through cables with much
less attenuation, so there is much more signal left at the satellite receiver end of the cable. It is also
much easier and cheaper to design electronic circuits to operate at these lower frequencies, rather than
the very high frequencies of satellite transmission.
LNBFs
With the launch of the first DTH broadcast satellite in Europe (Astra 1A) by SES in 1988,
antenna design was simplified for the anticipated mass-market. In particular, the feedhorn (which
gathers the signal and directs it to the LNB) and the polarizer(which selects between differently
polarized signals) were combined with the LNB itself into a single unit, called an LNB-feed or LNB-
feedhorn (LNBF), or even an "Astra type" LNB. The prevalence of these combined units has meant that
today the term LNB is commonly used to refer to all antenna units that provide the block-down
conversion function, with or without a feedhorn.
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Polarization
It's common to polarize satellite TV signals because it provides a way of transmitting more TV
channels using a given block of frequencies. This approach requires the use of receiving equipment that
can filter incoming signals based on their polarization. Two satellite TV signals can then be transmitted
on the same frequency (or, more usually, closely adjacent frequencies) and provided that they are
polarized differently, the receiving equipment can still separate them and display whichever one is
currently required.
Throughout the World, most satellite TV transmissions use vertical and horizontal linear
polarization but in North America,DBS transmissions use left and right hand circular polarization.
Within the waveguide of a North American DBS LNB a slab of dielectric material is used to convert
left and right circular polarized signals to vertical and horizontal linear polarized signals so the
converted signals can be treated the same.
A 1980s banding (2.18 dB noise figure) without built-in polarization selection and with a WR75
fitting for separate feed horn and polarizer
The probe inside the LNB waveguide collects signals that are polarized in the same plane as the
probe. To maximize the strength of the wanted signals (and to minimize reception of unwanted signals
of the opposite polarization), the probe is aligned with the polarization of the incoming signals.
This is most simply achieved by adjusting the LNB's skew - its rotation about the waveguide
axis. To remotely select between the two polarizations, and to compensate for inaccuracies of the skew
angle, it used to be common to fit a polarizer in front of the LNB's waveguide mouth. This either
rotated the incoming signal with an electromagnet around the waveguide (a magnetic polarizer) or
rotated an intermediate probe within the waveguide using a servo motor (a mechanical polarizer) but
such adjustable skew polarizer’s are rarely used today.
CHANGING SATELLITE CHANNELS
Satellite television is television programming delivered by the means of communications

satellite and received by an outdoor antenna, usually a parabolic reflector generally referred to as
a satellite dish, and as far as household usage is concerned, a satellite receiver either in the form of an
external set-top box or a satellite tuner module built into a television set. Satellite television tuners are
also available as a card or a USB peripheral to be attached to a personal computer. In many areas of the
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world satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, often to areas that are not
serviced by terrestrial or cable providers.
Direct-broadcast satellite television comes to the general public in two distinct flavors – analog
and digital. This necessitates either having an analog satellite receiver or a digital satellite receiver.
Analog satellite television is being replaced by digital satellite television and the latter is becoming
available in a better quality known as high-definition television.
Standards
Analog television distributed via satellite is usually sent scrambled or unscrambled
in NTSC, PAL, or SECAM television broadcast standards. The analog signal is frequency
modulated and is converted from an FM signal to what is referred to as baseband. This baseband
comprises the video signal and the audio subcarrier(s). The audio subcarrier is further demodulated to
provide a raw audio signal.
If the signal is a digitized television signal or multiplex of signals, it is typically QPSK.
In general, digital television, including that transmitted via satellites, is generally based on open
standards such as Megan DVB-S or ISDB-S.
Direct broadcast via satellite

Direct broadcast satellite, (DBS) also known as "Direct-To-Home" can either refer to the
communications satellites themselves that deliver DBS service or the actual television service. DBS
systems are commonly referred to as "mini-dish" systems. DBS uses the upper portion of the K u band,
as well as portions of the Ka band.
Modified DBS systems can also run on C-band satellites and have been used by some networks in the
past to get around legislation by some countries against reception of Ku-band transmissions.
Most of the DBS systems use the DVB-S standard for transmission. With pay
television services, the data stream is encrypted and requires proprietary reception equipment. While
the underlying reception technology is similar, the pay television technology is proprietary, often
consisting of a Conditional Access Module and smart card.
This measure assures satellite television providers that only authorized, paying subscribers have
access to pay television content but at the same time can allow free-to-air (FTA) channels to be viewed
even by the people with standard equipment (DBS receivers without the Conditional Access Modules)
available in the market.
Television receive-only
The term Television receive-only, or TVRO, arose during the early days of satellite television
reception to differentiate it from commercial satellite television uplink and downlink operations
(transmit and receive). This was before there was a DTH satellite television broadcast industry. Satellite
television channels at that time were intended to be used by cable television networks rather than
received by home viewers. Satellite television receiver systems were largely constructed by hobbyists
and engineers.
In 1978 Microcosm, a small company founded by radio amateur and microwave engineer H.
Paul Shush, introduced the first commercial home satellite television receiver. These early TVRO
systems operated mainly on the C band frequencies and the dishes required were large; typically over 3
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meters (10 ft) in diameter. Consequently TVRO is often referred to as "big dish" or "Big Ugly Dish"
(BUD) satellite television.
TVRO systems are designed to receive analog and digital satellite feeds of both television or
audio from both C-band and Ku-band transponders on FSS-type satellites. The higher frequency Ku-
band systems tend to be Direct To Home systems and can use a smaller dish antenna because of the
higher power transmissions and greater antenna gain.
Direct to Home television
Many satellite television customers in developed television markets get their programming
through a direct broadcast satellite (DBS) provider. The provider selects programs and broadcasts them
to subscribers as a set package. Basically, the provider’s goal is to bring dozens or even hundreds of
channels to the customer's television in a form that approximates the competition from cable television.
Unlike earlier programming, the provider’s broadcast is completely digital, which means it has high
picture and stereo sound quality. Early satellite television services were broadcast in C-band radio, in
the 3.7 Giga Hertz (GHz) to 4.2 GHz frequency range. Digital broadcast satellite transmits
programming in the Ku frequency range (10 GHz to 14 GHz).[2][3]
Programming sources are simply the channels that provide television programming for
broadcast. The provider (the DTH platform) does not create original programming itself. The broadcast
center is the central hub of the system. At the broadcast center, the television provider receives signals
from various programming sources, compresses these signals using digital video
compression (encryption if necessary), and sends a broadcast signal to the proper satellite.
NEED OF TELEPHONE JACK:
A telephone plug is a type of connector used to connect a telephone set to the telephone wiring
inside a building, establishing a connection to a telephone network. It is inserted into its counterpart, a
telephone jack, commonly affixed to a wall or baseboard. The standard for telephone plugs varies from
country to country, though the RJ11 modular connector has become by far the most common.
A connection standard, such as RJ11, specifies not only the physical aspects of an electrical
connector, but also the pin out, i.e. the assignment or function of each contact. Modular connectors are
specified for the Registered Jack (RJ) series of connectors, as well as for Ethernet and other connectors,
such as 4P4C (4 position, 4 contacts) modular connectors, the de facto standard on handset cords,
[2]
often improperly referred to as RJ connectors.
Bell system line cord as used in the mid 1960s

