Solutions To Irodov's Problems

Solutions to Irodov's Problems
in General Physics
Vol I
Solutions to Irodov's Problems
in General Physics
Vol I
Abhay Kumar Singh

Solutions to Irodov's Problems in General Physics (Vol I)
Copyright © 2010 by Wiley India Pvt. Ltd., 4435-36/7, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002.
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Third Edition: 2010
ISBN: 978-81-265-2076-3
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Dedicated to
My teacher
Prof. (Dr.) J. Thakur
(Ex V.C. and HOD Department of Physics,
Patna University)
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
It is my privilege to bring to you the third edition of SOLUTIONS TO IRODOV’S PROBLEMS

IN GENERAL PHYSICS. This edition is a vastly improved version of the two previous
editions, with nearly 25 newly added alternate solutions, nearly 40 modified solutions,
better diagrams to illustrate the solutions, and crisper explanations. I have also changed
some solutions altogether, with the view that each problem has many methods of solving,
but only one, or maximum two of them are precise and fitting.
To ensure that all solutions in this edition are concise as well as compact, I have
tried to solve each problem in minimum possible steps. Besides this, I did not want to
spoon-feed the students, but to make them think and apply their intelligence. So, I have
tried to present the solution in a manner which will challenge their knowledge of concepts
of physics. I chose this method because I recognize that the students of modern India need
to be armed with a strong knowledge of concepts to be able to compete with the best
physicists in the world. And they will only reach this standard if they are proficient at prob-
lem-solving and not afraid of challenges.
Similar to the previous editions, the first volume includes the first three parts, contain-
ing 1052 problems, and the second volume contains the remaining three parts with 826
problems.
I conclude here with the belief that nothing succeeds like honest hard work and
conviction in one’s capability. I extend my deep gratitude and heartfelt wishes to all those
who have directly or indirectly contributed to not only the creation of this edition, but also
those who have shown faith in the authenticity and usefulness of the solutions. I would like
to mention especially the editorial team at Wiley India, who were dedicated throughout to
making this edition the best and the most comprehensive among all editions of Solutions
to Irodov’s Problems. Their ideas and attention to detail have given me the feeling of
satisfaction at a task well done.
Finally, my best wishes to all my students and students throughout the country who will
be helped by this book.
You can email me at: authoraks@gmail.com
Abhay Kumar Singh

Mata Khudi lane
Mahendru
Patna-6
May 2010
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
When you envisage to write a book of solutions to problems, one pertinent question crops
up in the mind that – why solution! Is this to prove one’s erudition? My only defense against
this is that the solution is a challenge to save the scientific man hours by channelizing
thoughts in a right direction.
The book entitled “Problems in General Physics” authored by I.E. Irodov (a noted
Russian physicist and mathematician) contains 1877 intriguing problems divided into six
chapters.
After the acceptance of my first book “Problems in Physics”, published by Wiley Eastern
Limited, I have got the courage to acknowledge the fact that good and honest ultimately
win in the market place. This stimulation provided me insight to come up with my second
attempt – “Solutions to I.E. Irodov’s Problems in General Physics.”
The first volume encompasses solutions of first three chapters containing 1052 prob-
lems. Although a large number of problems can be solved by different methods, I have
adopted standard methods and in many of the problems with helping hints for other meth-
ods.
In the solutions of chapter three, the emf of a cell is represented by (xi) in contrast to
the notation used in figures and in the problem book, due to some printing difficulty.
I am thankful to my students Mr. Omprakash, Miss Neera and Miss Punam for their valu-
able co-operation even in my hard days while authoring the present book. I am also thank-
ful to my younger sister Prof. Ranju Singh, my younger brother Mr. Ratan Kumar Singh, my
junior friend Miss Anupama Bharti, other well wishers and friends for their emotional
support. At last and above all I am grateful to my Ma and Pappaji for their blessings and
encouragement.
Abhay Kumar Singh

CONTENTS
Preface vii
Part One: Physical Fundamentals of Mechanics 1

1.1 Kinematics 1
1.2 The Fundamental Equation of Dynamics 39
1.3 Law of Conservation of Energy, Momentum and Angular Momentum 76
1.4 Universal Gravitation 123
1.5 Dynamics of a Solid Body 140
1.6 Elastic Deformations of a Solid Body 170
1.7 Hydrodynamics 187
1.8 Relativistic Mechanics 202
Part Two: Thermodynamics and Molecular Physics 223

2.1 Equation of the Gas State. Processes 223
2.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics. Heat Capacity 236
2.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases. Boltzmann’s Law and Maxwell’s Distribution 257
2.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Entropy 273
2.5 Liquids. Capillary Effects 289
2.6 Phase Transformations 297
2.7 Transport Phenomena 308
Part Three: Electrodynamics 321

3.1 Constant Electric Field in Vacuum 321
3.2 Conductors and Dielectrics in an Electric Field 349
3.3 Electric Capacitance. Energy of an Electric Field 369
3.4 Electric Current 392
3.5 Constant Magnetic Field. Magnetics 425
3.6 Electromagnetic Induction. Maxwell’s Equations 454
3.7 Motion of Charged Particles in Electric and Magnetic Fields 486
PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS
OF MECHANICS
PART 1
1.1 Kinematics
1.1 Let v0 be the stream velocity and v ¿ the velocity of motorboat with respect to water.
The motorboat reached point B while going downstream with velocity (v0 + v ¿) and
then returned with velocity (v ¿ – v0 ) and passed the raft at point C. Let t be the time
for the raft (which flows with stream with velocity v0 ) to move from point A to C, dur-
ing which the motorboat moves from A to B and then from B to C.
Therefore,
(v0 + v ¿)t - l (v0 + v ') τ
l
t = = t + A
v0
v0 (v ¿ – v0) B
l C
On solving, we get
l
v0 = = 3 km/h (on substituting values)
2t
Alternate:
In the frame of reference moving with the stream velocity the raft becomes stationary.
The boat travels for time t and turns and then travels back to reach the raft. As the
raft is still at its original position, hence it would take exactly further time t (the same
time interval) for the boat to reach the raft. The boat thus takes time 2t to reach the
raft in the frame of stream. In Newtonian mechanics time interval between two events
is frame independent, so 2t is also the time interval in the frame of river bank. In the
mean time the raft has travelled l. Hence the speed v0 of the river is
l
v0 = = 3 km/h
2t
1.2 Let s be the total distance traversed by the point and t1 the time taken to cover half the
distance. Further let 2t be the time to cover the rest half of the distance.
s s
Therefore, = v0t1 or t1 =
2 2v0
s s
and = (v1 + v2)t or 2t =
2 v1 + v2
2 PART ONE PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS
Hence the sought average velocity is given by
s s 2v0(v1 + v2 )
6v 7 = = =
t1 + 2t [s /2v0] + [s / [(v1 + v2 )] v1 + v2 + 2v0
1.3 As the car starts from rest and finally comes to a stop, and the rate of acceleration and
deceleration are equal, the distances covered as well as the times taken are same in
these phases of motion.
Let ¢t be the time for which the car moves uniformly. Then the acceleration/deceleration
time is (t - ¢t )/2 each. So,
1 (t - ¢t)2 (t - ¢t)
6v 7 t = 2e w f + w ¢t
2 4 2
4 6v7 t
or ¢t 2 = t2 -
w
4 6 v7
Hence, ¢t = t 1 - = 15 s
A wt
1.4 (a) Sought average velocity s (m)

2 c
s 200 cm
6v7 = = = 10 cm/s
t 20 s
b
(b) For the maximum velocity, ds>dt should be 1
maximum. From the figure ds>dt is maximum
for all points on the line ab thus the sought max-
a
imum velocity becomes average velocity for the
line ab and is o
10 14 20 t (s)
100 cm
= = 25 cm/s
4s
(c) Time t0 should be such that corresponding to it the slope ds>dt should coincide
with the chord Oc, to satisfy the relationship ds>dt = s>t0. From figure the tangent
at point c passes through the origin and thus corresponding time t = t0 = 16 s.
1.5 Let the particles collide at the point A (see figure), whose position y A
v1 t
vector is r3 (say). If t be the time taken by each particle to reach
point A, then from triangle law of vector addition: r1
r3 v2 t
r3 = r1 + v1t = r2 + v2t
r2
So, r1 - r2 = (v2 - v1)t (1)
x
O
1.1 KINEMATICS 3
| r1 - r2 |
Therefore, t = (2)
| v2 - v1 |
From Eqs. (1) and (2)
| r1 - r2 |
r1 - r2 = (v2 - v1) =
| v2 - v1|
r1 - r2 v2 - v1
Thus, = , which is the sought relationship.
| r1 - r2 | | v2 - v1 |
1.6 We have
v ¿ = v - v0
In the vector diagram for above relation, let us drop a dotted perpendicular from the
tip of v onto the line of action of v0. Using the property of right angle triangle,
v ¿ = 2(v cos w + v0) 2 + (v sin w) 2 = 2v 20 + v 2 + 2v0 v cos w
= 39.7 km/h (on substituting values) v'

v sin w v
and tan w¿ =
v cos w + v0 ϕ ϕ′
On substitution w¿ = 19.1° v0
1.7 Let us suppose one of the swimmers (say 1) crosses the river along AB, which is
obviously the shortest path. Time taken to cross the river by the swimmer 1
d
t1 = (where AB = d is the width of the river) (1)
2v ¿ 2 - v 20
For the other swimmer (say 2), who follows the quickest path, the time taken to cross
the river,
d
t2 = (2)
v¿
B B x C
v0 v0
d d
v1 v' v2
v'
A A
In the time t2, drifting of the swimmer 2, becomes

v0
x = v0t2 = d (using Eq. 2) (3)
v¿
If t3 be the time for swimmer 2 to walk the distance x to come C to B (see figure), then
x v0d
t3 = = (using Eq. 3) (4)
u v ¿u
According to the problem t1 = t2 + t3
d d v0d
or = +
2v ¿ 2 - v 20 v¿ v ¿u
v0 v¿
Q = - 1
u v ¿ 2 - v 20
v0
Thus, u = = 3 km/h
(1 - v 20 /v¿ 2)-1/ 2 - 1
1.8 Let l be the distance covered by the boat A along the river as well as by the boat B
across the river. Let v0 be the stream velocity and v the velocity of each boat with
respect to water. Therefore time taken by the boat A in its journey
l l 2lv ¿
tA = + = 2
v ¿ + v0 v ¿ - v0 v ¿ - v 20
and for the boat B
l l 2l
tB = + =
2v ¿ 2 - v 20 2v ¿ 2 - v 20 2v ¿ 2 - v 20
tA v¿ v¿
awhere h = b
h
Hence, = =
tB 2v ¿ 2 - v 20 2h2 - 1 v0
tA
On substitution, = 1.8
tB
1.9 Let v0 be the stream velocity and v the velocity of boat with respect to water. As
v0>v ¿ = n = 2 7 0, some drifting of the boat is inevitable.
Let v¿ make an angle u with flow direction (see figure), then the time taken to cross the
river
d
t = (where d is the width of the river)
v ¿sin u
In this time interval, the drifting of the boat
x = 1v ¿cos u + v02t
= 1v ¿cos u + v02 = 1cot u + h cosec u2d

d
v ¿sin u
1.1 KINEMATICS 5
For xmin (minimum drifting) A x B

y
v0
1cot u + h cosec u2 = 0, which yields
d
du d v' v
1 1
cos u = - = -
n 2 q
Hence, u = 120° O x
Alternate:
Let v0 be the stream velocity, v ¿ the velocity of boat with respect to water and v be
the resultant velocity of boat, i.e., v = v0 + v¿.
The angle u from the direction of stream at which
boat can be rowed lies in the interval 0 to y
p (0 … u … p). Now let us draw the vector dia- D
gram of velocity vectors. In the figure, a semicircle C
has been drawn whose radius is v ¿ . The tip of vec- B
tor v¿ lies on this semicircle. One can observe that v'
v a
for minimum drifting, angle a should be maximum A a q
x
and the line AB representing vector v becomes tan- v0 O
gent to the semicircle so that line OB representing
v¿ becomes perpendicular to it. The minimum drifting is CD.
OB v¿ 1
From the figure sin a = = = (1)
AO v0 n
p
u = + a (see figure)
2
Hence, u = sin-1 (1>n) + p>2 = 120° (on substituting values)
In the triangle OCD
OC
sin a = (2)
OD
OC 1
=
OD n
or OD = n (OC)
So, OC = 2(OD)2 - (OC)2 = OC 1n 2 - 1
Hence, xmin = d 2n 2 - 1
1.10 Let us suppose one of the bodies, say 1, is thrown upwards and the other body
(say 2) at an angle u to the horizontal. Indicate y-axis vertically upward and x-axis
along horizontal. Let after the time interval t, the particles 1 and 2 have coordinates
(0, y1) and (x2, y2)
For body 1,
1 2 y
y1 = v0t - gt
2 (0, y1) l
and for body 2, (x2, y2)
v0 v0
1
x2 = v0 cos u t and y2 = v0 sin u t - gt 2
2 x
Thus the sought separation between the particles 1 and 2 after the time interval t
l = 2x 22 + ( y1 - y2 )2 = 2(v0 cos ut)2 + {v0t (1 - sin u)2}

= v0 t 22(1 - sin u)
= 22 m, on putting the values of v0, t and u
Alternate:
The solution of this problem becomes interesting in the frame attached v0(12)
with one of the bodies. Let the body thrown straight up be 1 and the
other body be 2, then for the body 1 in the frame of 2 from the kine- v01
matical equation for constant acceleration (since both are moving v02
under constant acceleration) is
0
1
r12 = r0(12) + v0(12) t + w12t 2
2
So, r12 = v0(12) t (because w12 = 0 and r0(12) = 0)
or | r12 | = | v0(12) | t
But, | v01 | = | v02 | = v0
So, from properties of triangle
| v0(12)| = 2v 20 + v 20 - 2v0v0 cos (p>2 - u0 )
Hence, the sought distance
| r12 | = v0t 22 (1 - sin u0 ) = 22 m
1.11 Let the velocities of the particles (say v¿1 and v¿2 ) become mutually perpendicular after
time t. Then their velocities become
v¿1 = v1 + gt ; v¿2 = v2 + g t
1.1 KINEMATICS 7
As v¿1 ⬜ v¿2 so, v¿1 # v¿2 = 0

or (v1 + gt) # (v2 + gt) = 0
or - v1v2 + g 2t 2 = 0
v2 v1
2v1v2
Hence, t =
g
v2′ v1′
In the frame attached with 2 for the particle 1
v2 t v1 t
1
r = r0 + v0t + wt2
2
Both the particles are initially at the same position and have same acceleration g, so
r0 = 0, w = 0, and v0 = | v1 - v2 |. Thus the sought distance is
| r | = | v0 |t = (v1 + v2)t
v1 + v2
= 1v1v2 (using value of t )
g
= 2.5 m, on putting the values of v1, v2 and g
1.12 From the symmetry of the problem all the three points are
always located at the vertices of equilateral triangles of varying
side length and finally meet at the centroid of the initial
equilateral triangle. Symmetry of the problem tells us that the ve- a 0 a
locity with which point 1 approaches 2 is equal to the velocity
by which 2 approaches 3 and 3 approaches 1.
a
Method 1:
The rate at which 1 approaches 2 or the separation between 1 and 2 decreases with
time is the projection of v12 towards r21. At an arbitrary instant when the equilateral
triangle has edge length l a, the velocity with which 1 approaches 2 becomes
- dl
= v - v cos a b
2p
dt 3 1
v
0 t
3v
On integrating: - dl = dt (where t is the sought time) l
3 2 3 v v
a 0 2
2p/3 3
3 2a
or a = vt so, t =
2 3v
Method 2:
If we concentrate on the motion of any one point say 3, one can observe that at all
the time its velocity makes an angle 30 with 3O and is equal to v cos 30° = 13/2 v.
Initially 3O equals a> 13, so the sought time 1

v
a> 13
2a
t = =
( 13>2)v 3v
(In the figure, velocity of point 3 has been resolved into a O
two rectangular components, one pointing towards the 3 v/2
centre of the triangle and other perpendicular to it.) v 2v
2 3
1.13 Let us locate the points A and B at an arbitrary instant of
time (see figure). B
u
If A and B are separated by the distance s at this moment,
then the points converge or point A approaches B with v
velocity - ds>dt = v - u cos a where angle a varies with l
time. On integrating, A
0 T
- ds = (v - u cos a) dt (where T is the sought time)

3 3
l 0
T
or l = (v - u cos a) dt
3
0
T
= vT - u cos a dt (1)
3
0
As both A and B cover the same distance in x-direction during the sought time inter-
val, so the other condition which is required, can be obtained by the equation,
T
uT = v cos a dt (2)
3
0
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
ul
T =
- u2 v2
One can see that if u = v, or u v, point A cannot catch B.
1.14 In the reference frame fixed to the train, the distance between the two events is
obviously equal to l. Suppose the train starts moving at time t = 0 in the positive
direction and take the origin (x = 0) at the head-light of the train at t = 0. Then the
coordinate of first event in the earth’s frame is
1
x1 = wt 2
2
1.1 KINEMATICS 9
and similarly the coordinate of the second event is
1
x2 = w (t + t)2 - l
2
The distance between the two events is obviously
x1 - x2 = l - w t (t + t>2) = 0.242 km
in the reference frame fixed on the Earth.

