Cooling Towers: Fig. Temperature Relationship Between Water and Air in Counterflow Cooling Tower

CHAPTER 36
COOLING TOWERS
Principle of Operation ...................................................... 36.1 Application ........... ..................................... 36.8
Design Conditions ..... 36.2 Performance Cuw .................................
Types of Cooling Towe ..................... 36.2 Cooling Tower Thermal Performance ...........
Muierials of Construction . ....................... 36.7 Cooling Tower Theory ...................................
Selection Considerations ........................................................ 36.7 Tower Coeflcients .......................................... 36.18
M OST air-conditioning systems and industrial processes gen-

erate heat that must be removed and dissipated. Water is
commonly used as a heat transfer medium to remove heat from
refrigerant condensers or industrial process heat exchangers. In the
past, this was accomplished by drawing a continuous stream of
water from a utility water supply or a natural body of water, heating
it as it passed through the process, and then discharging the water
directly to a sewer or returning it to the body of water. Water pur-
chased from utilities for this purpose has now become prohibitively
expensive because of increased water supply and disposal costs.
Similarly, cooling water drawn from natural sources is relatively
unavailable because the ecological disturbance caused by the
increased temperature of discharge water has become unacceptable.
Air-cooled heat exchangers cool water by rejecting heat directly
to the atmosphere, but the first cost and fan energy consumption of
these devices are high and the plan area required is relatively large.
They can economically cool water to within approximately 20°F of
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the ambient dry-bulb temperature-too high for the cooling water
requirements of most refrigeration systems and many industrial pro-
cesses. PERCENT DISTANCE THROUGH TOWER
Cooling towers overcome most of these problems and therefore
are commonly used to dissipate heat from water-cooled refrigera- Fig. 1 Temperature Relationship Between Water and Air
tion, air-conditioning, and industria1 process systems. The water in Counterflow Cooling Tower
consumption rate of a cooling tower system is only about 5% of that
of a once-through system, making it the least expensive system to
operate with purchased water supplies. Additionally, the amount of steady-state system, the range is the same as the water temperature
heated water discharged (blowdown) is very small, so the ecologi- rise through the load heat exchanger, provided the flow rate through
cal effect is greatly reduced. Lastly, cooling towers can cool water to the cooling tower and heat exchanger are the same. Accordingly, the
within 4 to 5°F of the ambient wet-bulb temperature, or about 35°F range is determined by the heat load and water flow rate, not by the
lower than can air-cooled systems of reasonable size. This lower size or thermal capability of the cooling tower.
temperature improves the efficiency of the overall system, thereby The difference between the leaving water temperature and enter-
reducing energy use significantly and increasing process output. ing air wet-bulb temperature (B minus C) in Figure 1 is the
approach to the wet bulb or simply the approach of the cooling
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION tower. The approach is a function of cooling tower capability, and a
larger cooling tower produces a closer approach (colder leaving
A cooling tower cools water by a combination of heat and mass water) for a given heat load, flow rate, and entering air condition.
transfer. Water to be cooled is distributed in the tower by spray noz-
Thus, the amount of heat transferred to the atmosphere by the cool-
zles, splash bars, or film-type fill, which exposes a very large water
ing tower is always equal to the heat load imposed on the tower,
surface area to atmospheric air. Atmospheric air is circulated by ( I ) whereas the temperature level at which the heat is transferred is
fans, (2) convective currents, (3) natural wind currents, or (4) induc-
determined by the thermal capability of the cooling tower and the
tion effect from sprays. A portion of the water absorbs heat to
entering air wet-bulb temperature.
change from a liquid to a vapor at constant pressure. This heat of
Thermal performance of a cooling tower depends principally on
vaporization at atmospheric pressure is transferred from the water
the entering air wet-bulb temperature. The entering air dry-bulb
remaining in the liquid state into the airstream.
temperature and relative humidity, taken independently, have an
Figure 1 shows the temperature relationship between water and insignificant effect on thermal performance of mechanical-draft
air as they pass through a counterflow cooling tower. The curves cooling towers, but do affect the rate of water evaporation in the
indicate the drop in water temperature (A to B) and the rise in the air cooling tower. A psychrometric analysis of the air passing through
wet-bulb temperature (C to D) in their respective passages through
a cooling tower illustrates this effect (Figure 2). Air enters at the
the tower. The temperature difference between the water entering ambient condition Point A, absorbs heat and mass (moisture) from
and leaving the cooling tower (A minus B) is the range. For a the water, and exits at Point B in a saturated condition (at very light
loads, the discharge air may not be fully saturated). The amount of
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 8.6, Cooling Towers and heat transferred from the water to the air is proportional to the dif-
Evaporative Condensers. ference in enthalpy of the air between the entering and leaving
Copyright ASHRAE
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36.2 2004 ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems and Equipment
conditions (h, - h,). Because lines of constant enthalpy correspond The entering air dry-bulb temperature affects the amount of
almost exactly to lines of constant wet-bulb temperature,the change water evaporated from any evaporative cooling tower. It also affects
in enthalpy of the air may be determined by the change in wet-bulb airflow through hyperbolic towers and directly establishes thermal
temperature of the air. capability in any indirect-contact cooling tower component operat-
Air heating (Vector AB in Figure 2) may be separated into com- ing in a dry mode. Variations in tower performance associated with
ponent AC, which represents the sensible portion of the heat changes in the remaining parameters are covered in the section on
absorbed by the air as the water is cooled, and component CB, Performance Curves.
which represents the latent portion. If the entering air condition is The thermal capability of a cooling tower used for air condition-
changed to Point D at the same wet-bulb temperature but at a higher ing is often expressed in nominal cooling tower tons. A nominal
dry-bulb temperature, the total heat transfer (Vector DB) remains cooling tower ton is defined as cooling 3 gpm of water from 95°F to
the same, but the sensible and latent components change dramati- 85°F at a 78°F entering air wet-bulb temperature. At these condi-
cally. DE represents sensible cooling of air, while EB represents tions, the cooling tower rejects 15,000 Btuih per nominal cooling
latent heating as water gives up heat and mass to the air. Thus, for tower ton. The historical derivation of this 15,000 Btulh cooling
the same water-cooling load, the ratio of latent to sensible heat tower ton, as compared to the 12,000 Btu/h evaporator ton, is based
transfer can vary significantly. on the assumption that at typical air-conditioning conditions, for
The ratio of latent to sensible heat is important in analyzing water every 12,000 Btu/h of heat picked up in the evaporator, the cooling
usage of a cooling tower. Mass transfer (evaporation)occurs only in tower must dissipate an additional 3000 Btu/h of compressor heat.
the latent portion of heat transfer and is proportional to the change For specific applications, however, nominal tonnage ratings are not
in specific humidity. Because the entering air dry-bulb temperature used, and the thermal performance capability of the tower is usually
or relative humidity affects the latent to sensible heat transfer ratio, expressed as a water fiow rate at specific operating temperature con-
it also affects the rate of evaporation. In Figure 2, the rate of evapo- ditions (entering water temperature, leaving water temperature,
ration in Case AB ( W, - W,) is less than in Case DB (W, - W,) entering air wet-bulb temperature).
because the latent heat transfer (mass transfer) represents a smaller
portion of the total. TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS
The evaporation rate at typical design conditions is approxi-
Two basic types of evaporative cooling devices are used. The first
mately 1% of the water flow rate for each 12.5"F of water temper-
of these, the direct-contact or open cooling tower (Figure 3),
ature range; however, the average evaporation rate over the
exposes water directly to the cooling atmosphere, thereby transferring
operating season is less than the design rate because the sensible
the source heat load directly to the air. The second type, often called
component of total heat transfer increases as entering air tempera-
ture decreases. a closed-circuit cooling tower, involves indirect contact between
heated fluid and atmosphere (Figure 4), essentially combining a heat
In addition to water loss from evaporation, losses also occur
exchanger and cooling tower into one relatively compact device.
because of liquid carryover into the discharge airstream and blow-
Of the direct-contact devices, the most rudimentary is a spray-
down to maintain acceptable water quality. Both of these factors are
filled tower that exposes water to the air without any heat transfer
addressed later in this chapter.
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
DESIGN CONDITIONS
HEATED ANO HUMIOIFIEO
AIR OUT
The thermal capability of any cooling tower may be defined by
the following parameters:
Entering and leaving water temperatures \ 7DRIFT ELIMINATORS
Entering air wet-bulb or entering air wet-bulb and cùy-bulb
temperatures
Water flow rate
SPRAY
DISTRIBUTION - HOT WATER
r LEAVING
WET-BULB
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
AIR IN AIR IN
I
I
SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER
I
I
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE COLD WATERTO PUMP
t
Fig. 2 Psychrometric Analysis of Air Passing Through

Cooling Tower Fig. 3 Direct-Contact or Open Evaporative Cooling Tower
Copyright ASHRAE
Cooling Towers 36.3
medium or fill. in this device, the amount of water surface exposed system, in the path of the air. The two types of fill in use are splash-
to the air depends on the spray efficiency, and the time of contact type and film-type (Figure 5). Splash-type fill maximizes contact
depends on the elevation and pressure of the water distribution area and time by forcing the water to cascade through successive
system. elevations of splash bars arranged in staggered rows. Film-type fill
TO increase contact surfaces as well as time of exposure, a heat achieves the same effect by causing the water to flow in a thin layer
transfer medium, or fill, is installed below the water distribution over closely spaced sheets, principally polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
that are arranged vertically.
Either type of fill can be used in counterflow and cross-flow tow-
HEATED AND HUMIDIFIED ers. For thermal performance levels typically encountered in air
AIR OUT conditioning and refrigeration, a tower with film-type fill is usually
more compact. However, splash-type fill is less sensitive to initial
air and water distribution and, along with specially configured,
7DRIFT ELIMINATORS
more widely spaced film-type fills, is preferred for applications that
may be subjected to blockage by scale, silt, or biological fouling.
Indirect-contact (closed-circuit) cooling towers contain two
EXTERNAL WATER separate fluid circuits: (1) an external circuit, in which water is
DISTRIBUTION
exposed to the atmosphere as it cascades over the tubes of a coil
bundle, and (2) an internal circuit, in which the fluid to be cooled
circulates inside the tubes of the coil bundle. In operation, heat
flows from the internal fluid circuit, through the tube walls of the
coil, to the external water circuit and then, by heat and mass trans-
fer, to atmospheric air. As the internal fluid circuit never contacts
XED-CIRCUIT the atmosphere, this unit can be used to cool fluids other than
\T EXCHANGE
IL CLOSED
water and/or to prevent contamination of the primary cooling cir-
CIRCUIT cuit with airborne dirt and impurities. Some closed-circuit cool-
ing tower designs include cooling tower fill to augment heat
exchange in the coil (Figure 6).
COLD WATER. Types of Direct-Contact Cooling Towers
Non-Mechanical-Draft Towers. Aspirated by sprays or a dif-
ferential in air density, these towers do not contain fill and do not use
a mechanical air-moving device. The aspirating effect of the water
spray, either vertical (Figure 7) or horizontal (Figure 8), induces air-
* -.-u-
flow through the tower in a parallel flow pattern.
Because air velocities for the vertical spray tower (both enter-
PUMP
ing and leaving) are relatively low, such towers are susceptible to
1 I /
I
adverse wind effects and, therefore, are normally used to satisîy a
low-cost requirement when operating temperatures are not critical
to the system. Some horizontal spray towers (Figure 8) use high-
Fig. 4 Indirect-Contact or Closed-CircuitEvaporative pressure sprays to induce large air quantities and improve aidwater
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Cooling Tower contact. Multispeed or staged pumping systems are normally rec-
ommended to reduce energy use in periods of reduced load and
FILM-WPE FILL PACKING ambient conditions.
Ar
DISTRIBUTION-IMPACT
\
REGION
SPRAY WATER
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
WARM AIR OUT
FILM-FILL REGION
SPLASH-TYPE FILL PACKING LOUVERS
SPRAY PUMP COOLING TOWER FILL
Fig. 5 Types of Fill Fig. 6 Combined Flow CoiUFill Evaporative Cooling Tower
Copyright ASHRAE
ELIMINATORS
HOT WATER IN
LOUVERS COLD WATER OUT
INDUCED-DRAFTCOUNTERFLOW
AIR OUT LOUVERS- /-HOT WATER IN
HOT WATER IN
COLD WATER OUT
FORCED-DRAFTCOUNTERFLOW FORCED-DRAFT CROSSFLOW