Historically the telephone was typically owned by the telephone company and permanently
wired to the telephone line they supplied, but as phone markets were deregulated a need arose for a
simple plug-in interface that consumers could install. Many countries initially used different
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specifications for connectors. For example, after 1965 Bell System companies used the 505A plug, a
round connector about 40 mm in diameter with four prongs about 15 mm apart. National connectors
remain in service but few are used for new installations.
Connections
The installation of a conventional wired telephone set has four connection points, each of which
may be hardwired, but more often use a plug and socket:
 telephone line to phone cord: The wall jack. This connection is the most standardized, and often
regulated as the boundary between an individual's telephone and the telephone network. In many
residences, though, the boundary between utility-owned and household-owned cabling is a network
interface on an outside wall; all wall jacks in the home are part of the household's internal wiring.
 Telephone cord to telephone set base: This connection is generally not regulated, but instead
follows de facto standards. It is often a 6P4C connector, which is often RJ11, but may be
proprietary or hardwired.
 Telephone set base to handset cord: By de facto standard, this is usually a 4P4C connector.
 Handset cord to handset: The handset end of the straight-through handset cord also uses
a 4P4C connector.
Some of these may be absent: Wired telephones may not have a separate base and handset. The
defining characteristic of wireless telephones is that they do not have a handset cord, and the defining
characteristic of mobile telephones is that they do not have a phone cord.
Wiring
Typical U.S. modular phone connector

A standard specifies both a physical connector and how it is wired. Sometimes the same
connector is used by different countries but wired in different ways.
For example, telephone cables in the UK typically have a BS 6312 (UK standard) plug at the wall end
and a 6P4C or 6P2C modular connector at the telephone end: this latter may be wired as per the RJ11
standard (with pins 3 and 4), or it may be wired with pins 2 and 5, as a straight through cable from the
BT plug (which uses pins 2 and 5 for the line, unlike RJ11, which uses pins 3 and 4).
List of plugs---Modular connectors
 4P4C and 4P2C for handset cables (often erroneously referred to as RJ9, RJ10, and RJ22)
 6P2C for RJ11 single telephone line
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 6P4C for RJ14 two telephone lines

 6P6C for RJ25 three telephone lines
Other connectors
50-pin miniature ribbon connector for RJ21X, used for up to 25 lines for multiline phones such
as the ITT 2564, key telephone systems such as the 1A2 Key System, and PBX systems.
International standards National standards
1. RJ11, by far the most common. WT-4
2. BS 6312, British. RJ11
3. F-010, French. Cable holes
4. TAE connector, German.
Traditionally, the 5th plastic pin disconnects 1 μF capacitor that shorts telephone line while plug
is not inserted into socket. In modern makes it does nothing electrical, and capacitor compartment was
reused for additional RJ11 socket
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UNIT -5
SITE SURVEY:
A site survey is an inspection of an area where work is proposed, to gather information for a
design or an estimate to complete the initial tasks required for an outdoor activity.
It can determine a precise location, access, best orientation for the site and the location of
obstacles. The type of site survey and the best practices required depend on the nature of the project.
Examples of projects requiring a preliminary site survey include urban construction, specialized
construction (such as the location for a telescope) and wireless network design.
In hydrocarbon exploration, for example, site surveys are run over the proposed locations of
offshore exploration or appraisal wells.
They consist typically of a tight grid of high resolution (high frequency) reflection
seismology profiles to look for possible gas hazards in the shallow section beneath the seabed and
detailed bathymetric data to look for possible obstacles on the seafloor (e.g. shipwrecks, existing
pipelines) using multiband echo sounders
SATELLITE DISH INSTALLATIONS
Even a small 18 inch dish can except a lot of force on a dish mast. The mast must be secured to
withstand years of wind loading. A dish mast installed on a traditional wood framed structure should be
secured with 6 lag screws. Two in the center secured into a wall stud or roof rafter, and four secured in
the corners of the mount.
When a solid wood beam or post is available, four lag screws on the corners are usually
sufficient. When mounting to brick or concrete, four corner anchors are sufficient. Masts should not be
attached with wood, sheet rock or sheet metal screws.
Only lag screws at least 5/16" in diameter should be used and they should be long enough to set
at least 2 inches into solid wood. At least two lag screws in the middle of the mount should be set into a
wall stud of roof rafter. 1/4" inch diameter lag screws should never be used, they can loosen over a few
years resulting in a loss of picture with wind.
Some form of sealant should be used on all wall / roof mast installations. The only exception
would be if the mounting service was treated wood. An appropriate sealant for the mounting service
should always be selected. Using silicone sealant on a asphalt roof should never be allowed. If you read
the instructions for the proper use of silicone sealant it says something similar to; "Apply to a clean,
grease free surface". Asphalt roofing IS a grease surface. The silicone will stick to the rocks on the
roofing, but will never form a water tight seal to the roofing base. For asphalt roofing, roof patch tar or
a material designed for sealing to asphalt should be used. A good tar alternative is a pitch pad
compound. The rubber/tar like compound acts as gasket between the mount and the roof.
This particular install was only 6 months old and was already loose.
The sealant is placed between the siding and the mount. Excess sealant is removed. This
particular sealant will dry clear. Notice the 6 -5/16" lag screws securing the mount to the wall.
Ground post should always be metal pipe. Wood post not secured at both ends can twist as they
cure and with seasonal changes. The dish in image 8 had to be realigned after 6 months. The wood post
twisted enough to lower the signal level to the mid 40's. The dish in image 9 will never need to be
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aligned due to mast movement. All ground post should be set in concrete. A pin should also be inserted
through the pipe to eliminate the chance of the pipe turning in the concrete. All ground post installs are
not considered part of a basic or standard installation. Additional installation fees will be required.
Never allow your installer to simply pound the pipe into the ground. It must be in concrete or a special
pole designed for a cement-less installation.
DISH ROOF AND WALL MOUNTS
Bracket for a shelf or hanging items.