For the two events to occur at the same point in the reference frame K, moving with
constant velocity V relative to the earth, the distance traveled by the frame in the time
interval t must be equal to the above distance.
Thus, Vt = l - w t (t + t>2)
l
So, V = - w (t + t>2) = 4.03 m/s
t
The frame K must clearly be moving in a direction opposite to the train so that if (for
example) the origin of the frame coincides with the point x1 on the earth at time t, it
coincides with the point x2 at time t + t.
1.15 (a) As time interval between two events is reference independent in Newtonian
mechanics, so it is better to solve the problem in the elevators frame having the
observer at its floor. (see figure). Let us denote separation between floor and ceil-
ing by h = 2.7 m and the acceleration of the elevator by w = 1.2 m/s2 .
From the kinematical formula y
1
y = y0 + v0y t + w t2
2 y
h w
Here, y = 0, y0 = + h, v0y = 0
O
and wy = wbolt(y) - wele(y)
= (–g) - (w) = - ( g + w)
1
So, 0 = h + [ - ( g + w)]t 2
2
2h
or t = = 0.7 s (on substituting values)
Ag + w
(b) At the moment the bolt loses contact with the elevator, it has already acquired the
velocity equal to elevator, given by;
v0 = (1.2) (2) = 2.4 m/s
In the reference frame attached with the elevator shaft (ground) and pointing the
y-axis upward, we have for the displacement of the bolt,
1
¢y = v0y t + w t2
2 y
1 v0
= v0t + ( - g)t 2
2 i
1
or ¢y = (2.4)(0.7) + ( - 9.8)(0.7)2 y
2
= - 0.7 m f
Hence the bolt comes down or displaces downward relative to the point, when it
loses contact with the elevator by the amount 0.7 m (see figure).
Obviously the total distance covered by the bolt during its free fall time
v 20
s = | ¢y | + 2 a b = 0.7 m +
(2.4)2
m = 1.3 m
2g (9.8)
1.16 After time t 7 0, the separation between the particles
l = 2(l1 - v1t)2 + (l2 - v2t)2
For l and hence l 2 to be minimum
dl 2
= 0
dt
d
or {(l + v1t)2 + (l2 - v2t)2} = 0
dt 1
(v1l 1 - v2l2)
which gives t =
2v 21 + v 22
On using the value of t, in the expression of l
| v1l2 - v2l1 |
lmin = .
1v 21 + v 22
Alternate:
Let the particles 1 and 2 be at points B and A respectively at t 0, at the distances l1
and l2 from intersection point O.
Let us fix the inertial frame with the particle 2. Now the particle 1 moves relative to this
reference frame with a relative velocity v12 = v1 - v2, and its trajectory is the straight
line BP. Obviously, the minimum distance between the particles is equal to the length
of the perpendicular AP dropped from point A on to the straight line BP (Fig. (a)).
1.1 KINEMATICS 11
v2
q P
l2 M
q v1
v12
q v12
v1 q
B O v2
l1
(a) (b)
v1
From Fig. (b), v12 = 2v 21 + v 22, tan u = ,
v2
v2 v1
So, cos u = and sin u = (1)
2v 21 + v 22 2v 21 + v 22
From Fig. (a), the shortest distance
AP = AM sin u = (OA - OM ) sin u = (l2 - l1 cot u) sin u
v2 v1 | v1l2 - v2l1 |
or AP = a l2 - l1 b = (using Eq. 1)
v1 2v 21 + v 22 2v 21 + v 22
BP BM + MP l1 cosec u + (l2 - l1 cot u) cos u
The sought time t = = =
| v12 | | v12 | 2v 21 + v 22
l2 cos u + l1 sin u l2v2 + l1v1
= = (using Eq. 1)
2v 21 + v 22 v 21 + v 22
1.17 Let the car turns off the highway at a distance x from the point D. x
C D
So, CD x, and if the speed of the car in the field is v, then the A
time taken by the car to cover the distance AC (AD x) on the
highway l
l2 + x 2
AD - x
t1 = (1) B
hv
and the time taken to travel the distance CB in the field
2l 2 + x 2
t2 = (2)
v
So, the total time elapsed to move the car from point A to B
AD - x 2l 2 + x 2
t = t1 + t2 = +
hv v
For t to be minimum
c- + d = 0
dt 1 1 x
= 0 or
dx v h 2l + x 2
2
l
or h 2x 2 = l 2 + x 2 or x =
2h 2 - 1
1.18 From question vx (0) = 0, so the motion starts from vx
origin, thus from the plot of vx(t) we have 1 a b
c e
t; 0 … t … 1 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1; 1 6 t … 3 –1
vx =
L4 - t; 3 6 t … 6 –2
d t
2t - 14 ; 6 6 t … 7
and vx = 0 for t 7 7.
As at t = 0, x = 0,
x(t)
t2
;0 … t … 1
2 3
t 1
t - ;1 6 t … 3 2
f 2
So, x (t) = vx dt = 1
3 t2
0 4t - + 5; 3 6 t … 6 t
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t 2 - 14t + 49 ; 6 6 t … 7
s(t)
t2
;0 … t … 1 6
2
5
1
t - ;1 6 t … 3 4
t 2 7/2
h t2 3
Now, s (t) = | vx |dt = 4t - - 5; 3 6 t … 4 5/2
3 2 2
0 2
t
- 4t + 11; 4 6 t … 6 1
2 1/2
t
14t - t 2 - 43 ; 6 6 t … 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ax
1; 0 … t 6 1
dvx 2
0; 1 6 t … 3
Now, ax = =
dt -
L 1; 3 6 t … 6 1
2; 6 6 t … 7
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.1 KINEMATICS 13
1.19 (a) Mean velocity

Total distance covered v0 R
<v > = f
Time elapsed i v
s pR
== = 50 cm/s (1)
t t
| ¢r | 2R
(b) Modulus of mean velocity vector | <v > |= = = 32 cm/s (2)
¢t t
(c) Let the point moves from i to f along the half circle (see figure) and v0 and v be
the speed at the points respectively.
dv
We have = wt
dt
or v = v0 + wt t (as wt is constant, according to the problem)
t
(v0 + wt t)dt
3 v0 + (v0 + wt t) v0 + v
0
So, <v > = t
= = (3)
2 2
dt
3
0
So, from Eqs. (1) and (3)

v0 + vpR
= (4)
2 t
Now, the modulus of the mean vector of total acceleration
| ¢v | | v - v0 | v0 + v
|<w>| = = = (see figure) (5)
¢t t t
Using Eq. (4) in Eq. (5), we get
2pR
|<w>| = = 10 cm/s2 (on substituting values)
t2
1.20 (a) We have r = at (1 - at)

dr
So, v = = a (1 - 2at)
dt
dv
and w = = - 2aa
dt
(b) From the equation
r = at (1 - at)
1
r = 0, at t = 0 and also at t = ¢t =
a
1
So, the sought time ¢t =
a
As v = a (1 - 2at)
1
a (1 - 2at) for t …
2a
So, v = |v| = d
1
a (2at - 1) for t 7
2a
Hence, the sought distance
1>2a 1>a
s = v dt = a (1 - 2a t) dt + a (2at - 1) dt
3 3 3
0 1>2a
a
Simplifying, we get, s =
2a
1.21 (a) As the particle leaves the origin at t = 0
So, ¢x = x = vx dt (1)
3
v = v0 a 1 - b
t
As
t
(where v0 is directed towards the + ve x-axis).
vx = v0 a 1 - b
t
So, (2)
t
From Eqs. (1) and (2),
t
v0 a1 - b dt = v0t a 1 - b
t t
x = (3)
3 t 2t
0
Hence x coordinate of the particle at t = 6 s
x = 10 * 6 a 1 - b = 24 cm = 0.24 m
6
2 * 5
Similarly at t = 10 s
x = 10 * 10 a 1 - b = 0
10
2 * 5
and at t = 20 s
x = 10 * 20 a 1 - b = - 200 cm = - 2 m
20
2 * 5
1.1 KINEMATICS 15
(b) At the moment the particle is at a distance of 10 cm from the origin, x = 10 cm.
Putting x = + 10 in Eq. (3)
10 = 10t a 1 - b
t
or t 2 - 10t + 10 = 0
10
10 2100 - 40
So, t = = 5215 s
2
Now putting x = - 10 in Eq. (3)
- 10 = 10 a1 - b
t
10
On solving, t = 5 235 s
As t cannot be negative, so,
t = (5 + 235) s
Hence the particle is at a distance of 10 cm from the origin at three moments of time:
t = 5 215 s, 5 + 235 s
v = v0 a 1 - b
t
(c) We have
t
v0 a 1 - b
t
for t … t
t
v = |v| =
t
So,
v0 a - 1b
t
for t 7 t
t
t
v0 a 1 - b dt for t … t = v0t (1 - t/2t)

t
So, s = (4)
3 t
0
t t
v0 a 1 - b dt + v0 a - 1 b dt for t 7 t
t t
and s =
3 t 3 t
0 t
= v0t[1 + (1 - t>t)2]>2 for t 7 t (5)

4 4
v0 a 1 - b dt = 10 a 1 - b dt = 24 cm
t t
s =
3 t 3 5
0 0
For t = 8 s
5 8
10 a1 - b dt + 10 a - 1 b dt
t t
s =
3 5 3 5
0 5
On integrating and simplifying, we get

s = 34 cm
On the basis of Eqs. (3) and (4), x (t) and s (t) plots can be drawn as shown in the
answer sheet.
1.22 (a) As particle is in unidirectional motion, it is directed along the x-axis all the time. At
t = 0, x = 0 .
dv v dv 1 d 2
So, ¢x = x = s and w = = = (v )
dt ds 2 ds
According to the problem v = a 1x = a 1s
So, v 2 = a 2s
1 d 1 d a2
and w = (v 2) = (a 2s) = (1)
2 ds 2 ds 2
dv a2 a2
As, w = = so, dv = dt
dt 2 2
a2
On integrating, v = t = v (t) (2)
2
(b) Let t be the time to cover first s m of the path. From Eq. (2)
t
a2 a2 t 2
s = v dt = t dt =
3 32 2 2
0
2
Hence, t = 1s (3)
a
The mean velocity of particle
21s >a
a2
t dt
3 2
1 v (t) dt 0 a 1s
<v > = = =
1 dt 2 1s>a 2
1.23 According to the problem
v dv
- = a 1v (as v decreases with time)
ds
0 s
or - 1v dv = a ds
3 3
v0 0
2 3>2
On integrating we get, s = v
3a 0
1.1 KINEMATICS 17
Again according to the problem

dv dv
- = a1v or - = a dt
dt 2v
0 t
dv
or - = a dt
3 1v 3
v0 0
2 1v0
Thus, t =
a
1.24 (a) As r = at i - bt 2 j y
So, x = at, y = - bt 2
–bx 2 O
and therefore y = x
a2
which is equation of a parabola, whose graph is shown
in the figure.
(b) As r = at i - bt 2 j
dr
v = = a i - 2b j (1)
dt
So, v = 2a2 + ( - 2bt )2 = 2a2 + 4b 2t 2
Differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to time, we get

dv
w = = - 2b j
dt
So, | w | = w = 2b
v#w (a i - 2bt j) # ( - 2b j)
(c) cos a = =
vw ( 2a 2 + 4b 2 t 2) 2b
2bt
or cos a =
2a2 + 4b 2t 2
a = tan-1 a b
a a
So, tan a = or
2 bt 2bt
(d) The mean velocity vector

t
1 vdt 1 (a i - 2bt j)dt
0
6v 7 = = = a i - bt j
1 dt t
Hence, | 6v 7 | = 2a2 + ( - bt)2 = 2a 2 + b 2t 2

1.25 (a) We have

x = at and y = at (1 - at) (1)
Hence, y (x) becomes
a1 - b = x - x 2 (parabola)
ax ax a
y =
a a a
(b) Differentiating Eq. (1) we get

vx = a and vy = a (1 - 2 at) (2)
So, v = 2v 2x + v 2y = a 21 + (1 - 2at)2
Differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to time

wx = 0 and wy = - 2a a
So, w = 2w 2x + w 2y = 2a a (3)
(c) From Eqs. (2) and (3) we have v = a i + a (1 - 2at) j and w = 2a a j.

p 1 v#w - a (1 - 2a t0)2aa
So at t - t0, cos = = =
4 22 vw a 21 + (1 - 2 at0)2 2a a
On simplifying, 1 - 2at0 = 1
1
As t0 Z 0, t0 =
a
1.26 Differentiating motion law: x = a sin vt, y = a (1 - cos vt), with respect to time,
vx = a v cos vt and vy = a v sin vt .
So, v = a v cos vt i + a v sin vt j (1)

and v = a v = constant (2)
dv
w = = - a v2 sin vt i + a v2 cos vt j (3)
dt
(a) The distance s traversed by the point during the time t is given by
t t
s = v dt = a v dt = avt (using Eq. 2)

3 3
0 0
(b) Taking scalar product of v and w

We get, v # w = (av cos vt i + a v sin vt j) # (av 2 sin vt ( - i) + a v 2 cos vt j)
1.1 KINEMATICS 19
So, v # w = - a 2v 2 sin vt cos vt + a 2v 3 sin vt cos vt = 0

Thus, v⬜ w, i.e., the angle between velocity vector and acceleration vector equals p/ 2.

w = w ( - j)
dvx dvy
So, wx = = 0 and wy = = -w (1)
dt dt
Differentiating equation of trajectory, y = ax - bx 2, with respect to time
dy adx dx
= - 2bx (2)
dt dt dt
` `
dy a dx
So, =
dt x = 0 dt x = 0
Again differentiating with respect to time

d 2y
a b
ad 2x dx 2 d 2x
= - 2b - 2b x
dt 2 dt 2 dt dt 2
- w = a (0) - 2b a b - 2bx (0) (using Eq. 1)

dx 2
or
dt
dx w
or = (using Eq. 1) (3)
dt A 2b
`
dy w
Using Eq. (3) in Eq. (2) = a (4)
dt x = 0 A 2b
Hence, the velocity of the particle at the origin
a b + a b
dx 2 dy 2 w w
v = = + a2 (using Eqs. 3 and 4)
A dt x = 0 dt x = 0 A 2b 2b
w
Hence, v = (1 + a 2)
A 2b
1.28 As the body is under gravity of constant acceleration g, its velocity vector and
displacement vectors are:
v = v0 + gt (1)
1 2
and ¢r = r = v0t + gt (as r = 0 at t = 0) (2)
2
So, v over the first t seconds

¢r r 1
6v 7 = = = v0 + gt (3)
¢t t 2
Hence from Eq. (3), v over the first t seconds
g
6v 7 = v0 + t (4)
2
For evaluating t, take
v # v = (v0 + gt) # (v0 + gt) = v 20 + 2(v0 # g)t + g 2t 2
or v 2 = v 20 + 2(v0 # g) t + g 2t 2
But we have v = v0 at t = 0 and also at t = t (also from energy conservation).
Hence using this property in Eq. (5),
v 20 = v 20 + 2(v0 # g)t + g 2 t2
2(v0 # g)
As t Z 0, so, t = -
g2
Putting this value of t in Eq. (4), the average velocity over the time of flight
(v0 # g)
6 v 7 = v0 - g
g2
1.29 The body thrown in air with velocity v0 at an angle a from the horizontal lands at
point P on the Earth’s surface at same horizontal level (see figure). The point of pro-
jection is taken as origin, so ¢x = x and ¢y = y .
1 v0
(a) From the equation ¢y = v0y t + wyt 2 y
2
1
or 0 = v0 sin at - g t2
2
H
2v0 sin a α P
As t Z 0, so, time of motion t = O x
R/2
g α
(b) At the maximum height of ascent, vy = 0 w=g wn
so, from the equation v 2y = v 20y + 2wy ¢y
0 = (v0 sin a)2 - 2gH
v 20 sin2 a
Hence maximum height H =
2g
During the time of motion the net horizontal displacement or horizontal range,
will be obtained by the equation
1
¢x = v0xt + wxt2
2
1.1 KINEMATICS 21
1 v 02 sin 2 a
or R = v0cos at - (0) t = v0 cos a t =
2
2 g
when R = H
v 02 sin 2 a v 20 sin2 a
= or tan a = 4, so, a = tan-1 4
g 2g
(c) For the body, x (t) and y (t) are
x = v 0 cos at (1)
1 2
and y = v0 sin at -
gt (2)
2
Hence putting the value of t from Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) we get
gx 2
y = v 0 sin a a b - g a b = x tan a -
x 1 x 2
v0 cos a 2 v0 cos a 2 v 20 cos2 a
Note: One can use the formula of curvature radius of a trajectory y (x), to solve part (d),
[1 + (dy/dx)2]3>2
R =
|d 2y /dx 2|
1.30 We have, vx = v0 cos a, vy = v0 sin a - gt
Thus, v 2 = v 2x + v 2y = v 02 - 2gt v0 sin a + g 2t 2
dvt 1 d 1
Now, wt = = (vt )2 = (g2t - gv0 sin a)
dt 2vt dt v
g vy
= - (v 0 sin a - gt) = - g
v vt
| vy |
Hence, | wt | = g
v
v y2
Now, wn = 2w 2 - w t2 = A g 2 - g 2 2
vt
C where vx = 2vt2 - v y2 = 2v 2 - v 2y D
vx
or wn = g
vt
vy
wv = wt = - g
v
On the basis of obtained expressions or facts the sought plots can be drawn as shown
in the figure of answer sheet.
1.31 The ball strikes the inclined plane (Ox) at point O (origin) with velocity
v0 = 22gh (1)
As the ball classically rebounds, it recalls with same velocity v0, at the same angle a
from the normal on y axis (see figure). Let the ball strike the incline second time at P,
which is at a distance l (say) from the point O, along the incline. From the equation
1 y
y = v0y t + w t2
2 y v0
h
1
0 = v0 cos at - g cos at 2
2 90°–
O
where t is the time of motion of ball in air while moving
from O to P.
2v0 g P
As t Z 0, so, t = g (2) α
x
Now from the equation.
1
x = v0x t + w t2
2 x
1
l = v0 sin at + g sin a t2
2
2v0 2v0 4v 02 sin a
l = v0 sin a a b + g sin a a b =
1
So, (using Eq. 2)
g 2 g g
Hence the sought distance,
4(2gh) sin a
l = = 8h sin a (using Eq. 1)
g
1.32 Total time of motion
2v0 sin a tg 9.8 t
t = or sin a = = (1)
g 2v0 2 * 240
and horizontal range
R 5100 85
R = v0 cos at or cos a = = = (2)
v0t 240 t 4t
(9.8)2t 2 (85)2
+ = 1
(480)2 (4t2)2
On simplifying t 4 - 2400t2 + 1083750 = 1

