A Complete Note

Chap-3 on Physics for

Current Electricity Class 12

1.> Electric Current : Conventional current due to motion of

electrons is in the direction opposite to that of
The electric current is defined as the charge motion of electrons.
flowing through any section of the conductor in
unit time. Conventional current (I)
i.e. Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. - - -

3.1> Drift Velocity (

∆
i.e. = ):
∆

If the rate of flow of charge is steady then Drift velocity is defined as the average
velocity with which the free electrons get drifted
= towards the positive terminal under the effect of
the applied electric field.
If the rate of flow is varying with time
[ * =−
=
* =
S I Unit of current is ampere (A)
* = +
 1A:
∑
When a charge of 1C flows through a cross * =
section of a conductor in 1s, then electric current
is said to 1A. *∑ =0]

Note: Let
Electric current is a scalar quantity because = charge of an electron.
law of vector addition are not applicable but law
of ordinary algebra are used to add electric = mass of an electron.
current.
= total number of free electrons.
 Sub Units of Ampere:
= initial thermal velocity of the 1st electron.
1milli ampere = 1mA = 10 A -3

= Applied external electric field.

1micro ampere = 1μA = 10-6 A
∴ Force acting on the electron
2.> Electric Current in Conductors:
=−
Flow of free electrons in the conductor
constitutes electric current. ∴ Acceleration of the electron is

 Conventional Current: =− ...... (1)

Conventional current is directed along the
motion of positive charges under the action of Let,
electric field.
= time interval for which the electron gets
Conventional current (I) accelerated.(time interval between two
successive collision.)

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 A Complete Note
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∴ The velocity attained by the electron iii) ∝

= + i.e. With increased in length of the conductor,
drift velocity decreases.
Similarly velocities of the other electrons are

= + iv) ∝ ∝

= + 3.2 > Mobility ( ):

.........................
= + Mobility of a charge carrier is the drift
velocity acquired by it in a unit electric field.
∴ The average velocity of the electrons is
∴ μ= =q
τ
⋯
=

⋯ ⋯
4.0 > Relation Between Drift Velocity and
= + Current :
Here,
l
⋯
= 0,
d - A
since all the free electrons are in random motion.

[
⋯
= * =

i.e. = Average time elapse between two * = × ×volume of conductor

successive collisions of an electron, called
relaxation time. * = ]
v = aτ
Let,

∴ =− .... (3) A = area of cross section of a conductor.

l = length of the conductor.

i.e. =
vd = drift velocity of free electron.
As e = charge of an electron.
=
n = number of free electrons per unit
volume.
∴ =
∴ Number of free electrons in the conductor is
Note: N = nAl
i) Motion of free electron inside the conductor ∴ Total charge contained in the conductor is
due to action of electric filed is parabolic in
nature. = .... (1)
ii) ∝

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Time taken by this q charge to pass through the Example 3.1 (a) Estimate the average drift speed
conductor is of conduction electrons in a copper wire of cross-
sectional area 1.0×10–7 m2 carrying a current of
= ..... (2) 1.5 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes
roughly one conduction electron. The density of
∴ Current copper is 9.0×103 kg/m3, and its atomic mass is
63.5 u.
= (b) Compare the drift speed obtained above with,
(i) thermal speeds of copper atoms at ordinary
temperatures,
= (ii) speed of propagation of electric field along
the conductor which causes the drift motion.
Hint:
∴ =
 (a) =
Note:
 = × 9.0 × 10
Drift velocity of free electron is very small it
is of the order of 10-3 m/s.
 (b) (i) =
As soon as switch is ON bulb glows
immediately because the electric field which
causes free electrons to move is established  (ii) An electric field travelling along the
throughout the circuit, almost instantly (with the conductor has a speed of an electromagnetic
speed of light 3.0×108 m s–1). Thus current wave, i.e. 3.0×108 ms–1.
established almost at the instant circuit is closed.
Example 3.2 (a) In Example 3.1, the electron
drift speed is estimated to be only a few mms–1
4.1 Current Density ( ): for currents in the range of a few amperes? How
then is current established almost the instant a
Current density at a point, within a
circuit is closed?
conductor, is the current through a unit area of
cross section of the conductor,( around that (b) The electron drift arises due to the force
point), when the area is held perpendicular to the experienced by electrons in the electric field
direction of flow of current at that point. inside the conductor. But force should cause
acceleration. Why then do the electrons acquire a
i.e. = = steady average drift speed?

In vector form (c) If the electron drift speed is so small, and the
electron’s charge is small, how can we still
= obtain large amounts of current in a conductor?

(d) When electrons drift in a metal from lower to

i.e. =
higher potential, does it mean that all the ‘free’
electrons of the metal are moving in the same
Note: direction?
(i) Though electric current ‘I’ is a scalar
(e) Are the paths of electrons straight lines
quantity, current density ‘J’ is a vector quantity.
between successive collisions (with the positive
(ii) Electric current through a conductor remains ions of the metal) in the (i) absence of electric
constant for an applied voltage, but current field, (ii) presence of electric field?
density changes with change in area of cross- Hint:
section.

