INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS

Soil is the oldest and most complex engineering material. Our ancestors used
soils as construction material to build burial sites, flood protection, and
shelters.

Western civilizations credit the Romans for recognizing the importance of

soils in the stability of structures. Roman engineers, especially Vitruvius, who
served during the reign of Emperor Augustus in the first century B.C., paid
great attention to soil types (sand, gravel, etc.) and to design and
construction of solid foundations. There was no theoretical basis for design;
experience from trial and error was relied upon.

Coulomb (1773) is credited as the first person to use mechanics to solve soil
problems. He was a member of the French Royal Engineers, who were
interested in protecting old fortresses that fell easily from cannon fire. To
protect the fortresses from artillery attack, slopping masses of soil were
placed in from of them. The enemy had to tunnel below the soil mass and
the fortress to attack. Of course, the enemy became an easy target. The
mass of soil applies a lateral force to the fortress that could cause it to topple
over or could cause it to slide away from the soil mass. Coulomb attempted
to determine the lateral force so that he could evaluate the stability of the
fortress. He postulated that a wedge of soil ABC would fail along a slip plane
BC and this wedge would push the wall out or overtopple it as it moves down
the slip plane.

Movement of the wedge along the slip plane would occur only if the soil
resistance along the wedge were overcome. Coulomb assumed that the soil
resistance is provided by the friction between the particles and the problem
became one of a wedge sliding on a rough (frictional) plane, which you may
have analyzed in your physics or mechanics course. Coulomb has tacitly
defined a failure criterion for soils. Today, Coulomb’s failure criterion and
method of analysis still prevail.

From the early twentieth century, the rapid growth of cities, industry, and
commerce required myriad building systems: for example, skyscrapers, large
public buildings, dams for electric power generation and reservoirs for water
supply and irrigation, tunnels, roads and railroads, port and harbor facilities,
bridges, airports and runways, mining activities, hospitals, sanitation
systems, drainage systems, and towers for communication systems. These
building systems require stable and economic foundations and new questions
about soils were asked. For example, what is the state of stress in a soil
mass, how can one design safe and economic foundations, how much would
a building settle, and what is the stability of structures founded on or within
soil? We continue to ask these questions and to try to find answers as new
issues have confronted us. Some of these new issues include removing toxic
compounds from soil and water, designing foundations and earth structures
to mitigate damage from earthquake and other natural hazards, and
designing systems to protect the environment.

To answer these questions, we need the help of some rational method and,
consequently, soil mechanics was born. Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963) is the
undisputed father of soil mechanics.

Soil mechanics, also called geotechnique or geotechnics or geomechanics, is

the application of engineering mechanics to the solution of problems dealing
with soils as foundation and a construction material. Engineering mechanics
is used to understand and interpret the properties, behavior, and
performance of soils.
Soil mechanics is a subset of geotechnical engineering, which involves the
application of soil mechanics, geology, and hydraulics to the analysis and
design of geotechnical systems such as dams, embankments, tunnels, canals,
and waterways, foundations for bridges, roads, buildings, and solid waste soil
– their stratification, composition, and engineering properties. Thus,
engineering mechanics can provide only partial solution to soil problems.
Experience and approximate calculations are essential for the successful
application of soil mechanics to practical problems.

Stability and economy are two tenets of engineering design, In geotechnical

engineering, the uncertainties of the performance of soils, the uncertainties
of the applied loads, and the vagaries of natural forces nudge us to
compromise between sophisticated analyses and simple analyses or
approximate methods. Stability should never be compromised for economy.
An unstable structure compromised to save a few dollars can result in death
and destruction.

Soil = uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter

(solid particles) along with the liquid and gas that occupy the empty spaces
between the solid particles

= Used as construction material in various civil engineering projects

and it supports structural foundation.

Soils Engineering
Application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.

Karl Terzaghi (1925)

Father of Soil Mechanics
Introduced the fundamental principles of soil mechanics on which more
advanced studies are based.

Geotechnical Engineering
The science and practice of the part of civil engineering that involves
natural materials found close to the surface of the earth.

It includes the application of the fundamental principles of soil

mechanics and rock mechanics to foundation design problems
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS AND SOILS INVESTIGATION

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

• Dip – is the downward separation of a bedding plane.

• Faults – are ground fractures.
• Minerals – are chemical elements that constitute rocks.
• Rocks – are aggregation of minerals into a hard mass.
• Soils – are materials that are derived from the weathering of rocks.
• Strike – is the horizontal surface separation of a layer or bedding plane.

IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY

Geological forces and process often result in inhomogeneous and discontinuous formations that
significantly influence the stability and costs of civil engineering works. The amount of
investigation needed to characterize a site economically; the type and methods of construction, and
natural geological hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, and groundwater conditions are
important geological factors that must be considered in the practice of geotechnical engineering.
Many failures of structures, causing loss of lives and properties, have resulted from unrealized
geological conditions. Consider the geology at a potential construction site in a country as shown.
To map these geological features requires applications of geophysical methods and a series of
closely spaced boreholes. The precise size of each geological feature is difficult to ascertain. In
building a skyscraper, for example, you must have a knowledge of the geological features under
and within the vicinity of the building to design a safe and economical foundation.

Most of the theories we will be using to predict and understand the response of a soil are based on
the assumption of a homogeneous soil mass-one that has the same properties at all points. But, soils
are rarely homogeneous as illustrated. Thus, we will be treating soils as ideal or hypothetical
materials and use statistical average properties. However, in many cases, statistical average values
could mislead because a soil at layer at a particular location may control the stability of a
geotechnical system.
EARTH’S PROFILE

Our planet Earth has an average radius of 6373 km and a mean mass density of 5.527 g/cu.cm
compared with a mean mass density of soil particles of 2.7 g/cu.cm and a water of 1 g/cu.cm.
Studies from elastic waves generated by earthquakes showed that the earth has a core of heavy
metals, mostly iron, of mass density of 8 g/cu.cm surrounded by a mantle. The mantle consists of
two parts, upper mantle and lower mantle. The upper mantle is solid rock while the lower mantle
is molten rock. Above the upper mantle is the crust, which may be as much as 50 km thick in the
continental areas and as thin as 7 km in oceanic areas.

COMPOSITION OF EARTH’S CRUST

The materials that compose earth’s crust are sediments and

rock. Sediments are solid fragments of inorganic or
organic material resulting from the weathering of rocks
and are transported and deposited by wind, water, or ice.
Rocks are classified into three groups – igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic – based on the earth’s
process that forms them.

Igneous rocks are formed from magma (molten rock materials) emitted from volcanoes that have
cooled and solidified.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments, animals and plant materials that are deposited in
water or on land on the earth’s surface and then subjected to pressures and heat. The heat and
pressures that are involved in forming sedimentary rocks are low in comparison to igneous rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are formed deep within the earth’s crust from the transformation of igneous,
sedimentary, and even existing metamorphic rocks.
COMPOSITION OF SOILS

Soils are formed from the physical and

chemical weathering of rocks.
Physical weathering involves reduction of
size without any change in the original
composition of the parent rock. The main
agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing,
and thawing.

Chemical weathering causes both reductions in size and chemical alteration of the original parent
rock. The main agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation, and
oxidation.

SOIL TYPES
Common descriptive terms such as gravels, sands, silts, and clays are used to identify
specific textures in soils. We will refer to these soil textures as soil types: that is, sand is one soil
type, clay is another.

Texture refers to the appearance of feel of a soil. Sands and gravels are grouped together as coarse-
grained soil. Clays and silts are fine-grained soil. Coarse-grained soils feel gritty and hard. Fine-
grained soils feel smooth. The coarseness of soil is determined from knowing the distribution of
particle sizes, which is the primary means of classifying coarse-grained soils. To characterize fine-
grained soils, we need further information on the types of minerals present and their contents. The
response of fine-grained soils to loads, known as mechanical behavior, depends on the type of
predominant minerals present.

Currently, many soil descriptions and soil types are in usage. A few of these are listed below,

• Alluvial Soil – are fine sediments that have been eroded from rock, transported by water,
and have settled on river and stream beds.
• Calcareous Soil – contain calcium carbonate and effervesces when treated with
hydrochloric acid.
• Caliche – consists of gravel, sand, and clay cemented together by calcium carbonate.
• Collovial Soil – are soils found at the base of mountains that have been eroded by the
combination of water and gravity.
• Eolian Soil – are sand-sized particles deposited by wind.
• Expansive Soil – are clays that undergo large volume changes from cycles of wetting and
drying.
 • Glacial Soil – are mixed soils consisting rock debris, sand, silt, clays, and boulders.
• Glacial Till – is a soil that consists mainly of coarse particles.
• Glacial Clay – are soil that were deposited in ancient lakes and subsequently frozen.
• Gypsum – is calcium sulphate formed under heat and pressure from sediments in ocean
brine.
• Lacustrine Soil – are mostly silts and clays deposited in glacial lake waters.
• Lateritic Soil – are residual soils that are cemented with iron oxides and are found in tropical
regions.
• Loam – is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay that may contain organic material.
• Loess – is a wind blown, uniform fine-grained soil.
• Marine Soil – are sand, silts, and clays deposited in salt or brackish water.
• Mud – is clay and silt mixed with water into a viscous fluid.