Solving for t2, we get
2400 21425000 2400 1194
t2 = =
2 2
1.1 KINEMATICS 23
Thus, t = 42.39 s = 0.71 min

and t = 24.55 s = 0.41 min (depending on the angle a)
1.33 Let the shells collide at the point P (x, y). If the first shell takes t s to collide with sec-
ond and ¢t be the time interval between the firings, then
x = v0 cos u1 t = v0 cos u2 (t – ¢t) (1)
1 y
and y = v0 sin u2 (t - ¢t) - g (t - ¢t)2 (2)
2
v0
¢t cos u2 v0 (x,y)
From Eq. (1) t = (3) P
cos u2 - cos u1 q1
q2
From Eqs. (2) and (3) O x
2v0 sin (u1 - u2)
¢t = as ¢t Z 0
g (cos u2 + cos u1)
= 11 s (on substituting values)

dy
(a) = v0 or dy = v0 dt
dt
y t
Integrating dy = v0 dt or y = v0t (1)

3 3
0 0
dx
Also, we have = ay or dx = ay dt = av0t dt (using Eq. 1)
dt
x t
1 1 ay 2
So, dx = av0 t dt, or x = av0t 2 = (using Eq. 1)
3 3 2 2 v0
0 0
(b) According to the problem

vy = v0 and vx = ay (2)
So, v = 2v 2x + v 2y = 2v 20 + a2y 2
dv a 2y dy a2y
Therefore, wt = = =
dt 2v 20 + ay 2 dt 21 + (ay/v0)2
Differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to time.

dvy dvx dy
= wy = 0 and = wx = a = av0
dt dt dt
So, w = | wx | = av0
a 4y 2 av0
Hence, wn = 2w 2 - w t2 = a2v 20 - =
A 1 + (ay/v0 )2 21 + (ay/v0 )2
1.35 (a) The velocity vector of the particle

v = a i + bx j
dx dy
So, = a and = bx (1)
dt dt
x t
From Eq. (1) dx = a dt or x = at (2)

3 3
0 0
and dy = bx dt = bat dt
y t
1
Integrating dy = ab t dt or y = ab t 2 (3)
3 3 2
0 0
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we get,

b
y = (x2) (4)
2a
(b) The curvature radius of trajectory y (x) is

[1 + (dy >dx)2]3>2
R =
| d 2y > dx 2 |
(5)
b 2
Let us differentiate the path equation y = x with respect to x,
2a
dy b d 2y b
= x and 2
= (6)
dx a dx a
From Eqs. (5) and (6), the sought curvature radius is
c 1 + a xb d
a b 2 3>2
R =
b a
1.1 KINEMATICS 25
1.36 In accordance with the problem

wt = a # T
vd v
But, wt = or v dv = wt ds
ds
So, v dv = (a # T) ds = a # ds T = a # d r
or v dv = a i # dr = a dx (because a is directed towards the x-axis)
v x
So, v dv = a dx
3 3
0 0
Hence, v2 = 2ax or v = 22ax
1.37 The velocity of the particle v = at .

dv
So, = wt = a (1)
dt
v2 a 2t 2
and wn = = (using v = at ) (2)
R R
From s = v dt
L
t t
2pRh = v dt = at dt
3 3
0 0
4ph t2
So, = (3)
a R
From Eqs. (2) and (3), wn = 4pah
Hence, w = 2w 2t + w n2
= 2a2 + (4pa h )2 = a21 + 16p2h2 = 0.8 m/s2
1.38 (a) According to the problem

| wt | = | wn |
- dv v2
For v (t), =
dt R
Integrating this equation from v0 … v … v and 0 … t … t , we get
v t
dv 1 v0
- = dt or v = (1)
3v
2 R3 v0t
v0 0 a1 + b
R
v dv v2
Now for v (s), - =
ds R
Integrating this equation from v0 … v … v and 0 … s … s , we get

v s
dv 1 v s
= - ds or ln = -
3 v R3 v0 R
v0 0
Hence, v = v0e-s/R (2)

(b) The normal acceleration of the point
v 0e 2 -2s/R
v2
wn = = (using Eq. 2)
R R
In accordance with the problem
| wt | = | wn | and wt t ⬜ wnn
v 20 v2
So, w = 22wn = 22 e -2s/R = 22
R R
1.39 From the equation v = a1s

dv a ds a a2
wt = = = a 1s =
dt 2 1s dt 2 1s 2
v2 a 2s
and wn = =
R R
As wt is a positive constant, the speed of the particle increases with time, and the tan-
gential acceleration vector and velocity vector coincides in direction.
Hence the angle between v and w is equal to angle between wt t and w and a can
be found by the formula
| wn | a2s/R 2s
tan a = = 2 =
| wt | a /2 R
1.40 Differentiating the equation l = a sin v t

dl
= v = av cos vt
dt
dv
So, wt = = - av2 sin vt (1)
dt
v2 a2v2 cos2 vt
and wn = = (2)
R R
1.1 KINEMATICS 27
(a) At the point l = 0, sin vt = 0 and cos vt = 1 so, vt = 0, p, etc.

a2v2
Hence, w = wn = = 2.6 m/s2 (on substituting values)
R
Similarly at l = a, sin vt = 1 and cos vt = 0, so, wn = 0.
Hence, w = | wt | = av 2 = 3.2 m/s2 (on substituting values)
(b) Using sin vt = l /a in Eqs. (1) and (2) we get

wt = - v2l
v2 2
and wn = (a - l 2)
R
v4 2
Therefore, wt = v4l 2 + (a - l 2)2 = f (l )
A R2
On differentiating with respect to l and putting
dwt
= 0
dl
= a2 a1 – 2 b
R2 R2
we get, l 2 = lm2 = a2 –
2 2a
R2
So, lm = a 1 - = 0.37 m (on substituting values)
A 2a2
The corresponding wmin at l = lm is
v4 a a2 - b + 2a b
R2 v4 R 2 2
wmin =
A 2 R 2
R2 R2
= av2 1 - +
A 2a2 4a 2
R 2
= av2 1 - a b = 2.5 m/s2 (on substituting values)
A 2a
1.41 As wt = a and at t = 0, the point is at rest.
1 2
So, v(t) and s (t) are v = at and s = at (1)
2
Let R be the curvature radius, then
v2 a2t 2 2as
wn == = (using Eq. 1)
R R R
But according to the problem
wn = bt 4
a 2t 2 a2 a2
So, bt 4 = or R = 2 = (using Eq. 1) (2)
R bt 2bs
Therefore, w = 2wt2 + w 2n = 2a2 + (2as /R)2 = 2a2 + (4bs2/a2 )2 (using Eq. 2)
Hence, w = a21 + (4bs2 /a 3)2
1.42 (a) Let us differentiate twice the path equation y (x) with respect to time,
dx d 2y
= 2a c a b + x 2 d
dy dx 2 d 2x
= 2ax ; 2
dt dt dt dt dt
Since the particle moves uniformly, its acceleration at all points of the path is normal
and at the point x = 0 it coincides with the direction of derivative d 2y/dt 2.
Keeping in mind that at the point x = 0, ` ` = v,
dx
dt
d 2y
we get w = ` ` = 2av 2 = wn
dt 2 x = 0
v2 1
So, wn = 2av 2 = or R =
R 2a
Note: We can also calculate it from the formula of problem 1.35(b).
(b) Differentiating the equation of the trajectory with respect to time we see that
dx dy
b2x + a 2y = 0 (1)
dt dt
which implies that the vector (b2xi + a2y j) is normal to the velocity vector
dx dy
v = i + j which, of course, is along the tangent. Thus the former vector is
dt dt
along the normal and the normal component of acceleration is clearly
d 2x d 2y
b2x + 2y
w#n
a
a on using wn = b
dt 2 dt 2
wn =
(b 4x 2 + a 4y 2)1/2 |n|
At x = 0, y = b, so at x = 0
d 2y
wn = `
dt 2 x = 0
Differentiating Eq. (1)

d 2y
b2 a b + b 2x a 2 b + a2 a b + a 2y a b = 0
dx 2 d 2x dy 2
dt dt dt dt
1.1 KINEMATICS 29
dy
Also from Eq. (1) = 0 at x = 0
dt
a b = v (since tangential velocity is constant = v)

dx
So,
dt
d 2y
a b =
b 2
Thus, v
dt 2 a2
bv 2 v2
and | wn | = =
a2 R
a2
This gives R =
b
1.43 Angular velocity of point A, with respect to centre C of the circle or turning rate of
line CA taking the line OCX as reference line becomes
-d u
= 2a b = 2v
d (2u)
vC = - A
dt dt
x
because angular speed of line OA is v = - du/dt. q
The turning rate of line CA is also the turning rate of velocity r 2q
vector of point A, which is given by vA /R . C
q
So, vA = vC R = (2v) R = 0.4 m/s (on substituting values) O
Alternate:
transverse velocity
Angular speed of a point relative to origin =
magnitude of position vector
So, angular speed of point A relative to origin O
component velocity of point A perpendicular to OA
=
Length of line OA
A vA
vA cos u q
v = x
r q R
r 2q
But from sine property of triangle OAC, r = 2R cos u.
vA q C
So, v = or vA = 2vR R
2R O
From both the methods the obtained speed vA is constant, so
the tangential acceleration of particle A is zero and
vA2 (2vR)2
w = wn = R
= = 4v2R = 0.32 m/s2 (on substituting values)
R
1.44 Differentiating w (t) with respect to time

dw
= vz = 2at (1)
dt
For fixed axis rotation, the speed of the point A
v
v = vR = 2 at R or R = (2)
2at
Differentiating with respect to time
dv v
wt = = 2aR = (using Eq. 1)
dt t
v2 v2
But, wn = = = 2atv (using Eq. 2)
R v/2at
v
So, w = 2wt2 + wn2 = 2(v/t)2 + (2atv)2 = 21 + 4a2t 4
t
= 0.7 m/s2 (on substituting values)
1.45 The shell acquires a constant angular acceleration at the same time as it accelerates
linearly.
1 1
l = wt 2 and 2pn = bt 2
2 2
w b
So, =
l 2pn
(where w linear acceleration and b = angular acceleration).
w
Then, v = 22b 2pn = 2 (2pn)2
A l
But, v 2 = 2wl
2pnv
Hence, v = = 2.0 * 103 rad/s (on substituting values)
l
1.46 Let us take the rotation axis as z-axis whose positive direction is associated with the pos-
itive direction of the co-ordinate w, the rotation angle, in accordance with the right-hand
screw rule (see figure).
(a) Differentiating w(t) with respect to time twice, we get
dw z
= a - 3bt 2 = vz (1)
dt
d 2w dvz
2
= = b z = - 6bt (2)
dt dt
From Eq. (1) the solid body comes to stop at
a ϕ
¢t = t =
A 3b
1.1 KINEMATICS 31
The angular velocity v = a - 3 bt 2, for 0 … t … 2a/3b

2a/3b
vdt (a - 3bt 2) dt
3
3 0
So, 6 v7 = =
dt 2a/3b
3
dt
3
0
= [at - bt 3]02a/3b/ 2a/3b = 2a/3 = 4 rad/s
Similarly, b = | b z | = 6bt for all values of t.
2a/3b
bdt 6 bt dt
3
L
So, 6b7 = = 0
= 23 ab = 6 rad/s2
2a/3b
dt
L
dt
3
0
(b) From Eq. (2), b z = - 6bt
So, (bz )t = 2a/3b = - 6b a = - 2 23ab

A 3b
Hence, b = | (bz )t = 1a/3b | = 2 13ab = 12 rad/s2
1.47 Angle a is related with | wt | and wn by means of the formula

wn
tan a = where wn = v2R and | wt | = bR (1)
| wt |
where R is the radius of the circle which an arbitrary point of the body circumscribes.
From the given equation b = dv/dt = at (here b = dv/dt as b is positive for all val-
ues of t)
v t
1 2
Integrating dv = a tdt or v = at
3 3 2
0 0
wn = v2R = a b R =
at 2 2 a2t 4
So, R
2 4
and | wt | = bR = at R
Putting the values of | wt | and wn in Eq. (1), we get
t = c a b tan a d
a2t 4R/4 at 3 4 1/3
tan a = = or
atR 4 a
t = 7s (on substituting values)
1.48 In accordance with the problem, b x 6 0.

dv
Thus - = k 1v (where k is proportionality constant)
dt
v t
dv kt
or - = k dt or 1v = 1v0 - (1)
3 1v 3 2
v0 0
2 1v0
When v = 0, total time of rotation t = t =
k
22v0/k
a v0 + - kt2v0 b dt
k 2t 2
v dt 3 4
3
Average angular velocity 6 v 7 = = 0
dt 2 2v0 /k
3
c v0t + - 2v0t 2 d
k 2t 3 k 22v0/k
12 2 0 v0
Hence, 6v7 = =
2 2v0>k 3
dw
1.49 (a) We have v = v0 - a w =
dt
Integrating this Eq. within its limit for (w) t

w t
dw v0 - kw
= dt or ln = - kt
3 v0 - a w 3 v0
0 0
v0
Hence, w = (1 - e-kt ) (1)
k
(b) From the equation, v = v0 - k w and Eq. (1) or by differentiating Eq. (1)
v = v0e-kt
1.1 KINEMATICS 33
1.50 Let us choose the positive direction of z-axis (stationary rotation axis) along the vec-
tor b 0. In accordance with the equation
dvz dvz z
= b z or vz = bz
dt dw z
z
or vzdvz = b zdw = b cos w dw O
/2
Integrating this equation within its limit for vz (w)

vt
or vz dvz = b 0 sin w
3
0
Hence, vz = 22b 0 sin w
The plot vz (w) is shown in the figure. It can be seen that as the angle w grows, the vec-
tor ␻ first increases, coinciding with the direction of the vector ␤ 0(vz 7 0), reaches
the maximum at w = w/2, then starts decreasing and finally turns into zero at w = p.
After that the body starts rotating in the opposite direction in a similar fashion
(vz 6 0). As a result, the body will oscillate about the position w = w/2 with an am-
plitude equal to p/2.
1.51 A rotating disk moves along the x-axis, in plane motion in x -y plane. For the calcula-
tion of velocity only, plane motion of a solid can be imagined to be in pure rotation
about a point (say I) at a certain instant known as instantaneous centre of rotation. The
axis is directed along ␻ of the solid which passes through the point I at that instant
and is known as instantaneous axis of rotation.
Therefore the velocity vector of an arbitrary point (P ) of the solid can be represented as:
vP = ␻ * rPI = v * ␳ PI (1)
(where ␳PI is normal location of point P relative to instantaneous rotation axis pass-
ing through point I ).
So instantaneous rotation axis I is at the perpendicular distance rPI = vP /v from point P.
On the basis of Eq. (1) for the centre of mass (C.M.) of the disk, velocity is
y
vC = ␻ * ␳ CI (2)
According to the problem vC c c i and ␻ c c k so to satis- I
fy the Eq.(2), ␳CI is directed towards ( - j). Hence point I is y rCI
at a distance ␳CI = y, above the centre of the disk along y- O
C v x
axis. Using all these facts in Eq. (2), we get
vC
vC = vy or y = (3)
v
(a) From the angular kinematical equation

vz = v0z + bz t (4)
v = bt
On the other hand
x = vt, t = x/v (where x is the x coordinate of the C.M.) (5)
bx
v =
v
Using this value of v in Eq. (3) we get
vC v v2
y = = = (hyperbola)
v bx/v bx
(b) As centre C moves with constant acceleration w, with zero initial velocity
1
So, x = wt 2 and vc = wt
2
2x
Therefore, vC = w = 12xw
Aw
vC 12wx
Hence, y = = (parabola)
v v
1.52 (a) The general plane motion of a solid can be imagined as the combination of trans-
lation with C.M. and rotation about C.M.
So, vA = vC + vAC = vC + ␻ * rAC = vC + ␻ * ␳AC (1)
and wA = wC + wAC = wC + ␻ * (␻ * rAC ) + (␤ * rAC )

= wC + v2 ( - ␳ AC ) + (␤ * ␳ AC ) (2)
r
where ␳ is the component of r normal to the axis of rota- axis of
tion and directed away from it. In this problem rotation
rAC = rAC = R and vC = v .
Let the point A touch the horizontal surface at t = 0, further let us locate the point
A at time t, when it makes an angle u from vertical (see figure).
On the basis of Eqs. (1) and (2) the pictorial diagrams for velocity and accelera-
tion are as follows:
w
wR C C w
v R
θ w 2R θ
v w
A A
1.1 KINEMATICS 35
As the rolling is without slipping along a line, so, vc = vR and wC = bR.