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 (a) Electric field which causes free electrons  Resistance :

to move is established throughout the circuit,
almost instantly (with the speed of light). It is the opposition offered by the conductor
Thus current established almost at the instant to the flow of electric current through it.
circuit is closed. However, it does take a little
while for the current to reach its steady value. It is given by the ratio of potential difference
applied across the conductor to the current
 (b) Each ‘free’ electron does accelerate, flowing through it.
increasing its drift speed until it collides with
a positive ion of the metal. It loses its drift i.e. R=
speed after collision but starts to accelerate
and increases its drift speed again only to
suffer a collision again and so on. On the S I Unit of resistance is ohm ( )
average, therefore, electrons acquire only a
drift speed.  1Ω:

Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1Ω if a

 (c) Simple, because the electron number
current of 1 A flows through it on applying a
density is enormous, ≈1029 m–3.
potential difference of 1 V across its ends.
 (d) No. The drift velocity is the
Notes:
superposition of large number of random
velocities of electrons. 1.> Its value is independent of V and I.
 (e) In the absence of electric field, the paths 2.> For given physical condition resistance of a
are straight lines; in the presence of electric conductor remains constant.
field, the paths are, in general, curved.
5.1> Resistance depends upon the nature of
5.> Ohm’s Law: the material:
The current flowing though a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference i) R ∝ l = length of the conductor.
applied across its ends when the temperature and
other physical conditions remain constant. ii) ∝

i.e. Potential difference ∝ current.

∴ ∝
∴ V∝ I
∴ =
∴ =
Here Here,

R =resistance of the conductor. = Resistivity of the material.

V It is defined as the resistance offered by a

conductor of unit length and unit area of cross
section.

Slope = resistance S I Unit is ohm metre ( m).

 Resistor :
I
Slope of the graph gives resistance of the Any material that has resistance are called
conductor. resistor.
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 A Complete Note
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A fixed resistor
∴ =
Variable resistor
7.> Expression for Resistivity:
6.> Deduction of Ohm’s Law:
Comparing with =
[ * =

* = =

* =− Thus resistivity depends up on

* = ] i) ∝ ( )

Let, ii) ∝ ( )
A = area of cross section of a conductor.
iii) independent of dimension of the
l = length of the conductor. conductor.

n = Number of free electrons per unit Note :

volume.
Resistivity is independent of dimension of
V = Applied potential difference across its the conductor but depends up on the temperature
ends. and other physical conditions.

∴ The electric field in the conductor is Qsn:

3.6 A negligibly small current is passed through
= ..... (1) a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section
6.0×10–7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be
Electric current in the conductor is 5.0 Ω. What is the resistivity of the material at
the temperature of the experiment?
= Hint:

But,  =

= 3.16 Two wires of equal length, one of

aluminium and the other of copper have the same
= resistance. Which of the two wires is lighter?
Hence explain why aluminium wires are
preferred for overhead power cables.
∴ = (ρAl = 2.63×10–8 Ω m, ρCu = 1.72×10–8 Ω m,
Relative density of Al = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9.)
i.e. = Hint:

At constant temperature, e, n, m, l, A and τ  =

are constant.
 = .
∴ = =
 > , hence Al is preferred over Cu.

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 A Complete Note
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8.> Temperature Dependence of Resistivity: − = 100 − 0 = 100

1.) Metals: = change in temp.

In metal number of free electron is almost 2.) Alloys used for making resistor
independent of temperature. As temperature
increases free electrons collide more frequently i) have high value of resistivity.
with the metal ions. Thus relaxation time (τ)
ii) are least affected by temperature.
decreases. Therefore resistivity, and hence
resistance increases with temperature. iii) have positive value of ‘α’.
The relation between resistivity (ρ) and iv) Linear relation between ρ and T :
temperature (T) is
ρ
= 1+ ( − )

Here,

= resistivity at temperature T0.

α = temperature coefficient of resistivity. T

( )
∴ = .( )
= . (0C-1) 3.) Semiconductor :

Thus temperature coefficient of resistivity can Relaxation time of semiconductor is almost

be defined as change in resistivity per unit independent of temperature. But the free electron
resistivity per unit change in temperature. density increases exponentially with increase in
temperature. Thus conductivity of semiconductor
For metals value for is very small and increases with increase in temperature. i.e.
variation of with temperature is non linear at Resistivity decreases with temperature.
low temperature.
9.> Some important terminology:
ρ
i) Conductivity ( ):

It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity.

T i.e. = ( mho m-1)

Change of resistance with temperature is given
by ∴ =

= 1+ ( − )
ii) Conductance (G) :
Here,
It is defined as the reciprocal of resistance.
R0 = resistance at temperature T0.
i.e. = (mho)
α = temperature coefficient of resistance.
iii) Ohmic Material :
= ,
×
 These are the substances which obey ohm’s
Here, law.