A bracket is an architectural element: a structural or decorative member. They can be made of
wood, stone, or meta that projects from a wall, usually to carry weight and sometimes to "...strengthen
an angle". A corbel and console are types of brackets.
Uses
Brackets can support many architectural items, including a wall, balcony, parapets, eaves, the
spring of an arch, beams, pergola roof, window box, or a shelf. In adjustable shelving systems, the
bracket may be in two parts, with the load-bearing horizontal support fitting into a wall-mounted slotted
vertical metal strip. Brackets also are an element in the systems used to mount modern facade cladding
systems onto the outside of contemporary buildings, as well as interior panels.
Architectural sculptures
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Brackets are used in traditional timber framing including the support of a jetted floor which can
be carved. Magdalene Street, Cambridge, England. Sixteenth century
Brackets are often in the form of architectural sculptures with reliefs of objects and scrolls.
Depending on their material, decorated ones can be carved, cast, or molded. They can be of cast stone
or resin-foam materials with faux finishes for use on new buildings in historic revival styles of
architecture. Some brackets and corbels are only ornamental, and serve no actual supporting purpose.
ADJUSTING THE AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION SETTINGS
It is an angular measurement in a spherical. The vector from an observer (origin) to a point of

interest is projected perpendicularly onto a reference plane; the angle between the projected vector and
a reference vector on the reference plane is called the azimuth.
An example is the position of a star in the sky. The star is the point of interest, the reference
plane is the horizon or the surface of the sea, and the reference vector points north. The azimuth is the
angle between the north vector and the perpendicular projection of the star down onto the horizon.
Azimuth is usually measured in degrees (°). The concept is used
in navigation, astronomy, engineering, mapping, mining and artillery.
In land navigation, azimuth is usually denoted alpha, , and defined as a horizontal angle
measured clockwise from a north base line or meridian. Azimuth has also been more generally defined
as a horizontal angle measured clockwise from any fixed reference plane or easily established base
direction line.
Today the reference plane for an azimuth is typically true north, measured as a 0° azimuth,
though other angular units (grad, mil) can be used. Moving clockwise on a 360 degree circle, east has
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azimuth 90°, south 180°, and west 270°. There are exceptions: some navigation systems use south as
the reference plane. Any direction can be the plane of reference, as long as it is clearly defined.
Quite commonly, azimuths or compass bearings are stated in a system in which either north or
south can be the zero, or the angle may be measured clockwise or anticlockwise from the zero.
True north-based azimuths
From North
North 0° or 360° South 180°
North-Northeast 22.5° South-Southwest 202.5°
Northeast 45° Southwest 225°
East-Northeast 67.5° West-Southwest 247.5°
East 90° West 270°
East-Southeast 112.5° West-Northwest 292.5°
Southeast 135° Northwest 315°
South-Southeast 157.5° North-Northwest 337.5°
Mapping
A standard Brunton Geo compass, used commonly by geologists and surveyors to measure
azimuth
There are a wide variety of azimuthally map projections. They all have the property that
directions (the azimuths) from a central point are preserved. Some navigation systems use south as
the reference plane. However, any direction can serve as the plane of reference, as long as it is
clearly defined for everyone using that system.
Astronomy
Used in celestial navigation, an azimuth is the direction of a celestial body from the observer.
[7]
In astronomy, an azimuth is sometimes referred to as a bearing. In modern astronomy azimuth is
nearly always measured from the north. (The article on coordinate systems, for example, uses a
convention measuring from the south.) In former times, it was common to refer to azimuth from the
south, as it was then zero at the same time that the hour angle of a star was zero. This assumes,
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however, that the star (upper) culminates in the south, which is only true if the star's declination is less
than (i.e. further south than) the observer's latitude.
Other systems
Right ascension
If instead of measuring from and along the horizon the angles are measured from and along
the celestial equator, the angles are called right ascension if referenced to the Vernal Equinox, or hour
angle if referenced to the celestial meridian.
Horizontal coordinate
In the horizontal coordinate system, used in celestial navigation and satellite dish installation,
azimuth is one of the twocoordinates. The other is altitude, sometimes called elevation above the
horizon. See also: Sat finder.
Polar coordinate
In mathematics the azimuth angle of a point in cylindrical coordinates or spherical
coordinates is the anticlockwise anglebetween the positive x-axis and the projection of the vector onto
the xy-plane. The angle is the same as an angle in polar coordinates of the component of the vector in
the xy-plane and is normally measured in radians rather than degrees. As well as measuring the angle
differently, in mathematical applications theta, , is very often used to represent the azimuth rather than
the symbol phi .
Other uses of the word
For magnetic tape drives, azimuth refers to the angle between the tape head(s) and tape.
In sound localization experiments and literature, the azimuth refers to the angle the sound source
makes compared to the imaginary straight line that is drawn from within the head through the area
between the eyes.
An azimuth thruster in shipbuilding is a propeller that can be rotated horizontally.
DISH ANTENNA CONNECTION PROCEDURES:
Unless you qualify for a 'free' promotional offer from one of the major satellite TV service
providers, a satellite dish installation by a pro may cost you at least a couple of hundred dollars,
especially in the case of a roof-top antenna installation.
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However, installing a dish antenna yourself is not difficult. This guide shows you in
an easy-to-follow approach, how to select your dish, choose the best location, install, and
eventually fine tune your satellite TV antenna for best reception.
Invest some time prior to choosing your satellite dish to avoid unnecessary expense later
on; the type of satellite dish you use and satellite TV decoder you purchase now will eventually
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determine the kind of satellite TV programming you will be able to receive with your satellite
TV system.
Low Noise Block-down Converters Equally important is deciding on the number of
LNBs. LNB's/LNBF are low noise 'block' down-converters. An LNBF is an LNB with an
integrated feedhorn.
Most LNB's in use today are actually LNBF's. The term 'low noise' relates to the quality
of the amplification and mixing that takes place inside the LNB.
LNB's sit in front of the actual parabola of the satellite dish, at the end of the arm
projecting from the dish itself.
Their purpose is to receive, amplify and down convert the required 'blocks' of
microwave frequencies to lower 950MHz to 1.45GHz L-band frequency signals; these are then
sent to the satellite TV receiver or IRD (integrated receiver decoder), via RG-6 coax cable
(more information on RF coaxial cables is available on our site here.)
The number of LNBs determines the number of satellites a satellite dish can 'see' since a
separate LNB is required to receive signals from satellites in different orbital positions. Satellite
TV service providers use multiple satellites to deliver their content, hence the need for multiple
LNBs to receive the full range of satellite TV programming.
LNB's use an antenna probe inside the feedhorn to pick up the signal focused by the
satellite dish. The probe has to be aligned mechanically in a vertical or horizontal direction (or
left and right hand circular polarization for DBS satellites), in line with the polarization of the
signal transmitted by the satellite transponders.
This dual polarization is used by satellites to avoid interference between adjacent channels, and
is achieved by assigning even and odd transponders on the satellite different polarization.
LNBF's employ a dual antenna probe setup inside the throat of the feedhorn with one aligned
vertically and the other horizontally (or left and right). Switching to the correct polarized probe
is carried out electronically via a voltage sent up the coaxial cable by the receiver.
PRECAUTIONS WHILE INSTALLING THE DTH SYSTEM
Safety
DTH Corporation is committed to providing our employees with a safe and healthful
workplace. Our organization understands that safety is one of the keys to a successful business
operation, it demands responsible and competent professionals. At DTH Corporation, each
employee is expected to perform his or her job in a safe manner and in accordance with the
procedures outlined in our safety program.
All feasible and practical efforts are made to protect the lives of our employees. Organizational
policy requires employees and supervisors to report unsafe conditions as well as any accidents
and/or injuries.
Employee-made requests to improve safety are made a priority by our management team, and
management provides the financial resources for any reasonable request for safety. DTH
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Corporation develops a detailed and specific safety plan for each project we perform. These plans
are aimed at meeting or exceeding the requirements of our clients and address topics ranging
from responsibility and lines of authority to lock-out/tag-out procedures.
As part of our commitment to safety, DTH Corporation provides comprehensive, project specific
safety training throughout the lifecycle of each project. Our training sessions are mandatory for
all project personnel, and subcontractor employees are invited to attend.
Quality Control
It is DTH Corporations policy to obtain the highest level of quality and workmanship in
services performed in the projects we manage and construct. Our team takes pride in its
workmanship and strives to cover all aspects within the Quality Control Program. This policy is
implemented through our company’s specific Quality Control Plan, which monitors and measures
performance though the project lifecycle.
DTH Corporations Quality Control Program establishes procedures for the scheduled and
unscheduled inspection and review of all items of work including management, design, and
construction services to ensure that the quality of materials, equipment, workmanship and warranty
service comply with the provisions and specifications of each project. Our Quality Control plans
apply to DTH Corporations employees, subcontractors, and vendors providing on-site or off-site
materials, equipment and/or services.
At DTH Corporation, our employees complete the Corps of Engineers Training Course,
Construction Quality Management for Contractors. Additional quality control processes include:
preparation and implementation of a customized Quality Control Plan; submittal preparation,
review certification and submission; quality control meetings; performance of the three phases of
control; performance of testing; project acceptance procedures; documentation; warranty response;
and customer service program implementation.
TROUBLE SHOOTING
1. Check that All Components are On