According to the problem vC = v (constant), so v = v/R, wC = 0 and b = 0. Using
these facts, wA = v 2/R =2.0 m/s 2 and the vector w, is directed toward centre C of the
wheel:
vA = 2v 2 + (vR) 2 + 2v (vR) cos(p- u)
= 2v 2 + v 2 + 2v 2 cos (p - u) = v 22(1 - cos u)
= 2v sin (u/2) = 2v sin (vt /2)
Hence, distance covered by the point A during time interval 2p/v

2p/v
s = vA dt = 2 v sin (vt/2)dt
3 3
0
8v
= = 8R = 4.0 m (on substituting values)
v
Note: One can easily find vA, assuming the body to rotate about the instantaneous cen-
tre of rotation of zero velocity (not of zero acceleration), which is the contact point of
the rolling body in this case.
1.53 As the ball rolls without slipping on the rigid surface along a line so, contact point O
has zero velocity, which is possible when the ball rotates in clock wise sense if it’s
centre moves towards right and such that vC = vR, and wC = w = bR. As motion
starts at t = 0 with constant acceleration w so at time t, the velocity of mass centre C
becomes vC = wt and v = vC /R = wt /R.
(a) The contact point O becomes instantaneous centre of rotation, thus, the velocity
of any arbitrary point P (say) of the ball can be obtained by the relation
vP = ␻ * ␳ PO (1)
Using Eq. (1), the pictorial diagram to find the velocities of the points A and B
of the ball is shown below
A w(2R) A wc+bR
w2R
B w2R B
C w
w
2R
ω 2R wR
O R O w
Hence, vA = 2vC = 2wt = 10 cm/s

and vB = 22 vC = 22 wt = 7.1 cm/s
(b) One can write for the any arbitrary point P

wP = wC + wPC = wC + ␻ 2 ( - ␳ PC) + (␤ * ␳ PC ) (2)
Taking into account Eq. (2), one can easily get the acceleration of the points O,
A and B on using the pictorial diagram.
So, w0 = w2t2/R = 2.5 cm/s2
= 2w 1 + a b = 5.6 cm/s2
w 4t 4 wt 2 2
wA = 4w 2 +
C R 2 C 2R
aw - b + w 2 = 2.5 m/s2
w 2t 2 2
and wB =
A R
1.54 In the frame of horizontal plane the direction of velocity at a point is along the tan-
gent of the curve at that point, so normal acceleration at that point is perpendicular
to the direction of velocity vector and directed inwards. We make the pictorial dia-
gram as in solution of problem 1.53.
A 2vC A w+ r
w2R n
C B w2R B
vC Cw w
45° 45°
n 2vC n r
O O
As an arbitrary point of the cylinder follows a curve, its normal acceleration and ra-
dius of curvature are related by the well-known equation
v2
wn =
R
v2A
So, for point A, wA(n ) =
RA
(2vC)2
or v2r =
RA
which gives RA = 4r (on using vC = vr)
vB2
Similarly for point B, wB (n) =
RB
1.1 KINEMATICS 37
( 22vC )2
or v2r cos 45° =
RB
v2C
RB = 2 22 = 222r (again on using vC = vr)
v2r
1.55 The angular velocity is a vector as infinitesimal rotation commute. As for relative lin-
ear velocity, the relative angular velocity of the body 1 with respect to the body 2 is
clearly
␻ 12 = ␻ 1 - ␻ 2
As ␻ 1 ⬜ ␻ 2, so, | ␻ 12 | = 2v21 + v22 = 5 rad/s (on substituting values)

If frame K ¿ rotates with angular velocity ␻ with respect to frame K, the relation be-
tween the time derivatives of any vector a, seen from different frames is:
da
2 = da 2 + ␻ * a
dt K dt K ¿
If frame attached with the intersection point of two axes (about which solids are ro-
tating) is K and the frame attached with rotating solid with angular velocity ␻ 2 is K ¿
d␻ 1 d␻ 1
Then, a b = a b + ␻2 * ␻1
dt K dt K¿
d␻ 1
However, a b = 0 (as the first body rotates with constant angular velocity in space)
dt K
d␻ 1
and a b = ␤ 12 (the sought angular velocity)
dt K¿
Hence, ␤ 12 = ␻ 1 * ␻ 2
So, | ␤ 12 | = v1v2 = 12 rad/s2 (on substituting values)
1.56 (a) We have ␻ = at i + bt 2 j (1)
So, v = 2(at)2 + (bt 2)2, thus, v | t = 10s = 7.81 rad/s

d␻
␤ = = a i + 2bt j (2)
dt
So, ␤ = 2a2 + (2bt)2

and ␤ |t = 10 s = 1.3 rad/s2
␻#␤ (at i + bt2 j) # (ai + 2bt j)

(b) cos a = =
vb 2(at)2 + (bt 2)2 2a2 + (2bt)2
Putting the values of (a) and (b) and taking t 10 s, we get

a = 17°
1.57 (a) Let the axis of the cone (OC ) rotate in anticlockwise sense with constant angular
velocity ␻ ¿ and the cone itself about it’s own axis (OC ) in clockwise sense with
angular velocity ␻ 0 . Then the resultant angular velocity of the cone
␻ = ␻ + ␻0
As the rolling is pure the magnitudes of the vectors O'

w
␻¿ and ␻ 0 can be easily found from the figure as
v v w0 w'
v¿ = and v0 =
R cot a R
O v
As ␻ ⬜ ␻ 0 , hence
C
R
a b + a b
v 2 v 2
v = 2v¿ 2 + v20
A R cot a R A
v
= = 2.32 rad/s
R cos a
(b) Vector of angular acceleration
d␻ d (␻ ¿ + ␻ 0) d␻ 0
␤ = = = (as ␻ ¿ = constant)
dt dt dt
If any vector a (say) rotates with angular velocity ␻ keeping its values constant
then da /dt = ␻ * a. The vector ␻ 0 keeping its magnitude constant rotates about
the OO¿ axis with the angular velocity ␻ ¿ . So d␻ 0 /dt = (␻ ¿ * ␻ 0). Hence,
␤ = ␻ ¿ * ␻ 0. The magnitude of the vector ␤ is equal to b = v¿ v0 (as ␻ ¿ ⬜ ␻ 0).
a b
v v
So, b =
R cot a R
v2
= tan a = 2.3 rad/s2, on putting the values of v, R and a
R2
1.2 THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF DYNAMICS 39
Alternate:
Vector ␻ 0 is turning keeping the magnitude constant. To find d␻ 0 , let us make a vec-
tor diagram as shown in the figure. The circle shown in the figure has the radius v0
and the tail of ␻ 0 and of ␻ 0 + d␻ 0 coincides at the centre of the circle.
Let ␻ 0 turn by the small angle dw in the differential time interval

dt, so dw = v¿dt. Thus | d␻ 0 | L arc length = v0 dw = v0 v¿dt.
As ␻ 0 is along radial line and d␻ 0 is along the tangent in the w0+dw0
dw0
turning sense of ␻ 0 so d␻ 0 ⬜ ␻ 0 . In vector form w0
df=w'dt
d␻ 0 = (␻ ¿ * ␻ 0 ) dt
d␻ 0
Hence, ␤ = = (␻ ¿ * ␻ 0 )
dt
1.58 The axis AB acquired the angular velocity

␻ ¿ = ␤ 0t
Using the facts of the solution of problem 1.57, the angular velocity of the body is
v = 2v20 + v¿ 2
B
= 2v20 + b 20 t 2 = 0.6 rad/s '
The angular acceleration,

0 A
d␻¿ d(␻ ¿ + ␻ 0 ) d␻¿ d␻ 0
␤ = = = +
dt dt dt dt
d␻ 0 d␻ ¿
But, = ␻¿ * ␻ 0 and = ␤0
dt dt
So, ␤ = (␤ 0 + ␻ ¿ * ␻ 0) = ␤ 0 + (␤ 0t * ␻ 0) (because ␻ ¿ = ␤ 0 t )
As, ␤ 0 ⬜ ␻ 0 so, ␤ = 2(v0 b 0t)2 + b 20 = b 0 21 + (v0t)2 = 0.2 rad/s2
1.2 The Fundamental Equation of Dynamics
1.59 Let R be the constant upward thrust on the aerostat of mass m, coming down with a
constant acceleration w. Applying Newton’s second law of motion for the aerostat in
projection form
Fy = mwy
mg - R = mw (1)
Now, if ¢m be the mass to be dumped, then using the equation Fy = mwy

R - (m - ¢m) g = (m - ¢m)w (2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2), we get

2mw
¢m =
g + w
1.60 Let us write the fundamental equation of dy- N1 N2
x T2
namics for all the three blocks in terms of pro- T1 T2
jections, having taken the positive direction of
x and y axes as shown in the figure and using kN 1 kN 2
T1 m1 g m 2g
the fact that kinematical relation between the
accelerations is such that the blocks move y
with same value of acceleration (say w)
m0g - T1 = m0w (1) m 0g
T1 - T2 - km1g = m1w (2)
and T2 - km2g = m2w (3)
The simultaneous solution of Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) yields,

[m0 - k (m1 + m2)]
w = g
m0 + m1 + m2
(1 + k) m0
and T2 = m2g
m0 + m1 + m2
As the block m0 moves down with acceleration w, so in vector form

[m0 - k (m1 + m2)] g
w =
m0 + m1 + m2
1.61 (a) Let us indicate the positive direction of x-

axis along the incline (see figure). The fig- N1 R N2
ures show the force diagram for the blocks. fr1 fr2
Let R be the force of interaction between the R
bars and they are obviously sliding down m1g m2g
with the same constant acceleration w.
Newton’s second law of motion in projec- x x
tion form along x-axis for the blocks gives
m1g sin a - k1m1 g cos a + R = m1w (1)
m2g sin a - R - k2m2 g cos a = m2w (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously, we get

k1m1 + k2m2
w = g sin a - g cos a (3)
m1 + m2
m1m2 (k1 - k2) g cos a
and R =
m1 + m2
(b) When the blocks just slide down the plane, w = 0, then from Eq. (3)
k1m1 + k2m2
g sin a - g cos a = 0
m1 + m2
or (m1 + m2) sin a = (k1m1 + k2m2) cos a
(k1m1 + k2m2)
Hence, tan a =
m1 + m2
1.62 Case 1: When the body is launched up.

Let k be the coefficient of friction, u the velocity of projection and l the distance tra-
versed along the incline. Retarding force on the block = mg sin a + kmg cos a and
hence the retardation = g sin a + kg cos a.
Using the equation of particle kinematics along the incline,
0 = u2 - 2(g sin a + k g cos a) l
u2
or l = (1)
2(g sin a + k g cos a)
and 0 = u - (g sin a + k g cos a) t
or u = (g sin a + k g cos a) t (2)
1
Using Eq. (2) in Eq. (1) we get l = (g sin a + k g cos a) t 2 (3)
2
Case 2: When the block comes downward.
The net force on the body mg sin ␣ kmg cos ␣ and hence its acceleration
g sin ␣ kg cos ␣.
Let, t ¿ be the time required, then
1
l = (g sin a - k g cos a)t ¿ 2 (4)
2
t2 sin a - k cos a
=
t ¿2 sin a + k cos a
t 1
But, = (according to the question)
t¿ h
Hence, on solving we get

(h2 - 1)
k = tan a = 0.16
(h2 + 1)
1.63 At the initial moment, obviously the tension in the thread

connecting m1 and m2 equals the weight of m2.
N T T
(a) For the block m2 to come down or the block m1 to go
up, the conditions is
m 2 g - T Ú 0 and T - m1g sin a - fr Ú 0
fr m1g m2g
where T is tension and ƒr is friction which in the lim-
iting case equals km 1 g cos a.
Then m2g - m1g sin a 7 km1 g cos a
m2
or 7 (k cos a + sin a)
m1
(b) Similarly in the case
m1g sin a - m 2 g 7 frlim
or m1g sin a - m 2 g 7 km 1 g cos a
m2
or 6 (sin a - k cos a)
m1
(c) For this case, neither kind of motion is possible, and ƒr need not be limiting.
m2
Hence, (k cos a + sin a) 7 7 (sin a - k cos a)
m1
1.64 From the conditions obtained in the previous problem, first we will check whether the
mass m2 goes up or down.
Here, m 2 /m1 = h 7 sin a + k cos a, (substituting the values). Hence the mass m2 will
come down with an acceleration (say w). From the free body diagram of previous
problem,
m2g - T = m2w (1)
and T - m1g sin a - km1g cos a = m1w (2)

Adding Eqs. (1) and (2), we get,
m2g - m1g sin a - km1g cos a = (m1 + m2) w
(m2/m1 - sin a - k cos a) g (h - sin a - k cos a)g
w = =
(1 + m2/m1) 1 + h
Substituting all the values, w = 0.048 g L 0.05 g

As m2 moves down with acceleration of magnitude w = 0.05 g 7 0, thus in vector
form, acceleration of m2 is given by
(h - sin a - k cos a)g
w2 = = 0.05 g
1 + h =
1.65 Let us write Newton’s second law in projection form along positive x-axis for the
plank and the bar
fr = m1w1, F - fr = m2w2 (1)
At the initial moment, fr represents the static friction, and as F

the force F grows so does the friction force fr, but up to its m21
fr fr
limiting value, i.e., fr = frs (max) = kN = km2g . m12
Unless this value is reached, both bodies move as a single
body with equal acceleration. But as soon as the force fr reaches the limit, the bar
starts sliding over the plank, i.e., w2 Ú w1.
Substituting here the values of w1 and w2 taken from Eq. (1) and taking into account that
ƒr = km2g, we obtain,
km2
(at - m2g)/m2 Ú g
m1
(where the sign “=” corresponds to the moment t = t0).
kgm2(m1 + m2)
Hence, t0 =
am1
at
If t … t0 , then w1 = w2 =
m1 + m2
km2g (at - k m2 g)
and if t 7 t0 , then w1 = = constant, w2 =
m1 m2
On this basis w1(t) and w2(t) plots are as shown in the figure of answer sheet.
1.66 Let us designate the x-axis (see figure) and apply Fx = mwx for body A
mg sin a - kmg cos a = mw N
fr
or w = g sin a - kg cos a
Now, from kinematical equation: mg
l sec a = 0 + (1/2) wt 2
l
or t = 22l sec a/(sin a - k cos a) g x
= 22l/(sin 2a/2 - k cos2 a)g (using Eq. 1)
d a - k cos2 a b
sin 2a
2
For tmin, = 0
da
2 cos 2a
i.e., + 2k cos a sin a = 0
2
1
or tan 2a = - Q a = 49°
k
and putting the values of a, k and l in Eq. (2) we get tmin = 1 s.
1.67 Let us fix the x -y co-ordinate system to the wedge, taking the x-axis up along the
incline and the y-axis perpendicular to it (see figure).
T
Now, we draw the free body diagram for the bar.
Let us apply Newton’s second law in projection form along x- and
y-axes for the bar N
T cos b - mg sin a - fr = 0 (1)

y fr
mg
T sin b + N - mg cos a = 0
or N = mg cos a - T sin b (2)

x
But, ƒr = kN and using Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we get
T = mg sin a + kmg cos a/(cos b + k sin b) (3)

For Tmin the value of (cos b + k sin b) should be maximum
d (cos b + k sin b)
So, = 0 or tan b = k
db
Putting this value of b in Eq. (3), we get
mg (sin a + k cos a)
Tmin =
21 + k 2
1.68 First of all let us draw the free body diagram for the small body of mass m and indi-
cate x-axis along the horizontal plane and y-axis, perpendicular to it, as shown in the
figure. Let the block break off the plane at t = t0 , i.e., N = 0.
So, N = mg - at0 sin a = 0 y N F
mg α
or t0 = (1) x
a sin a
From Fx = mwx, for the body under investigation
mg
mdvx
= at cos a
dt
Integrating within the limits for v (t)

v t
m dvx = a cos a tdt (using Eq. 1)

3 3
0 0
ds a cos a 2
So, v = = t (2)
dt 2m
Integrating, Eq. (2) for s (t) we get
a cos a t 3
s = (3)
2m 3
Using the value of t = t0 from Eq. (1), into Eqs. (2) and (3)
mg2 cos a m2g 3cos a
v = and s =
2 a sin2 a 6 a2sin3 a
1.69 Newton’s second law of motion in projection form, along horizontal or x-axis, i.e.,
Fx = mwx gives
dv N
F cos (as) = mv (as a = as) F
ds
α
or F cos (as) ds = mvdv x
Integrating, over the limits for v (s)

x mg
F v2
cos (ax) dx =
m 3 2
0
2F sin a
or v = (as a = as)
A ma
= 22g sin a/3a (using F = mg /3)
This is the sought relationship.
1.70 From the Newton’s second law in projection form

For the bar,
T - 2 kmg = (2m) w (1)
For the motor,
T - kmg = mw ¿ (2)
Now, from the equation of kinematics in the frame of

bar or motor T T
2m
1 m
l = (w + w¿) t 2 (3) fr fr
2
From Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) we get on eliminating T and w¿
t = 22l/(kg + 3w)
1.71 (a) Let us write Newton’s second law in vector form F = m w, for both the blocks (in
the frame of ground)
T + m1g = m1w1 (1)
T + m2g = m2w2 (2)
These two equations contain three unknown quantities w1, w2

and T. The third equation is provided by the kinematic rela-
tionship between the accelerations
T T
w1 = w0 + w¿, w2 = w0 - w¿ (3) w0
m2
where w is the acceleration of the mass m1 with respect to the m1
pulley or elevator car. m2 g
Summing up term wise the left hand and the right-hand sides m1 g
of these kinematical equations, we get
w1 + w2 = 2w0 (4)
The simultaneous solution of Eqs. (1), (2) and (4) yields
(m1 - m2) g + 2m2w0
w1 =
m1 + m2
Using this result in Eq. (3), we get,
m1 - m2 2m1m2
w1 ¿ = (g - w0) and T = (w0 - g)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m1 - m2
Using the results in Eq. (3) we get, w = (g - w0)
m1 + m2
(b) Obviously the force exerted by the pulley on the ceiling of the car
4m1m2
F = - 2T = (g - w0)
m1 + m2
Note: One could also solve this problem in the frame of elevator car.
1.72 Let us write Newton’s second law for both, bar 1 and body 2 in terms of projection
having taken the positive direction of x1 and x2 as shown in the figure and assuming
that body 2 starts sliding, say, upward along the incline.
T1 - m1g sin a = m1w1 (1)
m2g - T2 = m2w (2)
For the pulley, moving in vertical direction from the x1

equation Fx = mwx
N T1
2T2 - T1 = (mp) w1 = 0 T1
(as mass of the pulley mp = 0) T2 x2

T2
T2
or T1 = 2T2 (3) m1g
As the length of the threads are constant, the kinemat- m2g
ic relationship of accelerations becomes
w = 2w1 (4)
Simultaneous solutions of all these equations yields
2g (2 m2 /m1 - sin a) 2g (2h - sin a)

w = =
(4 m2 /m1 + 1) 4h + 1
As h 7 1, w is directed vertically downward, and hence in vector form