Fig. 7 Vertical Spray Tower
HOT WATER
IN HOT WATER IN
LOUVERS
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
c--
COLD WATER OUT
INDUCED-DRAFTCROSSFLOW INDUCED-DRAFTCROSSFLOW
(SINGLE FLOW TOWER) (DOUBLE AIR ENTRY)
Fig. 10 Conventional Mechanical-Draft Cooling Towers
HEATED AND HUMIDIFIED
DRIFT ELIMINATORS
... .. -. .
OUT
Fig. 8 Horizontal Spray Tower
HEATED AND HUMIDIFIED
ELEVATION,TYPICALLY
350 to 500 ilABOVE GRADE
REINFORCED
SPRAY OR
FLUME WATER
FILL PACKING
(COUNTERFLOW WATERIAIR)
CoLD-wAm B A S I N 1
..
I z I1 z z
\
: a
-
- COLD WATER
TO PUMPS
HOT WATER
FROM CONDENSER
t,
COLD WATER OUT
\-MOTOR
Fig. 9 Hyperbolic Tower Fig. 11 Factory-Assembled Counterflow Forced-Draft Tower
Copyright ASHRAE
Cooling Towers 36.5
Chimney (hyperbolic) towers have been used primarily for large casing materiais. Environmental concerns about cutting timber and
Power installations, but may be of generic interest (Figure 9). The wood preservatives leaching into cooling tower water have led to an
heat transfer mode may be counterflow, cross-flow, or parallel flow. increased number of cooling towers having FRP structural framing.
Air is induced through the tower by the air density differentials that Field-erected towers may also be constructed of galvanized steel or
exist between the lighter, heat-humidified chimney air and the outside stainless steel. Coated metals, primarily steel, are also used for com-
atmosphere. Fill can be splash or film type. plete towers or components. Concrete and ceramic materials are
Primary justification of these high first-cost products comes usually restricted to the largest towers (see the section on Materials
through reduction in auxiliary power requirements (elimination of of Construction).
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fan energy), reduced property acreage, and elimination of recircu- Special-purpose towers containing a conventional mechanical-
lation and/or vapor plume interference. Materials used in chimney draft unit in combination with an air-cooled (finned-tube) heat
construction have been primarily steel-reinforced concrete; early- exchanger are weüdry towers (Figure 13). They are used for either
day timber structures had size limitations. vapor plume reduction or water conservation. The hot, moist plumes
Mechanical-Draft Towers. Figure 10 shows five different de- discharged from cooling towers are especially dense in cooler
signs for mechanical-draft (conventional) towers. Fans may be on weather. On some installations, limited abatement of these plumes
the inlet air side (forced-draft) or the exit air side (induced-draft). is required to avoid restricted visibility on roadways, on bridges, and
The type of fan selected, either centrifugal or axial, depends on ex- around buildings.
ternal pressure needs, permissible sound levels, and energy usage A vapor plume abatement tower usually has a relatively small
requirements. Water is downflow; the air may be upflow (counter- air-cooled component that tempers the leaving airstream to reduce
flow heat transfer) or horizontal flow (cross-flow heat transfer). Air the relative humidity and thereby minimize the fog-generating
entry may be through one, two, three, or all four sides of the tower. potential of the tower. Conversely, a water conservation tower
All four combinations (i.e., forced-draft counterflow, induced-draft usually requires a large air-cooled component to significantly
counterflow, forced-draft cross-flow, and induced-draft cross-flow) reduce water consumption and provide plume abatement. Some
have been produced in various sizes and configurations. designs can handle heat loads entirely by the nonevaporative air-
Towers are typically classified as either factory-assembled (Figure cooled heat exchanger portion during reduced ambient tempera-
1i), where the entire tower or a few large components are factory- ture conditions.
assembledand shipped to the site for installation, or field-erected (Fig- A variant of the wet/dry tower is an evaporatively precooled
ure 12), where the tower is constructed completely on site. air-cooled heat exchanger. It uses an adiabatic saturator (air pre-
Most factory-assembled towers are of metal construction, usu- cooler/humidifier) to enhance the summer performance of an
ally galvanized steel. Other constructions include stainless steel and air-cooled exchanger, thus conserving water compared to conven-
fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) towers and components. Field- tional cooling towers (annualized) (Figure 14). Evaporative fill sec-
erected towers are predominantly framed of preservative-treated tions usually operate only during specified summer periods,
Douglas fir or redwood, with FRP used for special components and whereas full dry operation is expected below 50 to 70°F ambient
Fig. 12 Field-Erected Cross-Flow Mechanical-Draft Tower
Copyright ASHRAE
AIR OUT conditions. Integral water pumps return the lower basin water to the
upper distribution systems of the adiabatic saturators in a manner
similar to closed-circuit fluid cooler and evaporative condenser
HOT WATER INLET FROM CONDENSER products.
Other Methods of Direct Heat Rejection

FINNED-TUBE, AIR-COOLED Ponds, Spray Ponds, Spray Module Ponds, and Channels.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat dissipates from the surface of a body of water by evaporation,
radiation, and convection. Captive lakes or ponds (man-made or nat-
ural) are sometimes used to dissipate heat by natural air currents and
wind. This system is usually used in large plants where real estate is
not limited.
INTERMEDIATE WATER A pump-spray system above the pond surface improves heat
DISTRIBUTION BASIN
transfer by spraying water in small droplets, thereby extending the
water surface and bringing it into intimate contact with the air. Heat
HEATED AND
HUMIDIFIED AIR transfer is largely the result of evaporative cooling (see the section
on Cooling Tower Theory). The system is a piping arrangement
using branch arms and nozzles to spray circulated water into the air.
IN The pond acts largely as a collecting basin. Temperature control,
ELIMINATORS real estate demands, limited approach to the wet-bulb temperature,
and winter operational difficulties have ruled out the spray pond in
favor of more compact and more controllable mechanical- or natu-
ral-draft towers.
Empirically derived relationships such as Equation (1) have been
used to estimate cooling pond area. However, because of variations
in wind velocity and solar radiation as well as the overall validity of
the relationship itself, a substantial margin of safety should be added
COLD WATER RETURN (TO PUMPS) to the result.
Fig. 13 Combination Wet-Dry Tower - A(95 + 0 . 4 2 5 ~ ) ~ , - ~ , ~

wP -
hfg
where
wp = evaporation rate of water, lb/h
A = area of pool surface, fi2
v = air velocity over water surface, fpm
hrg = latent heat required to change water to vapor at temperature of
HOT FLUID INLET
surface water, Btu/lb
p a = saturation vapor pressure at dew-point temperature of
COLD FLUID OUTLET
ambient air, in. Hg
p,,, = saturation vapor pressure at temperature of
surface water, in. Hg
Types of Indirect-Contact Towers

COOLED AND Closed-Circuit Cooling Towers (Mechanical Draft). Both
HUMIDIFIED AIR counterflow and cross-flow arrangements are used in forced- and
induced-draft fan arrangements. The tubular heat exchangers are
typically serpentine bundles, usually arranged for free gravity inter-
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
nal drainage. Pumps are integrated in the product to transport water

DRIFT ELIMINATORS
from the lower collection basin to upper distribution basins or
sprays. The internal coils can be of any of several materials, but gal-
vanized steel, stainless steel, and copper predominate. Closed-cir-
cuit cooling towers, which are similar to evaporative condensers, are
used extensively on water-source heat pump systems and screw
compressor oil pump systems, and wherever the reduced mainte-
nance and greater reliability of a closed-loop system are desired.
Closed-circuit cooling towers also provide cooling for multiple heat
loads on a centralized closed-loop system.
NPUMP
Indirect-contact towers (see Figure 4) require a closed-circuit
heat exchanger (usually tubular serpentine coil bundles) that is ex-
r RECIRCULATION WATER (AT WET-BULB TEMPERATURE)

posed to aidwater cascades similar to the fill of a cooling tower.
Some types include supplemental film or splash fill sections to aug-
ment the external heat exchange surface area (Figure 5). In Figure 6 ,
for instance, air flows down over the coil, parallel to the recirculat-
ing water, and exits horizontally into the fan plenum. Recirculating
Fig. 14 Adiabatically Saturated Air-Cooled
water then flows over cooling tower fill, where it is further cooledby
Heat Exchanger
a second airstream before being reintroduced over the coil.
Copyright ASHRAE
Cooling Towers 36.7
AIR OUTLET Graphite Composites. Graphite composite drive shafts are