Types of Soil According to Mode of Deposition

1. Residual Soils = soils formed by the weathered products at the place of their origin
= important characteristics of residual soil is gradation and particle size.
Fine grained soils is found at the surface and the grain size increases with
depth.
Gradation Curves

Increasing depth
% finer

Particle size diameter

2. Glacial soils = formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers

3. Alluvial Soils = transported by running water and deposited along streams
4. Lacustrine Soil = formed by deposition of quite lakes
5. Marine Soil = formed by deposition in the seas
6. Aeoline soils = transported and deposited by winds.
7. Colluvial soils = formed by movement of soils from its original place by gravity
PHYSICAL SOIL PARAMETERS

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

1. Water Content (w) – is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
solids.
2. Void Ratio (e) – is the ratio of the volume of void space to the volume
of solids.
3. Porosity (n) – is the ratio of the volume of void to the total volume of
soil.
4. Degree of Saturation (S) – is the ratio of the volume of water to the
volume of void.
5. Bulk Unit Weight (ɣ) – is the weight density, that is, the weight of a soil
per unit volume.
6. Saturated Unit Weight (ɣsat) – is the weight of a saturated soil per unit
volume.
7. Dry Unit Weight (ɣd) – is the weight of a dry soil per unit volume.
8. Effective Unit Weight (ɣ’) – is the weight of soil solids in a submerged
soil per volume.
9. Relative Density (Dr) – is an index that quantifies the degree of
packing between the loosest and densest state of coarse-grained soil.
10. Effective Particle Size (D10) – is the average particle diameter of
the soil at 10 percentile; that is, 10% of the particles are smaller than
this size (diameter)
11. Average Particle Diameter (D50) – is the average particle
diameter of soil.
12. Liquid Limit (LL) – is the water content at which a soil changes
from a plastic state to a liquid state.
13. Plastic Limit (PL) – is the water content at which a soil changes
from a semisolid to a plastic state.
14. Shrinkage Limit (SL) – is the water content at which a soil
changes from a solid to a semisolid state without further change in
volume.
15. Maximum dry unit weight (ɣdmax) – is the maximum unit weight
that a soil can attain using a specified means of compaction.
16. Optimum water content (wopt) – is the water content required to
allow a soil to attain its maximum dry unit weight.

Soil is composed solids, liquids, and gases. The solid phase may be mineral,
organic matter, or both. The space between the solid (soil particles) are
called voids. Water is often the predominant liquid and air is the predominant
gas. We will use the terms water and air instead of liquids and gases. The
soil water is commonly called porewater and it plays a very important role in
the behavior of soils under load. If all the voids are filled by water, the soil is
saturated. Otherwise, the soil is unsaturated. If all the voids are filled with
air, the soil is said to be dry.

Soil Composition
Generally, in their natural occurrence, are three phase system
composed of the following:
a. Air
b. Water
c. Soil solids

States of soil
Moist
Saturated
Totally dry

solids

Voids: air and /or water

Equivalent Block Diagram

Weight Volume

Wa=0 Air Va

VV

WT WW Water VW VT

WS Soil Solids VS

Where:
WT = total weight = Wa + Ww + Ws = Ww + Ws
Wa = weight of air = 0
Ww = weight of water
Ws = weight of solids
VT = total volume = Va + Vw + Vs = Vv + Vs
Vv = volume of voids = Va + Vw
Va = volume of air
Vw = volume of water
Vs = volume of solids

We can idealize the three phases of soil as shown. The physical properties of
soils are influenced by the relative proportions of each of these phases. The
total volume of the soil is the sum of the volume of solids (Vs), volume of
water (Vw), and volume of air (Va): that is,

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑤 + 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣
where:
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑤 + 𝑉𝑎

Is the volume of voids. The weight of the soil is the sum of the weights of
solids (Ws) and the weight of water (Ww). The weight of air is negligible. Thus,

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤

Volume Relationships
1. Void Ratio (e) – It is the ratio of the volume of void to the volume of solids.
𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠

2. Porosity (n) –It is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume.
𝑉𝑣
𝑛=
𝑉𝑇

3. Degree of Saturation, (S%) = It is the ratio of the volume of water to the

volume of the voids
𝑉𝑤
𝑆 = 𝑥 100%
𝑉𝑣

Relationship between Void Ratio and Porosity

𝑉𝑣
𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣 ⁄𝑉 𝑒
𝑠
𝑛= = = =
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑣 + 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑣⁄ + 𝑉𝑠⁄ 𝑒+1
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
Weight Relationships
1. Moisture Content or water content, (w%) – It is the ratio, often
expressed as a percentage, of the weight of water to the weight of
solids:
𝑊𝑤
𝑤= 𝑥100%
𝑊𝑠

2. Unit Weight, (σ) = – It is the weight of a soil per unit volume.

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑊
𝛾= =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

2.1. Dry unit weight; (σd)

𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑑 =
𝑉𝑇
2.2. Moist or total unit weight
𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾𝑇
1
𝑊𝑇 𝑊𝑤 + 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑤 + 𝑊𝑠 ⁄𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑤 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑤
𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾𝑇 = = = 𝑥 = ( + )= ( + 1)
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 1⁄ 𝑉𝑇 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑠 𝑉𝑇 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾𝑑 (1 + 𝑤)
𝑜𝑟
𝛾𝑚
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤

Relationship between Unit weight, void ratio, moisture content and specific
gravity of solids

Specific Gravity (Gs) – It is the ratio of the unit weight of a substance to the
unit weight of water.
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐺=
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Where:
𝐾𝑁 1𝑔
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9.81 = = 92.4𝑝𝑐𝑓
𝑚3 𝑐𝑐

𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
𝑎. 𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑒
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 + 𝑤)
𝑏. 𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾𝑇 =
1+𝑒
𝛾𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒)
𝑐. 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
1+𝑒

𝐺𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠

Relationship between unit weight, porosity, moisture content and specific
gravity of solids

𝑎. 𝛾𝑑 = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛)
𝑏. 𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾𝑇 = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛)(1 + 𝑤)
𝑐. 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑤 [(1 − 𝑛)(2𝑠 + 𝑛)]

Specific Volume (V’) – is the volume of soil per unit volume of solids.
𝑉
𝑉′ = =1+𝑒
𝑉𝑠

Degree of Saturation (S) – is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage, of

the volume of water to the volume of voids.
𝑉𝑤 𝑤𝐺𝑠
𝑆= = 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
𝑉𝑣 𝑒

NOTE: If S = 1 or 100%, the soil is saturated. If S = 0, the soil is bone dry.

It is practically impossible to obtain a soil with S = 0.

SPECIAL CASES:
Effective or buoyant unit weight is the weight of a saturated soil, surrounded
by water, per unit volume of soil:
𝐺𝑠 − 1
𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 = ( ) ɣ𝑤
1+𝑒

Typical Values of Unit Weight for Soil

Soil Type ɣsat (kN/m3) ɣd (kN/m3)
Gravel 20-22 15-17
Sand 18-20 13-16
Silt 18-20 14-18
Clay 16-22 14-21
Relative Density (Dr) – is an index that quantifies the degree of packing
between the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as
determined by experiments
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑑 − 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟 ( )
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑

Where: emax is the maximum void ratio (loosest condition), emin is the
minimum void ratio (densest condition), and e is the current void ration
Description Based on Relative Density
Dr (%) Description
0-20 Very Loose
20-40 Loose
40-70 Medium Dense of Firm
70-85 Dense
85-100 Very Dense

Illustrative problem 1: In the natural state, a moist soil has a volume of

0.0094m3 and weighs 18.15kg. The oven dry weight of the soil is 16.15. If
Gs = 2.71, determine the following:
a. Moisture content, %
b. Moist unit weight, KN/m3
c. Dry unit weight, KN/m3
d. Void ratio
e. Porosity
f. Degree of saturation
Equivalent Block Diagram

Air Va = 0.00144
VV = 0.00344

WT=18.15 WW = 2 Water VW = 0.002 VT = 0.0094

WS = 16.15 Soil Solids VS = 0.00596

Solution:
a. Moisture content, w
𝑊𝑤 2
𝑤= 𝑥100% = 𝑥 100 = 12.38%
𝑊𝑠 16.15

b. Moist unit weight, γm = γT

𝑊𝑇 18.15𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁
𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾𝑇 = = 3
𝑥9.81 2 𝑥 = 18.94 3
𝑉𝑇 0.0094𝑚 𝑠 1000𝑁 𝑚

c. Dry unit weight, γd

𝑊𝑠 16.15𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1𝐾𝑁 𝐾𝑁
𝛾𝑑 = = 3
𝑥9.81 2 𝑥 = 16.85 3
𝑉𝑇 0.0094𝑚 𝑠 1000𝑁 𝑚

𝛾𝑚 18.94 𝐾𝑁
𝛾𝑑 = = = 16.85 3
1 + 𝑤 1 + 0.1238 𝑚
 d. Void ratio
𝛾𝑠
𝐺𝑠 =
𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1
𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠
𝑊𝑠
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑒𝑞𝑛 2
𝛾𝑠
𝑊𝑠 16.15𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑠 = = = 0.00596
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝑘𝑔
2.71 (1000 3 )
𝑚

𝑉𝑣 0.00344
𝑒= = = 0.58
𝑉𝑠 0.00596

𝐾𝑁
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 2.71 (9.81 3 )
𝛾𝑑 = ; 𝑒= −1= 𝑚 − 1 = 0.58
1+𝑒 𝛾𝑑 16.85