2 (2h - sin a)
w = g
4h + 1
1.73 Let us write Newton’s second law for masses m1 and m2 and moving pulley in verti-
cal direction along positive x-axis (see figure):
m1g - T = m1w1x w0 x1
T1
m2g - T = m2w2x m0
T1 - 2T = 0 (as m = 0) T1
or T1 = 2T
T w0
Again using Newton’s second law in projection form for T
mass m0 along positive x1 direction (see figure), we get x
m1g
T1 = m0w0 m2g
The kinematic relationship between the accelerations of masses given in terms of pro-
jection on the x-axis
w1x + w2x = 2w0
Simultaneous solution of the obtained five equations yields, in vector form
[4m1m2 + m0 (m1 - m2)]g
w1 =
4m1m2 + m0(m1 + m2 )
1.74 As the thread is not tied with m, so if there were no friction between the thread
and the ball m, the tension in the thread would be zero and as a result both bod-
ies will have free fall motion. Obviously in the given problem it is the friction force
exerted by the ball on the thread, which becomes the tension in the thread. From
the condition or language of the problem wM 7 wm and as both are directed down-
ward so, relative acceleration of M = wM - wm and is directed downward.
Kinematical equation for the ball in the frame of rod in projection form along
upward direction gives
1
l = (w - wm ) t 2 (1)
2 M
Newton’s second law in projection form along vertically down di-
rection for both, rod and ball gives, T =fr
wm
Mg - ƒr = MwM (2) wM
fr
mg - ƒr = mwm (3) mg
Multiplying Eq. (2) by m and Eq. (3) by M and then subtracting Eq. Mg
(3) from Eq. (2) and after using Eq. (1), we get
2l Mm
ƒr =
(M - m) t 2
1.75 Suppose, the ball goes up with acceleration w1 and the rod comes down with the
acceleration w2.
As the length of the thread is constant, 2w1 = w2 (1)
Newton’s second law in projection form, vertically upwards for the ball
and vertically downwards for the rod respectively gives, T
T - mg = mw1 (2) T'
T'
T'
and Mg - T ¿ = Mw2 (3)
but, T = 2T ¿ (because pulley is massless) (4) T
From Eqs. (1), (2), (3) and (4)

mg Mg
(2M - m)g (2 - h)g
w1 = = (upwards)
m + 4M h + 4
2(2 - h)g
and w2 = (downwards)
(h + 4)
From kinematical equation in projection form, we get

1
l = (w + w2) t 2
2 1
as w1 and w2 are in the opposite direction.
Putting the values of w1 and w2, the sought time becomes
t = 22l (h + 4)/3 (2 - h)g = 1.4 s
1.76 Using Newton’s second law in projection form along x-axis for the body 1 and along
negative x-axis for the body 2, respectively, we get
m1g - T1 = m1w1 (1)
T2 - m2g = m2w2 (2) T2
For the pulley lowering in downward direction from along x -axis, T2
Newton’s law gives
T1
T1 - 2T2 = 0 (as pulley is massless) T1 T2
or T1 = 2T2 (3) h m1g
As the length of the thread is constant, so m2g
w2 = 2w1 (4)
The simultaneous solution of above equations yields

2(m1 - 2m2) g 2(h - 2) m1
w2 = = g a as = hb (5)
4m2 + m1 h + 4 m2
Obviously during the time interval in which the body 1 comes to the horizontal floor cov-
ering the distance h, the body 2 moves upward the distance 2h. At the moment when
the body 2 is at the height 2h from the floor its velocity is given by the expression
2(h - 2) g 8h (h - 2)g
v 22 = 2w2(2h) = 2 c d 2h =
h + 4 h + 4
After the body m1 touches the floor, the thread becomes slack or the tension in the
thread zero, thus as a result body 2 is only under gravity for it’s subsequent motion.
Owing to the velocity v2 at that moment or at the height 2h from the floor, the body
2 further goes up under gravity by the distance,
v22 4h (h - 2)
h¿ = =
2g h + 4
Thus the sought maximum height attained by body 2 is
4h (h - 2)
H = 2h + h¿ = 2h +
(h + 4)
6hh
= = 0.6 m (on substituting values)
h + 4
1.77 Let us draw free body diagram of each body, i.e., of rod A and of wedge B and also
draw the kinematical diagram for accelerations, after analysing the directions of
motion of A and B. The kinematic relationship of accelerations is
wA
tan a = (1)
wB
Let us write Newton’s second law for both bodies in terms of projections having taken
positive directions of y - and x -axes as shown in the figure:
mA g - N cos a = mAwA (2)
and N sin a = mBwB (3)
Simultaneous solution of Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) yields

mA g sin a g
wA = =
mA sin a + mB cot a cos a (1 + h cot2 a)
wA g
and wB = =
tan a (tan a + h cot a)
N" wAB
mA g B
wA
N
mA g
y N
wB
x
N'
Note: We may also solve this problem using conservation of mechanical energy instead
of Newton’s second law.
1.78 Let us draw free body diagram of each body and fix the coordinate system, as shown
in the figure. After analysing the motion of M and m on the basis of force diagrams,
let us draw the kinematic diagram for accelerations (see figure).
As the length of thread is constant so,
T
T
T kN y
m wmM wm
N
N
kN T wmM
M wM
T mg
x
wM
dsmM = dsM and as vmM and vM do not change their directions that’s why
| wmM | = | wM | = w (say)
As wm = wmM + wM (1)
So, from the triangle law of vector addition
wm = 22 w
From equation Fx = mwx, for the wedge and the block,
T - N = Mw (2)
and N = mw (3)
Now, from equation Fy = mwy, for the block,

mg - T - kN = mw (4)
mg g
w = =
(km + 2m + M) (k + 2 + M/m)
Hence, using Eq. (1)
g 22
wm =
(2 + k + M/m)
1.79 Bodies 1 and 2 will remain at rest with respect to bar A for wmin … w … wmax where
wmin is the sought minimum acceleration of the bar. Beyond these limits there will be
a relative motion between bar and the bodies. For 0 … w … wmin, the tendency of
body 1 in relation to the bar A is to move towards right and is in the opposite sense
for w Ú wmax. On the basis of above argument the static friction on 2 by A is directed
upward and on 1 by A is directed towards left for the purpose of calculating wmin.
Let us write Newton’s second law for bodies 1 and 2 in terms of projection along
positive x-axis (see figure).
T - fr1 = mw or fr1 = T - mw (1)
N2 = mw (2) N1 w
T
As body 2 has no acceleration in vertical direction, so fr1
fr2 = mg - T (3)
mg T
From Eqs. (1) and (3) fr2 N2
(fr1 + fr2) = m ( g - w) (4) mg
But, fr1 + fr2 … k (N1 + N2)
or fr1 + fr2 … k (mg + mw) (5)
g (1 - k)
m (g - w) … mk (g + w), or wÚ
(1 + k)
g (1 - k)
Hence, wmin =
(1 + k)
1.80 On the basis of the initial argument of the solution of problem 1.79, the tendency of
bar 2 with respect to 1 will be to move up along the plane.
Let us fix x -y coordinate system in the frame of ground as shown in the figure.
From second law of motion in projection form along y - and x - axes
mg cos a - N = mw sin a
or N = m (g cos a - w sin a) (1) N

w y
mg sin a + ƒr = mw cos a x
fr mg
or ƒr = m (w cos a - g sin a) (2)
but ƒr … kN
So from Eqs. (1) and (2), (w cos a - g sin a) … k (g cos a + w sin a)
or w (cos a - k sin a) … g (k cos a + sin a)
(k cos a + sin a)
or w … g
cos a - k sin a
So, the sought maximum acceleration of the wedge is
(k cos a + sin a) g (k cot a + 1)g

wmax = = where cot a 7 k
cos a - k sin a cot a - k
1.81 Let us draw the force diagram of each body, and on this basis we observe that the
prism moves towards right (say) with an acceleration w1 and the bar 2 of mass m2
moves down the plane with respect to 1, say with acceleration w21, then
w2 = w21 + w1 (see figure).
Let us write Newton’s second law of both bodies in projection form along positive y2
and x1 axes as shown in the figure.
m2g cos a - N = m2w2(y ) = m2 [w21(y ) + w1(y )] = m2 [0 + w1 sin a]
2 2 2
or m2g cos a - N = m2w1 sin a (1)
and N sin a = m1w1 (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we get N
m2g sin a cos a g sin a cos a w21
w2
w1 = = y2 N
m1 + m2 sin a2 (m1/m2) + sin2 a
x2 mg
x1 w1
1.82 To analyse the kinematical relations between the bodies, sketch the force diagram of each
body as shown in the figure.
T T
On the basis of force diagram, it N T
is obvious that the wedge M
will move towards right and the wmM
block will move down along x y wm
N Mg
the wedge. As the length of the mg
x1
thread is constant, the distance
wM
travelled by the block on the
N'
wedge must be equal to the dis-
tance travelled by the wedge on the floor. Hence dsmM = dsM . As vmM and vM do not
change their directions and acceleration that’s why wmM c c vmM and wM c c vM and
wmM = w (say) and accordingly the diagram of kinematical dependence is shown in
figure.
As wm = wmM + wM, so from triangle law of vector addition
wm = 2w2M + w2M - 2 wmM wM cos a = w 22(1 - cos a) (1)
From Fx = mwx, (for the wedge),

T - T cos a + N sin a = M w (2)
For the bar m let us fix x - y coordinate system in the frame of ground. Newton’s law in
in projection form along x - and y -axes (see figure) gives
mg sin a - T = mwm (x) = m 3wmM (x) + wM (x)4

= m [wmM + wM cos (p - a)] = mw (1 - cos a) (3)
mg cos a - N = mwm(y) = m [wmM (y) + wm (y)] = m [0 + w sin a] (4)

Solving the above equations simultaneously, we get
mg sin a
w =
M + 2m (1 - cos a)
Note: We can study the motion of the block m in the frame of wedge also, alternately
we may solve this problem using conservation of mechanical energy.
1.83 Let us sketch the diagram for the motion of the particle of mass m along the circle of
radius R as shown in the figure.
For a particle, modulus of change in linear momentum | ¢p | = m | ¢v | .
(a) In this case | ¢v | =22v (see figure), and the time taken in describing quarter of the circle,
pR
¢t =
2v vf
vi
| ¢ p| m | ¢v |
Hence, | 6F7| = = R
¢t ¢t
O
22 mv 2 22 mv 2
= =
pR/2v pR
(b) In this case vi = 0 so, vf = v(t). Thus | ¢v | = | v(t) | = v (t) = wt t .
| ¢p | m| ¢v | m| v(t) |
Hence, | 6F7 | = = = = mwt
¢t ¢t t
1.84 While moving in a loop, normal reaction exerted by the flyer on the loop at different
points and uncompensated weight if any contribute to the weight of flyer at those points.
(a) When the aircraft is at the lowermost point, Newton’s second law of motion in
projection form, Fn = mwn gives
mv 2 mg
N - mg = N"
R
O N'
mv 2
or N = mg + = 2.09 kN N
R
(b) When it is at the upper most point, again from Fn = mwn , we get
mg
mv 2 mg
N – + mg =
R
mv2
N– = - mg = 0.7 kN
R
(c) When the aircraft is at the middle point of the loop, again from Fn = mwn
mv 2
N¿ = = 1.4 kN
R
The uncompensated weight is mg. Thus effective weight = 2N ¿ 2 + m2g 2 = 1.56 kN
acts obliquely.
1.85 (a) Let us depict the forces acting on the small sphere m, (at an arbitrary position
when the thread makes an angle u from the vertical) and write equation F = mw
via projection on the unit vectors t and n. From Ft = mwt , we have
dv
mg sin u = m
dt
vdv vdv
= m = m
ds l ( - d u)
T
(as vertical is reference line of angular position)
l n
or vdv = - gl sin ud u
Integrating both the sides we get t
v u mg
vdv = - g l sin u d u
3 3
0 p/2
v2
or = g l cos u
2
v2
Hence, = 2 g cos u = wn (1)
l
Note: Eq. (1) can be easily obtained by the conservation of mechanical energy.
From Fn = mwn
mv2
T - mg cos u =
l
Using Eq. (1) we have

T = 3mg cos u (2)
Again from equation Ft = mwt ,

mg sin u = mwt or wt = g sin u (3)
Hence, w = 2w2t + w2n = 2(g sin u)2 + (2g cos u)2 (using Eqs. 1 and 3)
= g 21 + 3 cos2u .
(b) Vertical component of velocity, vy = v sin u
So, vy2 = v 2 sin2 u = 2 gl cos u sin2 u (using Eq. 1)
d (cos u sin2 u)
For maximum vy or vy2 , = 0
du
1
which yields cos u =
23
1
Therefore from Eq. (2), T = 3mg = 23 mg
23
(c) We have w = wt t + wn n thus wy = wt (y) + wn (y)
But in accordance with the problem wy = 0
So, wt (y) + wn (y) = 0
or - g sin u sin u + 2g cos2 u = 0

1
or cos u = or, u = 54.7°
23
1.86 The ball has only normal acceleration at the lowest position and only tangential
acceleration at either of the extreme positions, Let v be the speed of the ball at its
lowest position and l be length of the thread, then according to the problem
v2
= g sin a (1)
l
where a is the maximum deflection angle.
From Newton’s law in projection form:
α
Ft = mwt θ
l T
dv
- mg sin u = mv n
ldu t
v
or - gl sin ud u = vdv
mg
On integrating both the sides within their limits.
a 0
- gl sin ud u = vdv
3 3
0 v
or v 2 = 2gl (1 - cos a) (2)

Note: Eq. (2) can easily be obtained by the conservation of mechanical energy of the
ball in the uniform field of gravity.
From Eqs. (1) and (2) with u = a
sin a = 2(1 - cos a)
or sin a + 2 cos a = 2
On solving we get,
a ⬵ 53°
1.87 Let us depict the forces acting on the body A (which are the force of gravity mg and
the normal reaction N) and write equation F = m w via projection on the unit vectors
t and n (see figure).
From Ft = mwt
N
dv
mg sin u = m
dt t
R n
vdv vdv
= m = m mg
ds Rdu
or gR sin ud u = vdv
Integrating both sides for obtaining v (u), we get
u v
gR sin u du¿ = vdv

3 3
0 0
or v 2 = 2gR (1 - cos u) (1)
From Fn = mwn
v2
mg cos u - N = m (2)
R
At the moment the body loses contact with the surface, N = 0, and therefore Eq. (2)
becomes
v 2 = gR cos u (3)
where v and u correspond to the moment when the body loses contact with the surface.
Solving Eqs. (1) and (3), we obtain
2
cos u = or u = cos-1 (2/3) ⬵48° and v = 22gR/3
3
1.88 At first draw the free body diagram of the device as, shown. The forces, acting on the
sleeve are its weight, acting vertically downward, spring force, along the length of the
spring and normal reaction by the rod, perpendicular to its length.
Let F be the spring force, and ¢l be the elongation.
From Fn = mwn,
N sin u + F cos u = m v2r (1)
where r cos u = (l0 + ¢l ).

Similarly, from Ft = mwt
N cos u - F sin u = 0 or N = F sin u/cos u (2)
F (sin u/cos u ) # sin u + F cos u = m v2 r

= m v2 (l0 + ¢l )/cos u w r
q F
On putting F = k ¢ l, N
k¢l sin2 u + k ¢ l cos2 u = m v2 (l0 + ¢ l ) mg
On solving, we get
l0 l0
¢l = m v2 =
k - m v2 (k/m v2 - 1)
It is independent of the direction of rotation.
1.89 According to the question, the cyclist moves along the circular path and the centripetal
force is provided by the frictional force. Thus from the equation
Fn = mwn
mv 2 mv 2
ƒr = or kmg =
r r
k0 a 1 - b g =
r v2
or or v 2 = k0 (r - r 2/R) g (1)
R r
d ar - b
r2
R
For vmax, we should have = 0
dr
2r R
or 1 - = 0, so r =
R 2
1
Hence, vmax = 2k0gR
2
1.90 As initial velocity is zero thus,
v 2 = 2w4 s = f (s) (1)

As wt 7 0 the speed of the car increases with time or distance. Till the moment, slid-
ing starts, the static friction provides the required centripetal accelaration the car.
Thus, fr = mw, but ƒr … kmg
wt2 + a b … k 2g 2
v2 2
So, w 2 … k2g2 or
R
or v 2 … R (k 2g 2 - w t2)
Hence, 2
vmax = R 2(k 2g 2 - w t2)
2
vmax
a b - 1 = 60 m
R kg
So, from Eq. (1), the sought distance s = =
2wt 2 B wt
1.91 Since the car follows a sinusoidal curve, so the maximum velocity at which it can ride
without sliding is the point of minimum radius of curvature obviously in this case the
static friction between the car and the road is limiting. Hence, from the equation
Fn = mwn
mv 2
… kmg
R
or v … 2 kRg
So, vmax = 2kR min g (1)
We know that the radius of curvature for a curve at any point (x, y) is given as
[1 + (dy>dx)2]3/2
R = 2 2 (2)
(d 2y)>dx 2
For the given curve,

d 2y -a
cos a b
dy a x x
= and = sin
dx a a dx 2 a2 a
Substituting this value in Eq. (2), we get
[1 + (a 2/a2) cos2 (x/a)]3/2

R =
(a/a2) sin (x/a)
x p
For the minimum R, =
a 2
and therefore, corresponding radius of curvature

a2
Rmin = (3)
a
Hence, from Eqs. (1) and (3)
vmax = a 2kg /a
1.92 The sought tensile stress acts on each element of the chain. Hence divide the chain
into small, similar elements so that each element may be assumed as a particle. We
consider one such element of mass dm, which subtends angle d a at the centre. The
chain moves along a circle of known radius R with known angular speed v and
certain forces act on it. We have to find one of these forces.
O y
T T
z dm
dN
dm y d
R x
O
dmg x
From Newton’s second law in projection form, Fx = mwx , we get