available for use on cooling tower installations. These shafts offer a
strong, corrosion-resistant alternative to steelhtainless steel shafts
and are often less expensive, more forgiving of misalignment, and
transmit less vibration.
Concrete, Masonry, and Tile. Concrete is typically specified
for cold-water basins of field-erected cooling towers and is used in
piping, casing, and structural systems of the largest towers, prima-
rily in the power and process industries. Special tiles and masonry
are used when aesthetic considerations are important.
A
SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
Selecting the proper water-cooling equipment for a specific appli-
cation requires consideration of cooling duty, economics, required
LOWER COLLECTION BASIN
services, environmental conditions, maintenance requirements, and
aesthetics. Many of these factors are interrelated, but they should be
evaluated individually.
Because a wide variety of water-cooling equipment may meet
the required cooling duty, factors such as height, length, width, vol-
U ume of airflow, fan and pump energy consumption, materials of
construction, water quality, and availability influence final equip-
Fig. 15 Coil Shed Cooling Tower
ment selection.
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The optimum choice is generally made after an economic evalu-
Coil Shed Towers (Mechanical Draft). Coil shed towers usu- ation. Chapter 36 of the 2003 ASHRAE Handbook-HVACApplica-
ally consist of isolated coil sections (nonventilated) located beneath tions describes two common methods of economic evaluation-
a conventional cooling tower (Figure 15). Counterflow and cross- life-cycle costing and payback analysis. Each of these procedures
flow types are available with either forced- or induced-draft fan compares equipment on the basis of total owning, operating, and
arrangements. Redistribution water pans, located at the tower’s maintenance costs.
base, feed cooled water by gravity flow to the tubular heat exchange Initial-cost comparisons consider the following factors:
bundles (coils). These units are similar in function to closed-circuit
fluid coolers, except that supplemental fill is always required, and Erected cost of equipment
the airstream is directed only through the fill regions of the tower. Costs of interface with other subsystems, which include items
Typically, these units are arranged as field-erected, multifan cell such as
towers and are used primarily in industrial process cooling. Basin grillage and value of the space occupied
Pumps and prime movers
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION Electrical wiring to pump and fan motors
Materials for cooling tower construction are usually selected to Electrical controls and switchgear
meet the expected water quality and atmospheric conditions. Piping to and from the tower (some designs require more inlet
Wood. Wood has been used extensively for all static components and discharge connections than others, thus affecting the cost
except hardware. Redwood and fir predominate, usually with post- of piping)
fabrication pressure treatment of waterborne preservative chemi- Tower basin, sump screens, overflow piping, and makeup
cals, typically chromated copper arsenate (CCA) or acid copper lines, if not furnished by the manufacturer
chromate (ACC). These microbicidal chemicals prevent the attack Shutoff and control valves, if not furnished by the manufacturer
of wood-destructive organisms such as termites or fungi. Walkways, ladders, etc., providing access to the tower, if not
Metals. Steel with galvanized zinc is used for small and medium- furnished by the manufacturer
sized installations. Hot-dip galvanizing after fabrication is used for Fire protection sprinkler system
larger weldments. Hot-dip galvanizing and cadmium and zinc plating
are used for hardware. Brasses and bronzes are selected for special In evaluating owning and maintenance costs, consider the fol-
hardware, fittings, and tubing material. Stainless steels (principally lowing major items:
302, 304, and 316) are often used for sheet metal, drive shafts, and System energy costs (fans, pumps, etc.) on the basis of operating
hardware in exceptionally corrosive atmospheres or to extend unit hours per year
life. Stainless steel cold-water basins are increasingly popular. Cast Energy demand charges
iron is a common choice for base castings, fan hubs, motor or gear Expected equipment life
reduction housings, and piping valve components. Metals coated Maintenance and repair costs
with polyurethane and PVC are used selectively for special compo-
Money costs
nents. Two-part epoxy compounds and epoxy-powdered coatings are
also used for key components or entire cooling towers. Other factors are (1) safety features and safety codes; (2) confor-
Plastics. Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) materials are used mity to building codes; (3) general design and rigidity of structures;
for components such as structure, piping, fan cylinders, fan blades, (4) relative effects of corrosion, scale, or deterioration on service
casing, louvers, and structural connecting components. Polypropy- life; ( 5 ) availability of spare parts; (6) experience and reliability of
lene and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) are specified for manufacturers; (7) independent certification of thermal ratings; and
injection-molded components, such as fill bars and flow orifices. (8) operating flexibility for economical operation at varying loads or
p v c is typically used as fill, eliminator, and louver materials. Poly- during seasonal changes. In addition, equipment vibration, sound
ethylene is now used for both hot- and cold-water basins. Rein- levels, acoustical attenuation, and compatibility with the architec-
forced plastic mortar is used in larger piping systems, coupled by tural design are important. The following section details many of
neoprene O-ring-gasketed bell and spigot joints. these more important considerations.
Copyright ASHRAE
APPLICATION much tower piping as possible, should be installed below the oper-
ating water level in the cooling tower to prevent overflowing of the
This section describes some of the major design considerations, cooling tower at shutdown and to ensure satisfactory pump operation
but the cooling tower manufacturer should be consulted for more during start-up. Tower basins must carry the proper amount of water
detailed recommendations. during operation to prevent air entrainment into the water suction
line. Tower basins should also have enough reserve volume between
Siting
the operating and overflow levels to fill riser and water distribution
When a cooling tower can be located in an open space with free lines on start-up and to fulfill the water-in-suspension requirement of
air motion and unimpeded air supply, siting is normally not an the tower. Unlike open towers, closed-circuit cooling towers can be
obstacle to satisfactory installation. However, towers are often situ- installed anywhere, even below the heat exchangers, as the fluid to
ated indoors, against walls, or in enclosures. In such cases, the fol- be cooled is contained in a closed loop; the external spray water is
lowing factors must be considered: self-contained within the closed-circuit cooling tower.
Sufficient free and unobstructed space should be provided around
the unit to ensure an adequate air supply to the fans and to allow
Capacity Control
proper servicing. Most cooling towers encounter substantial changes in ambient
Tower discharge air should not be deflected in any way that might wet-bulb temperature and load during the normal operating season.
promote recirculation [a portion of the warm, moist discharge air Accordingly, some form of capacity control may be required to
reentering the tower (Figure 16)]. Recirculation raises the enter- maintain prescribed condensing temperatures or process conditions.
ing wet-bulb temperature, causing increased hot water and cold Fan cycling is the simplest method of capacity control on cooling
water temperatures, and, during cold weather operation, can towers and is often used on multiple-unit or multiple-cell installa-
promote the icing of air intake areas. The possibility of air recir- tions. In nonfreezing climates, where close control of the exit water
culation should be considered, particularly on multiple-tower temperature is not essential, fan cycling is an adequate and inexpen-
installations. sive method of capacity control. However, motor burnout from too-
frequent cycling is a concern.
Additionally, cooling towers should be located to prevent intro- Two-speed fan motors or additional lower-power pony motors, in
ducing the warm discharge air and any associated drift, which may conjunction with fan cycling, can double the number of steps of
contain chemical and/or biological contaminants, into the fresh air capacity control compared to fan cycling alone. This is particularly
intake of the building that the tower is serving or into those of adja- useful on single-fan motor units, which would have only one step of
cent buildings. capacity control by fan cycling. Two-speed fan motors are com-
Location of the cooling tower is usually determined by one or monly used on cooling towers as the primary method of capacity
more of the following: (1) structural support requirements, (2) rig- control, and provide the added advantage of reduced energy con-
ging limitations, (3) local codes and ordinances, (4) cost of bringing sumption at reduced load. Pony motors also provide some redun-
auxiliary services to the cooling tower, and ( 5 ) architectural com- dancy in case one motor fails.
patibility. Sound, plume, and drift considerations are also best han- It is more economical to operate all fans at the same speed than
dled by proper site selection during the planning stage. For to operate one fan at full speed before starting the next. Figure 17
additional information on seismic and wind restraint, see Chapter
compares cooling tower fan power versus speed for single-, two-,
54 of the 2003 A S H R A E Handbook-HVAC Applications.
and variable-speed fan motors.
Piping Frequency-modulating controls for fan motor speed can pro-
vide virtually infinite capacity control and energy management.
Piping should be adequately sized according to standard com-
mercial practice. All piping should be designed to allow expansion
and contraction. If the tower has more than one inlet connection, 1O0
balancing valves should be installed to balance the flow to each cell
properly. Positive shutoff valves should be used, if necessary, to iso- 90
late individual cells for servicing.
When two or more towers operate in parallel, an equalizer line 80
between the tower sumps handles imbalances in the piping to and
from the units and changing flow rates that arise from obstructions
70
such as clogged orifices and strainers. All heat exchangers, and as
Oe 60
d
W
50
Z
WIND e i5 40
30
20
10
n
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FAN SPEED, %
RECIRCULATION
Fig. 17 Cooling Tower Fan Power Versus Speed

Fig. 16 Discharge Air Reentering Tower (White 1994)
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright ASHRAE
Cooling Towers 36.9
Previously, automatic, variable-pitch propeller fans were the only particularly important at low ambient conditions in which the
way to do this; however, these mechanically complex drive sys- reduced water flows can promote freezing within the tower.
tems are more expensive and have higher sound levels, because
they operate at full design speed only. They have largely been Water-Side Economizer (Free Cooling)
replaced by variable-frequency drives (VFDs) coupled with a stan- With an appropriately equipped and piped system, using the tower
dard fixed-pitch fan, thereby saving more fan energy and operating for free cooling during reduced load andor reduced ambient condi-
significantly more quietly when the tower is at less than full load. tions can significantly reduce system energy consumption. Because
Variable-frequency fan drives are economical and can save con- the tower’s cold-water temperature drops as the load and ambient
siderable energy as well as extend the life of the motor, fan, and temperature drop, the water temperature will eventually be low
drive (gearbox or V-belt) assembly compared to fan cycling with enough to serve the load directly, allowing the energy-intensive
two-speed control. However, special considerations that should be chiller to be shut off. Figures 18, 19, and 20 outline three methods of
discussed with the tower manufacturer and the supplier of the VFD free cooling but do not show all of the piping, valving, and controls
include the following: that may be necessary for the functioning of a specific system.
Care must be taken to avoid operating the fan system at a critical Maximum use of free-cooling operation occurs when a drop in
speed or a multiple thereof. Critical speeds are fan operating the ambient temperature reduces the need for dehumidification.
speeds identical to one of the natural frequencies of the fan assem- Therefore, higher temperatures in the chilled-water circuit can nor-
bly and/or supporting structure. At these speeds, fan resonance mally be tolerated during the free-cooling season and are beneficial
occurs, resulting in excessive vibration and possibly fan system to the system’s heatingícooling balance. In many cases, typical 45°F
failure, sometimes very quickly. Consult the tower manufacturer chilled water temperatures are allowed to rise to 55°F or higher in
on what speeds (if any) must be avoided. Alternatively, the tower free cooling. This maximizes tower usage and minimizes system
can be tested at start-up using an accelerometer to identify critical energy consumption. Some applications require a constant chilled-
frequencies throughout the full speed range, thought this is gen-
m
erally not necessary with pre-engineered, factory-assembled
units. Critical frequencies, identified either by the manufacturer
or through actual testing, must be locked out in the VFD skip fie-
quency program. COOLING TOWER
Some VFDs, particularly pulse-width modulating (PWM) drives,
create overvoltages at the motor that can cause motor and bearing
failures. The magnitude of these overvoltages increases signifi-
cantly with the length of cable between the controller and the
motor, so lead lengths should be kept as short as possible. Special
motors, filters, or other corrective measures may be necessary to
ensure dependable operation. Consult the cooling tower manufac-
turer and/or the VFD supplier. Chapter 40 also has more informa-
tion on variable-frequency drives. EVAPORATOR
A VFD-compatible motor should be specified on all cooling tow-