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 V-I graph is straight line.

Colour Let- Num- Multi- Tolare-
iv) Non-Ohmic Material : ter ber plier nce

 These are the substances which do not obey Black B 0 100 --

ohm’s law.
Brown B 1 101 ±1%
 V-I graph is non linear.
Red R 2 102 ±2%
10.> Ohm’s Law in Vector Form:
Orange O 3 103 --
From Ohm’s law,
Yellow Y 4 104 --
V = IR
Green G 5 105 ±0.5%
But,
Blue B 6 106 ±0.25%
V = El, and =
Violet V 7 107 ±0.1%
∴ = Grey G 8 108 ±0.05%

i.e. = White W 9 109 --

Gold -- -- 10-1 ±5%

But
Silver -- -- 10-2 ±10%
=
No 4th -- -- -- ±20%
∴ = band
In vector form Memory Aid:
B B ROY Goes to Bombay Via Gate Way to
= buy Gold and Silver.

Or Example 3.3 An electric toaster uses nichrome

for its heating element. When a negligibly small
= current passes through it, its resistance at room
temperature (27.0 °C) is found to be 75.3 Ω.
When the toaster is connected to a 230 V supply,
= [∵ = ] the current settles, after a few seconds, to a
steady value of 2.68 A. What is the steady
11.> Colour Code Of Carbon Resistors: temperature of the nichrome element? The
temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome
1st significant fig. Decimal multiplier averaged over the temperature range involved, is
1.70×10–4 0C–1.
Hint:

 R=

2nd significant fig. Tolerance  = 1+ ( − )

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Example 3.4 The resistance of the platinum wire

of a platinum resistance thermometer at the ice Current Voltage Current Voltage
point is 5 Ω and at steam point is 5.23 Ω. When A V A V
the thermometer is inserted in a hot bath, the
resistance of the platinum wire is 5.795 Ω. 0.2 3.9 3.0 59.2
Calculate the temperature of the bath.
Hint: 0.4 7.8 4.0 78.8

 = 1+ ( − ) 0.6 11.8 5.0 98.6

0.8 15.7 6.0 118.5

 =
×
1.0 19.7 7.0 138.2
 = 5.23 Ω
2.0 39.4 8.0 158.0
 = 5.0 Ω
Hint:
3.5 At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance
 Ratio, remains almost constant.
of a heating element is 100 Ω. What is the
temperature of the element if the resistance is
found to be 117 Ω, given that the temperature  i.e. resistance is constant and hence obeys
coefficient of the material of the resistor is Ohm’s law.
1.70×10–4 °C–1?
 Also, resistivity remains constant and is
Hint:
independent of temperature.
 = 1+ ( − )
3.19 Choose the correct alternative:
3.7 A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at (a) Alloys of metals usually have (greater/less)
27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at 100 °C. resistivity than that of their constituent metals.
Determine the temperature coefficient of (b) Alloys usually have much (lower/higher)
resistivity of silver. temperature coefficients of resistance than pure
Hint: metals.
(c) The resistivity of the alloy manganin is nearly
 = 1+ ( − ) independent of/ increases rapidly with increase
of temperature.
3.8 A heating element using nichrome connected (d) The resistivity of a typical insulator (e.g.,
to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of 3.2 amber) is greater than that of a metal by a factor
A which settles after a few seconds to a steady of the order of (1022/103).
value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of Hint:
the heating element if the room temperature is
27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of  (a) greater,
nichrome averaged over the temperature range
involved is 1.70×10–4 °C–1.  (b) lower,
Hint:
 (c) nearly independent of,
 =  (d) 1022.

 = 1+ ( − )

3.17 What conclusion can you draw from the

following observations on a resistor made of
alloy manganin?

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12.> Combination Of Resistors: (2). As the current through each resistor is

same
12.1.> Series Combination :
R2 R3 = =
R1

V1 V2 V3 I 12.2.> Parallel Combination :

I1 R1

V
R2
(i) Current through each of the resistor is same. I2

(ii) Total potential drop = sum of the potential I I3 R3 I

drops across the individual resistors.

Let,

R1, R2 and R3 be three resistors connected in V

series. (i) Potential drop across each resistor is same.

V = Potential difference maintained across (ii) Total current = sum of currents through
the combination. individual resistors.

I = electric current in the circuit. Let,

∴ = + + R1, R2 and R3 be three resistors connected in

parallel.
By ohm’s law
V = Potential difference maintained across
= + + the combination.