𝐾𝑁
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 + 𝑤) 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 + 𝑤) 2.71 (9.81 3 ) (1 + 0.1238)
𝛾𝑚 = ; 𝑒= −1= 𝑚 − 1 = 0.58
1+𝑒 𝛾𝑚 18.94

e. Porosity, n
𝑉𝑣 0.00344
𝑛= = = 0.37
𝑉𝑇 0.0094

𝑒 0.58
𝑛= = = 0.37
1 + 𝑒 1 + 0.58

f. Degree of saturation, S%
𝑉𝑤
𝑆=
𝑥 100%
𝑉𝑣
𝑊𝑤 𝑊𝑤 2𝑘𝑔
𝛾𝑤 = ; 𝑉𝑤 = = = 0.002𝑚3
𝑉𝑤 𝛾𝑤 𝑘𝑔
1000 3
𝑚
𝑉𝑤 0.002
𝑆 = 𝑥 100% = 𝑥100 = 58.14%
𝑉𝑣 0.00344

𝑤𝐺𝑠 0.1238(2.71)
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 ; 𝑆= = 𝑥100 = 57.84%
𝑒 0.58
Illustrative Problem 2: For a soil, given e = 0.75, w = 22% and Gs = 2.66,
determine the following
a. Porosity
b. Moist unit weight pcf and KN/m3
c. Dry unit weight, pcf and KN/m3
d. Degree of saturation, %

Solution:
a. Porosity, e
𝑒 0.75
𝑛= = = 0.43
1 + 𝑒 1 + 0.75

b. Moist unit weight, γm = γT

𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑇 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 + 𝑤) 2.66 (1000 𝑚3 ) (1 + 0.22) 𝑘𝑔
𝛾𝑚 = 𝛾𝑇 = = = = 1,854.4 3
𝑉𝑇 1+𝑒 1 + 0.75 𝑚

c. Dry unit weight, γd

𝛾𝑚 1,854.4 𝑘𝑔
𝛾𝑑 = = = 1,520.0 3
1 + 𝑤 1 + 0.22 𝑚

d. Degree of saturation, S%
𝑤𝐺𝑠 0.22(2.66)
𝑆= = 𝑥100 = 78.03%
𝑒 0.75

Assignment:
1. A sample of saturated soil weighs 588N and has a volume of 0.03m 3. If
the void ratio of the soil is 0.75, determine the specific gravity of the solids.
SOLUTION:
2. A specimen of moist clay has a mass of 183.4 grams. After oven drying,
the mass is reduced to 157.7 grams. What is the moisture content of the
sample?
SOLUTION:
3. A sample of moist clay is found to have moisture content of 400% and
degree of saturation of 85%. The specific gravity of the solids is 2.76.
Determine the voids ratio of this soil.
SOLUTION:
4. A clay sample has unit weight of 21.1 kN/m3 at moisture content of 9.8%.
When completely saturated with water, its unit weight is 22.58 kN/m3.
Determine the porosity of the soil.
SOLUTION:
5. Saturated silty clay encountered in a deep excavation is found to have a
water content of 28%. Determine unit weight of the clay in kN/m3. Assume
Gs=2.7
SOLUTION:
6. A hand-carved sample of soft saturated clay weighs 350 grams and has
volume of 200 cc. After oven-drying, it weighs 240 grams. Calculate the
following:
a) Moisture content in percent
b) Specific Gravity of solids
c) Porosity in percent
SOLUTION:
7. A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and weighed. The
weight was 6N. The clay in its container was placed in an oven for 24 hours
at 105˚C. The weight reduced to a constant value of 5N. The weight of the
container is 1N. If Gs = 2.7, determine:
a) Water Content
b) Void Ratio
c) Bulk Unit Weight
d) Dry Unit Weight
e) Effective Unit Weight
SOLUTION:
8. The unit weight of soil is 15.10 kN/m3. The moisture content of this soil is
17% when the degree of saturation is 60%. Determine: Void Ratio, Specific
Gravity of Soil, Saturated Unit Weight.
SOLUTION:
9. The field unit weight of the soil sample is 1960 kg/m3, and the unit weight
of the soil particle is 2700 kg/m3. If emax =0.69 and emin = 0.44.
a) Compute the dry unit weight if the water content is 11%
b) Compute the void ratio of the soil sample.
c) Compute the relative density of the soil sample.
SOLUTION:
10. The moist unit weights and degrees of saturation of a soil are given in
the following table:
Soil No. ɣ (pcf) S (%)
1 105.73 50
2 112.67 75

Determine:
a) Void Ratio
b) Specific Gravity of the soil solids.
c) Porosity of the soil.
SOLUTION:
For Soil No.1
For Soil No.2
DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE OF SOILS – ASTM D422-63 (1990)

Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils

The distribution of particle sizes or average grain diameter of coarse-grained soils –

gravels and sands – is obtained by screening a known weight of soil through a stack
of sieves of progressively fines mesh size. A typical stack of sieves is shown.
Each sieve is identified by a number that corresponds to the number of square holes
per linear inch of mesh. The particle diameter in the screening process, often called
sieve analysis, is the maximum particle dimension to pass through the square hole of
a particular mesh. A known weight of dry soil is placed on the largest sieve (top sieve)
and the nest of sieves is then placed on a vibrator, called a sieve shaker, and shaken.
The nest of sieves is dismantled, one sieve at a time. The soil retained on each sieve
is weighed and the percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated. The results
are plotted on a graph of percent particles finer than a given sieve (not the percent
retained) as the ordinate versus the logarithm of the particle sizes as shown. The
resulting plot is called a particle size distribution curve, or simply, the gradation
curves.
Let Wi be the weight of soil retained on the ith sieve from the top of the nest of sieves
and W be the total soil weight. The percent weight retained is:

𝑊𝑖
% 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 = 𝑥100
𝑊

The percent finer is:

% 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 = 100 − ∑(% 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒)

𝑖=1

You can use mass instead of weight. The unit of mass is grams or kilograms.

PARTICLE SIZE OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS

The screening process cannot be used for fine-grained soils – silts and clays – because
of their extremely small size. The common laboratory method to determine the size
distribution of fine-grained soils is a hydrometer test. The hydrometer test involves
mixing a small amount of soil into a suspension and observing how the suspension
settles in time. Larger particles will settle quickly followed by smaller particles. When
the hydrometer is lowered into the suspension, it will sink into the suspension until
the buoyancy force is sufficient to balance the weight of the hydrometer.
The length of the hydrometer projecting above the suspension is a function of the
density, so it is possible to calibrate the hydrometer to read the density of the
suspension at different times. The calibration of the hydrometer is affected by
temperature and the specific gravity of the suspended solids. You must then apply a
correction factor to your hydrometer reading based on the test temperatures.

Typically, a hydrometer test is conducted by taking a small quantity of a dry fine-

graded soil (approximately 50 grams) and thoroughly mixing it with distilled water to
form a paste. The paste is placed in 1 liter glass cylinder and distilled water is added
to bring the level to the 1 liter mark. The glass cylinder is then repeatedly shaken and
inverted before being placed in a constant-temperature bath. A hydrometer is placed
in the glass cylinder and a clock is simultaneously started. At different times, the
hydrometer is read. The diameter D of the particle at time tD is calculated from Stoke’s
law as:

18𝜇𝑧
𝐷=√
(𝐺𝑠 − 1)𝛾𝑤𝑡𝐷

Where 𝜇 is the viscosity of water (10.09 millipoises at 20˚C), z is the depth, ɣw is the
unit weight of water, and Gs is the specific gravity.

CHARACTERIZATION OF SOILS BASED ON PARTICLE SIZE

The grading curve is used for textural classification of soils. Various classification
systems have evolved over the years to describe soils based on their particle size
distribution. Each system was developed for a specific engineering purpose. In this
this lesson, we will use the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The USCS
separates soils into two categories. One category is coarse-grained soils that are
delineated if more than 50% of the soil is greater than 0.075 mm (No. 200 Sieve).
The other category is fine-grained soils that are delineated if more than 50% of the
soil is finer than 0.075 mm. Coarse-grained soils are subdivided into gravels and
sands while fine-grained soils are divided into silts and clays. Each soil type – gravel,
sand, silt, and clay – is identified by grained size as shown in table. The USCS does
not differentiate silts from clays. Clays have particle sizes less than 0.002 mm.

SOIL TYPE DESCRIPTION AVERAGE GRAIN SIZE

Gravel Rounded and/or angular Coarse: 75 mm to 19 mm
bulky hard rock. Fine: 19 mm to 4.75 mm
Sand Rounded and/or angular Coarse: 4.75 mm to 2.0
bulky hard rock. mm (No. 10)
Medium: 2.0 mm to
0.0425 mm (No. 40)
Fine: 0.425 mm to 0.075
mm (No. 200)
Silt Particles smaller than 0.075 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm
mm, exhibit little or no
strength when dried
Clay Particles smaller than 0.002 <0.002 mm
mm, exhibit significant
strength when dried; water
reduces strength

Real soils consist of a mixture of particle sizes. The selection of a soil for a particular
use may depend on the assortment of particles it contains. Two coefficients have been
defined to provide guidance on distinguishing soils based on the distribution of the
particles. One of these is a numerical measure of uniformity, called the uniformity
coefficient, Cu, defined as

𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10

Where D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 60% of the particles are finer,
and D10 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 10% of the particles are finer.
Both of these diameters are obtained from the grading curve. D10 is also known as
the effective size.

The other coefficient is the coefficient of curvature, Cc (other terms used are the
coefficient of gradation and the coefficient of concavity), defined as

𝐷302
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷10 𝑥 𝐷60

Where D30 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 30% of the particles are finer.
The average particle diameter is D50.