Check that your DISH receiver, your TV, and any component(s) (VCR, DVD Player, etc.) in
between are on.
2. Check for Current TV Channel or Input
Check what channel or input your TV is currently on by powering the TV off then back on and
noting the channel or input that appears on screen when the TV is powered on.
3. Check that TV2 is on Correct Channel
Access "Modulator Setup" from TV1 by selecting Menu, System Setup, Installation,
Modulator Setup.
Tune TV2 to the channel that appears under "TV2 Out" on screen (channel may appear on TV2
remote sticker).
If still no picture, verify the mode (air or cable) that TV2 is on. Then change the modulator
setup to match this mode (air or cable).
After changing modulator setup, tune TV2 to the channel that appears under "TV2 Out" on
screen.
4. Check Receiver-to-TV Configuration
Check that the wiring between your DISH receiver and your TV is configured properly using
Receiver to TV2.
5. Secure Receiver-to-TV Connections
Check that the connections between your DISH receiver, your TV, and any componenet (s)
(VCR, DVD player, etc.) in between are secure.
6. Reset Receiver
If the issue is only on ONE receiver, unplug the DISH receiver for 10 seconds and plug back in.
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Please note: It may take up to 5 minutes for the reset process to be completed.
7. Check for Obstruction to Dish
Check for anything obstructing the signal to your satellite dish such as tree branches, severe
rain, or snow build-up. If it is safe to do so, remove the obstruction or wait for it to pass.
8. Reset Receiver
If the issue is only on ONE receiver, unplug the DISH receiver for 10 seconds and plug back in.
Please note: It may take up to 5 minutes for the reset process to be completed.
9. Check Receiver-to-Wall Configuration
If issue is only on ONE receiver, check that the wiring between your DISH receiver and your
wall outlet is configured properly using the Receiver to Wall diagrams.
10. Secure Receiver-to-Wall Connections
If you are experiencing the issue on only ONE receiver, check that the connections between
your DISH receiver, the wall, and any devices in between are hand tight.
LNB TESTING
A communications satellite or com-sat is an artificial satellite sent to space for the purpose
of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits
including geostationary orbits, Molina orbits, elliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar) Earth
orbits.
For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio
relay technology complementary to that of communication cables. They are also used for mobile
applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and
radio broadcasting.
Today's satellite communications can trace their origins all the way back to the Moon. A project
named Communication Moon Relay was a telecommunication project carried out by the United States
Navy. Its objective was to develop a secure and reliable method of wireless communication by using
the Moon as a natural communications satellite.
The first artificial satellite used solely to further advances in global communications was a
balloon named Echo 1. Echo 1 was the world's first artificial communications satellite capable of
relaying signals to other points on Earth. It soared 1,000 miles (1,609 km) above the planet after its
Aug. 12, 1960 launch, yet relied on humanity's oldest flight technology — ballooning. Launched by
NASA, Echo 1 was a giant metallic balloon 100 feet (30 meters) across. The world's first inflatable
satellite — or "sate loon", as they were informally known — helped lay the foundation of today's
satellite communications. The idea behind a communications satellite is simple: Send data up into space
and beam it back down to another spot on the globe. Echo 1 accomplished this by essentially serving as
an enormous mirror 10 stories tall that could be used to bounce communications signals off of.
The first American satellite to relay communications was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a
tape recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the
world from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower.NASA launched the Echo satellite in 1960; the 100-
foot (30 m) aluminized PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio
communications. Courier 1B, built by Phil co, also launched in 1960, was the world's first active
repeater satellite.
It is commonly believed that the first "communications" satellite was Sputnik 1. Put into orbit
by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, it was equipped with an onboard radio-transmitter that worked
on two frequencies: 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of
space and rocket development. While incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of
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sending data from one point on earth to another. Hence, it was not the first "communications" satellite,
but it was the first artificial satellite in the steps leading to today's satellite communications.
Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications satellite. Belonging to AT&T as part of
a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General
Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was
launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first privately sponsored space
launch. Relay 1 was launched on December 13, 1962, and became the first satellite to broadcast across
the Pacific on November 22, 1963.
An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was Hughes' Syncom 2, launched on
July 26, 1963. Sitcom 2 revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still
had north-south motion, special equipment was needed to track it.
Geostationary orbits
Geostationary orbit
To an observer on the earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed
position in the sky. This is because it revolves around the earth at the earth's own angular velocity (360
degrees every 24 hours, in an equatorial orbit).
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the
satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive. In
applications that require a large number of ground antennas, such as Direct TV distribution, the savings
in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit.
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on August 19, 1964, and used for
communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics.
Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was launched on April 6, 1965 and placed in orbit at
28° west longitude. It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic
Ocean.
On November 9, 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Akin A1, was
launched by Telecast Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch of Westar
1 by Western Union on April 13, 1974.
On May 30, 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-axis
stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA
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After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom,
nowSES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975. It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early TV
channels such as WTBS (now TBS Superstation), HBO, CBN (now ABC Family), and The Wet
Channel become successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local
cable TV head ends using the satellite. Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast
television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute programming to their
local affiliate stations. Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice the communications capacity of
the competing Westar 1 in America (24 transponders as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in
lower transponder-usage costs. Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder
numbers.
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 200 kilo metres (120 mi) above the
earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes.
Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1000
kilometers from the sub-satellite point. In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position
relative to the ground position quickly. So even for local applications, a large number of satellites are
needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity.
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites
and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal (Recall that signal strength falls off as
the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is dramatic). Thus there is a tradeoff between
the number of satellites and their cost. In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and
ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions.
A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation. Two such
constellations, intended to provide satellite services, primarily to remote areas, are
the Iridium and Global star systems. The Iridium system has 66 satellites.
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of
storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over
another part. This will be the case with the CASCADE system
of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite. Another system using this store and forward method
is Orbcomm.
DD DIRECT PLUS
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DD Free Dish (formerly DD Direct+, known colloquially as Doordarshan DTH)[1] is