Let ∴ Total current in the circuit,

RS = equivalent resistance of the = + +

combination.
By ohm’s law
∴ =
= + +
∴ = + +
Let,
∴ = + +
RP = Equivalent resistance of the
Thus, the equivalent resistance in series combination.
combination is greater than the individual
resistance. ∴ =
Note:
∴ = + +
(1). If n resistors are of equal value

= ∴ = + +

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Thus, the equivalent resistance in parallel (c) Determine the equivalent resistance of
combination is less than the smallest individual networks shown in Fig. below.
resistance.
1Ω 1Ω
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
Notes:

(1) If n resistances are of equal value 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω

2Ω 2Ω
= (a)
R

(2) = =⋯= = R

3.3 (a) Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω are R

combined in series. What is the total resistance of R
the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of R
emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance,
obtain the potential drop across each resistor. (b)
Hint: Hint:

 (a) = + +  (a)(i) =
(ii) =
 (b) Current in the circuit
=  (b)(i) 1 Ω and 2 Ω in parallel, then 3 Ω in
series.
 = (ii) 2 Ω and 3 Ω in parallel, then 1 Ω in
series.
3.4 (a) Three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω are (iii) 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω in series.
combined in parallel. What is the total resistance (iv) 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω in parallel.
of the combination?
 (c)
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of 1Ω 1Ω 2Ω
(a)
emf 20 V and negligible internal resistance, =>
determine the current through each resistor, and 2Ω 4Ω
2Ω
the total current drawn from the battery.
Hint: (b) =5

 (a) = + + 13.> Heating Effect of Current :

 (b) = As the charge carriers (free electrons) move
through the conductor, due to collisions with ions
and atoms energy gained by the charges is shared
3.20 (a) Given ‘n’ resistors each of resistance R,
with the atoms. The atoms vibrate more
how will you combine them to get the (i)
vigorously, i.e., the conductor heats up.
maximum (ii) minimum effective resistance?
What is the ratio of the maximum to minimum The amount of energy dissipated by the
resistance? conductor in the form of heat in time t is
(b) Given the resistances of 1 Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω, how
will be combine them to get an equivalent
resistance of (i) (11/3) Ω (ii) (11/5) Ω, (iii) 6Ω, = = = joules
(iv) (6/11) Ω?

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The above expression is known as Joule’s proportional to the common area of the
law of heating. electrodes dipping in the electrolyte.

14.> Electric Power : iv) Temperature :

It is rate at which the energy is dissipated in It increases with decrease in temperature of

unit time. electrolyte.

v ) Nature of the electrodes (conductivity of the

i.e. = = = = watt (W) electrodes).

Note:
15.> Cell : The internal resistance of cell increases as
current is drawn from the cell.
 Emf:
 Comparison of EMF and P.D:
The electromotive force is the maximum
potential difference between the two electrodes EMF P.D
of the cell when no current is drawn from the
cell. 1. It is the maximum
p.d. between the two It is the difference of
Or potentials between
electrodes of the cell
when the circuit is any two points in a
It is the amount of work done in taking a unit closed circuit.
positive charge along a closed circuit. open.

 Internal Resistance of a cell: 2. It is independent of It is proportional to

the resistance of the the resistance between
The opposition offered by the electrolyte and circuit. the given points.
electrodes of a cell to the flow of electric current
through it is called the internal resistance of the
cell. However, p.d. is
3. It is greater than the
greater than emf when
p.d. between any two
 Factors affecting Internal Resistance of a the cell is being
points in a circuit.
cell: charged.

i) Separation:
16.> Relation Between Internal Resistance,
Larger the separation between the electrodes Emf & Terminal P.D. :
of the cell, more is the length of the electrolyte
R
through which current has to flow and
consequently a higher value of internal
resistance. I I

ii) Nature of electrolyte: r

Greater the conductivity of the electrolyte,

lesser is the internal resistance of the cell. i.e. Cell
internal resistance depends on the nature of the
electrolyte. [ * = + ′

iii) Common area of electrodes: * =

The internal resistance of a cell is inversely * ′

= ]

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Let, Note:

E = emf of a cell. i) When current is drawn from the cell

r = internal resistance of the cell. E>V

R = external resistor connected to the cell. ii) When the circuit is open.

I = current in the circuit. i.e. I = 0

By Ohm’s law, Vopen = E

The potential drop across the resistor R Thus potential difference across the terminals of
a cell is equal to its emf when no current is
V = IR ...... (1) drawn from the cell.

The potential drop across the internal resistor, r iii) During charging of cell,
′
= .... (2) = + ′

By the definition of emf ( Here charger acts as the external resistor

whose potential drop = V )
E = V + V′
Example 3.5 A network of resistors is connected
= IR + Ir to a 16 V battery with internal resistance of 1Ω,
as shown in Fig.
∴ E= I (R + r) (a) Compute the equivalent resistance of the
network.
Hence current in the circuit is
(b) Obtain the current in each resistor.
(c) Obtain the voltage drops VAB, VBC and VCD.
=( )

The terminal potential difference of the cell is

= = ( )

i.e. = − ′
= − Hint:

From the above expressions internal  (a) = +

resistance of the cell is

=  = +

=  = +1+
/

( )
 (b) Current in the circuit
∴ = =

i.e. = −1  + =

 =
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 = conductor of non-uniform cross-section. Which

of these quantities is constant along the
3.21 Determine the current drawn from a 12V conductor: current, current density, electric field,
supply with internal resistance 0.5Ω by the drift speed?
infinite network shown in Fig. below. Each (b) Is Ohm’s law universally applicable for all
resistor has 1Ω resistance. conducting elements? If not, give examples of
elements which do not obey Ohm’s law.
1Ω 1Ω (c) A low voltage supply from which one needs
1Ω 1Ω high currents must have very low internal
resistance. Why?
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω (12V (d) A high tension (HT) supply of, say, 6 kV
0.5Ω) must have a very large internal resistance. Why?
Hint:
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω  (a) Current as it is steady.
Hint: Other quantities vary inversely with area of
cross section.
 Let ‘x’ = equivalent resistance of the infinite
network of resistors.  (b) No. It is not applicable to non-ohmic
Addition of few 1Ω resistors will not change materials.
the equivalent resistance of the network.
1Ω  (c) = , I is maximum when R = 0.


 (d) = if ‘r’ is small, in case of short

x 1Ω
circuit as the supplied voltage is current I will
exceed the safety limit.
1Ω
17.> Series Combination of Cells :
 =

3.1 The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 E1 r1 E2 r2 rS

I I
V. If the internal resistance of the battery is 0.4 ≡
Ω, what is the maximum current that can be A B C A E C
S
drawn from the battery?
Hint: [ * = +

 = , I is maximum when R = 0. * = −

* = −
3.2 A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance
3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the current in the
circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the * = − ]
resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the
battery when the circuit is closed? In series connection of cells, positive
terminal of one cell is connected to negative
Hint:
terminal of other cell and so on.
 = Let,
 =
E1 = emf of cell 1.
3.18 Answer the following questions:
(a) A steady current flows in a metallic = Internal resistance of cell 1.

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= emf of cell 2. Note :

= internal resistance of cell 2. (i) If the cells E2, E4 and En-1 opposed the
combination, then
∴ Potential difference across the terminal of
cell 1 is = − + − …− +
= – .... (1) (ii) If all the cells are identical,
Potential difference across the cell 2.
=
= – .... (2)
=
∴ Potential difference across the terminals of
combination is When an external resistor R is connected to the
combination, current in the circuit is
= +
=
= (E1 – Ir1) + (E2 – Ir2)

∴ VAC = (E1 +E2) – (r1 +r2) .... (3) i.e. =

Let, (a) If R << nr,

ES = emf of equivalent cell of the combination.
then I = = current due to single cell.
rS = equivalent internal resistance of the
combination. (b) If nr << R, then I = n

∴ V = ES – rS ..... (4) Hence when internal resistance is negligible

in comparison to the external resistance, then the
From eqn no.3 and 4. cells are connected in series to get maximum
current.
ES = E1 +E2

For n cells in combination 18.> Parallel Combination of Cells :

E1
= + + +⋯+ I1
r1 rP
Thus the emf of the battery is the sum of the I I
≡
individual emfs. A E2 B A E B
P

And I2 r2

= + Cells are said to be connected in parallel

when they are joined positive to positive and
For n cells negative to negative such that current is divided
between the cells.
= + + + ⋯+
Let,
Thus the total internal resistance of the
battery is the sum of the individual internal = emf of cell 1.
resistances.
= internal resistance of cell 1.
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 A Complete Note
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= current through cell 1. = +

= emf of cell 2.
∴ = +
= internal resistance of cell 2.

= current through cell 2. For m cells

= Potential difference between A and B. = + +⋯+

With respect to cell1

If negative terminal of E2 and Em-1 are
= – connected to the positive terminal of the
remaining cells then,
∴ =
= − +⋯− +
( )

( )
Similarly
Note:
=
If all the cells are identical,
∴ Current through the external circuit is
=
I = I1 + I2
=
= +
When an external resistor of resistance R is
= + − + connected to the combination, current in the
circuit is
= −
= =

∴ = − ..... (1)
(i) If R << r/m, then
Let,
= = m × current due to a single cell.
= emf of equivalent cell of the
combination. (ii) If r/m << R, then

= internal resistance equivalent cell. = = Current due to a single cell.

∴ = − .....(2) Thus when external resistance is

negligible in comparison to the internal
From eqn 1 and 2
resistance, then the cells are connected in parallel
to get maximum current.
=
3.15 (a) Six lead-acid type of secondary cells
And each of emf 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.015 Ω
are joined in series to provide a supply to a
= resistance of 8.5 Ω. What are the current drawn
from the supply and its terminal voltage?
(b) A secondary cell after long use has an emf of

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 A Complete Note
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1.9 V and a large internal resistance of 380 Ω.  It is base on conservation of energy:

What maximum current can be drawn from the
cell? Could the cell drive the starting motor of a In a closed loop, whatever energy is supplied
car? by emf must be transferred into other forms by
Hint: devices in the loop, since there are no other ways
in which energy can be transferred into or out of
 (a) = the circuit.