ers with Variable-frequency drives.
Variable-frequency drives should not be operated at speeds below
approximately 25% of the full design fan speed. Although most
VFDs can modulate down to 10% or less of motor speed, a 25%
lower limit is recommended to maintain proper air and water dis-
CHILLED-WATER PUMP
tribution. At very low airflow rates, the water and air can channel
into separate streams, especially in counterflow units where uni- Fig. 18 Free Cooling by Use of Auxiliary Heat Exchanger
form water distribution may depend on the airflow rate. Uneven
water distribution can lead to wevdry areas and scaling. In freez-
ing climates, these separate streams could also result in localized
ice formation. Additionally, the fan energy saving at 10% com-
pared to 25% of full design speed is typically insignificant. COOLING TOWER
This precaution is particularly true for units with gear speed
reducers because low speeds can cause rotational “cogging,”
vibration, noise or “gear chatter,” and pose a lubrication problem
if the gear is either not equipped with an electric oil pump or not REFRIGERANT MIGRATION VALVES
specifically designed to run at these low speeds. Consult the tower
manufacturer for proper selection and adjustments of the VFD.
Modulating dampers in the discharge of centrifugal blower fans (OPTIONAL)
COMPRESSOR
are also used for cooling tower capacity control, as well as for
CONDENSER
energy management. In some cases, modulating dampers may be
used with two-speed motors. Note that modulating dampers have
increasingly been replaced by variable-frequency drives for these EVAPORATOR
purposes.
Cooling towers that inject water to induce airflow through the
cooling tower have various pumping arrangements for capacity con-
JCONDENSER
WATER PUMP
j/ PUMP
CHILLED-WATER
~
trol. Multiple pumps in series or two-speed pumping provide capac- REFRIGERANT MIGRATION VALVE
ity control and also reduce energy consumption.
Modulating water bypasses for capacity control should be used Fig. 19 Free Cooling by Use of Refrigerant
only after consultation with the cooling tower manufacturer. This is Vapor Migration
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright ASHRAE
water supply temperature, which can reduce the hours of free cool- Winter Operation
ing operation, depending on ambient temperatures. When a cooling tower is to be used in freezing climates, the fol-
If the spray water temperature is allowed to fall too low, freez- lowing design and operating considerations are necessary.
ing may be a concern. Close control of spray water temperature per Open Circulating Water. Direct-contact cooling towers can be
the manufacturer's recommendations minimizes unit icing and winterized by a suitable method of capacity control that maintains the
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
helps ensure trouble-free operation. Refer to the guidelines from temperature of water leaving the tower well above freezing. In addi-
the manufacturer and to the section on Winter Operation in this tion, during cold weather, regular visual inspections of the cooling
chapter. tower should be made to ensure all controls are operating properly.
Indirect Free Cooling. This type of cooling separates the On induced-draft axial fan towers, fans may be periodically oper-
condenser-water and chilled-water circuits and may be accom- ated in reverse, usually at low speed, to deice the air intake areas.
plished in the following ways: Using fan cycling or variable-frequency drives minimizes the pos-
sibility of icing by matching tower capability with the load. Forced-
1. A separate heat exchanger in the system (usually plate-and- draft centrifugal fan towers should also be equipped with a means of
frame) allows heat to transfer from the chilled-water circuit to capacity control, such as variable-frequency drives or capacity-con-
the condenser-water circuit by total bypass of the chiller system trol dampers for this reason.
(Figure 18). Recirculation of moist discharge air on forced-draft equipment
2. An indirect-contact, closed-circuit evaporative cooling tower can cause ice formation on inlet air screens and fans. Installing
(Figures 4 and 6) also permits indirect free cooling. Its use is vibration cut-out switches can minimize the risk of damage from ice
covered in the following section on Direct Free Cooling. formation on rotating equipment.
Closed Circulating Water. Precautions beyond those mentioned
3. In vapor migration system (Figure 19), bypasses between the
foi open circulating water must be taken to protect the fluid inside the
evaporator and condenser permit migratory flow of refrigerant heat exchanger of a closed-circuit fluid cooler. When system design
vapor to the condenser; they also allow gravity flow of liquid permits, the best protection is to use an antifreeze solution. When this
refrigerant back to the evaporator without compressor operation. is not possible, supplemental heat must be provided to the heat
Not all chiller systems are adaptable to this arrangement, and exchanger, and the manufacturer should be consulted about the
those that are may offer limited load capability under this mode. amount of heat input required. Positive closure damper hoods are
In some cases, auxiliary pumps enhance refrigerant flow and, also available from many manufacturers to reduce heat loss from the
therefore, load capability. coil section and thus reduce the amount of heat input required.
Direct Free Cooling. This type of cooling involves intercon- All exposed piping to and from the cooler should be insulated
necting the condenser-water and chilled-water circuits so the cool- and heat traced. In case of a power failure during freezing weather,
ing tower water serves the load directly (Figure 20). In this case, the the heat exchanger should include an emergency draining system.
chilled-water pump is normally bypassed so design water flow can Sump Water. Freeze protection for the sump water in an idle
be maintained to the cooling tower. The primary disadvantage of tower or closed-circuit fluid cooler can be obtained by various
the direct free-cooling system is that it allows the relatively dirty means. A good method is to use an auxiliary sump tank located in a
condenser water to contaminate the clean chilled-water system. heated space. When a remote sump is impractical, auxiliary heat
Although filtration systems (either side-stream or full-flow) mini- must be supplied to the tower sump to prevent freezing. Common
mize this contamination, many specifiers consider it to be an over- sources are electric immersion heaters and steam and hot-water
riding concern. Using a closed-circuit (indirect-contact) cooling coils. Consult the tower manufacturer for the exact heat require-
tower eliminates this contamination. During summer, water from ments to prevent freezing at design winter temperatures.
the tower is circulated in a closed loop through the condenser. Dur- All exposed water lines susceptible to freezing should be pro-
ing winter, water from the tower is circulated in a closed loop tected by electric heat tape or cable and insulation. This precaution
directly through the chilled-water circuit. applies to all lines or portions of lines that have water in them when
the tower is shut down.
Sound
Sound has become an important consideration in the selection
and siting of outdoor equipment such as cooling towers and other
evaporative cooling devices. Many communities have enacted leg-
islation that limits allowable sound levels of outdoor equipment.
Even if legislation does not exist, people who live and work near a
tower installation may object if the sound intrudes on their environ-
ment. Because the cost of correcting a sound problem may exceed
the original cost of the cooling tower, sound should be considered in
the early stages of system design.
To determine the acceptability of tower sound in a given envi-
(OPTIONAL)
COMPRESSOR ronment, the first step is to establish a noise criterion for the area
of concern. This may be an existing or pending code or an esti-
CONDENSER
LOAD mate of sound levels that will be acceptable to those living or
working in the area. The second step is to estimate the sound lev-
EVAPORATOR els generated by the tower at the critical area, taking into account
the effects of the tower installation geometry and the distance
from the tower to the critical area. Often, the tower manufacturer
can supply sound rating data on a specific unit that serve as the
basis for this estimate. Lastly, the noise criterion is compared to
the estimated tower sound levels to determine the acceptability of
Fig. 20 Free Cooling by Interconnection of Water Circuits the installation.
Copyright ASHRAE
Cooling Towers 36.11
In cases where the installation may present a sound problem, sev- the saturation curve indicates fog generation; the greater the area of
eral potential solutions are available. It is good practice to situate the intersection to the left of the saturation curve, the more intense the
tower as far as possible from any sound-sensitive areas. Two-speed plume. Fog persistence depends on its original intensity and on the
fan motors should be considered to reduce tower sound levels (by a degree of mechanical and convective mixing with ambient air that
nominal 12 dB) during light-load periods, such as at night, if these dissipates the fog.
correspond to critical sound-sensitive periods. However, fan motor Methods of reducing or preventing fogging have taken many
cycling should be held to a minimum because a fluctuating sound is forms, including heating the tower exhaust with natural gas burners
usùally more objectionable than a constant sound. Using variable- or hot-water or steam coils, installing precipitators, and spraying
frequency drives can also reduce noise by matching fan speed to chemicals at the tower exhaust. However, such solutions are gener-
capacity and by minimizing sound fluctuation caused by fan cycling. ally costly to operate and are not always effective.
In critical situations, effective solutions may include barrier On larger, field-erected installations, combination wet-dry cool-
walls between the tower and the sound-sensitive area, acoustical ing towers, which combine the normal evaporative portion of a
treatment of the tower, or using low-sound fans. Attenuators specif- tower with a finned-tube dry surface heat exchanger section (in
ically designed for the tower are available from most manufacturers. series or in parallel), afford a more practical means of plume con-
It may be practical to install a tower larger than would normally be trol. In such units, the saturated discharge air leaving the evaporative
required and lower the sound levels by operating the unit at reduced section is mixed within the tower with the warm, relatively dry air
fan speed. For additional information on sound control, see Chapter off the finned-coil section to produce a subsaturated air mixture
47 of the 2003 ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Applications. leaving the tower. In some closed-circuit hybrid cooling tower
designs, the dry and wet heat exchange sections combine to abate
Drift plume. This is accomplished by (1) reducing the amount of water
Water droplets become entrained in the airstream as it passes evaporated by the wet coil by handling some of the heat load sensi-
through the tower. Although eliminators strip most of this water bly with the dry heat exchanger, and ( 2 ) simultaneously heating the
from the discharge airstream, some discharges from the tower as discharge air with the incoming process fluid in the dry heat
drift. The rate of drift loss from a tower is a function of tower con- exchanger. In colder weather, these units can operate completely
figuration, eliminator design, airflow rate through the tower, and dry, eliminating plume altogether.
water loading. Generally, an efficient eliminator design reduces Often, however, the most practical solution to tower fogging is to
drift loss to between 0.001 and 0.005% of the water circulation rate. locate the tower where visible plumes, should they form, will not be
Because drift contains the minerais of the makeup water (which objectionable. Accordingly, when selecting cooling tower sites, the
may be concentrated three to five times) and often contains water potential for fogging and its effect on tower surroundings, such as
treatment chemicals, cooling towers should not be placed near park- large windowed areas or traffic arteries, should be considered.
ing areas, large windowed areas, or architectural surfaces sensitive
to staining or scale deposits. Maintenance
Usually, the tower manufacturer furnishes operating and mainte-
Fogging (Cooling Tower Plume) nance manuals that include recommendations for procedures and
Warm air discharged from a cooling tower is essentially satu- intervals as well as parts lists for the specific unit. These recom-
rated. Under certain operating conditions, the ambient air surround- mendations should be followed when formulating the maintenance
ing the tower cannot absorb all of the moisture in the tower program for the cooling tower. When such instructions are unavail-
discharge airstream, and the excess condenses as fog. able, the schedule of services in Table 1 and the following discus-
Fogging may be predicted by projecting a straight line on a psy- sion can guide the operator in establishing a reasonable inspection
chrometric chart from the tower entering air conditions to a point and maintenance program.
representing the discharge conditions (Figure 2 1). A line crossing Efficient operation and thermal performance of a cooling tower
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
depend not only on mechanical maintenance, but also on cleanli-
ness. Accordingly, cooling tower owners should incorporate the fol-
lowing as a basic part of their maintenance program.
Periodic inspection of mechanical equipment, fill, and both hot
water and cold water basins to ensure that they are maintained in
a good state of repair.
0.020
Periodic draining and cleaning of wetted surfaces and areas of
AIR LEAVING TOWER
alternate wetting and drying to prevent the accumulation of dirt,
scale, or biological organisms, such as algae and slime, in which
bacteria may develop.
Proper treatment of circulating water for biological control and
corrosion, in accordance with accepted industry practice.
Systematic documentation of operating and maintenance func-
tions. This is extremely important because without it, no policing
can be done to determine whether an individual has actually
adhered to a maintenance policy.
Inspections
The following should be checked daily (no less than weekly) in
an informal walk-through inspection. Areas requiring attention have
been loosely grouped for clarity, although category distinctions are
40 50 60 70 80 90 often hazy because the areas are interdependent.
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE, "F Performance. Optimum performance and safety depend on the
operation of each individual component at its designed capability.
Fig. 21 Fog Prediction Using Psychrometric Chart A single blocked strainer, for instance, can adversely affect the
Copyright ASHRAE
Table 1 Typical Inspection and Maintenance Schedule* Observe at least one fan start and stop each week. If a fan has a
- serious problem, lock it out of operation and call for expert assis-
tance. To be safe, do not take chances by running defective fans.
I. s Fan and drive systems should be professionally checked for
u
a J t dynamic balance, alignment, proper fan pitch (if adjustable), and
F c vibration whenever major repair work is performed on the fan or if
L i ;J unusual noises or vibrations are present. It is good practice to have
01 ? these items checked at least once every third year on all but the
i
-
I
smallest towers. Any vibration switches should be checked for