2T sin (da/2) - dN cos u = dm v2R
and from FZ = mwz , we get
dN sin u = (dm) g
Then putting dm = mda/2p and sin (da/2) = da/2 and solving, we get
m (v2 R + g cot u)
T =
2p
1.93 Let us consider a small element of the thread and draw free body diagram for this
element.
(a) Applying Newton’s second law of motion in projection form, Fn = mwn for this
element,
(T + dT ) sin (du/2) + T sin (du/2) - dN = dmv2R = 0

or 2T sin (du/2) = dN [neglecting the term (dT sin du/2)]
T du = dN a as sin b
du du
or L (1)
2 2
Also, dfr = kdN = (T + dT) - T = dT (2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2) T

kdN
dT dN
kT du = dT or = kd u
T
d T+dT
Integrating u from u = 0 to u = p, we get T2
T2 T1
ln = kp (3) m2
T1
m1
1 T2 1
So, k = ln = ln h0
p T1 p
T2 mg g m2
¢as = = = h0≤
T1 m1g m1
(b) When m2 /m1 = h 7 h0 , the blocks will move with same value of acceleration
(say w) and clearly m2 moves downward. From Newton’s second law in projec-
tion form (downward for m2 and upward for m1), we get
m2 g - T2 = m2w (4)
and T2 - m 1 g = m1w (5)
T2
Also = h0 (6)
T1

(m2 - h0m1)g (h - h0) m2
w = = g a as = hb
(m2 + h0m1) (h + h0) m1
1.94 The force with which the cylinder wall acts on the particle will provide centripetal
force necessary for the motion of the particle, and since there is no acceleration act-
ing in the horizontal direction, horizontal component of the velocity will remain con-
stant throughout the motion.
So, vx = v0 cos a
Using, Fn = mwn, for the particle of mass m

mvx2 mv 02 cos2 a
N = = v0
R R
which is the required normal force.

x
1.95 Obviously the radius vector describing the position of the particle rela-
tive to the origin of the coordinate is,
r = xi + y j = a sin v t i + b cos vt j
Differentiating twice with respect to time
d 2r
w = = - ␻ 2 (a sin v t i + b cos v t j) = - v2r (1)
dt 2
Thus, F = m w = - m v2r (using Eq. 1)
1.96 (a) We have ¢p = Fdt = m g dt = m gt (1)

3 3
0
(b) Using the solution of problem 1.28 (b), the total time of motion,
2(v0 # g)
t = -
g2
Hence, using t = t in Eq. (1)
| ¢p | = mg t
- 2m (v0 # g)
=
g
1.97 From the equation of the given time dependence force F = a t (t - t) at t = t, the
force vanishes.
t
(a) Thus, ¢p = p = Fdt

3
0
t
at3
or p = a t (t - t) dt =
3 6
0
at3
But, p = mv so, v=
6m
(b) Again from the equation F = mw

dv
at (t - t) = m
dt
or a (t t - t 2) dt = md v
Integrating within the limits for v(t)
t v
a (t t - t 2) dt = m dv
3 3
0 0
a - b = a - b
a tt 2 t3 at 2 t t
or v =
m 2 3 m 2 3
a - b
at 2 t t
Thus, v = for t … t
m 2 3
Hence, distance covered during the time interval t = t is given by
t t
a - b dt =
at 2 t t a t4
s = vdt =
3 3 m 2 3 m 12
0 0
1.98 We have F = F0 sin vt

dv
or m = F0 sin vt or md v = F0 sin vt dt
dt
On integrating,
- F0
mv = cos vt + C (where C is integration constant)
v
F0
When t = 0, v = 0, so C =
mv
- F0 F0
Hence, v = cos v t +
mv mv
As cos vt … 1 so,
F0
v = (1 - cos vt)
mv
t
F0t F0 sin vt F0
Thus, s = vdt = - = (vt - sin vt) .
3 mv mv2 mv2
0
(see figure in the answer sheet)
1.99 According to the problem, the force acting on the particle of mass m is, F = F0 cos vt .
dv F0
So, m = F0 cos vt or dv= cos vt dt
dt m
Integrating, within the limits

v t
F0 F0
dv = cos vt dt or v = sin vt (1)
3 m 3 mv
0 0
It is clear from Eq. (1), that after starting at t = 0, the particle comes to rest for the
first time at t = p>v.
From Eq. (1)
F0 p
v = |v| = sin vt for t … (2)
mv v
Thus during the time interval t = p/v, the sought distance
p/v
F0 2F
s = sin vt dt =
mw 3 mv2
0
From Eq. (1)
F0
vmax = as | sin vt | … 1
mv
dv
1.100 (a) From the problem F = - r v so, m = -r v
dt
dv
Thus, m = - rv [as dv c T v]
dt
dv r
or = - dt
v m
r
On integrating ln v = - t + C
m
But at t = 0, v = v0 so, C = ln v0.
v r
So, ln = - t or v =v0e- (r/m)t
v0 m
Thus, for t : q, v = 0 .
dv -r
(b) We have m = - rv so, dv = ds
dt m
Integrating within the given limits to obtain v (s) , we get
v s
r rs
dv = - ds or, v = v0 - (1)
3 m 3 m
v0 0
mv0
Thus for v = 0, s = stotal =
r
mdv dv -r
(c) We have = - rv or, = dt
dt v m
v0/h t
dv -r v0 r
or = dt or, ln = - t
3 v m 3 hv0 m
0 0
- m ln (1/h) m ln h
So, t = =
r r
Now, average velocity over this time interval
m
r ln h
rt
v0e- m dt
vdt 3 v0(h - 1)
3 0
6v7 = =
m / r ln h h ln h
dt
3

dv dv
m = - kv 2 or, m = - kdt
dt v2
Integrating, within the limits

v t
dv k m (v0 - v)
2
= - dt or t = (1)
3v m 3 k v0v
v0 0
To find the value of k, rewrite

dv dv k
mv = - kv 2 or = - ds
ds v m
On integrating
v h
dv k
= - ds
3 v m 3
v0 0
m v0
So, k = ln (2)
h v
Putting the value of k from Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we get

h (v0 - v)
t = v0
v0v ln
v
1.102 From Newton’s second law for the bar in projection form, Fx = mwx , along x direc-
tion, we get
mg sin a - kmg cos a = mw
dv
or v = g sin a - ax g cos a (as k = ax) N fr
dx
x
or vdv = (g sin a - ax g cos a) dx mg
v x
or vdv = g (sin a - x cos a) dx

3 3
0 0
v 2 x2
So, = g (x sin a - a cos a) (1)
2 2
From Eq. (1),
2
v = 0 at either x = 0, or x =
tan a
a
As the motion of the bar is unidirectional it stops after going through a distance of
2 /a tan a.
From Eq. (1), for vmax,
d x2 1
(x sin a - a cos a) = 0 or x = tan a
dx 2 a
Hence, the maximum velocity will be at the distance, x = tan a/a .
Putting this value of x in Eq. (1), the maximum velocity,
g sin a tan a
vmax =
A a
1.103 Since the applied force is proportional to the time and the frictional force also ex-
ists, the motion does not start just after applying the force. The body starts its mo-
tion when F equals the limiting friction. Let the motion start after time t0, then
kmg
F = at0 = kmg or t0 =
a
So, for t … t0, the body remains at rest and for t 7 t0 obviously
mdv
= a (t - t0) or, mdv = a (t - t0) dt
dt
Integrating, and noting v = 0 at t = t0, we have for t 7 t0
v t
a
mdv = a (t - t0 ) dt or v = (t - t 0)2
3 3 2m
0 0
t
a a
Thus, s = vdt = (t - t0)2 dt = (t - t0)3
3 2m L 6m
t0
1.104 While going upward, from Newton’s second law, in vertical direction
vdv vdv
m = - (mg + kv 2) or = - ds
ds ( + kv 2 /m )
g
At the maximum height h, the speed v = 0, so
0 h
vdv
= - ds
3 g + (kv /m)
2
3
v0 0
Integrating and solving, we get
k v 20
ln a 1 + + b
m
h = (1)
2k mg
When the body falls downward, the net force acting on the body in downward di-
rection equals (mg - kv 2) .
Hence net acceleration, in downward direction, according to second law of motion
vdv kv 2 vdv
= g- or, = ds
ds m g - kv 2/m
v¿ h
vdv
Thus, = ds
3 g - kv2/m 3
0 0
Integrating and putting the value of h from Eq. (1), we get

v0
v¿ =
21 + k v02/mg
1.105 Let us fix x -y co-ordinate system to the given plane, taking x-axis in the direction
along which the force vector was oriented at the moment t = 0, then the fundamen-
tal equation of dynamics expressed via the projection on x and y axes gives,
dvx
F cos vt = m
dt
dvy
and F sin vt = m
dt
F
(a) Using the condition v (0) = 0, we obtain vx = sin v t
mv
F
and vy = (1 - cos vt)
mv
v = 2vx2 + v y2 = a b sin a b 2
2F 2 vt
Hence,
mv 2
(b) It is seen from this that the velocity v turns into zero after the time interval ¢t,
which can be found from therelation, v ¢t 2 = p. Consequently, the sought dis-
tance is
¢t y
8F
s = v dt = 2
F
3 mv θ=ωt
0
v dt
3
Average velocity, 6v7 =
O x
dt
3
2p/v
sin a b dt/(2pv) =
2F vt 4F
So, 6 v7 =
3 mv 2 pm v
0
1.106 The acceleration of the disk along the plane is determined by the projection of the
force of gravity on this plane Fx = mg sin a and the friction force fr = kmg cos a. In
our case, k = tan a and therefore
fr
fr = Fx = mg sin a
v
Let us find the projection of acceleration on the direction of
the tangent to the trajectory and on the x-axis
mwt = Fx cos w - fr = mg sin a (cos w - 1)
x
mwx = Fx - fr cos w = mg sin a (1 - cos w)
It is seen from this that wt = - wx, which means that the velocity v and its projec-
tion vx differ only by a constant value C which does not change with time, i.e.,
v = - vx + C, where vx = v cos w. The constant C is found from the initial condi-
tion v = v0, Ux = 0 since w = p / 2 initially. Finally, we obtain
C = v0
v0
v =
(1 + cos w)
In the course of time w : 0 and v : v0/2. (Motion then is unaccelerated.)
1.107 Let us consider an element of length ds at an angle w T

from the vertical diameter. As the speed of this element
is zero at initial instant of time, its centripetal accelera- dN
tion is zero, and hence, dN - lds g cos w = 0, where l d
is the linear mass density of the chain. Let T and T + dT
be the tension at the upper and the lower ends of ds, T+dT
dmg
then we have from Ft = mwt ,
(T + dT) + l ds g sin w - T = ldswt
or dT + l Rd wg sin w = ldswt
If we sum the above equation for all elements, the term dT = 0, because there is
no tension at the free ends, so 3
l /R
lgR sin w d w = lwt ds = llwt

3 3
0
a 1 - cos b
gR l
Hence, wt =
l R
As wn = a at initial moment, so
a1 - cos b
gR l
w = | wt | =
l R
1.108 In the problem, we require the velocity of the body, relative to the sphere, which
itself moves with an acceleration w0 in horizontal direction (say towards left).
Hence it is advisable to solve the problem in the frame of sphere (a translating
frame here).
At an arbitrary moment, when the body is at an angle u N

with the vertical, we sketch the force diagram for the body mw0
n
and write the second law of motion in projection form
t
Fn = mwn as,
mg
mv 2 w0
as, mg cos u - N - mw0 sin u = (1)
R
At the break off point, N = 0, u = u0 and let v = v0 ,

so Eq. (1) becomes,
v20
= g cos u0 - w0 sin u0 (2)
R
From Ft = mwt
vdv v dv
mg sin u - mw0 cos u = m = m
ds Rdu
or vdv = R (gsin u + w0 cos u) d u
v0 u0
Integrating v dv = R (g sin u + w0 cos u) du

3 3
0 0
v 20
= g 11 - cos u02 + w0 sin u0 (3)
2R
Note that Eq. (3) can also be obtained by the work-energy theorem A = ¢T (in the
frame of sphere). Therefore,
1
mgR (1 - cos u0) + mw0 R sin u0 = mv 02
2
[here mw0 R sin u0 is the work done by the pseudoforce ( - m w0)]

v 02
or = g(1 - cos u0) + w0 sin u0
2R

2 + k 25 + 9k 2 w0
and u0 = cos-1 c d a where k = b
2gR
v0 =
A 3 3 (1 + k )
2 g
Hence, u0 2 = 17°
w0 = g
1.109 This is not central force problem unless the path is a circle about the said point.
Rather here Ft (tangential force) vanishes. Thus, the equation of motion becomes
vt = v0 = constant
m v20
1for r = r02
A
and =
r rn
We can consider the latter equation as the equilibrium under two forces. When the
motion is perturbed, we write r = r0 + x and the net force acting on the particle is
m v 02 -A
= n a1 - b
A nx
- +
(r0 + x)n r0 + x r0 r0
m v 02
a1 - b
x
+
r0 r0
m v 20
= - (1 - n) x
r 20
This opposes the displacement x, if n 6 1. (m v 20 /r is an outward directed centrifugal
force while - A/r n is the inward directed external force.)
1.110 Let us observe the behaviour of the sleeve in the fra-

me fixed to the rotating rod bent into the shape of
O
half circle. We resolve all the forces into tangential
and normal components, then the net downward tange-
ntial force on the sleeve is
N
mg sin u a 1 - cos u b
v2R
mw2Rsinq
g
O'
This vanishes for u = 0 and for u = u0 = cos-1( g/v2R) , mg
which is real if v2R 7 g .
If v2 R 6 g, then (1
[ - ( v2R/g ) cos u )] is always positive for small values of u and
hence the net tangential force near u = 0 opposes any displacement away from it,
and u = 0 is then stable.
If v2 R 7 g, then [(1 - ( v 2R/g) cosu ] is negative for small u near u = 0 , and u = 0 is then
unstable.
However u = u0 is stable because the force tends to bring the sleeve near the equi-
librium position u = u0.
If v2 R = g, the two positions coincide and becomes a stable equilibrium point.
1.111 Define the axes as shown with z along the local vertical, x due east and y due no-
rth. (We assume we are in the northern hemisphere.) Then the Coriolis force has
the components as
Fcor = - 2m (v * v) y-North
z-Vertical
= 2mv [vy cos u - vz sin u) i - vx cos u j + vx cos u k]
x-East
= 2m v (vy cos u - vz sin u)i
Since vx is small when the direction in which the gun is =90°–

fired is due north. Thus the equations of motion (ne-
glecting centrifugal forces) are
$ $
x = 2m v(vy sin w - vz cos w), y = 0 and z = - g
Integrating we get y = v (constant)

z = - gt and x = 2vv sin wt + vgt 2 cos w
Finally,
1
x = vvt 2 sin w + vgt 3 cos w
3
Now, v 77 gt in the present case. So,
x = vv sin w a b = v sin u
s 2 s2
v v
= 7 cm (to the east)
1.112 For the observer attached in the frame of disks

N + Fcor + mg + Fcf = 0
So, N = - (Fcor + mg + Fcf)
So, | N | = 2(2m v¿v)2 + (mg)2 + (mv2r)2
1.113 The sleeve is free to slide along the rod AB. Thus the centrifugal force acts on it in
the outward direction along the river.
So, we have mv¿ = mv2r
dr
where v¿ =
dt
a v b
vdv d 1 2
But, w¿ = =
dr dr 2
1 2 1
So, v = v2r2 + constant
2 2
or v 2 = v 02 + v2r 2
v0 being the initial velocity when r = 0. The Coriolis force is then
2mv 2v02 + v2r2 = 2mv2r 21 + v02>v2r2) = 2 # 83 N (on substituting values)
1.114 The disk OBAC is rotating with angular velocity v about the axis OO¿ passing
through the edge point O. The equation of motion in rotating frame is
mw¿ = F + mv2 R + 2m(v¿ * ␻) = F + Fin O'

where Fin is the resultant inertial force (pseudo force) which is the B
vector sum of centrifugal and Coriolis forces.
O A
(a) At A, Fin vanishes.
C
Thus, 0 = - 2m v2R n + 2mv¿vn
where n is the inward drawn unit vector to the centre, from the point in question, here A.
Thus, v¿ = vR
v¿ 2 v¿ 2
So, w = = = v2R
r R
O'
(b) At B, Fin = mv2r + 2mv¿v2 ( - R) 2r
m
B v'
v ¿ = vr = constant (from question)
r 2mv'
q
Fin = mv2r + 2mv2R O
R C n
A
From geometry,
r = 2R cos u (see figure)
So, | Fin | = mv2 24R2 - r2
1.115 The equation of motion in the rotating coordinate system is N
m w¿ = F + m v2 R + 2m (v¿ * v)
Fcf
. .
Now, v¿ = R u eu + R sin u w ew mg
and v = v cos u er - v sin u eu

er eu ew
1 . .
F = 3 0 Ru (R sin u)w 3
2m cor
v cos u - v sin u 0
# # #
= er (vR sin2 u w) + [vR sin u cos u w]eu - (vR u cos u)ew
Now, on the sphere

# # .. # #
w¿ = (- R u2 - R sin u2 w2)er + (R u - R sin u cos u w2) eu
.. . #
+ (R sin uw + 2R cos u u w) e
w
Thus the equations of motion are

# ## #
m ( - R u2 - R sin2u w2 ) = N - mg cos u + mv2 R sin2 u + 2mvR sin2 uw
## # #
m (R u - R sin u cos u w2 ) = mg sin u + mv2R sin u cos u + 2mvR sin u cos u w
.. . # ##
m (R sin u w + 2R cos u u w) = - 2 mvR u cos u
#
From the third equation, we get, w = - v.
A result that is easy to understand by considering the motion in non-rotating frame.
# #
Eliminating w we get, mR u2 = mg cos - N
..
mR u = mg sin u
Integrating the last equation