Sign Convention :
 =
1.> The emf is taken negative when the loop
 (b) = , = when R= 0 traverses from positive to negative terminal of
the cell through the electrolyte.
 Starting motor of a car requires 100 A for
few seconds. - +

19.> Kirchhoff’s Rules : V = -E

2.> The emf is taken positive when the loop
(i) Junction Rule:
traverses from negative to positive terminal of
I1 the cell through the electrolyte.
O
I3
- +
I2
At any junction of circuit elements, the sum V = +E
of currents entering the junction must equal the
sum of currents leaving it. 3.> When the loop traverses through a resistor in
the same direction of current, potential drop
i.e. I1 + I2 – I3 = 0 across the resistor is taken as negative.

Sign Convention: I

1.> The incoming currents towards the junction

= −
are taken positive.
4.> When loop traverses through a resistor in the
2.> The outgoing currents away from the opposite direction of current, potential drop
junction are taken negative. across the resistor is taken as positive.

 It is base on conservation of charge. I

When currents in a circuit are steady,

charges cannot accumulate at a junction. Thus V = + IR
charges that arrive at a junction in a given time Example:
interval must be equal to charges that leave the
junction in the same time interval in accordance A R1 I1
B
with conservation of charges.
E1
(ii) Loop Rule: R2 I2
G C
The algebraic sum of all the emfs and potential E2
drop across any element of a closed loop of an I
electric circuit must be zero. F
R3 D

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 A Complete Note
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At the junction C by junction rule, Hint:

I1 + I2 = I .... (1)  The paths AA′, AD and AB are obviously

symmetrically placed in the network. Thus,
Applying loop rule to closed loop ABCGA the current in each must be the same, say, ‘I’.
Further, at the corners A′, B and D, the
– I1R1 + E1 – E2 +I2R2 = 0 ..... (2) incoming current ‘I’ must split equally into
the two outgoing branches.
Applying loop rule to closed loop ABCDFGA
 Let current through AB, AD and ′
be ‘I’
– I1R1 + E1 – IR3 = 0 .... (3)

Solve eqn. 1,2 and 3, and find the value of I1, I2  Apply junction rule at A
and I3.
 Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule and obtained
Example 3.7 Determine the current in each required no. of eqns.
branch of the network shown in Fig.
3.9 Determine the current in each branch of the
B network shown in fig.
B
2Ω
4Ω 10Ω 5Ω
1Ω
A C 5V
10 V A C
5Ω
4Ω 2Ω
5Ω 10Ω
D D
Hint :

 Apply junction rule at A 10Ω 10 V

E
Hint:
 Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule and obtained
required no. of eqns.  Apply junction rule at A
Example 3.6 A battery of 10 V and negligible  Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule and obtained
internal resistance is connected across the required no. of eqns.
diagonally opposite corners of a cubical network
consisting of 12 resistors each of resistance 1 Ω Example 3.8
as in the Fig. given below. Determine the B
equivalent resistance of the network and the I1- Ig
current along each edge of the cube. 100Ω
10Ω
D′ Ig
C ′ I1
A C
A ′ 15Ω
B′ I2

60Ω 5
I I
D C I2+ Ig
D
10 V
A
B 10 V E

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 A Complete Note
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The four arms of a Wheatstone bridge I the fig. = variable resistor

given below have the following resistances: AB
= 100Ω, BC = 10Ω, CD = 5Ω, and DA = 60Ω. A Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed
galvanometer of 15Ω resistance is connected loop ABDA
across BD. Calculate the current through the
galvanometer when a potential difference of 10 − I1P – IgG + I2R = 0 ..... (1)
V is maintained across AC.
Hint: Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed
loop BCDB
 Considering the mesh BADB, apply
− (I1−Ig)Q +( I2+ Ig)S +IgG = 0 .... (2)
Kirchhoff’s Rule
The resistance R is adjusted so that the
 Considering the mesh BCDB, apply
galvanometer shows no deflection and the bridge
Kirchhoff’s Rule
is said to be in balanced state.
 Considering the mesh ADCEA, apply
i.e. When the bridge is balanced
Kirchhoff’s Rule
Ig = 0
20.> Wheatstone Bridge :
Eqn. (1) becomes
It is an arrangement of four resistors P, Q, R
and S as arms of a quadrilateral to determine − I1P + I2R = 0
one of these resistances from the remaining
resistances. i.e. I1P = I2R ..... (3)

 Wheatstone bridge principle: And

When the Wheatstone bridge is balanced Eqn. (2) becomes

= −I1Q + I2S = 0

B i.e. I1Q = I2S .... (4)

I1- Ig
P Ig Q Dividing eqn eqn. (3) by eqn.(4)

I1 =
A C
G
I2 Note :

R S I (1) The bridge is said to be in balance state when

I the galvanometer shows no deflection.
I2+ Ig
D
(2) When the bridge is balanced, interchanging
the position of the galvanometer and battery does
not affect the balanced state of the bridge.
E
Let 21.> Metre Bridge or Slide Wire Bridge:
= unknown resistance. It is a practical application of Wheatstone
bridge to measure an unknown resistance.
= resistance of galvanometer.