A soil that has a uniformly coefficient of <4 contains particles of uniform size
(approximately one size). The minimum value of Cu is 1 and corresponds to an
assemblage of particles of the same size. The gradation curve for a poorly graded soil
is almost vertical (Fig 3.4). Humps in the gradation curve indicate two or more poorly
graded soils. Higher value of uniformity coefficient of >4 indicate a wider assortment
of particle sizes. A soil that has a uniformity coefficient of >4 is described as a well-
graded soil and is indicated by a flat curve (Fig 3.4). The coefficient of curvature is
between 1 and 3 for well-graded soils. The absence of certain grain sizes, termed
gap-graded, is diagnosed by a coefficient of curvature outside the range 1 to 3 and a
sudden change of slope in the particle size distribution curve as shown in Fig 3.4.

Poorly graded soils are sorted by water (e.g. beach sands) or by wind. Gap-graded
soils are also sorted by water but certain sizes were not transported. Well-graded
soils are produced by bulk transportation processes (e.g. glacial till). The uniformity
coefficient and the coefficient of concavity are strictly applicable to coarse-grained
soils.

EXAMPLES:

1. A sample of a dry coarse-grained material of mass 500 grams was shaken through
a nest of sieves and the following results were obtained.

Sieve No. Opening (mm) Mass Retained (grams)

4 4.75 0
10 2.00 14.8
20 0.85 98
40 0.425 90.1
100 0.15 181.9
200 0.075 108.8
Pan 6.1
• Plot the particle size distribution of the curve
• Determine (1) the effective size, (2) the average particle size, (3) the
uniformity coefficient, and (4) the coefficient of curvature.
• Determine the textural composition of the soil (e.g. amount of gravel, sand,
silt and clay)

SOLUTION:

Step 1: Tabulate data to obtain % finer.

Sieve No. Mass Retained % Retained Ʃ(% %

(grams) Mr (Mr/M) x 100 Retained) Finer
4 0 0 0 100
10 14.8 2.97 2.97 97.03
20 98 19.64 22.61 77.39
40 90.1 18.06 40.67 59.33
100 181.9 36.46 77.13 22.87
200 108.0 21.65 98.78 1.22
Pan 6.1 1.22 100 0
Total Mass 498.9 100

Step 2: Plot the gradation curve.

 CURVE

120

100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle Size

Step 3: Extract the effective size.

Effective Size = D10 = 0.1mm
D30 = 0.18mm
average particle diameter D50 = 0.33mm
D60 = 0.45mm

Step 4: Extract percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay.

GRAVEL 0%
SAND 98.78%
SILT AND CLAY 1.22%

STEP 5: Calculate Cu and Cc.

𝐷60 0.45
𝐶𝑢 = = = 𝟒. 𝟓
𝐷10 0.1

𝐷302 0.182
𝐶𝑐 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐
𝐷10 𝑥 𝐷60 0.1 𝑥 0.45
Assignment:

The following data were obtained from sieve analysis. Find Cu and Cc

Sieve No. Diameter (mm) Mass Retained (grams)

4 4.76 5
8 2.38 45
10 2.00 65
20 0.84 92
40 0.42 152
60 0.25 115
80 0.180 212
100 0.149 63
200 0.074 32
PAN 14
TOTAL 795

SOLUTION:

Sieve No. Diameter (mm) Mass Retained % Ʃ(% % Finer

(grams) Mr Retained Retained)
(Mr/M) x
100
4 4.76 5
8 2.38 45
10 2.00 65
20 0.84 92
40 0.42 152
60 0.25 115
80 0.180 212
100 0.149 63
200 0.074 32
PAN 14
TOTAL

Sorting Coefficient, So

𝐷75
𝑆𝑜 = √
𝐷25

Suitability Number, SN
 3 1 1
𝑆𝑁 = 1.7√( + + )
𝐷502 𝐷202 𝐷102
PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF FINE - GRAINED SOIL
When clay materials are present in fine – grained soils, the soil can be remolded in the
presence of some moisture content without crumbling. The cohesive nature is due to the
absorbed water surrounding the clay particles.

Atterberg (1990’s) = A Swedish scientist who developed a method to describe the consistency of
fine grained soils

Note:
At low water content, soil behaves more like a solid
At very high moisture content, the soil and water may flow like a liquid

The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained soil is linked to four distinct states:
solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid in order of increasing water content. Let us consider a soil
initially in a liquid state that is allowed to dry uniformly. If we plot a diagram of volume versus
water content as shown, we can locate the original liquid state as point A. As the solid dries, its
water content reduces and consequently its volume.

Semi
Solid Solid Plastic Liquid
Increasing moisture
content

Shrinkage Plastic Liquid Atterberg

Limit Limit Limit Limit

Liquid Limit: LL% = boundary between the plastic and liquid state of the soil.
= The moisture content required to close a distance of ½ inch along the
bottom of the groove at exactly 25 blows using the liquid limit device.
= in the liquid limit test, the moisture content necessary to close the
groove at ½ inch in 25 blows is difficult to do so, so usually a minimum of four test are done and
plot of w vs # of blows or drop is made.
The Flow Curve

Flow curve
Moisture Content

LL%

25
# of drops

Plastic Limit: PL = Boundary between the semi solid and plastic state of a soil.
= moisture content at which the soil, when rolled to 1/8 inch (32.2mm) in
diameter crumbles

At point B, the soil becomes so stiff that it can no longer flow as liquid. The boundary
water content at point B is called the liquid limit; it is denoted by LL. As the soil continues to dry,
there is a range of water content at which the soil can be molded into any desired shape
without rupture. The soil at this state is said to exhibit plastic behavior – the ability to deform
continuously without rupture. But if drying is continued beyond the range of water content for
plastic behavior, the soil becomes semisolid. The soil cannot be molded now without visible
cracks appearing. The water content at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid is
known as the plastic limit, denoted by PL. The range of water contents over which the soil
deforms plastically is known as the plasticity index, PI:
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
Plasticity Index; P.I. = difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil.

Shrinkage Limit = Boundary between the solid and semi – solid state of the soil.
= Soil mass shrinks as moisture is gradually, decreased or lost with
continuous loss of moisture, a stage of equilibrium is reached at which more loss of moisture
will result to no further volume change.
Volume of Soil

Vfinal

SL PL LL
Moisture Content
As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final state called the solid state. At this state, no
further volume change occurs since nearly all water in the soil has been removed. The water
content at which the soil changes from a semisolid to a solid is called shrinkage limit, denoted
by SL. The shrinkage limit is useful for the determination of the swelling and shrinking capacity
of soils. The liquid and plastic limits are called the Atterberg limits named after their originator,
Swedish soil scientist, Albert Atterberg (1911).
We have changed the states of fine-grained soils by changing the water content. Since engineers
are interested in the strength and deformation of materials, we can associate specific strength
characteristics to each of the soil states. At one extreme, the liquid state, the soil has the lowest
strength and the largest deformation. At the other extreme, the solid state, the soil has the
largest strength and the lowest deformation. A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg
limits is known as the liquidity index (LI) and is expressed as
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼

The liquidity index is the ratio of the difference in water content between the natural or in situ
water content of a soil and its plastic limit to its plasticity index.

Plasticity Chart

U line
Plasticity Index

CH or OH A line

CL or OL
CL or M
30

20
MH or OH

ML or OL
10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Liquid Limit

The Plasticity Chart

A Line = defined by the equation

𝑃𝐼 = 0.73(𝐿𝐿 − 20)
LL in %

=separates inorganic clays from inorganic silts

Inorganics clays = plot above A line

Inorganic Silts = plot below A - line

Organic Silts = plot below A line but LL + 30 to 50

Organic Clays = plot below A line but LL = >50%

U – Line = defined by the equation

𝑃𝐼 = 0.90(𝐿𝐿 − 8)
LL in %

= upper limit of the relationship of PI and LL for a soil

Determination of SL from Plasticity Chart

PI
A (LL, PI)

SL LL

Mechanical Analysis of Soil

Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size range of particles
present in a soil mass, expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight

Methods
Sieve analysis = for particle size larger than 0.075mm in diameter

Hydrometer Analysis = for particle size smaller than 0.075mm

Particle Size Limits

Gravel - 4.75mm to 3inches
Sand - 0.075 to 4.75mm
Silt and Clay - <0.075mm

U. S. Standard Sieve Sizes

Sieve No. Opening (mm)
4 4.75
6 3.35
8 2.36
10 2.00
16 1.80
20 0.85
30 0.60
40 0.425
50 0.300
60 0.250
80 0.180
100 0.150
140 0.106
170 0.088
200 0.075
Example: For the sieve analysis data shown, determine the percent passing each sieve and draw
the grain size analysis curve

Sieve Weight Percent Accumulated Percent Passing

Number Retained Retained Percent Retained %
(gm) (%) %
10 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
16 9.90 2.20 2.20+0=2.20 97.80
30 24.66 5.48 5.48+2.20=7.68 92.32
40 17.60 3.91 3.91+7.68=11.59 88.41
60 23.90 5.31 11.59+5.31=16.90 83.10
100 35.10 7.80 16.90+7.80=24.70 75.30
200 59.85 13.30 24.70+13.30=38.00 62.00
pan 278.99 62.00 38.00+62.00=100.00 0.00
450.00 100.00

Formulas
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝑥100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

= 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑠

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 100 − 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

Graine Size Analysis Curve

U.S. Standard Sieve

No. 10 16 30 40 60 100 200

100

90
% finer or percent passing

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Particle size diameter (mm)

Example:1
Given:
𝐿𝐿 = 32%

Required:
𝑃𝐿 =?