1. Inspect for clogging a
2. Check for unusual O proper operation at least annually.
noise or vibration Veri@ calibration of the fan thermostat periodically to prevent
excessive cycling and to ensure that the most economical tempera-
3. Inspect keys and sei S
ture to the chiller is maintained.
screws
Tower Structure. Check the tower structure and casing for water
4. Lubricate and air leaks as well as deterioration. Inspect louvers, fill, and drift
5 . Check oil seals S eliminators for clogging, excessive scale or algal growth. Clean as
6 . Check oil level necessary, using high-pressure water and taking care not to damage
7. Check oil for water V fragile fill and eliminator components.
and dirt Watch for excessive drift (water carryover), and take corrective
8. Change oil (at least S action as required. Drift is the primary means of Legionella trans-
9. Adjust tension mittal by cooling towers and evaporative condensers (see ASHRAE
10. Check water level Guideline 12 for recommendations on control of Legionella). Dete-
11. Check flow rate riorated drift eliminators should be replaced. Many older towers
12. Check for leakage > have drift eliminators that contain asbestos. In the United States,
13. Inspect general ! deteriorated asbestos-type eliminators should as a rule be desig-
condition nated friable material and be handled and disposed of in a manner
14. Tighten loose bolts S
approved by the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) and the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
15. Clean R 1 F
Check the tower basin, structural members and supports, fasten-
16. Repaint R ers, safety rails, and ladders for corrosion or other deterioration and
17. Completely open repair as necessary. Replace deteriorated tower components as
and close required.
18. Make sure vents art Y Water Distribution and Quality. Check the hot-water distribu-
open tion system frequently, and clear clogged nozzles as required. Water
-
D d a i l y ; W-weekly; M-monthly; M u a r t e r l y ; S-sen Y-yearly; distribution should be evenly balanced when the system is at rated
R-as required. flow and should be rechecked periodically. Towers with open distri-
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
*More frequent inspections and maintenance may be desirable bution pans benefit from covers because this retards algal growth.
The sump water level should be within the manufacturer's range
capacity and efficiency of the entire system. Operators should for normal operating level, and high enough to allow most solids to
always be alert to any degradation in performance, as this usually settle out, thereby improving water quality to the equipment served
is the first sign of a problem and is invaluable in pinpointing minor by the tower.
problems before they become major. Consult the equipment man- Tower water should be clear, and the surface should not have an
ufacturers to obtain specific information on each piece of equip- oily film, excessive foaming, or scum. Oil inhibits heat transfer in
ment (for both maintenance and technical characteristics), and cooling towers, condensers, and other heat exchangers and should
keep manuals handy for quick reference. not be present in tower water. Foam and scum can indicate excess
Check and record all water and refrigerant temperatures, pump organic material that can provide nutrients to bacteria (Rosa 1992).
pressures, outdoor conditions, and pressure drops (differential pres- If such conditions are encountered, contact the water treatment spe-
sure) across condensers, heat exchangers and filtration devices. This cialist, who will take steps to correct the problem.
record helps operators become familiar with the equipment as it Check the cold-water basin in several places for corrosion,
operates under various load conditions and provides a permanent accumulated deposits, and excessive algae, because sediments and
record that can be used to calculate flow rates, assess equipment corrosion may not be uniformly distributed. Corrosion and micro-
efficiency, expedite diagnostic procedures, and adjust maintenance biological activity often occur under sediments. Tower outlet
and water treatment regimens to obtain maximum performance strainers should be in place and free of clogging.
from the system. Do not neglect the strainers in the system. In-line strainers may
For those units with water-side economizers using plate heat be the single most neglected component in the average installation.
exchangers, check temperature and pressure differentials daily for They should be inspected and, if necessary, cleaned each time the
evidence of clogging or fouling. tower is cleaned. Pay particular attention to the small, fine strainers
Major Mechanical Components. During tower inspections, be used on auxiliary equipment such as computer cooling units and
alert for any unusual noise or vibration from pumps, motors, fans, and blowdown lines.
other mechanical equipment. This is often the first sign of mechanical Blow down chilled water risers frequently, particularly on sys-
trouble. Operators thoroughly familiar with their equipment generally tems using direct free cooling. Exercise all valves in the system peri-
have little trouble recognizing unusual conditions. Also listen for cav- odically by opening and closing them fully.
itation noises from pumps, which can indicate blocked strainers. For systems with water-side economizers, maintaining good
Check the tower fan and drive system assembly for loose mount- water quality is paramount to prevent fouling of the heat exchanger
ing hardware, condition of fasteners, grease and oil leaks, and or chilled-water system, depending on the type of economizer used.
noticeable vibration or wobble when the fan is running. Excessive Check, operate, and enable winterization systems well before
vibration can rapidly deteriorate the tower. freezing temperatures are expected, to allow time to obtain parts
Copyright ASHRAE
and make repairs as necessary. Ensure that tower sediments do not Operation in Freezing Weather. During operation in freezing
build up around immersion heater elements, because this will cause weather, the tower should be inspected more frequently, preferably
rapid failure of the elements. daily, for ice formation on fill, louvers, fans, etc. This is especially
Maintain sand filters in good order, and inspect the media bed for true when the system is being operated outside the tower design
channeling at least quarterly. If channeling is found, either replace parameters, such as when the main system is shut down and only
or clean the media as soon as possible. Do not forget to carefully supplementary units (e.g., computer cooling equipment) are operat-
clean the underdrain assembly while the media is removed. If ing. Ice on fan and drive systems is dangerous and can destroy the
replacing the media, use only that which is specified for cooling fan. Moderate icing on fill is generally not dangerous but can cause
towers. Do not use swimming pool filter sand in filters designed for damage if allowed to build up.
cooling towers and evaporative condensers. Follow the manufacturer’s specific recommendations both for
Centrifugal separators rarely require service, although they must operation in freezing temperatures and for deicing methods such as
not be allowed to overfill with contaminants. Verify proper flow low-speed reversal of fan direction for short periods of time. Moni-
rate, pressure drop, and purge operation. tor the operation of winterization equipment, such as immersion
Check bag and cartridge filters as necessary. Clean the tower if it heaters and heat-tracing tape on makeup lines, to ensure that they
is dirty. are working properly. Check for conditions that could render the
Cleanliness. Towers are excellent air washers, and the water freeze protection inoperable, such as tripped breakers, closed
quality in a given location quickly reflects that of the ambient air valves, and erroneous temperature settings.
(Hensley 1985). A typical 200 ton cooling tower operating 1000 Help from Manufacturers. Equipment manufacturers will pro-
hours may assimilate upwards of 600 Ib of particulate matter from vide assistance and technical publications on the efficient operation
airborne dust and the makeup water supply (Broadbent et al. 1992). of their equipment; some even provide training. Also, manufactur-
Proximity to highways and construction sites, air pollution, and ers can often provide names of reputable local service companies
operating hours are all factors in tower soil loading. that are experienced with their equipment. Most of these services
Design improvements in cooling towers that increase thermal are free or of nominal cost.
performance also increase air scrubbing capability (Hensley 1985).
Recommendations by manufacturers regarding cleaning schedules Water Treatment
are, therefore, to be recognized as merely guidelines. The actual fre- The quality of water circulating through an evaporative cooling
quency of cleanings should be determined at each location by care- system significantly affects the overall system efficiency, degree of
ful observation and system history. Do not expect sand filters, bag maintenance required, and useful life of system components.
filters, centrifugal separators, water treatment programs, and so Because the water is cooled primarily by evaporation of a portion of
forth, to take the place of a physical cleaning. They are designed to the circulating water, the concentration of dissolved solids and other
improve water quality and as such should increase the time interval impurities in the water can increase rapidly. Also, appreciable quan-
between cleanings. Conversely, regular cleanings should not be tities of airborne impurities, such as dust and gases, may enter dur-
expected to replace water treatment. ing operation. Depending on the nature of the impurities, they can
Towers should not be allowed to become obviously fouled, but cause scaling, corrosion, and/or silt deposits.
should be cleaned often enough that sedimentation and visible bio- Simple blowdown (discharge of a small portion of recirculating
logical activity (algae and slime) are easily controlled by water water to a drain) may be adequate to control scale and corrosion on
treatment between cleanings. The tower is the only component in sites with good-quality makeup water, but it will not control biolog-
the condenser loop that can be viewed easily without system shut- ical contaminants, including Legionella pneurnophila. All cooling
down, so it should be considered an indicator of total system condi- tower systems should be treated to restrict biological growth, and
tion and cleanliness. many benefit from treatment to control scale and corrosion. For a
Water treatment should not be expected to protect surfaces it can- complete and detailed description of water treatment, see Chapter 48
not reach, such as the metal or wood components under accumulated of the 2003 ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Applications. ASHRAE
sediments. Biocides are not likely to be effective unless used in con- Guideline 12 should also be consulted for recommendations regard-
junction with a regular cleaning program. Poorly maintained sys- ing control of Legionella. Specific recommendations on water treat-
tems create a greater demand upon the biocide because organic ment, including control of biological contaminants, can be obtained
sediments neutralize the biocide and tend to shield bacterial cells from any qualified water treatment supplier.
from the chemical, thus requiring higher and more frequent doses to
keep microbial populations under control (Broadbent et al. 1992; PERFORMANCE CURVES
McCann 1988). High concentrations of an oxidizing biocide can
contribute to corrosion. Keeping the tower clean reduces the breed- The combination of flow rate and heat load dictates the range a
ing grounds and nutrients available to the microbial organisms cooling tower must accommodate. The entering air wet-bulb tem-
(ASHRAE 1989; Broadbent 1989; Meitz 1986, 1988). perature and required system temperature level combine with cool-
Proper cleaning procedures address the entire tower, including ing tower size to balance the heat rejected at a specified approach.
not only the cold-water basin but also the distribution system, strain- The performance curves in this section are typical and may vary
ers, eliminators, casing, fan and fan cylinders, and louvers. The from project to project. Computerized selection and rating programs
water treatment specialist should be advised and consulted prior to are also available from many manufacturers to generate perfor-
and following the cleaning. mance ratings and curves for their equipment.
It is recommended that personnel involved wear high-efficiency Cooling towers can accommodate a wide diversity of tempera-
particulate air (HEPA) type respirators, gloves, goggles, and other ture levels, ranging as high as 150 to 160°F hot-water temperature in
body coverings approved by the appropriate agency, such as the the hydrocarbon processing industry. In the air-conditioning and
U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Health & Safety Adminis- refrigeration industry, towers are generally used in the range of 90 to
tration (OSHA) or National Institute for Occupational Safety and 115°F hot water temperature. A typical standard design condition
Health (NIOSH) in the United States. This is especially true if the for such cooling towers is 95°F hot water to 85°F cold water, and
cleaning procedures involve the use of high-pressure water, air, and 78°F wet-bulb temperature.
steam (ASHRAE 1989) or wet-dry vacuum equipment. If any A means of evaluating the typical performance of a cooling tower
chemicals are used, they must be handled according to their material used for a typical air-conditioning system is shown in Figures 22 to
safety data sheets (MSDSs), available from the chemical supplier.
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
27. The example tower was selected for a flow rate of 3 gpm per
Copyright ASHRAE
nominal ton when cooling water from 95 to 85°F at 78°F entering The format of these curves is similar to the predicted perfor-
wet-bulb temperature (Figure 22). mance curves supplied by manufacturers of cooling towers; the dif-
When operating at other wet bulbs or ranges, the curves may be ference is that only three specific ranges @O%, loo%, and 120%of
interpolated to find the resulting temperature level (hot and cold design range) and only three charts are provided, covering 90%,
water) of the system. When operating at other flow rates (2,4, and loo%, and 110% of design flow. The curves in Figures 22 to 25,
5 gpm per nominal ton), this same tower performs at the levels therefore, bracket the acceptable tolerance range of test conditions
described by the titles of Figures 23,24, and 25, respectively. Inter-
mediate flow rates may be interpolated between charts to find result-
ing operating temperature levels. 1O0
100,
I I
90
LL
w- 60
[LI
$w
a
5 70
[LI
c
Lu
26 60
o
50
40 ! I I I I I I
30 40 50 60 70 80
WET-BULB TEMPERATURE, "F
7" .
30 40 50 60 70 80
Fig. 24 Cooling Tower Performance-133% Design Flow
WET-BULB TEMPERATURE, "F
Fig. 22 Cooling Tower Performance-lOO% Design Flow
I I I l I I I I I I I I
30 40 50 60 70 80 30 40 50 60 70 60
WET-BULB TEMPERATURE, "F WETBULB TEMPERATURE, "F
Fig. 23 Cooling Tower Performance-67% Design Flow Fig. 25 Cooling Tower Performance-167% Design Flow
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright ASHRAE
and may be interpolated for any specific test condition within the For an accurate test, the tower should be running under a steady
scope of the curve families and chart flow rates. heat load combined with a steady flow of recirculating water, both
The curves may also be used to identify the feasibility of varying as near design as possible. Weather conditions should be reasonably
the parameters to meet specific applications. For example, the sub- stable, with prevailing winds of 10 mph or less. The tower should be
ject tower can handle a greater heat load (flow rate) when operating clean and adjusted for proper water distribution, with all fans oper-
in a lower ambient wet-bulb region. This may be seen by comparing ating at design speed. Both the CTI and ASME standards specie
the intersection of the 10°F range curve with 73°F wet bulb at 85°F maximum recommended deviations from design operating condi-
cold water to show the tower is capable of rejecting 33% more heat tions of range, flow, wet-bulb temperature, heat load, and fan power.
load at this lower ambient temperature (Figure 24). Performance Bond. A few manufacturers offer a performance
Similar comparisons and cross-plots identify relative tower capac- bond, which provides for seeking redress from a surety in the event
ity for a wide range of variables. The curves produce accurate com- the cooling tower does not meet the manufacturer's rated thermal
parisons within the scope of the information presented but should not performance.
be extrapolated outside the field of data given. Also, the curves are
based on a typical mechanical-draft, film-filled, cross-flow, medium- COOLING TOWER THEORY
sized, air-conditioningcooling tower. Other types and sizes of towers Baker and Shryock (1 961) developed the following theory.
produce somewhat different balance points of temperature level. Consider a cooling tower having one square foot of plan area; cool-
However, the curves may be used to evaluate a tower for year-round ing volume I;containing extended water surface per unit volume a;
or seasonal use if they are restricted to the general operating charac- and water mass flow rate L and air mass flow rate G. Figure 26 sche-
teristics described. (See specific manufacturer's data for maximum matically shows the processes of mass and energy transfer. The bulk
accuracy when planning for test or critical temperature needs.) water at temperature tis surrounded by the bulk air at dry-bulb tem-
A cooling tower selected for a specified design condition will perature ta,having enthalpy ha and humidity ratio W, . The interface
operate at other temperature levels when the ambient temperature is is assumed to be a film of saturated air with an intermediate temper-
off-design or when heat load or flow rate varies from the design con- ature t", enthalpy h", and humidity ratio W". Assuming a constant
dition. When flow rate is held constant, range falls as heat load falls, value of 1 Btu/lb."F for the specific heat of water cp,the total energy
causing temperature levels to fall to a closer approach. Hot- and cold- transfer from the water to the interface is
water temperatures fall when the ambient wet bulb falls at constant
heat load, range, and flow rate. As water loading to a particular tower dq, = LcP dt = KLû(t-t")dV (1)
falls at constant ambient wet bulb and range, the tower cools the
water to a lower temperature level or closer approach to the wet bulb. where
qw =rate of total heat transfer, bulk water to interface, Btu/h
COOLING TOWER THERMAL PERFORMANCE L = inlet water mass flow rate, Ib/h
KL = unit conductance, heat transfer, bulk water to
Three basic alternatives are available to a purchaseddesigner interface, Btu/h.ft2. O F
seeking assurance that a cooling tower will perform as specified: v = cooling volume, fi3
( i ) certification of performance by an independent third party such a = area of interface, ft2/ft3
as the Cooling Technology Institute (CTI), (2) an acceptance test
performed at the site after the unit is installed, or (3) a performance The heat transfer from interface to air is
bond. Codes and standards that pertain to performance certification dq, = KGû(t" - ta)d V
and field testing of cooling towers are listed in Chapter 48.
Certification. The thermal performance of many commercially where
available cooling tower lines, both open- and closed-circuit, is cer- qs = rate of sensible heat transfer, interface to airstream, Btuih
tified by CTI in accordance with their Standard STD-201, which K, = overall unit conductance,sensible heat transfer, interface to main
applies to mechanical-draft, open- and closed-circuit water cooling airstream, Btu/h.ft*~"F
towers. It is based on entering wet-bulb temperature and certifies
tower performance when operating in an open, unrestricted environ-
ment. Independent performance certification eliminates the need for
field acceptance tests and performance bonds.
Field Acceptance Test. As an alternative to certification, tower
performance can be verified after installation by conducting a field
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
acceptance test in accordance with one ofthe two available test stan-
dards. Of the two standards, CTI Standard ATC-105 is more com- TEMPERATURE t
monly used, although American Society of Mechanical Engineers DRY-BULB
(ASME) Standard PTC-23 is also used. These standards are similar
in their requirements, and both base the performance evaluation on
entering wet-bulb temperature. ASME Standard PTC-23, however,
provides an alternative for evaluation based on ambient wet-bulb
temperature as well.
With either procedure, the test consists of measuring the hot-
water temperature in the inlet piping to the tower or in the hot-water
distribution basin. Preferably, the cold-water temperature is mea-
sured at the discharge of the circulating pump, where there is much
less chance for temperature stratification. The wet-bulb temperature
is measured by an array of mechanically aspirated psychrometers. dqs = KG(adV)(t"- ta) dm K(adV)(W" - Wa)
rdm = rK(adV)(W" - Wa)
The recirculating water flow rate is measured by any of several
approved methods, usually a pitot-tube traverse of the piping lead-
ing to the tower. Recently calibrated instruments should be used for Fig. 26 Heat and Mass Transfer Relationships Between
all measurements, and electronic data acquisition is recommended Water, Interfacial Film, and Air
for all but the smallest installations. (Baker and Shryock 1961)
Copyright ASHRAE
Table 2 Counterflow Integration Calculations for Example 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9
Water Enthalpy Enthalpy Enthalpy CpAt Cumulative
1
Temperature of Film h', of Air h,, Difference At, NTU = Cooling
1, OF BtWlb Btdb h'- h,, Btuflb (h'-h~) OF (h' -ho& ZNTU Range. O F
85 49.4 38.6 10.8 0.0926
1 0.092 1 0.0921 1
86 50.7 39.8 10.9 0.0917
1 0.09i 7 0.1838 2
87 51.9 41.0 10.9 0.0917
1 0.0913 0.2751 3
88 53.2 42.2 11.0 0.0909
1 0.0901 0.3652 4
89 54.6 43.4 11.2 0.0893
1 0.0889 0.4541 5
90 55.9 44.6 11.3 0.0885
2 0.1732 0.6273 7
92 58.8 47.0 11.8 0.0847
2 0.1653 0.7925 9
94 61.8 49.9 12.4 0.0806
2 O. 1569 0.9493 11
96 64.9 51.8 13.1 0.0763
2 0.1477 1.O97 13
98 68.2 54.2 14.0 0.0714
2 0.1376 1.2346 15
1O0 71.7 56.6 15.1 0.0662
The diffision of water vapor from film to air is L c p dt = G d h = K ' a ( h " - h,)dV (6)
dm = K ' a ( W " - Wu)dV (3) where G is the air mass flow rate in lbh.
The equation considers the transfer from the interface to the air-
where
stream, but the interfacial conditions are indeterminate. If the film
rn mass transfer rate, interface to airstream, lbh
=
resistance is neglected and an overall coefficient K ' is postulated,
K' unit conductance,mass transfer, interface to=
based on the driving force of enthalpy h ' at the bulk water temper-
main airstream, Ib/h.ft*.(lb/lb)
W" = humidity ratio of interface (film), Ib/lb
ature t, the equation becomes
Wu= humidity ratio of air, Ib/lb
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Lcp dt = G d h = K'a(h'-h,)dV (7)