1 #
mR u2 = mg (1 - cos u) (1)
2
Hence, N = (3 cos u - 2) mg
2
So the body must fly off for u = u0 = cos-1 , exactly as if the sphere were non-
3
rotating.
5
Now, at this point F cf = centrifugal force = m v2R sin u0 = mv2R
A9
#
Fcor = 2m 2(v2R)2 sin2 u cos2u + (v2R 2)2 sin4 u + (vR)2cos2 uu2
Putting the value of u from Eq. (1)
u = u0
2mv2R 8g
we get, Fcor = 5 + = 17 N. (on substituting values)
3 A 3v2R
1.116 (a) When the train is moving along a meridian only the Coriolis force has a lateral
component and its magnitude (see the previous problem) is,
#
2mvv cos u = 2mv sin l (here we have put R u : v)
2p 54000 23
So, Flateral = 2 * 2000 * 103 * * *
86400 3600 2
= 3.77 kN (we write l for the latitude)
(b) The resultant of the inertial forces acting on the train is,
# #
Fin = - 2mvR u cos u ew + (mv2 R sin u cos u + 2m vR sin u cos u w) eu
#
+ (mv2 R sin2u + 2m vR sin2 u w) er
# # 1 v
This vanishes if u = 0, w = - v Fcor
2
1 1
Thus, v = vwew,vw = - vR sin u = - vR cos l O
2 2
(we write l for the latitude here)
Thus the train must move from the east to west along
the 60th parallel with a speed,
1 1 2p
vR cos l = * 10-4 * 6.37 * 106 = 115.8 m/s L 420 km/h .
2 4 8.64
1.117 We go to the equation given in problem 1.111. Here vy = 0 so we can take y = 0;

#
thus, we get for the motion in the x z plane.
$
x = - 2vvz cos w
#
and z = -g
1 2
Integrating, z = - gt
2
#
x = vg cos wt2
vg cos wt 3 = vg cos w a b
1 1 2h 3/2 2vh 2h
So x = = cos w
3 3 g 3 A g
There is thus a displacement to the east of

2 2p 2 * 500
* 500 * * 10-4 * 1 * = 26 cm
3 8.64 A 9.8
1.3 Law of Conservation of Energy, Momentum

and Angular Momentum
1.118 As F is constant so the sought work done

A = F # ¢r = F # (r2 - r1)
or A = (3i + 4j ) # [(2i - 3j ) - (i + 2j)] = (3i + 4 j ) # (i - 5j) = 17 J
1.119 As locomotive is in unidirectional motion, its acceleration

dv 1 dv 2 a2
w = = =
dt 2 ds 2
ma 2
Hence, force acting on the locomotive F = mw =
2
Let, v = 0 at t = 0, then the distance covered during the first t seconds
1 2 1 a2 2 a2 2
s = wt = t = t
2 2 2 4
Hence the sought work,
ma 2 (a 2t 2) ma 4t 2
A = Fs = =
2 4 8
1 2 as 2
1.120 We have T = mv 2 = as 2 or v 2 = (1)
2 m
4as 2 as
2vwt = v or wt = (2)
m m
Hence net acceleration of the particle
a b + a b =
2as 2 2as 2 2 2as
w = 2wt2 + wn2 = 11 + (s>R) 2
C m mR m
F
Hence the sought, force F = mw = 2as 11 + (s/R)2
N
1.121 Let F, make an angle u with the horizontal at an arbi-
trary instant of time (see figure). Newton’s second law h
in projection form along the direction of the force fr
gives y mg
F = kmg cos u + mg sin u (because there is no acceler- x
ation of the body) l
1.3 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY, MOMENTUM AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM 77
As F c c dr, the differential work done by the force F

dA = F # dr = Fds (where ds = | dr | )
= kmg ds (cos u) + mg ds sin u
= kmg dx + mg dy
l h
Hence, A = kmg dx + mg dy
3 3
0 0
= kmgl + mgh = mg (kl + h)
1.122 Let s be the distance covered by the disk along the incline, from the equation of in-
crement of mechanical energy of the disk in the field of gravity: ¢T + ¢U - Aƒr
0 + ( - mgs sin a) = - kmg cos a s - kmgl
N'1 1
kl
or s = (1) fr1
sin a - k cos a N2
mg s
Hence the sought work 2 fr2
l
Aƒr = - kmg [s cos a + l ]
klmg mg
Aƒr = - (using Eq. 1)
1 - k cot a
On putting the values
Aƒr = - 0.05 J
1.123 Let x be the compression in the spring when the bar m2 is about to shift. Therefore
at this moment spring force on m2 is equal to the limiting friction between the bar
m2 and horizontal floor. Hence
kx = km2g [where k is the spring constant (say)] (1)
For the block m1 from work-energy theorem:
A = ¢T = 0 for minimum force. (A here includes the work done in stretching the
spring.)
1 2 x
So, Fx - kx - kmgx = 0 or k = F - km1g (2)
2 2
m2
From Eqs. (1) and (2), F = kg a m1 + b
2
1.124 From the initial condition of the problem, the limiting friction between the chain
lying on the horizontal table equals the weight of the over hanging part of the chain,
i.e., lhlg = kl(1 - h)lg (where l is the linear mass density of the chain).
h
So, k = (1)
1 - h
Let (at an arbitrary moment of time) the length of the chain on the table be x. So the
net friction force between the chain and the table, at this moment
ƒr = kN = klxg (2) N
x
The differential work done by the friction forces fr
dA = fr # d r = - fr ds
xg
= - klxg ( - dx) = lg a b xdx
h
(3) (l−x)g
1 - h
(Note that here we have written ds = - dx, because ds is essentially a positive term
and as the length of the chain decreases with time, dx is negative.)
Hence, the sought work done
0
h mgl
A = lg xdx = - (1 - h)h = - 1.3 J
3 1 - h 2
(1 - h)l
1.125 The velocity of the body, t seconds after the beginning of the motion becomes
v = v0 + gt. The power developed by the gravity (mg) at that moment, is
P = mg # v = m (g # v0 + g 2t) = mg ( gt - v0 sin a)
As mg is a constant force, so the average power
A mg # ¢r
6P 7 = =
t t
where ¢r is the net displacement of the body during time of flight.
As, m g ⬜ ¢r, so 6P 7 = 0
1.126 We have wn = v 2 /R = at 2 or v = 1aR t
where t is defined to start from the beginning of motion from rest.

dv
So, wt = = 1aR
dt
Instantaneous power, P = F # v = m (wt t + wnn) # ( 1aR t t), where t and n are unit
vectors along the direction of tangent (velocity) and normal, respectively.
So, P = mwt 1aR t = maRt
Hence the sought average power

t t
P dt ma Rt dt
3 3
0 0
6P 7 = t
=
t
dt
3
0
maRt 2 maRt
Hence, 6P 7 = =
2t 2
1.127 Let the body m acquire the horizontal velocity v0 along positive x-axis at the point O.
(a) Velocity of the body t seconds after the beginning of the motion,
v = v0 + wt = (v0 - kg t) i (1)
Instantaneous power P = F # v = ( - kmg i) # (v0 - kgt) i = - kmg (v0 - kgt)

From Eq. (1), the time of motion t = v0 >kg.
Hence sought average power during the time of motion
t
- kmg (v0 - kgt)dt

3 kmg v0
0
6P 7 = = - = - 2 W (on substituting values)
t 2
(b) From Fx = mwx

dvx
- kmg = mwx = mvx
dx
or vxdvx = - kgdx = - agxdx
To find v (x), let us integrate the above equation

v x
vxdvx = - ag xdx or, v 2 = v02 - agx 2

3 3
v0 0
Now, P = F # v = - ma xg 2v 02 - a gx 2 (2)
For maximum power,
A 2v02x 2 - lgx 4 B = 0 which yields x =

d v0
dt 12ag
Putting this value of x in Eq. (2), we get
1
Pmax = - mv02 1ag
2
1.128 Centrifugal force of inertia is directed outward along radial line, thus the sought work
r2
mv 2 1r 22 - r 21 ) = 0.20 J (on substituting values)

1
A = mv 2 rdr =
3 2
r1
1.129 Since the springs are connected in series, the combination may be treated as a single
spring of spring constant.
k1k2
So, k =
k1 + k2
From the equation of increment of mechanical energy,

¢T + ¢Uspring = Aext
k1k2
k¢l 2 = Aext or Aext = a b ¢l 2
1 1
0 +
2 2 k1 + k2
1.130 First, let us find the total height of ascent. At the beginning and at the end of the path,
velocity of the body is equal to zero, and therefore the increment of the kinetic energy
of the body is also equal to zero. On the other hand, according to work-energy theorem,
¢T is equal to the algebraic sum of the work A performed by all the forces, i.e. by the
force F and gravity, over this path. However, since ¢T = 0 then A = 0. Taking into ac-
count that the upward direction is assumed to coincide with the positive direction of
the y-axis, we can write
h h
A = (F + mg) # dr = (Fy - mg) dy

3 3
0 0
h
= mg (1 - 2 ay) dy = mgh (1 - ah) = 0 (when h = 1>a)

3
0
The work performed by the force F over the first half of the ascent is
h>2 h>2
3 mg
AF = Fydy = 2mg (1 - ay) dy =
3 3 4a
0 0
The corresponding increment of the potential energy is

mgh mg
¢U = =
2 2a
, we get Fr = c - 3 + 2 d
dU 2a b
1.131 From the equation Fr = -
dr r r
(a) We have at r = r0, the particle is in equilibrium position, i.e, Fr = 0.
2a
So, r0 =
b
To check whether the position is steady (the position of stable equilibrium), we
have to satisfy
d 2U
7 0
dr 2
= c - 3d
d 2U 6a 2b
We have 2
dr r4 r
Putting the value of r = r0 = 2a /b, we get
d 2U b4
= (as a and b are positive constants)
dr 2 8a 3
d 2U b2
So, = 7 0
dr 2 8a 3
which indicates that the potential energy of the system is minimum, hence this
position is steady.
= c- 3 + 2d
dU 2a b
(b) We have Fr = -
dr r r
dFr
For F to be maximum, = 0
dr
3a -b 3
So, r = and Fr (max) =
b 27a 2
As Fr is negative, the force is attractive.
1.132 (a) We have

0U - 0U
Fx = - = - 2ax and Fy = = - 2by
0x 0y
So, F = 2ax i - 2by i and F = 2 1a2x 2 + b 2y 2
For a central force, r * F = 0.
Here, r * F = (x i + y j) * ( - 2a x i - 2by j)
= - 2 bxy k - 2axy (k) Z 0
Hence the force is not a central force.
(b) As U = ax 2 + by 2
0U - 0U
So, Fx = = - 2 ax and Fy = = - 2by
0x 0y
So, F = 2Fx2 + Fy2 = 24a2x 2 + 4b 2y 2
According to the problem
F = 2 2a 2x 2 + b 2y 2 = C (constant)
C2
or a 2x 2 + b 2y 2 =
2
x2 y2 C2
or 2
+ 2
= = k (say)
b a 2a 2 b 2
Therefore, the surface for which F is constant is an ellipse.
For an equipotential surface U is constant.
So, ax 2 + by 2 = C0 (constant)
x2 y2 C0
or + = = K0 (constant)
2b 2 2a 2 ab
Hence, the equipotential surface is also an ellipse.
1.133 Let us calculate the work performed by the forces of each field over the path from
a certain point 1 (x1, y1) to another point 2 (x2, y2)
x2
(i) dA = F # d r = ay i # d r = ay dx or, A = a ydx

3
x1
(ii) dA = F # dr = (ax i + by j) # d r = ax dx + bydy

x2 y2
Hence, A = axdx + bydy

3 3
x1 y1
In the first case, the integral depends on the function of type y (x), i.e., on the shape
of the path. Consequently, the first field of force is not potential. In the second case,
both the integrals do not depend on the shape of the path. They are defined only by
the coordinate, of the initial and final points of the path, therefore the second field of
force is potential.
1.134 Let s be the sought distance, then from the equation of increment of mechanical energy.
¢T + ¢Ugr = Afr
a0 - mv02 b + (mg s sin a) = - kmg cos as

1
2
v02>2g
s =
1sin a + k cos a2
or
- km v02
Hence, Aƒr = - kmg cos as =
2(k + tan a)
1.135 Velocity of the body at height h, vh = 22g (H - h), horizontally (from the figure
given in the problem book). Time taken in falling through the distance h is given by
2h
t = (as initial vertical component of the velocity is zero)
A g
2h
Now, s = vh t = 22g (H + h) * = 24(Hh - h 2)
A g
d H
For smax, (Hh - h 2) = 0, which yields h =
ds 2
Putting this value of h in the expression obtained for s, we get
smax = H
1.136 To complete a smooth vertical track of radius R,

the minimum height at which a particle starts, v N
must be equal to 52 R. Let us first prove this. mg
In the figure there is a smooth track and a small h
body is released at height h. We have to find
R
minimum value for h so that the body can com-
plete smooth vertical track of radius R. As the
track is smooth and the body is under the action of only two forces, normal reac-
tion and gravitational pull. The mechanical energy of the block in the gravitational
field is conversed, because normal reaction does zero work where as the gravitation-
al force is conservative. From the conservation of mechanical energy between the
point of release and the upper most point of the circular track
¢T + ¢Ugr = 0
a mv 2 - 0 b - mg (h - 2R) = 0
1
2
which yields v 2 = 2g (h - 2R) (1)
To complete the vertical circular track the condition is that the normal reaction at the
upper most point of the circular track N Ú 0.
From Newtons second law in projection form towards the centre of the track
Fn = mwn (where wn is the normal acceleration)
v2
N + mg = m
R
N = m a - gb
v2
R
As N Ú 0 at upper most point of the circular track
ma - gb Ú 0
v2
So,
R
or v 2 Ú gR (2)
2g (h - 2R) Ú gR
5
Hence, h Ú R
2
Thus in our problem, the body could not reach the upper most point of the vertical
track of radius R/2. Let the particle A
leave the track at some point with v
speed v (see figure). Now from ene-
rgy conservation for the body A in the
field of gravity mg
h
mg ch - (1 + sin u) d = mv 2
h 1
2 2 h/2
or v = gh (1 - sin u)
2
(3)
At the break off point the normal reaction N = 0, so from Newton’s second law at
this point
Fn = mwn
mv 2
or mg sin u =
(h>2)
gh
So, v2 = sin u (4)
2
2 gh
From Eqs. (3) and (4), sin u = and v =
3 A 3
After leaving the track, the body A comes in air and further goes up v' v
and at maximum height of it’s trajectory in air and it’s velocity (say v ¿) π/2−θ
becomes horizontal (Fig.). Hence, the sought velocity of A at this point.
v ¿ = v cos a - u b = v sin u =
p 2 gh θ
2 3A 3
1.137 Let the point of suspension be shifted with velocity vA in the horizontal direction
towards left, then in the rest frame of point of suspension the ball starts with same
velocity horizontally towards right. Let us work in this frame. From Newton’s sec-
ond law in projection form towards the point of suspension at the upper most point
(say B):
mvB2 mv B2
mg + T = or T = - mg (1)
l l
Condition required to complete the vertical circle is that T Ú 0. (2)
mv 2A = mg 12l2 + mvB2
1 1
But,
2 2
So, v 2B = v 2A - 4gl (3)
From Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) vB B
m 1v 2A - 4gl 2 T vC
T = - mg Ú 0 or vA Ú 25gl
l mg
C
Thus vA (min) = 15gl T'
l
From the equation Fn = mwn at point C
vA
m vC2 A
T¿ = (4)
l
Again from energy conservation

1 1
mvA2 = mvC2 + mgl (5)
2 2
T = 3mg
1.138 Since the tension is always perpendicular to the velocity vector, the work done by the
tension force will be zero. Hence, according to the work energy theorem, the kinetic
energy or velocity of the disk will remain constant during it’s motion. Hence, the
sought time t = s /v0, where s is the total distance traversed by the small disk during
it’s motion.
Now, at an arbitrary position (see figure)
ds = (l0 - R u) d u
ds
l>R dθ
dθ
Rθ) v0
So, s = (l0 - R u) d u θ (l 0–
3 B l0 A
0
l 02 Rl 02 l 02
or s = - =
R 2R 2 2R
l 02
Hence, the required time t =
2Rv 0
Note: It should be clearly understood that the only uncompensated force acting on
the disk A in this case is the tension T , of the thread. It is easy to see that there is no
point here, relative to which the moment of force T is invariable in the process of
motion. Hence conservation of angular momentum is not applicable here.
1.139 Suppose that ¢l is the elongation of the rubber cord. Then, from energy conservation
¢Ugr + ¢Uel = 0 (as ¢T = 0)
1
or - mg (l + ¢l) + k ¢l 2 = 0
2
1
or k¢l 2 - mg ¢l - mgl = 0
2
k
mg (mg)2 + 4 * mgl
A 2 mg 2kl
or ¢l = = B1 + 1 R
k k A mg
2 *
2
2kl
Since the value of 1 + is certainly greater than 1, hence negative sign is avoided.
A mg
a1 + 1 + b
mg 2kl
So, ¢l =
k A mg
1.140 When the thread PA is burnt, obviously the speed of the bars will be equal at any
instant of time until it breaks off. Let v be the speed of each block and u be the angle,
which the elongated spring makes with the vertical at the moment when the bar A
breaks off the plane. At this stage the elongation in the spring is
¢l = l0 sec u - l0 = l0 (sec u - 1) (1)
Since the problem is concerned with position and there are no forces other than con-
servative forces, the mechanical energy of the system (both bars + spring) in the
field of gravity is conserved, i.e., ¢T + ¢U = 0.
2a mv 2 b + kl 02 (sec u - 1) 2 - mgl0 tan u = 0