Solution:
𝐴 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑃𝐼 = 0.73(𝐿𝐿 − 20) = 0.73(32 − 20) = 8.76%
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿; 𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐼 = 32 − 8.76 = 23.24%

Example 2:
Given:
𝐿𝐿 = 48
𝑃𝐿 = 28

Required:
Point of intersection of A line and U line; A

Solution:
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 48 − 28 = 20

𝐴 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑃𝐼 = 0.73(𝐿𝐿 − 20) 𝑒𝑞𝑛1

𝑈 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑃𝐼 = 0.90(𝐿𝐿 − 8) 𝑒𝑞𝑛2

Equate 1 and 2
0.90(𝐿𝐿 − 8) = 0.73(𝐿𝐿 − 20)
𝐿𝐿 = −43.53%

𝑃𝐼 = 0.90(𝐿𝐿 − 8) = 0.90(−43.53 − 8) = −46.38

𝐴: (−43.53, − 46.38)

𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝑃
𝑦 −𝑦 16 − −46.38
𝑚= = = 0.71
𝑥 −𝑥 44 − −43.53

𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚=
𝑥 −𝑥
𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 )
𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 )
Use P(44, 16)
𝑦 − 16 = 0.71(𝑥 − 44)
𝑦 = 0.71𝑥 − 31.24 + 16
𝑦 = 0.71𝑥 − 15.24

@ SL: y = 0
0 − 16 = 0.71(𝑆𝐿 − 44)
−16 = 0.71𝑆𝐿 − 31.24
𝑆𝐿 = 21.46

Description of Soil Strength Based on Liquidity Index

Values of LI Description of soil strength
LI < 0 Semisolid State – high strength, brittle,
(sudden) fracture is expected
0 < LI < 1 Plastic State – intermediate strength, soil
deforms like a plastic material.
LI > 1 Liquid State – low strength, soil deforms like a
viscous fluid.
Typical Atterberg Limits for Soils
Soil Type LL (%) PL (%) PI (%)
Sand Non Plastic
Silt 30-40 20-25 10-15
Clay 40-150 25-50 15-100

Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is
linearly related to the amount of the clay fraction. He coined a term called Activity (A) to
describe the importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index. The equation for A is:
𝑃𝐼
𝐴=
𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (%)

You should recall that the clay fraction is the amount of particles less the 2 μm.

DETERMINATION OF THE LIQUID, PLASTIC, AND SHRINKAGE LIMITS

Casagrande Cup Method

The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus that consists of a semispherical brass
cup that is repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber base from a height of 10mm by a cam-
operated mechanism. The apparatus was developed by Arthur Casagrande (1932) and the
procedure for the test is called Casagrande cup method.
 A dry powder of the soil is mixed with distilled water into a paste and placed in the cup
to a thickness about 12.5mm. The soil surface is smoothed and a groove is cut into the soil using
a standard grooving tool. The crank operating the cam is turned at a rate of 2 revolutions per
second and the number of blows required to close the groove over a length of 12.5mm is
counted and recorded. A specimen of soil within the closed portion is extracted for
determination of the water content. The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which the
groove cut into the soil will close over a distance of 12.5mm following 25 blows. This is difficult
to achieve in a single test. Four or more tests at different water contents are usually required
for terminal blows (number of blows to close the groove over a distance of 12.5mm) ranging
from 10 to 40. The results are presented in a plot of water content (ordinate, arithmetic scale)
versus the terminal blows (abscissa, logarithmic scale) as shown.

The best-fit straight line to the data points, usually called the flow line, is drawn. We will
call this line the liquid state line to distinguish it from flow lines used in describing the flow of
water through soils. The liquid limit is read from the graph as the water content on the liquid
state line corresponding to 25 blows.

The cup method of determining the liquid limit has many short coming. Two of these
are:
The tendency of soils of low plasticity to slide and to liquefy with shock in the cup rather than to
flow plastically.
Sensitivity to operator and to small differences in apparatus.

Plastic Limit Test

The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small clay sample into threads and finding the
water content at which threads approximately 3mm in diameter will just start to crumble. Two
or more determinations are made and the average water content is reported as the plastic limit.
Fall Cone Method to determine liquid and plastic limits
A fall cone test, popular in Europe and Asia, appears to offer a more accurate (less prone
to operator’s error) method of determining both the liquid and plastic limits. In the fall cone test,
a cone with an apex angle of 30 degrees and total mass of 80 grams is suspended above, but
just in contact with, the soil sample. The cone is permitted to fall freely for a period of 5 seconds.
The water content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20mm defines the liquid limit.
The sample preparation is similar to the cup method except that the sample container in the fall
cone test has a different shape and size.

Four or more tests at different water content are also required because of the difficulty
of achieving the liquid limit form a single test. The results are plotted as water content (ordinate,
logarithmic scale) versus penetration (abscissa, logarithmic scale) and the best-fit straight line
(liquid state line) linking the data points is drawn. The liquid limit is read from the plot as the
water content on the liquid state line corresponding to a penetration of 20mm. The plastic limit
is found as follows:
 Project the best fit-straight line backward to intersect the water content axis at a depth
of penetration of 1mm. The water content at this depth of penetration (1mm) is c. The plastic
limit is given as (Feng, 2000)
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑐(2)

Where m is the slope (taken as positive) of the best-fit straight line. If you use a
spreadsheet program, you can obtain c and m from a power trend line function that gives the
best fit equation.
Shrinkage Limit

The shrinkage limit is determined as follows: A mass of wet soil, m1, is placed in a
porcelain dish 44.5mm in diameter and 12.5mm high and then oven-dried. The volume of oven-
dried soil is determined by using mercury to occupy the vacant spaces caused by shrinkage. The
mass of the mercury is determined and the volume decrease by shrinkage can be calculated
from the known density of mercury. The shrinkage limit is calculated from:
 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝛾𝑤
𝑆𝐿 = − 𝑥 𝑥100
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑔

Where m1 is the mass of the wet soil, m2 is the mass of the oven-dried soil, v1 is the
volume of the wet soil, v2 is the volume of the oven-dried soil, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity (9.81 m/s2). The range of water content from the plastic to the shrinkage limit is called
the shrinkage index (SI)
𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿
EXAMPLES
1. A liquid limit test conducted on a soil sample in the cup device gave the following results:
No. of blows 10 19 23 27 40
Water Content 60.0 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2
(%)

Two determinations for the plastic limit gave water content of 20.3% and 20.8%. Determine:
Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
Liquidity Index if the natural water content is 27.4%
Void Ratio at the Liquid Limit, if Gs = 2.7. If the soil were to be loaded to failure, would you
expect a brittle failure?

Solution:
𝐿𝐿 = − 1.1334𝑥 + 68.316 = −1.1334(25) + 68.316 = 39.98%
20.3 + 20.8
𝑃𝐿 = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟔%
2
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 39.98 − 20.6 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟑𝟖%
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 27.4 − 20.6
𝐿𝐼 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓
𝑃𝐼 19.38
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡. 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿𝐺𝑠 = 0.3998𝑥2.7 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖
𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐿𝐼 > 1).

2. The results of a fall cone test are shown in the table below.
Parameter 80 gram cone
Penetration 5.5 7.8 14.8 22 32
(mm)
Water Content 39.0 44.8 52.5 60.3 67
(%)

Determine:
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
Liquidity Index if the natural water content is 46%.

Solution:
. .
LL = 23.633x = 23.633(20) = 58.25%

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 − 𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 80 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠

C at 1mm = 23.633x . = 23.633(1) . = 23.633
𝑚 = 0.3011
𝑌 = C𝑋 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑌 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐶 = 23.633 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚
= 0.3011
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐶(2) = 23.633(2) . = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟏𝟐%
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 58.25 − 29.12 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟏𝟑%
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 46 − 29.12
𝐿𝐼 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟗𝟓
𝑃𝐼 29.13

3. Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg limit test.

A. LIQUID LIMIT
TEST NO. 1 2 3 4
No. of Blows 38 29 20 14
Weight of Wet Soil + 22.47 21.29 21.27 26.12
Container, g
Weight of Dry Soil + 19.44 18.78 18.75 22.10
Container, g
Weight of Container, g 12.74 13.24 13.20 13.27
Weight of Water, g
Weight of Dry Soil, g
Water Content %
B. PLASTIC LIMIT AND PLASTIC LIMIT NATURAL WATER CONTENT
NATURAL WATER CONTENT
TEST NO. 1 2 1 2
Weight of Wet Soil + 23.20 22.80 17.53 16.97
Container, g
Weight of Dry Soil + 20.42 20.19 14.84 14.36
Container, g
Weight of Container, g 12.90 12.95 9.50 9.55
Weight of Water, g
Weight of Dry Soil, g
Water Content, %
Average, %

Determine:
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Liquidity Index

Solution:
A. LIQUID LIMIT
TEST NO. 1 2 3 4
No. of Blows 38 29 20 14
Weight of Wet Soil + 22.47 21.29 21.27 26.12
Container, g
Weight of Dry Soil + 19.44 18.78 18.75 22.10
Container, g
Weight of Container, g 12.74 13.24 13.20 13.27
Weight of Water, g 3.03 2.51 2.52 4.02
Weight of Dry Soil, g 6.7 5.54 5.55 8.83
Water Content % 45.22% 45.31% 45.41% 45.53%
B. PLASTIC LIMIT AND PLASTIC LIMIT NATURAL WATER CONTENT
NATURAL WATER CONTENT
TEST NO. 1 2 1 2
Weight of Wet Soil + 23.20 22.80 17.53 16.97
Container, g
Weight of Dry Soil + 20.42 20.19 14.84 14.36
Container, g
Weight of Container, g 12.90 12.95 9.50 9.55
Weight of Water, g 2.78 2.61 2.69 2.61
Weight of Dry Soil, g 7.52 7.24 5.34 4.81
Water Content, % 36.97% 36.05% 50.37% 54.26%
Average, % 36.51% 52.32%

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ, 𝐿𝐿 = −0.0125𝑥 + 45.684 = −0.0125(25) + 45.684 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟑𝟕%

 36.97% + 36.05%
𝑃𝐿 = = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟓𝟏%
2
50.37 + 54.26
𝑤= = 52.32%
2
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 52.32 − 36.51
𝐿𝐼 = = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 45.37 − 36.51

4. A saturated soil has the following characteristics.

1𝑚 25
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 25 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 =
100𝑐𝑚 1000000
Final Volume = 16 cm3
Mass of Wet Soil = 45 g
Mass of Dry Soil = 31 g
a) Determine the shrinkage limit of soil
b) Determine the shrinkage ratio
c) Determine the specific gravity of the soil.