The heat transfer due to evaporation from film to air is
where
dg, = r dm = rK'a(W"- Wu)dV (4)
or K'aV/L = 1: &di
a
qL = rate of latent heat transfer, interface to airstream, Btu/h
I = latent heat of evaporation (constant), Btu/lb
The process reaches equilibrium when tu = t, and the air becomes and (9)
saturated with moisture at that temperature. Under adiabatic condi-
tions, equilibrium is reached at the temperature of adiabatic satura-
tion or at the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature of the air. This In cooling tower practice, the integrated value of Equation (8) is
is the lowest attainable temperature in a cooling tower. The circulat- commonly referred to as the number of transfer units (NTU). This
ing water rapidly approaches this temperature when a tower oper- value gives the number of times the average enthalpy potential (h' -
ates without heat load. The process is the same when a heat load is h,) goes into the temperature change of the water (At) and is a mea-
applied, but the air enthalpy increases as it moves through the tower sure of the difficulty of the task. Thus, one transfer unit has the def-
inition of c,At/(h' - = 1.
so the equilibrium temperature increases progressively. The
approach of the cooled water to the entering wet-bulb temperature is The equations are not self-sufficient and are not subject to direct
a function of the capability of the tower. mathematical solution. They reflect mass and energy balance at any
Merke1 (1 925) assumed the Lewis relationship to be equal to one point in a tower and are independent of relative motion of the two
in combining the transfer of mass and sensible heat into an overall fluid streams. Mechanical integration is required to apply the equa-
coefficient based on enthalpy difference as the driving force: tions, and the procedure must account for relative motion. Integra-
tion of Equation (8) gives the NTU for a given set of conditions.
K G / ( K ' c p m )= 1 (5)
Counterflow Integration
where cpmis the humid specific heat of moist air in Btu/lb."F (dry The counterflow cooling diagram is based on the saturation
air basis). curve for air-water vapor (Figure 27). As water is cooled from t,, to
Equation (5) also explains why the wet-bulb thermometer tW2,the air film enthalpy follows the saturation curve from A to B.
closely approximates the temperature of adiabatic saturation in an Air entering at wet-bulb temperature taw has an enthalpy ha corre-
air-water vapor mixture. Setting water heat loss equal to air heat sponding to C .' The initial driving force is the vertical distance BC.
gain yields Heat removed from the water is added to the air, so the enthalpy
Copyright ASHRAE
80
-X
70
._
L
m
60
Q
5
ai
40
Y" I 1 , I
70 80 90 100 110
TEMPERATURE, 'F
POINT A = Enthalpy of air film surrounding water droplet at hot-water temperature