an Indian free-to-air digital direct-broadcast television service owned and operated by the state-
controlled public service broadcaster Prasar Bharati (Doordarshan). It is the only free-to-air satellite
television service in India. Free Dish has about 9 million subscribers and its free-to-air service covers
81% of India’s geographical area via 1415 transmitters.
Free Dish is India's satellite television service.
Free Dish currently offers around 59 television channels and 25 radio stations. Major
international news-channels in the Doordarshan DTH are France 24, NHK World, ABC News, DW-
TV and Russia Today. Channels such as BBC World News, CNN and KBS World were previously
included in the Doordarshan DTH.
Free Dish is available in Ku-Band on INSAT-4B having 5 streams of channels with different
downlink frequencies. This Ku-Band DTH service provides the TV coverage throughout the Indian
territory (except Andaman and Nicobar Islands).
Doordarshan DTH satellite slots are much sought after by the Indian private television channels
as it paves the way for obtaining a pan-India viewership. Prasar Bharati adopted the e-auction system
for filling slots in 2011 with a minimum reserve price around Rs. 3 core.
A separate DTH service in C-Band with a bouquet of 10 channels has also been provided by
Doordarshan exclusively for Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which is also free to Air. This C-Band
DTH service is available on INSAT-4B with downlink frequency of 3925 MHz
SATELLITE USES
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally
placed into orbit. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them
from natural satellites such as the Moon.
The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957.
Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. Some satellites,
notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites originate
from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations.
A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and
satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit
around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vesta, Eros, and the Sun.
Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian
Earth observation satellites, satellites, navigation, weather satellites, and research satellites. stations and
human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of
the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low
Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary.
About 6,600 satellites have been launched. The latest estimates are that 3,600 remain in
orbit. Of those, about 1,000 are operational; [2][3] the rest have lived out their useful lives and are part of
the space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are in medium-
Earth orbit (at 20,000 km), the rest are in geostationary orbit (at 36,000 km).[4]
Satellites are propelled by rockets to their orbits. Usually the launch vehicle itself is a rocket
lifting off from a launch pad on land. In a minority of cases satellites are launched at sea (from
a submarine or a mobile maritime platform) or aboard a plane (see air launch to orbit).
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Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems

attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit
control.
He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that
a multi-stage rocket fuelled by liquid propellants could be used to achieve this. He proposed the use
of hydrogen and liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.
He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the
ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments.
The book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and discussed
communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using satellites
for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.
In a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917–
2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications.
Clarke examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits and other aspects of the creation of a
network of world-circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-speed global communications. He
also suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet. The US
military studied the idea of what was referred to as the earth satellite vehicle when Secretary of
Defense James Forrestal made a public announcement on December 29, 1948, that his office was
coordinating that project between the various services.
History of artificial satellites
Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth.

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957,
and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is a crater on the
lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union
and the United States.
Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its
orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The unanticipated
announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the
so-called Space Race within the Cold War.
In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-
Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected
to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century." [10] The United States had been
considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of Aeronautics of the United States
Navy. The United States Air Force's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not
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K.GANESAN ME.,
believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for
science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American
satellite program."[11]
On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the
spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they
intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.
Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation, and
the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Army and Navy
were working on Project Orbiter, two competing programs: the army's which involved using a Jupiter C
rocket, and the civilian/Navy Vanguard Rocket, to launch a satellite. At first, they failed: initial
preference was given to the Vanguard program, whose first attempt at orbiting a satellite resulted in the
explosion of the launch vehicle on national television. But finally, three months after Sputnik 2, the
project succeeded; Explorer 1 became the United States' first artificial satellite on January 31, 1958.
In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used resources
of the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.
Early satellites were constructed as "one-off" designs. With growth
in geosynchronous (GEO) satellite communication, multiple satellites began to be built on single model
platforms called satellite buses. The first standardized satellite bus design was the HS-333 GEO comm.
sat, launched in 1972.
The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space Station.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER DTH SYSTEMS
Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) is a term used to refer to satellite television broadcasts

intended for home reception.
A designation broader than DBS would be direct-to-home signals, or DTH. This has initially
distinguished the transmissions directly intended for home viewers from cable television distribution
services that are sometimes carried on the same satellite. The term DTH predates DBS and is often used
in reference to services carried by lower power satellites which required larger dishes (1.7 m diameter
or greater) for reception.
In Europe, prior to the launch of Astra 1A in 1988, the term DBS was commonly used to
describe the nationally commissioned satellites planned and launched to provide television broadcasts
to the home within several European countries (such as BSB in the United Kingdom and TV-Sat
in Germany). These services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with
circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country. Before these DBS satellites, home
satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels, really intended for cable distribution, and
requiring dishes typically of 1.2m.
SES launched the Astra 1A satellite to provide services to homes across Europe receivable on
dishes of just 60-80 cm and, although these mostly used PAL video format and FSS frequencies with
linear polarization, the DBS name slowly came to applied to all Astra satellites and services too.
Terminology confusion
As a technical matter, DBS (also known by the International Telecommunication Union as
Broadcasting Satellite Service, or BSS) refers only to services transmitted by satellite in specific
frequency bands: 11.7-12.2 GHz in ITU Region 3 (Asia and Australia), 10.7 - 12.75 GHz in ITU
Region 1 (Europe, Russia and Africa), and 12.2-12.7 GHz ITU Region 2 (North and South America). In
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1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan under which each country was allocated specific
frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic service. Over the years, this plan has been
modified to, for example, accommodate new countries, increase coverage areas, and reflect digital
(rather than analog) technology. At present, numerous countries have brought into use their BSS Plan
allocations.
By contrast, DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a wider range of frequencies
(including standard Ku band and Ka band) transmitted from satellites that are not part of any
internationally planned band. Nonetheless, the term DBS is often used interchangeably with DTH to
cover both analog and digital video and audio services (including video-on-demand
and interactive features) received by relatively small dishes (less than 1 meter). A "DBS service"
usually refers to either a commercial service or a group of free channels available from one orbital
position targeting one country. In certain regions of the world, especially in North America, DBS is
used to refer to providers of subscription satellite packages, and has become applied to the entire
equipment chain involved.
Commercial DBS services
Astor satellite dishes