SOLUTION:
𝑚 −𝑚 𝑣 −𝑣 𝛾
𝑆𝐿 = − 𝑥 𝑥100
𝑚 𝑚 𝑔
25 16 𝑁
45𝑔 − 31𝑔 1000000 𝑚 − 1000000 𝑚 9,810 𝑚
𝑆𝐿 = − 𝑥 𝑚 𝑥100 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟏𝟑%
31𝑔 1𝑘𝑔 9.81
31𝑔 𝑥 1000𝑔 𝑠
𝑀 31𝑔
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑆𝑅 = = 𝑔 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝑉𝜌 16𝑐𝑚 𝑥1
𝑐𝑚
1 1
𝐺𝑠 = = = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐
1 𝑆𝐿 1 16.13
𝑆𝑅 − 100 1.9375 − 100

Assignment:
Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg limit test.

A. LIQUID LIMIT
TEST NO. 1 2 3 4
Cone Penetration, mm 16 18 28 33
Weight of Wet Soil + 35.62 36.91 41.26 45.70
Container, g
Weight of Dry Soil + 28.84 29.89 31.42 33.69
Container, g
Weight of Container, g 10.52 12.33 11.74 11.45
Weight of Water, g
Weight of Dry Soil, g
Water Content %
B. PLASTIC LIMIT AND PLASTIC LIMIT NATURAL WATER CONTENT
NATURAL WATER CONTENT
TEST NO. 1 2 1 2
Weight of Wet Soil + 30.18 31.78 27.77 30.04
Container, g
Weight of Dry Soil + 25.76 27.18 25.39 27.23
Container, g
Weight of Container, g 10.52 12.33 11.74 11.45
Weight of Water, g
Weight of Dry Soil, g
Water Content, %
Average, %

Determine:
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Liquidity Index

2. A liquid limit test conducted on a soil sample in the cup device gave the following results:
No. of blows 11 18 24 28 35
Water Content 59.0 43.2 41.8 36.5 27.2
(%)

Two determinations for the plastic limit gave water content of 22.3% and 23.8%. Determine:
Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
Liquidity Index if the natural water content is 28.4%
Void Ratio at the Liquid Limit, if Gs = 2.82. If the soil were to be loaded to failure, would you
expect a brittle failure?

Solution:
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES

A classification scheme provides a method of identifying soils in a particular

group that would likely exhibit similar characteristics. Soil classification is
used to specify a certain soil type that is best suitable for a given application.
There are several classification schemes available. Each was devised for a
specific use. For example, the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) developed one scheme that classifies soils
according to their usefulness in roads and highways while the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS) was originally developed for use in airfield
construction but was later modified for general use.

Unified Soil Classification System

The USCS is neither too elaborate nor too simplistic. The USCS uses symbols
for the particle size groups. These symbols and their representations are: G -
Gravel, S – Sand, M – Silt, and C – Clay. These are combined with other
symbols expressing gradation characteristics: W for well graded, and P for
poorly graded – and plasticity characteristics – H for high and L for low, and
a symbol, O, indicating the presence of organic material. A typical
classification of CL means a clay soil with low plasticity, while SP means a
poorly graded sand. The flowchart shown in Figs. 3.11.a, b provide a
systematic means of classifying a soil according to the USCS. The American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) flowcharts linking the group
symbols with group names are shown in Figs. 3.12a, b.
Experimental results from soils tested from different parts of the world were
plotted on a graph of plasticity index (ordinate) versus liquid limit (abscissa).
It was found that clays, silts, and organic soils lie in distinct regions of the
graph. A line defined by the equation
𝑃𝐼 = 0.73(𝐿𝐿 − 20)%
called the “A-line” delineates the boundaries between clays (above the line)
and silts and organic soils (below the line) as shown in Fig. 3.13. A second
line, the U-line expressed as
𝑃𝐼 = 0.9(𝐿𝐿 − 8)
Defines the upper limit of the correlation between plasticity index and liquid
limit. If the results of your soil tests fall above the U-line, you should be
suspicious of your results and repeat your tests.
FIG. 3.11a
FIG 3.11b
AASHTO Soil Classification System
Is used to determine the suitability of soils for earthworks, embankments,
and road bed material (subgrade-natural material below a constructed
pavement, sub base – a layer of soil above the subgrade, and base – a layer
of soil above the sub base that offers high stability to distribute wheel loads).
According to AASHTO granular soils are soils in which 35% or less are finer
than the No.200 sieve (0.075mm). Silt-clay soils are soils in which more than
35% are finer than the No.200 sieve. (Table 3.6)
The AASHTO system classifies soils into seven major groups, A-1 through A-
7. The first three groups, A-1 through A-3 are granular (coarse-grained) soils
while the last four groups, A-4 through A-7, are silt-clay (fine-grained) soils
(Table 3.7). Silt and clay soils are located within the plasticity chart as shown
in Fig.3.14.
A group index (GI) value is appended in parentheses to the main group to
provide a measure of quality of soil as highway subgrade material. The group
index is given as:
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥: 𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹 − 35)(𝑂. 2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)) + 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
While F is percent passing No. 200 sieve and the other terms have been
defined before. The GI index is reported to the nearest whole number (2.4
reported as 2, 2.5 reported as 3) and if GI < 0, it is set to 0.
GI for groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is zero. For groups A-2-6
and A-2-7, the partial group index equation
𝐺𝐼 = 0.001(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
Is used. The higher the group index the lower the quality of the soil as
subgrade material. The GI should not exceed 20 for any groups of A-4
through A-7.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
USDA Triangular Textural Classification Chart
 Table 8-1: Classification of Soil and Soil – Aggregate Mixture (I)

SILTY – CLAY MATERIALS

General GRANULAR MATERIALS
(more than 35% passing
Classification (35% or less passing 0.075mm)
0.075mm)
A -1 A-3 A-2 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7
Group
A-7-5
Classification A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
SIEVE ANALYSIS: PERCENT
PASSING
2.00mm(no.10) 50max - - - - - - - - - -
0.425mm (no. 40) 30max 50 max 51min - - - - - - - -
0.075mm (no. 200) 15 max 25 max 10 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
CHARACTERISTIC OF
FRACTION PASSING 0.45mm
(no. 40)
LIQUID LIMIT - - 40max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40max 41 min 40 max 41 min
PLASTICITY INDEX 6 max NPa 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 minb
USUAL TYPES OF
Stone fragments, Fine
SIGNIFICANT Silty or Clayey Gravel and Sand Silty Soils Clayey Soils
Gravel and Sand Sand
CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
GENERAL RATING AS
EXCELLENT TO GOOD FAIR TO POOR
SUBGRADE

a
NP, nonplastic
b
Plasticity Index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than LL minus 30. Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL minus 30
Table 3.2: Unified Soil Classification System Group Symbols for Gravelly Soils
Group
Criteria
Symbol
Less than 5% passing no. 200 sieve; Cu is greater than or
GW
equal to 4; and Cc is between 1 and 3.
Less than 5% passing no. 200 sieve; and not meeting both
GP
criteria for GW
More than 12% passing no. 200 sieve; Atterberg limits plot
GM
below “A” line or plasticity index less than 4
More than 12% passing no. 200 sieve; Atterberg limits plot
GC
above “A” line and plasticity index greater than 7
More than 12% passing no. 200 sieve; Atterberg limits fall in
GC – GM
hatched area marked CL – ML.
Percent passing the no. 200 sieve is 5 – 12 and meets the
GW – GM
criteria for GW and GM.
Percent passing the no. 200 sieve is 5 – 12 and meets the
GW – GC
criteria for GW and GC.
Percent passing the no. 200 sieve is 5 – 12 and meets the
GP – GM
criteria for GP and GM.
Percent passing the no. 200 sieve is 5 – 12 and meets the
GP - GC
criteria for GP and GC.