POINT E = Enthalpy of air film surrounding water droplet at cold-water temperature I
POINT C = Entering air
POINT D = Exit air
I
YI
Fig. 27 Counterflow Cooling Diagram Fig. 28 Water Temperature and Air Enthalpy Variation
Through Cross-Flow Cooling Tower
(Baker and Shryock 1961)
increase is proportional to water temperature. The slope of the air
operating line CD equals LIG. (representing increments of height) with corresponding temperature
Counterflow calculations start at the bottom of a tower, the only changes calculated by iteration. The unit-volume procedure is more
point where the air and water conditions are known. The NTU is cal- cumbersome but is necessary in cross-flow integration because it
culated for a series of incremental steps, and the summation is the accounts for temperature and enthalpy change, both horizontally
integral of the process. and vertically.
Example 1. Air enters the base of a counterflow cooling tower at 75°F wet- Cross-Flow Integration
bulb temperature, water leaves at 85"F, and LIG (water-to-air ratio) is
1.2, so dh = 1.2 x 1 x dt, where 1 Btu/lb.OF is the specific heat cp of In a cross-flow tower, water enters at the top; the solid lines of
water. Calculate the NTU for vanous cooling ranges. constant water temperature in Figure 28 show its temperature dis-
Solution: The calculation is shown in Table 2. Water temperatures are tribution. Air enters from the left, and the dotted lines show constant
shown in column 1 for 1°F increments from 85 to 90°F and 2'F incre- enthalpies. The cross section is divided into unit volumes in which
ments from 90 to 100°F. The corresponding film enthalpies, obtained dVbecomes dxdy and Equation (7) becomes
fiom psychrometric tables, are shown in column 2.
The upward air path is in column 3. The initial air enthalpy is 38.6 cpL dt dx = G dh dy = Ka(h' - hu)dx dy (10)
Btu/lb, corresponding to a 75°F wet bulb, and increases by the relation-
shipAh=1.2 x l x A t . The overall LIG ratio applies to each unit-volume by considering
The driving force h' - h, at each increment is listed in column 4. dxldy = wíz. The cross-sectional shape is automatically considered
The reciprocals l/(h' - h,) are calculated (column 5), A t is noted (col- when an equal number of horizontal and vertical increments are
umn 6), and the average for each increment is multiplied by c,At to used. Calculations start at the top of the air inlet and proceed down
obtain the NTU for each increment (column 7). The summation of the and across. Typical calculations are shown in Figure 29 for water
incremental values (column 8) represents the NTU for the summation
of the incremental temperature changes, which is the cooling range
entering at 100"F, air entering at 75°F wet-bulb temperature, and
given in column 9. LIG = 1.0. Each unit-volume represents 0.1 NTU. Temperature
change vertically in each unit is determined by iteration from
Because of the slope and position of CD relative to the saturation
curve, the potential difference increases progressively from the bot- At = O.l(h'-h,)uvg
tom to the top of the tower in this example. The degree of difficulty
decreases as this driving force increases, reflected as a reduction in The expression c,(LIG)dt = dh determines the horizontal change
the incremental NTU proportional to a variation in incremental in air enthalpy. With each step representing 0.1 NTU, two steps
height. This procedure determines the temperature gradient with down and across equal 0.2 NTU, etc., for conditions corresponding
respect to tower height. to the average leaving water temperature.
The procedure of Example 1 considers increments of tempera- Figure 28 shows that air flowing across any horizontal plane
ture change and calculates the coincident values of NTU, which moves toward progressively hotter water, with entering hot water
correspond to increments of height. Baker and Mart (1952) devel- temperature as a limit. Water falling through any vertical section
oped a unit-volume procedure that considers increments of NTU moves toward progressively colder air that has the entering wet-bulb
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright ASHRAE
temperature as a limit. This is shown in Figure 30, which is a plot of of a tower of infinite width. The single operating line CD of the
the data in Figure 29. Air enthalpy follows the family of curves radi- counterflow diagram in Figure 27 is replaced in the cross-flow dia-
ating from Point A. Air moving across the top of the tower tends to gram (Figure 30) by a zone represented by the area intersected by
coincide with OA. Air flowing across the bottom of a tower of infinite the two families of curves.
height follows a curve that coincides with the saturation curve AB.
Water temperatures follow the family of curves radiating from TOWER COEFFICIENTS
Point B, between the limits of BO at the air inlet and BA at the outlet Calculations can reduce a set of conditions to a numerical value
representing degree of difficulty. The NTU corresponding to a set of
100°F HOT-WATER TEMPERATURE hypothetical conditions is called the required coefficient and eval-
71.73 h uates degree of difficulty. When test results are being considered,
1.1 1.2 13 1.4 1.51
the NTU represents the available coefficient and becomes an evalu-
$ 2.92 At 39
* 97.08'F
f 66.68h'
gz
NP
2.66At
97.37"F
67.11h'
3
:
gz
NP
2.42At
97.58'F
67.52h'
32
qz
NP
2.21 At
97.79"F
67.87h'
32
52
NIT
2.02 At
97.98'F
68.20 h'
3z
82
'I ation of the equipment tested.
The calculations consider temperatures and the L/G ratio. The
minimum required coefficient for a given set of temperatures occurs
at L/G= O, corresponding to an infinite air rate. Air enthalpy does not
--`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
increase, so the driving force is maximum and the degree of difficulty