The second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc (now BSkyB after its merger
with British Satellite Broadcasting's five-channel network), was launched in 1989. Sky TV started as a
four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, serving both Ireland and the United
Kingdom. By 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay model, and launched a digital
service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature
is rarely used in the UK or Ireland, the popularity of Sky's service has caused the terms "mini dish" and
"digi box" to be applied to products other than Sky's hardware. News Corporation has a 32% stake in
BSkyB.
Prime Star began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was joined
by DirecTV (then owned by a division of General Motors, GM Hughes Electronics), in 1994. At the
time, DirecTV's introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut in American history.
Although Prime Star transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to compete
with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more programming. Direct TV
purchased Prime Star in 1999 and moved all of that provider's subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In a
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K.GANESAN ME.,
series of transactions consummated in 2003, Hughes Electronics was spun out of GM and the News
Corporation purchased a controlling interest in the new company, which was renamed The DIRECTV
Group. In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporation's controlling interest in
DirecTV.
In 1996, EchoStar's Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTV's primary
competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under. Astro was also
started, using a direct broadcast satellite system.
Dominion Video Satellite Inc.'s Sky Angel launched on a satellite platform in the United States
in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith and family market. It grew from six to 36
television and radio channels of family entertainment, Christian-inspirational programming, and 24-
hour news services. Dominion, under its former corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc., was
actually the second from among the first nine companies to apply to the FCC for a high-power DBS
license in 1981, and it was the sole surviving DBS company from the first round of applicants until the
sale of their license to EchoStar Communications Corporation in 2007 and departure from satellite
distribution in 2008. Sky Angel, although a separate and independent DBS service, used the same
satellites, transmission facilities and receiving equipment used for Dish Network through an agreement
with Echo star. Because of this, Sky Angel subscribers also had the option of subscribing to Dish
Network's channels as well.
In 2003, EchoStar attempted to purchase DirecTV, but the FCC and U.S. Department of Justice
denied the purchase based on anti-competitive concerns.
As of 2013, India has the most competitive direct-broadcast satellite market with seven operators (six
private DTH and one Government-owned FTA DTH) vying for more than 110 million television
homes. Subscribers to India's six private direct-to-home (DTH) satellite television providers have now
reached 56.5 million, according to the latest figures issued by the Telecom Regulations Authority of
India (TRAI)on 31st March 2013.
Free DBS services
Germany is likely the leader in free-to-air (FTA) DBS, with approximately 200 digital FTA
channels (including 18 HDTV channels and various regional channels) broadcast from the Astra
19.2°E satellite constellation. These are not marketed as a DBS service, but are received in
approximately 12 million homes, as well as in any home using the Sky Deutschland commercial DBS
system. All German analogue satellite broadcasts ceased on April 30, 2012.[1][2]
The United Kingdom has approximately 160 digital channels (including the regional variations
of BBC channels, ITV channels, Channel 4 and Channel 5) are broadcast without encryption from
the Astra 28.2°E satellite constellation, and receivable on any DVB-S-compliant receiver (a DVB-
S2 receiver is required for certain high definition television services). Most of these channels are
included within the Sky EPG, and an increasing number within the Free sat EPG.India's national
broadcaster, Doordarshan, promotes a free-to-air DBS package as "DD Direct Plus", which is provided
as in-fill for the country's terrestrial transmission network. It is broadcast from Insat 4B at 93.5°E and
contains about 57 FTA channels.
RECEPTION OF DD DIRECT PLUS
DD Free Dish (formerly DD Direct+, known colloquially as Doordarshan DTH)[1] is

an Indian free-to-air digital direct-broadcast satellite television service owned and operated by the state-
controlled public service broadcasterPrasar Bharati (Doordarshan). It is the only free-to-air satellite
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K.GANESAN ME.,
television service in India. Free Dish has about 9 million subscribers and its free-to-air service covers
81% of India’s geographical area via 1415 transmitters.
Free Dish currently offers around 59 television channels and 25 radio stations. Major
international news-channels in the Doordarshan DTH are France 24, NHK World, ABC News, DW-
TV and Russia Today. Channels such as BBC World News, CNN and KBS World were previously
included in the Doordarshan DTH.
Free Dish is available in Ku-Band on INSAT-4B having 5 streams of channels with different
downlink frequencies. This Ku-Band DTH service provides the TV coverage throughout the Indian
territory (except Andaman and Nicobar Islands). Doordarshan DTH satellite slots are much sought after
by the Indian private television channels as it paves the way for obtaining a pan-India viewership.
Prasar Bharati adopted the e-auction system for filling slots in 2011 with a minimum reserve price
around Rs. 3 core.
A separate DTH service in C-Band with a bouquet of 10 channels has also been provided by
Doordarshan exclusively for Andaman, which is also Free to Air. This C-Band DTH service is available
on INSAT-4B with downlink frequency of 3925 MHz
RECEIVER INSTALLATION—(In technology)
 The listening device part of a telephone

o The handset that sometimes contains the above device
o The headset (audio) that can also contain the above device.
 AV receiver, part of a home theater system
 Digital media receiver
 Receiver (firearms), which houses the working parts of the firearm
 Receiver (modulated ultrasound), a device that converts a modulated ultrasonic wave into
usable information
 Receiver (radio), an electronic device that converts a signal from a modulated radio wave into
usable information
o Tuner (radio)
 Television set
o Tuner (television)
 Tuner (electronics)
 Receiver (video game), a first-person shooter
 In receivership, a person appointed as a custodian of another entity's property by a court of law

or a creditor of the owner, pending a lawsuit or bankruptcy
 Metropolitan Police Receiver, formerly the chief financial officer of the London Metropolitan
Police
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K.GANESAN ME.,
 Receiver of Wreck, an official of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency of the United Kingdom,
who is concerned with the management of wrecked ships and boats
 Wide receiver, an offensive position in American and Canadian football leagues
 A type of midfielder in Australian rules football
 A person who receives goods in a distribution center
TV/RADIO C HANNELS ON DD
Doordarshan is an Indian public service broadcaster, a division of Prasad Bharati. It is one of