Table 3.3: Unified Soil Classification System Group Symbols for Sandy Soils
Group
Criteria
Symbol
Less than 5% passing no. 200 sieve; Cu is greater than or
SW
equal to 6; and Cc is between 1 and 3.
Less than 5% passing no. 200 sieve; and not meeting both
SP
criteria for SW
More than 12% passing no. 200 sieve; Atterberg limits plot
SM
below “A” line or plasticity index less than 4
More than 12% passing no. 200 sieve; Atterberg limits plot
SC
above “A” line and plasticity index greater than 7
More than 12% passing no. 200 sieve; Atterberg limits fall in
SC – SM
hatched area marked CL – ML.
Percent passing the no. 200 sieve is 5 – 12 and meets the
SW – SM
criteria for SW and SM.
Percent passing the no. 200 sieve is 5 – 12 and meets the
SW – SC
criteria for SW and SC.
Percent passing the no. 200 sieve is 5 – 12 and meets the
SP – SM
criteria for SP and SM.
Percent passing the no. 200 sieve is 5 – 12 and meets the
SP - SC
criteria for SP and SC.
Figure 3.5: Flow Chart Group Names for Gravelly and Sandy Soil (after ASTM,
1986)
Group Symbol Group Name
<15% sand Well - graded gravel
GW
≥15% sand Well - graded gravel with sand
<15% sand Poorly graded gravel
GP
≥15% sand Poorly graded gravel with sand
<15% sand Well - graded gravel with silt
GW – GM
≥15% sand Well - graded gravel with silt and sand
<15% sand Well - graded gravel with clay (or silt clay)
GW - GC
≥15% sand Well - graded gravel with clay and sand
<15% sand Poorly graded gravel with silt
GP – GM
≥15% sand Poorly graded gravel with silt and sand
<15% sand Poorly graded gravel with clay (or silty clay)
GP - GC ≥15% sand Poorly graded gravel with clay and sand (or
silty clay and sand)
<15% sand Silty gravel
GM
≥15% sand Silty gravel with sand
<15% sand Clayey gravel
GC
≥15% sand Clayey gravel with sand
<15% sand Silty clayey gravel
GC - GM
≥15% sand Silty clayey gravel and sand
<15% sand Well graded sand
SW
≥15% sand Well graded sand with gravel
<15% sand Poorly graded sand
SP
≥15% sand Poorly graded sand with gravel
<15% sand Well - graded sand with silt
SW – SM
≥15% sand Well - graded sand with silt and gravel
<15% sand Well - graded sand with clay (or silt clay)
SW - SC
≥15% sand Well - graded sand with clay and gravel
<15% sand Poorly graded sand with silt
SP – SM
≥15% sand Poorly graded sand with silt and gravel
<15% sand Poorly graded sand with clay (or silty clay)
SP - SC
≥15% sand Poorly graded sand with clay and gravel
<15% sand Silty sand
SM
≥15% sand Silty sand with gravel
<15% sand Clayey sand
SC
≥15% sand Clayey sand with gravel
<15% sand Silty clayey sand
SC - SM
≥15% sand Silty clayey sand with gravel
Table 3.4: Unified Soil Classification System Group Symbols for Silty and
Clayey Soils
Group
Criteria
Symbol
Inorganic; LL,50, PI>7; and plots on or above “A” line (see
CL
CL zone in Plasticity chart)
Inorganic; LL<50, PI <4, or plots below “A” line (see ML
ML
zone in Plasticity chart)
Organic; (LL-oven dried)/(LL-not oven dried) <0.75; and
OL
LL<50 (see OL zone in plasticity chart)
Inorganic; LL≥50; and PI plots on or above “A” line (see CH
CH
zone in plasticity chart)
Inorganic; LL ≥ 50; and PI plots below “A” line (see MH
MH
zone in plasticity chart)
Organic; (LL-oven dried)/(LL-not oven dried) <0.75; and
OH
LL≥50 (see OH zone in plasticity chart)
CL - ML Inorganic; plot in the hatched zone in the plasticity chart
Pt Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils
Figure 3.5: Flowchart Group names for inorganic silty and clayey soils (after ASTM, 1986)
Group
Group Name
Symbol
<15% plus No. 200 Lean Clay
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Lean Clay with Sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Lean Clay with Gravel
PI >7 and plots on or
CL <15% gravel Sandy Lean Clay
above A - line % sand ≥%gravel
≥ 15% gravel Sandy Lean Clay with gravel
>30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly lean clay
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly lean clay with sand
<15% plus No. 200 Silty clay
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Silty clay with sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Silty clay with gravel
4 ≤ PI ≤ 7 and plots on
Inorganic CL - ML <15% gravel Sandy Silty clay
or above A - line % sand ≥%gravel
LL<50 ≥ 15% gravel Sandy silty clay with gravel
>30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly silty clay
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly silty clay with sand
<15% plus No. 200 Silt
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Silt with sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Silt with gravel
PI<4 or plots below A -
ML <15% gravel Sandy silt
line % sand ≥%gravel
≥ 15% gravel Sandy silt with gravel
≥30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly silt
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly silt with sand
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑
Organic ( < 0.75) OL See figure 3.6
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑
<15% plus No. 200 Fat clay
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Fat clay with sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Fat clay with gravel
PI plots on or above A
CH <15% gravel Sandy fat clay
- line % sand ≥%gravel
≥ 15% gravel Sandy fat clay with gravel
>30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly fat clay
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly fat clay with sand
Inorganic
<15% plus No. 200 Elastic Silt
LL ≥ 50
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Elastic silt with sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Elastic silt with gravel
PI plots on or below A -
MH <15% gravel Sandy elastic silt
line % sand ≥%gravel
≥ 15% gravel Sandy elastic silt with gravel
>30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly elastic silt
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly elastic silt with sand
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑
Organic ( < 0.75) OH See figure 3.6
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑
Figure 3.6: Flowchart Group Names for Organic Silty and Clayey Soils (after ASTM, 1986)
Group Symbols Group Names
<15% plus No. 200 Organic clay
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Organic clay with sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Organic clay with gravel
PI > 4 and plot on or above A
<15% gravel Sandy organic clay
- line % sand ≥%gravel
≥ 15% gravel Sandy organic clay with gravel
≥30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly organic clay
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly organic clay with sand
OL
<15% plus No. 200 Organic silt
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Organic silt with sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Organic silt with gravel
PI < 4 and plots below A - line <15% gravel Sandy organic silt
% sand ≥%gravel
≥ 15% gravel Sandy organic silt with gravel
≥30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly organic silt
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly organic silt with sand
<15% plus No. 200 Organic clay
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Organic clay with sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Organic clay with gravel
PI plots on or above A - line <15% gravel Sandy organic clay
% sand ≥%gravel
≥ 15% gravel Sandy organic clay with gravel
≥30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly organic clay
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly organic clay with sand
OL
<15% plus No. 200 Organic silt
<30% plus no. 200 % sand >%gravel Organic silt with sand
15-29% plus No. 200
% sand <%gravel Organic silt with gravel
PI plots on or below A - line <15% gravel Sandy organic silt
% sand ≥%gravel
≥ 15% gravel Sandy organic silt with gravel
≥30% plus no. 200
<15 sand Gravelly organic silt
%sand < % gravel
≥ 15% sand Gravelly organic silt with sand
Classification of Soil

Methods:

1. USCS: Unified Soil Classification System

2. AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official
Classification System

Things to be known for proper classification

1. Atterberg Limits
a. Liquid Limit
b. Plastic Limit
c. Plasticity Index

2. Grain Size Distribution

a. Passing 3inch Sieve
b. Passing #4 (USCS), # 10(AASHTO)
c. Passing #200

3. Uniformity Coefficient, Cu

𝐷60
𝐶𝑈 =
𝐷10

4. Coefficient of Gradation: Cc
2
𝐷30
𝐶𝑈 =
𝐷60 𝑥 𝐷10

Where: D60, D30, & D10 are particle size corresponding to 60%, 30% and 10%
passing respectively

U. S. Standard Sieves

60
50
% Passing

40

30

20

10

D60 D30 D10

Particle Size Diameter (mm)

A. AASHTO Classification System

 = developed in 1929
= formerly known as the public road administration classification
system

Seven Major Groups

𝐴1
𝐴2 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 (𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 )𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #200 ≤ 35%
𝐴3

𝐴4
𝐴5
𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 #200 > 35%
𝐴6
𝐴7

Criteria for AASHTO Classification System

1. Grain Size
a. Gravel = fraction passing 3” sieve, retained on #10sieve
b. Sand = fraction passing #10 sieve, retained on #200 sieve
c. Silt and Clay = fraction passing # 200 sieve

2. Plasticity
a. Silty: 𝑃𝐼 ≤ 10%
b. Clayey: 𝑃𝐼 ≥ 11%

3. Cobbles and Boulders = excluded from the portion of sample on which

classification is made but their percentage are recorded.