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Principle: Note:

It is base on the principle of Wheatstone i) The connection between the resistors in a

bridge to measure an unknown resistance. metre bridge is made of thick metallic strips to
(R.B) minimise the resistances of the connecting
R S metallic strips which are not accounted in the
formula.

ii) To minimise the error in determining the

G value of unknown resistance null point is to be
obtained at or near the middle of metre bridge
A J B wire.
l 100 − l
iii) Jockey must be lightly slide over the wire so
that area of cross section remains constant.

Example 3.9 In a metre bridge as in fig below,

the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm
Construction:
from A. If now a resistance of 12Ω is connected
It consists of a wire of length 1m (100 cm) in parallel with S, the null point occurs at 51.9
and of uniform cross sectional area stretched and cm. Determine the values of R and S.
clamped between two thick metallic strips bent at R S
right angles, as in the fig. Metallic strip has two
gaps across which resistors can be connected.
G
Working :
A J B
l 100 − l
When the galvanometer current is made zero
by adjusting the jockey position on the metre Hint:
bridge wire for the given values of known and
unknown resistances,  From the 1st balance point
.
=
= .

 After S is connected in parallel with a

Let resistance of 12Ω , the resistance across the
gap changes from S to Seq, where
= resistance per unit length of the wire.
=
∴ =
 From the new condition of balance point
= (100 − ) .
=
.

∴ = ( ) 3.10 (a) In a metre bridge Fig. given below, the

balance point is found to be at 39.5 cm from the
i.e. =( end A, when the resistor Y is of 12.5 Ω.
)
Determine the resistance of X. Why are the
connections between resistors in a Wheatstone or
( )
∴ = meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
(b) Determine the balance point of the bridge
above if X and Y are interchanged.
Thus knowing the value of l and R, the value (c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell
of unknown resistance S can be determined.

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are interchanged at the balance point of the composition where a constant current is passed
bridge? Would the galvanometer show any through it with the help of driver battery.
current?
X Y Principle :

Let
G A = Uniform area of cross-section.
A J B ρ = resistivity of the wire
l 100 − l
l = length of ‘BJ” portion of the wire.

∴ Resistance of BJ
Hint:
=
 (a)
( )
= .
Potential drop across BJ
 The connections between resistors in a meter
bridge are made of thick copper strips to V = IR
minimize the resistance of these connections
whose resistance is accounted in the above ∴ =
formula.
If the constant current flows through the
 (b) When X and Y are interchanged potentiometer wire of uniform cross sectional
=
( )
. area (A) and uniform composition of material
(ρ), then
 (c) With the iinterchanging of the
galvanometer and cell the condition for = =
balanced bridge is still satisfied, hence the
balance point of the bridge remains ∴ =
unchanged.
∴ ∝
22.> Potentiometer:
Hence the potential drop across any length of
It is a device to compare or measure emfs a wire of uniform cross-section and uniform
and potential differences. composition is proportional to its length when a
constant current flows through it.
C
Rh J
V
K
Slope = k
B V
l
Potential gradient (k):
Construction :
It is potential drop per unit length of the
A potentiometer consists of a long wire of potentiometer wire.
uniform cross sectional area and uniform
∴ = = Vm-1

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Note: 24.> Determination of Internal Resistance of

a Cell Using Potentiometer:
Potential drop along the length of the
potential metre wire is maintained by the driver B
battery only. J1 J2
Rh
23.> Comparision of emfs of two Primary K
A
Cells Using Potentiometer : E
B k1 G
Rh J1 J2 k2
R RS
K
A Let,
E2
k2 G k = potential gradient of the potentiometer.
k1 R s E = emf of a cell.
E1
r = internal resistance of the cell.
Let,
When the key k1 is closed with key k2 open cell
k = potential gradient of the potentiometer. is connected to the circuit.
E1= emf of cell 1. Let
E2 = emf of cell 2. J1 = null point for the cell.
When the key k1 is closed with k2 open, the l1 = AJ1
cell of emf E1 is connected to the circuit.
∴ E = kl1 ..... (1)
Let,
When the key k2 along with k1 is closed,
J1 = Null point for cell 1. resistance ‘R’ from resistance box is introduced
in the circuit.
l1 = AJ1 = length of null point for cell 1.
Let
∴ E1 = kl1 ..... (1)
J2 = null point for potential drop across the
When the key k2 is closed with k1 open, the
resistance R.
cell of emf E1 is connected to the circuit.
l2 = AJ2
Let
∴ Potential drop across R
J2 = Null point for cell 2.
V = kl2 ..... (2)
l2 = AJ2 = length of null point for cell 2.
From eqn 1 and 2.
∴ E2 = kl2 ..... (2)

From eqn (1) and (2). =

Internal resistance of a cell is

=
= −1

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 A Complete Note
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∴ Internal resistance of the cell is (ii) with decreasing the current flowing in it.