is minimum. Decreased air rate (increase in L/G) decreases the dnv-
I 3.1 3.2 3.3 3,4 3.5 ing force, and the greater degree of difficulty shows as an increase in
$2
5$2.14Af
+
m f
92.45"F
CI 59.43h'
:s
%<
N-
2.01At
93.06"F
60.33h'
Õz
NT
1.89At
9356°F
61.09h'
3
:
-'
g'
1.77At
94.05"F
61.84h'
32
fiz 1.67At
94.4VF
62.50h'
32
Gd
-*
NTU. This situation is shown for counterflow in Figure 31. Maxi-
mum L/G (minimum air rate) occurs when CD intersects the satura-
w 4,1 4.2 4.3 4,4 4.:
tion curve. Driving force becomes zero, and NTU is infinite. The
point of zero driving force may occur at the air outlet or at an inter-
"1.85Af 3
: 1.77At $5 1.68At 32 1.60At 52 1.51Af 32 mediate point because of the curvature of the saturation curve.
-2 Fz $2 82 52
5 5
* 90.55"F
56.69h' -*
9129°F
57.74h' -- 91.88"F
58.59 h' -*
92.45'F
59.43 h' -- 92.97"F
60.20h' -* Similar variations occur in cross-flow cooling. Variations in L/G
vary the shape of the operating area. At L/G= O, the operating area
5,1 5,2 5.3 5.4 5,5
1.62At 32 52 2: 1.38Af 32
becomes a horizontal line, which is identical to the counterflow dia-
$ 88.93'F 32
1.56At
89.73'F
:
3
$2
1.50At
90.38"F g x
1.45Af
91.OO"F 5- 91.59"F zz gram (Figure 3 l), and both coefficients are the same. An increase in
f
CI 57,33h' 58.17h' .-w
54.46h' .?- 55.55h' .?- 56.45 h' --a L/G increases the height of the operating area and decreases the
90.53-F AVERAGE WATER TEMPERATURE width. This continues as the areas extend to Point A as a limit. This
UG = 1.0 At (Vertically) = 0.1 (h'- Ah (Horizontally)= At maximum L/Galways occurs when the wet-bulb temperature of the
air equals the hot-water temperature and not at an intermediate
Fig. 29 Cross-Flow Calculations point, as may occur in counterflow.
(Baker and Shryock 1961) Both types of flow have the same minimum coefficient at L/G = O,
and both increase to infinity at a maximum L/G.The maximums are
75
the same if the counterflow potential reaches zero at the air outlet, but
F
the counterflow tower will have a lower maximum L/G when the
potential reaches zero at an intermediate point, as in Figure 31. A
70 cooling tower can be designed to operate at any point within the two
120
65
.- 60
2?
V 100
n
T
e
.; 55
._
L
m
3
z
50
%
ù
5
3
5 80
>-
5
I
A
i-
45 w
40 6o I
35
70 75 EO 85 90 95
TEMPERATURE, "F 80 90 1O0 110 120
TEMPERATURE. "F
Fig. 30 Counterflow Cooling Diagram for Constant
Conditions, Variable LIG Ratios Fig. 31 Cross-Flow Cooling Diagram
Copyright ASHRAE
limits, but most applications restrict the design to much narrower lim- where LE is the mass flow rate of water that evaporates, in Ibh. This
its determined by air velocity. reduces the driving force and increases the NTU.
A low air rate requires a large tower, while a high air rate in a Evaporation causes the water rate to decrease from L at the inlet to
smaller tower requires greater fan power. Typical limits in air veloc- L -LE at the outlet. The water-to-air ratio varies from LIG at the water
ity are about 300 to 700 fpm in counterflow and 350 to 800 fpm or inlet to ( L - L,)/G at the outlet. This results in an increased NTU.
more in cross-flow. Basic theory considers the transfer from the interface to the air-
stream. AS the film conditions are indeterminate, film resistance is
Available Coefficients neglected as assumed in Equation (7). The resulting coefficients
A cooling tower can operate over a wide range of water rates, air show deviations closely associated with hot water temperature and
rates, and heat loads, with variation in the approach of the cold water may be modified by an empirical hot water correction factor (Baker
to the wet-bulb temperature. Analysis of a series of test points shows and Mart 1952).
that the available coefficient is not a constant but varies with the The effect of film resistance (Mickley 1949) is shown in Figure
operating conditions, as shown in Figure 32. 33. Water at temperature t i s assumed to be surrounded by a film of
Figure 32 is a typical correlation of a tower characteristic showing saturated air at the same temperature at enthalpy h' (Point B on the
the variation of available Ka V/L with L/G for parameters of constant saturation curve). The film is actually at a lower temperature t " at
air velocity. Recent fill developments and more accurate test meth- enthalpy h" (Point B'). The surrounding air at enthalpy ha corre-
ods have shown that some ofthe characteristic lines are curves rather sponds to Point C. The apparent potential difference is commonly
than a series of straight, parallel lines on logarithmic coordinates. considered to be h' - h a ,but the true potential difference is h " - ha
Ignoring the minor effect of air velocity, a single average curve (Mickley 1949). From Equations (1) and (6),
may be considered:
h " - h , - KL
KaV/L - (L/G)" (12) t - t" K'
The exponent n varies over a range of about -0.35 to -1.1 but aver- The slope of CB' is the ratio of the two coefficients. No means to
ages between -0.55 and-0.65. Within the range of testing, -0.6 has evaluate the coefficients has been proposed, but a slope of -1 1.1 for
been considered sufficiently accurate. cross-flow towers has been reported (Baker and Shryock 1961).
The family of curves corresponds to the following relation:
Establishing Tower Characteristics
KaV/L - (L)"(G)m (13) The performance characteristic of a fill pattern can vary widely
because of several external factors. For a given volume of fill, the
where rn varies slightly from n numerically and is a positive exponent.
optimal thermal performance is obtained with uniform air and water
The triangular points in Figure 32 show the effect of varying tem-
distribution throughout the fill pack. Irregularities in either alter the
perature at nominal air rate. The deviations result from simplieing local L/G ratios within the pack and adversely affect the overall ther-
assumptions and may be overcome by modifying the integration
mal performance of the cooling tower. Accordingly, the design of the
procedure. Usual practice, as shown in Equation (9), ignores evap-
tower water distribution system, air inlets, fan plenum, and so forth is
oration and assumes that
very important in ensuring that the tower will perform to its potential.
G dh = cpL dt (14) In counterflow towers, some cooling occurs in the spray chamber
above the fill and in the open space below the fill. This additional
The exact enthalpy rise is greater than this because a portion of
the heat in the water stream leaves as vapor in the airstream. The
correct heat balance is as follows (Baker and Shryock 1961):
G dh = cpL d t + cpL,(t,, - 32) (15)
2.(
1.5
>
z
Y" 1.c
a+
I
I-
z
w
0.1
W
U
o
0.f
O.i I I l I I
I 1 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0
U G RATIO TEMPERATURE
Pig. 32 Tower Characteristic,KUVIL Versus WG Fig. 33 True Versus Apparent Potential Difference
(Baker and Shryock 1961) --`,````,```,````,,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(Baker and Shryock 1961)
Copyright ASHRAE
performance is erroneously attributed to the fill itself, which can Hensley, J.C., ed. 1985. Cooling tower fundamentals, 2nd ed. Marley Cool-
lead to inaccurate predictions of a tower’s performance in other ing Tower Company, Kansas City.
applications. A true performance characteristic for the total cooling McCann, M. 1988. Cooling towers take the heat. Engineered Systems
tower can only be developed from full-scale tests of the actual cool- 5(0ctober):58-61.
ing tower assembly, typically by the tower manufacturer, and not by Meitz, A. 1986. Clean cooling systems minimize Legionella exposure.
combining performance data of individual components. Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning 58(August):99-102.
Merkel, F. 1925.Verduíìungskiihlung.Forschungarbeiten 215.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Mickley, H.S. 1949. Design of forced-draft air conditioning equipment.
Chemical Engineering Progress 45:739.
The Cooling Technology Institute (CTI) offers a reference guide Rosa, F. 1992. Some contributing factors in indoor air quality problems.
on CD-ROM containing information on pyschrometrics, Merkel National Engineer (May):14. ‘
Ka V/L calculation, Characteristic curve performance evaluation, and

performance curve evaluation, along with general information on BIBLIOGRAPHY
cooling towers.
Baker, D.R. 1962.Use charts to evaluate cooling towers. Petroleum Refiner
(November).
REFERENCES Braun, J.E. and Didemch, G.T. 1990. Near-optimal control of cooling tow-
ASHRAE. 1998.Legionellosis position document. ers for chilled water systems.ASHRAE Transactions 96(2):806-813.
ASHRAE.2000. Minimizingthe risk of Legionellosisassociatedwith build- CIBSE. 1991.Minimizingthe risk of Legionnaire’sdisease. TechnicalMem-
ing water systems. Guideline 12. orandum TM13. The CharteredInstituteof Building ServicesEngineers,
ASME. 2003. Atmospheric water cooling equipment. ANSUASME Stan- London.
dard PTC 23-2003. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New CTI. 2003. CTI ToolKit, v. 3.0. Cooling Technology Institute,Houston, TX.
York. Fliermans, C.B. et al. 1981. Measure of Legioneiiapneumophiia activity in
Baker, D.R. and H.A. Shryock. 1961. A comprehensive approach to the situ. Current Microbiology 6539-94.
analysis of cooling tower performance.ASME Transactions, Journal of Fluor Products Company. 1958.Evaluated weather data for cooling equip-
Heat Transfer (August):339. ment design.
Baker, D.R. and L.T. Mart. 1952.Analyzing cooling tower performance by Kohloss, EH. 1970. Cooling tower application.ASHRAE Journal (August).
the unit-volume coefficient. Chemical Engineering (December): 196.
Broadbent, C.R. 1989. Practical measures to control Legionnaire’s disease Landon, R.D. and J.R. Houx, Jr. 1973.Plume abatement and water conser-
hazards. Australian Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heating (July): vation with the wet-dry cooling tower. Marley Cooling Tower Company,
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CHAPTER 36

M OST air-conditioning systems and industrial processes gen-

Fig. 2 Psychrometric Analysis of Air Passing Through

SPLASH-TYPE FILL PACKING LOUVERS

SPRAY PUMP COOLING TOWER FILL

LOUVERS COLD WATER OUT

AIR OUT LOUVERS- /-HOT WATER IN

COLD WATER OUT

FORCED-DRAFTCOUNTERFLOW FORCED-DRAFT CROSSFLOW

Fig. 10 Conventional Mechanical-Draft Cooling Towers

HEATED AND HUMIDIFIED

Fig. 8 Horizontal Spray Tower

HEATED AND HUMIDIFIED

Fig. 9 Hyperbolic Tower Fig. 11 Factory-Assembled Counterflow Forced-Draft Tower

Fig. 12 Field-Erected Cross-Flow Mechanical-Draft Tower

Other Methods of Direct Heat Rejection

Fig. 13 Combination Wet-Dry Tower - A(95 + 0 . 4 2 5 ~ ) ~ , - ~ , ~

Types of Indirect-Contact Towers

nal drainage. Pumps are integrated in the product to transport water

r RECIRCULATION WATER (AT WET-BULB TEMPERATURE)

AIR OUTLET Graphite Composites. Graphite composite drive shafts are

Fig. 17 Cooling Tower Fan Power Versus Speed

A VFD-compatible motor should be specified on all cooling tow-

smallest towers. Any vibration switches should be checked for

Fig. 22 Cooling Tower Performance-lOO% Design Flow

Table 2 Counterflow Integration Calculations for Example 1

Lcp dt = G d h = K'a(h'-h,)dV (7)

POINT A = Enthalpy of air film surrounding water droplet at hot-water temperature

increase, so the driving force is maximum and the degree of difficulty

Ka V/L calculation, Characteristic curve performance evaluation, and

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