the largest broadcasting organizations in India in terms of the studio and transmitter infrastructure.
Recently, it has also started broadcasting on Digital Terrestrial Transmitters. On September 15, 2009,
Doordarshan celebrated its 50th anniversary.
The DD provides television, radio, online and mobile services throughout metropolitan and
regional India, as well as overseas through the Indian Network and Radio India. For the London
Olympics, live telecasts of the opening and closing ceremonies of the games were broadcast on its
national channel. DD sports channel has provided round the clock coverage of sport events.
Doordarshan had a modest beginning with an experimental telecast starting in Delhi on 15
September 1959, with a small transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily transmission started
in 1965 as a part of All India Radio.
Doordarshan began a five-minute news bulletin in the same year in 1965. Pratima Puri was the
first newsreader. Selma Sultan joined Doordarshan in 1967 and later became a news anchor.
The television service was extended to Bombay (now Mumbai) and Amritsar in 1972. Up until
1975, only seven Indian cities had a television service and Doordarshan remained the sole provider of
television in India.
Television services were separated from radio on April 1, 1976.[2] Each office of All India Radio
and Doordarshan were placed under the management of two separate Director Generals in New Delhi.
Finally, in 1982, Doordarshan as a National Broadcaster came into existence. Krishi Darshan was the
first program telecast on Doordarshan. It commenced on January 26, 1967 and is one of the longest
running programs on Indian television.
Nationwide transmission
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K.GANESAN ME.,
National telecasts were introduced in 1982. In the same year, colour TV was introduced in the
Indian market with the live telecast of the Independence Day speech by then prime minister Indira
Gandhi on 15 August 1982, followed by the 1982 Asian Games which were held in Delhi. Now more
than 90 percent of the Indian population can receive Doordarshan (DD National) programmers through
a network of nearly 1,400 terrestrial transmitters. There are about 46 Doordarshan studios producing
TV programmers today.
Channels
Doordarshan operates 21 channels – two All India channels - DD National and DD News, 11
Regional language Satellite Channels (RLSC), four State Networks (SN), an International channel, a
Sports Channel DD Sports and two channels Rajya Sabha TV & Lok Sabha TV for live broadcast of
parliamentary proceedings.
On DD National aka (DD-1), Regional programs and Local Programs are carried on time-
sharing basis. DD News channel, launched on 3 November 2003, which replaced the DD
Metro formally known as (DD-2) Entertainment channel, provides 24-Hour news service.
The Regional Languages Satellite channels have two components – The Regional service for the
particular state relayed by all terrestrial transmitters in the state and additional programs in the Regional
Language in prime time and non-prime time available only through cable operators. DD-Sports
Channel is exclusively devoted to the broadcasting of sporting events of national and international
importance. This is the only Sports Channels which telecasts rural sports like Kho-Kho, Kabbadi etc.
something which private broadcasters will not attempt to telecast as it will not attract any revenues.
Active Doordarshan
It is an Interactive Service of Tata Sky to show TV Channels of Doordarshan which are not
available on Tata sky as normal channels. Active Doordarshan channels are DD Kashmir, DD Podhigai,
DD Punjabi, DD Sahyadri, DD Chandana and DD Gujarati.
DD has its own DTH service called DD Direct Plus. It is free of charge.
International broadcasting
DD India is broadcast internationally via satellite. It is available in 146 countries worldwide;
however, information on receiving this channel in other countries is not easily available. In the UK,
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K.GANESAN ME.,
DD-India was available through the Euro bird Satellite on the Sky system on Channel 833 (the logo is
shown as Rayat TV). The timing and programming of DD-India international is different from that of
India. Transmissions via Sky Digital (UK & Ireland) ceased in June 2008 and those viaDirecTV in the
United States in July 2008.
 In 2004, it censored the airing of a controversial documentary on Jayaprakash Narayan, one of

the opposition leaders during the Emergency.[7]
 During Operation Blue Star, only government sources were used for reporting the story. Here
Doordarshan was complicit in the production of a video that claimed acts of violence which when
investigated by independent journalists were found to be false.
Commercial viabilityOnce private television channels were allowed in 1991, Doordarshan has
seen a steep decline in viewership in homes with cable and satellite television, which in 2002 was just
at 2.38% for DD National.
 While it earns significant advertising revenue due to the compulsory feed given to it by the
highest bidder to national events including cricket tournaments, [9] there has been a proposal to give
it funds by imposing a license fee to own a television in India like the BBC. However this is
unlikely to be imposed keeping in view the financial constraints of the average Indian.
DIRECT PLUS
Dolby Digital Plus, also known as Enhanced AC-3 (and commonly abbreviated as DD+ orE-
AC-3, or EC-3) is a digital audio compression scheme developed by Dolby Labs for transport and
storage of multi-channel digital audio.
It is a successor to Dolby Digital (AC-3), also developed by Dolby, and has a number of
improvements including support for a wider range of data rates (32kbit/s to 6144kbit/s), increased
channel count and multi-program support (via sub streams), and additional tools (algorithms) for
representing compressed data and counteracting artifacts.
While Dolby Digital (AC-3) supports up to 5 full-bandwidth audio channels at a maximum bit
rate of 640kbit/s, E-AC-3 supports up to 15 full-bandwidth audio channels at a maximum bit rate of
6.144 Mbit/s.
The full set of technical specifications for E-AC-3 (and AC-3) are standardized and published in
Annex E of ATSCA/52:2012,[1] as well as Annex E of ETSI TS 102 366 V1.2.1 (2008-08), published by
the Advanced Television Systems Committee.
Technical details and Specifications
 Coded Bit rate: 0.032 to 6.144 Mbit/s

 Audio Channels: 1.0 to 15.1 (i.e. from mono to 15 full range channels and a low
frequency effects channel)
 Number of Audio Programs per bit stream: 8
 Sample Rate: 32, 44.1 or 48 kHz
 Bit Depth: up to 24 bits per channel.
Structure
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K.GANESAN ME.,
A Dolby Digital Plus service consists of one or more sub streams. There are three types of sub
streams:
 Independent sub streams, which can contain a single 5.1 program. Up to eight independent sub
streams may be present in a Dolby Digital Plus stream. The channels present in an independent sub
stream are the traditional 5.1 channels: Left (L), Right (R), Center (C), Left Surround (Ls), and
Right Surround (Rs) channels, as well as a Low Frequency Effects (Life) channel.
 Legacy sub streams, which contain a single 5.1 program, and which correspond directly to
Dolby Digital content. At most a single legacy sub stream may be present in a DD+ stream.
 Dependent sub streams, which contain additional channels beyond the traditional 5.1 channels.
As dependent sub streams have the same structure as independent sub streams, each dependent sub
stream may contain up to five full-bandwidth channels and one low-frequency channel; however
these channels may be assigned to different speaker placements. Metadata in the sub stream
describes the purpose of each included channel.
All DD+ streams must contain at least one independent sub stream or legacy sub stream, which
contains the first (or only) 5.1 channels of the primary audio program. Additional independent sub
streams may be used for secondary audio programs such as foreign language soundtracks, commentary,
or descriptions/voiceovers for the visually impaired. Dependent sub streams may be provided for
programs that have additional soundstage channels beyond 5.1.
Storage of transform coefficients