Example 3.10 A resistance of R Ω draws current

= −1
1
from a potentiometer. The potentiometer has a
2 total resistance R0 Ω as in the Fig. given below.
A voltage V is supplied to the potentiometer.
Note: Derive an expression for the voltage across R
when the sliding contact is in the middle of the
i) The balance point (null point) will not be
potentiometer.
obtained on the potentiometer wire if the fall of
V
potential along the potentiometer wire is less
than the emf of the cell to be measured. R0
A C
i.e. If EDB < E, null point will not be obtained B
1Ω
with the length of the potentiometer wire.

ii) The working of the potentiometer is based on R

Hint:
null deflection method. So the resistance of the
potentiometer wire becomes infinite. Thus  Resistance between A and B
potentiometer can be regarded as an ideal
voltmeter. = +
 Resistance between A and C
iii) Voltmeter draws a small current from a cell,
so it measures the terminal potential difference = +
of the cell not the emf. Whereas potentiometer  Current though the potentiometer
uses null deflection method and hence does not =
draw any current from the cell. Thus it measures
emf. Hence potentiometer s preferred over  Potential drop across R
voltmeter to measure emf.
′
=

3.22
25.> Sensitivity of a Potentiometer:
It is the smallest value of potential difference
that can be accurately measured by a
potentiometer.

 Thus a potentiometer is sensitive if

(i) it is capable of measuring very small

potential differences, and

(ii) it shows a significant change in the balancing The above fig. shows a potentiometer with a cell
point for a small change in the potential of 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.40 Ω
difference being measured. maintaining a potential drop across the resistor
wire AB. A standard cell which maintains a
 Smaller the potential gradient (k), greater is constant emf of 1.02 V (for very moderate
the sensitivity of the potentiometer. currents up to a few mA) gives a balance point at
67.3 cm length of the wire. To ensure very low
Hence for a given potential difference, the currents drawn from the standard cell, a very
sensitivity of the potentiometer increases high resistance of 600 kΩ is put in series with it,
which is shorted close to the balance point. The
(i) with increase in length of the potentiometer
standard cell is then replaced by a cell of
wire.
unknown emf ‘E’ and the balance point found

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similarly, turns out to be at 82.3 cm length of the

wire.
(a) What is the value E ?
(b) What purpose does the high resistance of
600 kΩ have?
(c) Is the balance point affected by this high
resistance?
(d) Is the balance point affected by the internal
resistance of the driver cell?
(e) Would the method work in the above Hint:
situation if the driver cell of the potentiometer
had an emf of 1.0V instead of 2.0V?  When current ‘I’ flows through the
(f ) Would the circuit work well for determining potentiometer wire,
an extremely small emf, say of the order of a few =
mV (such as the typical emf of a thermo- =
couple)? If not, how will you modify the circuit?  =
Hint: =
 If there is no balance point, it means potential
 (a) = drops across R or X are greater than the
potential drop across the potentiometer wire
 (b) To protect galvanometer by reducing AB. The obvious thing to do is to reduce
current through the galvanometer when the current in the R and X (and hence potential
movable contact is far from the balance drops across R and X) suitably by putting a
point. series resistor to R and X.
 (c) No current flows through the standard cell  Or a cell of smaller emf ε be used.
at the balanced point.
 Or increase the potential drop across the
 (d) Internal resistance of the driver cell potentiometer wire by increasing driver
affects the current through the potentiometer,
battery voltage.
thereby changes the potential gradient and
hence affects the balanced point. 3.24 Figure below shows a 2.0 V potentiometer
 (e) If ‘E’ is greater than the emf of the driver used for the determination of internal resistance
battery, balance point will not be obtained of a
within length of the potentiometer wire. 1.5 V cell. The balance point of the cell in open
 (f) The circuit, as it is, would be unsuitable, circuit is 76.3 cm. When a resistor of 9.5 Ω is
because the balance point (for ε of the order used in the external circuit of the cell, the
of a few mV) will be very close to the end A balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the
and the percentage error in measurement will potentiometer wire. Determine the internal
be very large. The circuit is modified by resistance of the cell.
putting a suitable resistor R in series with the
wire AB so that potential drop across AB is
only slightly greater than the emf to be
measured. Then, the balance point will be at
larger length of the wire and the percentage
error will be much smaller.

3.23 Figure 3.34 shows a potentiometer circuit

for comparison of two resistances. The balance
point with a standard resistor R = 10.0 Ω is found
to be 58.3 cm, while that with the unknown
Hint:
resistance X is 68.5 cm. Determine the value of
X. What might you do if you failed to find a
balance point with the given cell of emf ε?  =

Prepared by: Kh.O.Dh. Dept. Physics SSI Chap: 3:: 23 of 23