4. Group Index: GI
𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹 − 35)[0.20 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + (0.01)(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)

Term 1 term 2

Where:
F = percent passing #200
LL = liquid limit in %
PI = Plasticity index in %

Term 1 = partial group index based on LL

Term 2 = partial group index based on PI

Rules in Determining the Group Index

1. If GI becomes negative, GI is taken as 0
2. GI is rounded off to the nearest whole number
3. GI has no upper limit
4. GI for soils A-1a, A-1b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3 will always be 0
5. For soils A-2-6 and A – 2-7, the partial group index based on PI should
be used, that is
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
Note: using table 8-1, Classification is done from left to right
AASHTO
Illustrative Problem 1: For a soil data given below classify the soil according
to AASHTO Classification System
Sieve Analysis Result: Percent Passing
No. 10 sieve = 100%
No. 40 sieve = 92%
No. 200 sieve = 86%

LL = 70
PI = 32

F= passing #200 sieve

= 86%>35%
∴soil is silt and clay material
𝐴4
A5
A6
A7

a. From Table 8 -1: determine group symbol

Group A-4 - A-7-6
A -7-5

LL – 30 = 70-30=40>PI=32
∴soil isA-7-5

𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹 − 35)[0.20 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + (0.01)(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)

𝐺𝐼 = (86 − 35)[0.20 + 0.005(70 − 40)] + (0.01)(86 − 15)(32 − 10) = 17.85 + 15.62
= 33.47 ≈ 33.5 ≈ 34
∴soil isA-7-5(34)

Illustrative Problem 2: For the data shown, classify the soil according to
AASHTO:
Sieve Analysis Result: Percent Finer
No. 10 sieve = 95%
No. 40 sieve = 69%
No. 200 sieve = 30%

Atterberg Limit Test Results

LL = 42%
PL = 24%
PI = 42-24 = 18%

𝐹 = 30% < 35%

∴Soil is granular material
A-1
A-2
A-3

From table 8-1

Group Symbol: A-2-7

𝐺𝐼 = (0.01)(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10) = 0.01(30 − 15)(18 − 10) = 1.20 ≈ 1

∴Soil is A2-7(1)

Illustrative Problem 3: Classify the soil according to AASHTO

Sieve Analysis Result: Percent Finer
No. 10 sieve = 40%
No. 40 sieve = 23%
No. 200 sieve = 12%

Atterberg Limit Test Results

NP

𝐹 = 12% < 35%

∴Soil is granular material
A-1
A-2
A-3

From table 8-1

Group Symbol: A-1a

𝐺𝐼 = 0
∴Soil is A1-a(0)

NP = not plastic

Unified Soil Classification System

2 Broad Categories
1. Fine – Grained Soils
= silt and clay soils
= passing no. 200 sieve≥50%
Symbols:
C = inorganic clays
M = Inorganic Silts
O = organic silts and clay
Pt = peat muck

2. Coarse – grained Soils

= sand and gravel
= passing no 200 < 50%

Symbols:
S = sand
G = gravel

Other symbols:
W = well graded
P = poorly graded
L = low plasticity
H = high plasticity

Symbols for Coarse Grained Soils

GW GC – GM
GP GW – GM
GM GW – GC
GC GP – GM
GP - GC
Symbols for Fine Grained Soils
CL
ML
GL
CH
MH
OH
CL – ML
Pt

Steps/ Procedure for USCS

1. Determine F – percent passing #200 sieve

If F < 50 = coarse – grained soil

= gravel or sand
= go to step 2

If F ≥ 50% = fine – grained soil

=silt or clay or peat muck
= go to step 3

2. For coarse grained soil, 100 – F is the coarse fraction

FI = % soil passing no. 4 and retained on # 200 sieve

= sand fraction

100 − 𝐹
𝐼𝑓 𝐹𝐼 < = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑦
2
= go to table 3.2 and figure 3.13 for the group symbol
= go to figure 3.4 for group name

100 − 𝐹
𝐼𝑓 𝐹𝐼 ≥ = 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦
2
= go to table 3.3 and figure 3.13 for group symbol
= go to figure 3.4 for group name

3. For fine – grained soils, go to table 3.4 and figure 3.13 for group
symbol and figure 3.5 and 3.6 for group name

Illustrative Problem 1: For soil data shown, classify the soil according to
USCS.
Grain size analysis: percent passing
#4 sieve = 100%
#200 sieve = 61%

Atterberg Limits test results

LL = 26%
PL = 20%
PI = 6%

a. F = 61>50 soil is fine grained soil

 b. Using Figure 3.13: plasticity chart
LL = 26% plots above A line
PI = 6% plots on the hatched zone
Using table 3.4
Group symbol CL – ML

Using Figure 3.5

% sand = 100 – 61% = 39%

Gravel = 0%

%sand > % gravel

Group name: sandy silt clay

CL – ML (sandy silty clay)

Illustrative Problem 2: Classify the soil according to USCS

% gravel = 29%
% sand = 67%
% M/C = 4%

LL & PL = NP

Cu = 3.4
Cc = 3.6

F = 4% < 50% soil is coarse – grained soil

FI = 67%

100 − 𝐹 = 100 − 4 = 96%

100 − 𝐹 96
= = 48% < 𝐹𝐼 = 67% 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦
2 2

From table 3.3: group symbol is SP

Using figure 3.4:

%G = 29%>15%
Group name: poorly graded sand with gravel

Soil is SP (poorly graded sand with gravel)

Illustrative Problem 3: Classify the soil according to USCS

Sieve Analysis: % passing

#4 = 90%
#200 = 8%

Atterberg limit test results

LL = 39%
PL = 31%

Cu = 3.9
Cc = 2.1
F% = 8%<50% soil is coarse grained soil

100 − 𝐹 100 − 8 92
𝐹𝐼 = = = = 46% < 𝐹𝐼 = 82% 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦
2 2 2

From figure 3.13:

LL = 39 plots below A-line

PI = 8

SW – SM = I
SW – SC = I
SP – SM = II
SP – SC = I

Group Symbol
SP – SM (poorly graded sand with silt)

Comparison of USCS with AASHTO system

Comparable Soil Group in AASHTO

Soil Group
Possible but
in USCS Most Probable Possible
improbable
A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6,
GW A-1-a -
A-2-7
A-3, A-2-4, A-2-5,
GP A-1-a A-1-b
A-2-6, A-2-7
A-1-b, A-2-4, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5,
GM A-2-6
A-2-5, A-2-7 A-7-6, A-1-a
GC A -2-6, A-2-7 A-2-4, A-6 A-4, A-7-6, A-7-5
A-3, A-2-4, A-2-5,
SW A-1-b A-1-a
A-2-6, A-2-7
A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6,
SP A-3, A-1-b A-1-a
A-2-7
A-1-b, A-2-4, A-6, A-7-5, A-7-6,
SM A-2-6, A-4, A-5
A-2-5, A-2-7 A-1-a
A-2-4, A-6, A-4,
SC A-2-6, A-2-7 A-7-5
A-7-6
ML A-4, A-5 A-6, A-7-5 -
CL A-6, A-7-6 A-4 -
A-6, A-7-5,
OL A-4, A-5 -
A-7-6
MH A-7-5, A-5 - A-7-6
CH A-7-6 A-7-5 -
OH A-7-5, A-5 - A-7-6
Pt - - -
 Comparison of AASHTO with UCSC
Comparative Soil Groups in UCSC
Soil Group in
Possible but
AASHTO System Most Probable Possible
improbable
A-1-a GW, GP SW, SP GM, SM
A-1-b SW, SP, GM, SM GP -
A-3 SP - SW, GP
A-2-4 GM, SM GC – SC GW, GP, SW, SP
A-2-5 GM, SM - GW, GP, SW, SP
A-2-6 GC, SC GM-SM GW, GP, SW, SP
A-2-7 GM, GC, SM, SC - GW, GP, SW, SP
A-4 ML, OL CL, SM, SC GM, GC
A-5 OH, MH, ML, OL - SM, GM
A-6 CL ML, OL, SC GC, GM, SM
A-7-5 OH, MH ML, OL, CH GM, SM, GC, SC
A-7-6 CH, CL ML, OL, SC OH, MH, GC, GM

EXAMPLES:
1. Particle size analyses were carried out on two soils-Soil A and Soil B-and
the particle size distribution curves are shown in Fig. E3.8. The Atterberg
limits for the two soils are:
SOIL LL PL
A 26 19
B Non Plastic Non Plastic

Classify these soils according to the Unified Soil Classification Scheme.

Is either of the soils organic?
SOLUTION:
Step 1: Determine the percentages of each soil type from the particle size
distribution curve.
Constinuent Soil A Soil B
Percent of Particle Greater than 0.075mm 12 80
Gravel Fraction % 0 16
Sand Fraction % 12 64
Silt Fraction % 59 20
Clay Fraction % 29 0
Step 2: Use the flowchart. (Figs. 3.11.a,b)
Step Soil A Soil B
1 % < No. 200 = 59 + 29 % < No. 200 = 20%
= 88% (silt)
2 Fine grained soil Coarse grained soil
3 CL - ML sandy
4 Sandy silt clay Gravel = 16%
5 Group Symbol = SM
6 - Group Name = Silty
Sand with Gravel

Step 3: Plot the Atterberg limits on the plasticity chart.

𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐴: 𝑃𝐼 = 26 − 19 = 7%
The point (26,7) falls above the A-Line, the soil is inorganic.
Soil B: Nonplastic and inorganic.

2. Classify Soil A and B in previous example according to the AASHTO

System. Which soil is better for a subgrade?
Step 1: Make a table of values.
Soil A Soil B
No. 10 100 70
No. 40 100 40
No. 200 88 20
LL % 26 NP
PL % 19 NP

Step 2: Determine percent passing No. 200 sieve

Step Soil A Soil B
1 88% passing No. 200 20% Passing No. 200
2 > 35% passing No. 200 < 35% passing No. 200
3 Silty-Clay Granular

Step 3: Solve for Group Index

Soil A:
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = 𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹 − 35)(0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)) + 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = (88 − 35)(0.2 + 0.005(26 − 40)) + 0.01(88 − 15)(7 − 10) = 4.7 = 𝟓. 𝟎
Soil B:
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = 𝑁𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝐺𝐼 = 𝟎

Step 4: Use table 3.7 to classify the soils.

Soil A is A-4 (5). Note: The value in parentheses is GI.
Soil B is A-1-b (stone fragments, gravel, and sand)

Step 5: Decide which soil is better for a subgrade material.

Soil B (A-1-b) is an excellent material for a subgrade. Soil A is fair to poor.
Soil B is then the preferable material.