At the heart of both Dolby Digital and DD+ is a Modified discrete cosine transform, which is
used to transform the audio signal into the frequency domain; within each block up to 256 frequency
coefficients may be transmitted. Coefficients are transmitted in a binary floating-point format, with
exponents transmitted separately from mantissas. This allows for highly efficient coding.
Exponents for each channel are encoded in a highly-packed differential format, with the deltas
between consecutive frequency bins (other than the first) being given in the stream. Three formats,
or exponent strategies, are used; these are known as "D15", "D25", and "D45". In D15, each bin has a
unique exponent, in D25 and D45, delta values correspond to either pairs or quads of frequency bins.
Audio blocks other than the first in a sync frame may additionally reuse the prior blocks exponent set
(this is required for channels that use the Adaptive Hybrid Transform).
The decoded exponents, along with a set of metadata parameters, is used to derive the bit
allocation pointers (BAPs), which specify the number of bits allocated to each mantissa. Bins which
correspond to frequencies in which human hearing is more precise are allocated more bits; bins which
correspond to frequencies that humans are less sensitive to are allocated fewer. Anywhere between zero
and 16 bits may be allocated for each mantissa; if zero bits are transmitted, a dither function may be
optionally applied to generate the frequency coefficient.
Algorithm
Dolby Digital Plus, like many loss audio codec, uses a heavily-quantized frequency-domain
representation of the signal to achieve coding gain; this section describes the operation of the base
transform as well as various optional "tools" specified by the standard, which are used to achieve either
greater compression or to reduce audible coding artifacts.
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K.GANESAN ME.,
Modified discrete cosine transform

Both Dolby Digital and DD+ encoder converts a multichannel audio signal to the frequency
domain using the Modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), with a switchable block length of either
256 or 512 samples (the latter is used with stationary signals, the former with transient signals). The
frequency domain representation is then quantized according to a psycho-acoustic model and
transmitted. A floating-point format for frequency coefficients is used, and mantissas and exponents are
stored and transmitted separately, with both being heavily compressed.
Adaptive hybrid transforms (AHT)
For highly-stationary signals, such as long notes in musical performance, the Adaptive Hybrid
Transform (AHT) is used. This tool is unique to Dolby Digital Plus (and unsupported in Dolby Digital),
and uses an additional Type II Discrete cosine transform to combine six adjacent transform blocks
(located within a sync frame) into an effectively longer block.
In addition to the two-stage transform, a different bit-allocation structure is used, and two ways
of representing encoded mantissas are deployed: use of vector quantization, which gives the highest
coding gain, and use of gain-adapted quantization (GAQ) when greater signal-fidelity is required. Gain-
adaptive quantization may be independently enabled for each frequency bin within a channel, and
permits variable-length mantissa encoding.
Coupling
As many multichannel audio programs have high degrees of correlation between individual
channels, a coupling channel is typically used. High frequency information which is common among
two or more channels is transmitted in a separate channel (one that is not reproduced by a decoder, but
only mixed back into the original channels) known as the coupling channel; along with coefficients
known as "coupling coordinates" that guide the decoder on how to reconstruct the original channels.
Dolby Digital Plus supports an more elaborate version of the coupling tool known as Enhanced
Coupling (ECPL). This algorithm, which is considerably more expensive to process (both for encoders
and decoders) allows phase information to be included in coupling coordinates, allowing for phase
relationships between channels that are coupled to be preserved.
Spectral extension
Dolby Digital Plus provides another tool for high frequencies. As high frequency components
are often harmonics of lower-frequency sounds, Spectral Extension (SPX) allows high frequency
components to be synthesized algorithmically from lower-frequency components. This tool is also
unique to Dolby Digital Plus, and unsupported in Dolby Digital.
83
K.GANESAN ME.,

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SATELLITE ,CABLE AND DTH SYSTEM

 In a communications context, a satellite is a specialized wireless receiver/transmitter that is

Commonly There are three types of communications satellite systems.

 Geocentric orbit (geo)

Three conditions are required for an orbit to be geostationary:

Geostationary orbit development

Arthur C Clarke's Geostationary Orbiting Satellites Concept

Geostationary orbit basics

Geostationary orbit can only be over the Equator

Geostationary satellite drift

Geostationary orbit coverage

Geostationary satellite coverage

Geostationary orbit and path length / delay

Advantages and disadvantages of geostationary orbit satellites

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

The requirements for a satellite to be geostationary:

 In telecommunication, a transponder is one of two types of devices. In air navigation or radio

 In a communications satellite, a transponder gathers signals over a range of uplink frequencies

 According to another description,[3] transceivers are limited to providing an electrical-

INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL DIRECT BROADCASTING SATELLITE:

Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS)

Direct-broadcoast satellite(DBS) can be used in two services:

 The second stage uses liquid fuel.

 After commissioning, it will join ISRO’s fleet of nine operational communications

 According to ISRO, the satellite’s main objective is to augment India’s in-orbit

 India’s larger geostationary telecommunications satellites today are still launched by

 ISRO also harbors ambitions to launch commercial telecommunications satellites. In

 According to ISRO, the satellite’s main objective is to augment India’s in-orbit

 India’s larger geostationary telecommunications satellites today are still launched by

 ISRO also harbors ambitions to launch commercial telecommunications satellites. In

DOMESTIC BROAD COASTING SYSTEM:

 AM stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM refers to amplitude

 Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers

CABLE SIGNAL SOURCE:

T.V SIGNAL SOURCE:

CABLE SIGNAL PROCESSING:

Digital terrestrial TV signals require a special digital processor.

CABLE SIGNAL DISTRIBUTION:

1. Suppressed Sync Pulses and Inverted Video

CABLE SIGNAL CONVERTER:

 This allowed customers to subscribe to premium television and pay-per-view.

The four stages of digital satellite transmission are

(1) Signal encoding

The three stages of signal processing are

(i) Data compression

Besides video and audio Signals, conditional information is also, transmitted

DIGITAL SATELLITE RECEPTION AND DECODING:

DIGITAL T.V RECEIVER:

MERITS OF DIGITAL T.V RECEIVER:

THE BROADCAST CENTER

ENCRYPTION & TRANSMISION

 Low Noise Block-downconvertor (so called

 An LNB sits on the end of an arm and faces the

Advantages of DTH Technology

HOW DOES DTH REALLY DIFFER FROM CABLE TV

 A satellite dish is a type of microwave antenna.

Low noise block ( LNB )

 The abbreviation LNB stands for Low Noise Block.

Low noise block downconverter (LNB) diagram