1 1
So, (2)
2 2
From Newton’s second law in projection form along vertical direction:
mg = N + k l0 (sec u - 1) cos u kl0 (secq–1)
N
But, at the moment of break off, N = 0.
Hence, kl0 (sec u - 1) cos u = mg T
kl0 - mg
or cos u = (3)
kl0 mg
5mg
Taking k = , simultaneous solution of Eqs. (2) and (3) yields
l0
19gl0
v = = 1.7 m/s
C 32
1.141 Obviously the elongation in the cord, ¢l = l0 (sec u - 1), at the moment the sliding
first starts and at the moment horizontal projection of spring force equals the limit-
ing friction.
So, k¢l sin u = kN (1)
N
(where k is the elastic constant) l
From Newton’s law in projection form along vertical fr

direction:
k¢l cos u + N = mg
or N = mg - k¢l cos u (2) mg

k¢l sin u = k (mg - k¢l cos u)
kmg
or k =
¢l sin u + k¢l cos u
From the equation of the increment of mechanical energy: ¢U + ¢T = Aƒr
a k¢l 2 b = Aƒr
1
or
2
kmg ¢l 2
or = Aƒr
2¢l (sin u + k cos u)
(kmgl0 (sec u - 1)
Thus, Afr = = 0.09 J (on substituting values)
2 (sin u - k cos u)
1.142 Let the deformation in the spring be ¢l, when the rod AB has attained the angular
velocity v. From the second law of motion in projection form Fn = mwn.
mv2l0
k¢l = mv2 (l0 + ¢l ) or ¢l =
k - mv2
1 1
From the energy equation, Aext = mv 2 + k¢l 2
2 2
1 1
= mv2 (l0 + ¢l ) 2 + k¢l 2
2 2
2
mv l0 2 mv2l 20 2
= mv2 al0 + b a b
1 1
+ k
2 k - mv2 2 k - mv2
k l0 h (1 + h)
2
mv 2
On solving Aext = , where h =
2 (1 - h) 2 k
1.143 We know that acceleration of centre of mass of the system is given by the expression.
m1w1 + m2w2
wC =
m1 + m2
Since w1 = - w2
T
(m1 - m2) w1 T
wC = (1) m2 w
m1 + m2
w m1
Now from Newton’s second law F = m w, for bodies m1 and m2, m2g
respectively, m1g
T + m1g = m1w1 (2)
and T + m2g = m2w2 = - m2w1 (3)

(m1 - m2) g
Solving Eqs. (2) and (3) w1 = (4)
m1 + m2
(m1 - m2) 2 g
Thus, from Eqs. (1) and (4), wC =
( m1 + m2) 2
1.144 As the closed system consisting of two particles m1 and m2 is initial- m2

ly at rest, the centre of mass of the system will remain at rest. Further
as m2 = m1>2, the centre of mass of the system divides the line join-
ing m1 and m2 at all the moments of time in the ratio 1:2. In addi- C
tion to it, the total linear momentum of the system at all the times is
zero. So, p1 = - p2 and therefore the velocities of m1 and m2 are also
directed in opposite sense. Bearing in mind all these things, the m1
sought trajectory is as shown in the figure.
1.145 First of all, it is clear that the chain does not move in the ver- T
tical direction during the uniform rotation. This means that
the vertical component of the tension T balances gravity. As
for the horizontal component of the tension T, it is constant
in magnitude and permanently directed toward the rotation C m ω2ρ
axis. It follows from this that the centre of mass of the chain,
the point C, travels along horizontal circle of radius r (say).
Therefore we have
T cos u = mg and T sin u = mv2 r mg
g tan u
Thus r = = 0.8 cm
v2
mg
and T = = 5 N (on substituting values)
cos u
1.146 (a) Let us draw free body diagram and write Newton’s N
second law in terms of projection along vertical and
horizontal directions, respectively,
l
N cos a - mg + fr sin a = 0 (1)
ƒr cos a - N sin a = mv 2l (2) fr
sin a
ƒr cos a - ( - ƒr sin a + mg) = mv2l mg
cos a
ƒr = mg a sin a + cos a b
v2l
So, (3)
g
= 6 N (on substituting values)
(b) For rolling, without sliding,

ƒr … k N
but, N = mg cos a - mv2l sin a
mg a sin a + cos a b … k (mg cos a - m v2 l sin a)

v2l
(using Eq. 3)
g
Rearranging, we get
mv2 l (cos a + k sin a) … (k mg cos a - mg sin a )
Thus, v … 2g (k - tan a)>(1 + k tan a)l = 2 rad>s
1.147 (a) Total kinetic energy in frame K ¿ is

1 1 2
T = m (v - V ) 2 + m2 (v2 - V)
2 1 1 2
This is minimum with respect to variation in V, when
= 0, i. e., m11v1 - V2 + m 1v - V2 = 0
dT
dV 2 2
m1v1 + m2v2
or V = = vC
m1 + m2
Hence, it is the frame of centre of mass in which kinetic energy of a system is

minimum.
(b) Linear momentum of the particle 1 in the K ¿ or C frame
m1m2
p1 = m11v1 - vC2 = 1v1 - v22
'
m1 + m2
m1m2
p1 = m1v1 - v22, where
'
or m= = reduced mass
m1 + m2
p2 = m1v2 - v12
'
Similarly,
So, | p~1 | = | p
~ | = ~p = m v , where v = | v - v |
2 rel rel 1 2
Now the total kinetic energy of the system in the C frame is
~ p~ 2 p~2 p~ 2
T = T~1 + T~2 = + =
2m1 2m2 2m
~ 1 1 2
Hence, T = m v 2rel = m | v1 - v2 |
2 2
1.148 To find the relationship between the values of the mechanical energy of a system in
the K and C reference frames, let us begin with the kinetic energy T of the system.
'
The velocity of the i-th particle in the K frame may be represented as vi = v i + vC.
Now we can write
T = a mi v 2i = a mi 1vi + vC2 # 1vi + vC2

1 1 ' '
2 2
1 '2 ' 1
= a mi v 1 + vC a mi vi + a mi vC2
2 2
'
Since in the C frame a mi vi = 0, the previous expression takes the form
' 1 '2 ' 1

T = T + m v C = T + mV 2 (since according to the problem vC = V ) (1)
2 2
Since the internal potential energy U of a system depends only on its configuration,
the magnitude U is the same in all reference frames. Adding U to the left and right
hand sides of Eq. (1), we obtain the sought relationship,
' 1
E = E + mV 2
2
' ' '

1.149 As initially U = U = 0, so, E = T. From the solution of problem 1.147(b)
' 1
T = m | v1 - v2 |
2
As v1 ⬜ v2
' 1 m1m2
Thus, T = (v 2 + v 22)
2 m1 + m2 1
1.150 Velocities of masses m1 and m2 after t seconds are, respectively,

v¿1 = v1 + gt and v¿2 = v2 + gt
Hence the final momentum of the system

p = m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1 + m1v2 + (m1 + m2) gt
= p0 + mgt (where, p0 = m2v1 + m2v2 and m = m1 + m2)
Radius vector, is given by
1
rC = vC t + w t2
2 C
(m1v1 + m2v2)t 1 2 1 m1v1 + m2v2
= + gt = v0t + gt 2, where v0 =
(m1 + m2) 2 2 m1 + m2
1.151 After releasing, bar 2 acquires velocity v2, obtained by the energy conservation:
1 1
m2v 22 = kx 2 or v2 = x 1k>m2
2 2
Thus, the sought velocity of C.M.
0 + m2x 1k>m2 x 2m2k

vC = =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
1.152 Let us consider both blocks and spring as the physical system. The centre of mass
of the system moves with acceleration a = F /(m1 + m2) towards right. Let us work in
the frame of centre of mass. As this frame is a non-inertial frame (accelerated with re-
spect to the ground) we have to apply a pseudo force m1a towards left on the block
m1 and m2 a towards left on the block m2 .
As the centre of mass is at rest in this
frame, the blocks move in opposite direc- m2a
m1a m1 m2 F
tions and come to instantaneous rest at
some instant. The elongation of the
spring will be maximum or minimum at this instant. Assume that the block m1 is
displaced by the distance x1 and the block m2 through a distance x2 from the ini-
tial positions.
From the equation of increment of mechanical energy in C.M. frame
'
¢T + ¢U = Aext
where Aext also includes the work done by the pseudo forces.
' 1
Here, ¢T = 0, ¢U = k (x1 + x2)2 and
2
m2F m1F m1 F (x1 + x2)
Wext = aF - b x2 + x1 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
1 m1(x1 + x2)F
or k (x1 + x2)2 =
2 m1 + m2
2m1F
x1 + x2 = 0 or x1 + x2 =
k 1m1 + m22
So,
Hence, the maximum and minimum separations between the blocks are
2m1F
l0 + and l0, respectively.
k (m1 + m2)
Alternate:
Let us link the inertial frame with m1 m2 F
horizontal floor and point the coordi- O x
nate axis as shown in figure. x1 l
At an arbitrary instant of time the separation between the blocks is l and the x
coordinate of the block m1 is x1. From Newton’s second law for the block m1,
d 2x1
m1 = k (l - l0 ) (1)
dt 2
Similarly for block m2,
d 2 (x1 + l )
m2 = F - k (l - l0) (2)
dt 2
Multiplying Eq. (2) by m1 and Eq. (1) by m2 and further subtracting Eq. (1) from
Eq. (2), we get
d 2 (x + l ) d 2 x1
m1m2 - m m
1 2 = m1F = (m1 + m2) k (l - l0 )
dt 2 dt 2
d 2l
or m1m2 = m1F - (m1 + m2) k (l - l0 ) (3)
dt 2
d 2 (l - l0 )
or m1m2 = m1F - (m1 + m2) k (l - l0 )
dt 2
d 2 (l - l0) k (m1 + m2) (l - l0 ) F
or 2
+ = (4)
dt m m
1 2 m2
k (m1 + m2) F
Putting = v2 and = A
m1m2 m2
d 2x
and comparing with differential equation + v2x = A, we get
dt 2
A
l - l0 = + B sin (vt + d) (5)
v2
d (l - l0 )
But at time t = 0, l - l0 = 0 and = 0
dt
So, B v cos (vt + d) |t = 0 = 0 and hence d = p>2.
Therefore, Eq. (5) becomes
A
l - l0 = + B cos vt (6)
vu2
-A
But at t = 0, l - l0 = 0, so, B =
v2
Hence, Eq. (6) becomes
A
l - l0 = (1 - cos vt) (7)
v2
But (l - l0) will be maximum, when cos v t = - 1

Therefore, from Eq. (7)
2A 2Fm1m2
l - l0 = =
v2 km2 (m1 + m2)
2Fm1
or l = l0 +
k (m1 + m2)
Similarly (l - l0) will be minimum when cos v t = 1
Therefore, from Eq. (7)
l - l0 = 0 or l = l0
1.153 (a) The initial compression in the spring ¢l must be such that after burning of the
thread, the upper cube rises to a height that produces a tension in the spring
that is atleast equal to the weight of the lower cube. Actually, the spring will first
go from its compressed state to its natural length and then get elongated beyond
this natural length. Let l be the maximum elongation produced under these cir-
cumstances.
Then kl = mg (1)
Now, from energy conservation,
1 1
k¢l 2 = mg (¢l + l ) + kl 2 (2)
2 2
(because at maximum elongation of the spring, the speed of upper cube becomes
zero).
From Eqs. (1) and (2), C v

l
2mg¢l 3m 2g 2 3mg - mg B
¢l 2 - - = 0 or ¢l = ,
k k2 k k
l
Therefore, acceptable solution of ¢l equals 3mg>k.
(b) Let v be the velocity of upper cube at the position (say, at 2)
when the lower block breaks off the floor, then from energy
conservation,
1 1
mv 2 = k (¢l 2 - l 2) - mg (l + ¢l )
2 2
a where l = b
mg mg
and ¢l = 7
k k
mg 2
or v 2 = 32 (3)
k
The displacement of C.M. (of two blocks systems) in the interval in which
upper block reaches position 2 is
m . 0 + m (7mg /k + mg/k) 4 mg
¢yC = =
1 2m k
When the upper block reaches position 2, the lower block just leaves the
floor with zero initial velocity. Now treat two blocks system like a single
particle of mass 2m projected vertically upward with the velocity of C.M.
mv + 0 v
vC = =
2m 2
So, the further vertical displacement of C.M. of two block system
vC2 (v>2) 2 4mg
¢yC = = = (using Eq. 3)
2 2g 2g k
Hence, the net displacement of the C.M. of the system, in upward direction
8mg
¢yC = ¢yC + ¢yC =
1 2 k
1.154 Due to ejection of mass from a moving system (which moves due to inertia) in a di-
rection perpendicular to it, the velocity of moving system does not change. The mo-
mentum change being adjusted by the forces on the rails. Hence in our problem ve-
locities of buggies change only due to the entrance of the man coming from the
other buggy. From conservation of linear momentum for the system (buggy 1 + man
coming from buggy 2) in the direction of motion of buggy 1,
Mv1 - mv2 = 0 (1)
Similarly from conservation of linear momentum for the system (buggy 2 + man
coming from buggy 1) in the direction of motion of buggy 2,
Mv2 - mv2 = (M + m)v (2)
mv Mv
v1 = and v2 =
M - m M - m
As v1 c T v and v2 c c v
-mv Mv
So, v1 = and v2 =
(M - m) (M - m)
1.155 From momentum conservation, for the system (rear buggy + man)
(M + m) v0 = m (u + vR) + M vR (1)
From momentum conservation, for the system (front buggy + man coming from rear
buggy)
M v0 + m (u + vR ) = (M + m) vF
M v0 m
So, vF = + (u + vR)
M + m M + m
Putting the value of vR from Eq. (1), we get
mM
vF = v0 + u
(M + m) 2
1.156 (i) Let v1 be the velocity of the buggy after both men jump off simultaneously. For the
closed system (two men + buggy), from the conservation of linear momentum,
M v1 + 2m (u + v1) = 0
- 2m u
or v1 = (1)
M + 2m
(ii) Let v be the velocity of buggy with man, when one man jumps off the buggy. For
the closed system (buggy with one man + other man) from the conservation of
linear momentum:
0 = (M + m) v + m (u + v) (2)
Let v2 be the sought velocity of the buggy when the second man jumps off the
buggy; then from conservation of linear momentum of the system (buggy +
one man):
(M + m)v = Mv2 + m (u + v2) (3)
Solving Eqs. (2) and (3) we get

m (2M + 3m)u
v2 = (4)
(M + m)(M + 2m)

v2 m
= 1 + 7 1
v1 2(M + m)
Hence, v2 7 v1
1.157 The descending part of the chain is in free fall, it has speed v = 12gy }y
at the instant when the chain descended a distance y. The length of the
chain which lands on the floor, during the differential time interval dt
following this instant is vdt. dy v
For the incoming chain element on the floor, from dpy = Fy dt (where
y-axis is directed down)
0 - (l vdt) v = Fydt
or Fy = - lv 2 = - 2lgy
Hence, the force exerted on the falling chain equals lv 2 and is directed upward.
Therefore from third law the force exerted by the falling chain on the table at the
same instant of time becomes lv 2 and is directed downward.
Since a length of chain of weight (lyg) already lies on the table and the table is at rest,
the total force on the floor is (2lyg) + (lyg) = (3lyg) or the weight of a length 3y of
chain.
1.158 Velocity of the ball, with which it hits the slab, v = 12gh.
After first impact v ¿ = ev (upward) but according to the problem
v 1
v¿ =
, so e = (1)
h h
and momentum imparted to this slab equals
mv - ( - mv ¿) = mv (1 + e)
Similarly, velocity of the ball after second impact is
v – = ev ¿ = e 2v
and momentum imparted is
m (v ¿ + v –) = m (1 + e)ev
Again, momentum imparted during third impact is
m (1 + e)e 2v, and so on
Hence, net momentum imparted = mv (1 + e) + mve ¿ (1 + e) + Á

= mv (1 + e) (1 + e + e 2 + Á )
(1 + e)
= mv (from summation of G.P.)
1 - e
= m12ghn(h + 1)>(h - 1)
(1+ 1/h)
= 12gh (using Eq. 1)
(1 - 1/ h)
= 0.2 kg m /s (on substituting values)
1.159 (a) Since the resistance of water is negligibly small the resultant of all external forces
acting on the system “a man and a raft” is equal to zero. This means that the po-
sition of the C.M. of the given system does not change in the process of motion.
i.e. , rC = constant or ¢rC = 0, a mi ¢ri = 0
or m (¢rmM + ¢rM) + M¢rM = 0
m l¿
Thus, m( l ¿ + l ) + M l = 0, or l = -
m + M
(b) As net external force on “man-raft” system is equal to zero, therefore the mo-
mentum of this system does not change.
So, 0 = m [v¿ (t) + v2 (t)] + M v2(t)
m v ¿(t)
or, v2(t) = - (1)
m + M
Thus, the sought force on the raft
d v2(t) Mm d v¿(t)
M = -
dt m + M dt
Note: We may get the result of part (a), if we integrate Eq. (1) over the time of motion
of man or raft.
1.160 The displacement of the C.M. of the system, man (m), ladder (M - m) and the coun-
terweight (M ), is described by radius vector
©mi ¢ri M¢rM + (M –m) ¢r(M - m) + m ¢rm
¢rC = = (1)
©mi 2M
But, ¢rm = - ¢r(M - m)
and, ¢rm = ¢rm (M - m) + ¢r(M - m) (2) m (M – m) + m
Using Eq. (2) in Eq. (1) we get

ml
¢rC =
2M
Alternate:
Initially all the bodies of the system are at rest, and therefore the increments of lin-
ear momentum of the bodies in their motion are equal to the momentum themselves.
The rope tension is the same both on the left and on the right-hand side, and con-
sequently the momentum of the counter-balancing mass ( p1) and the ladder with the
man ( p2) are equal at any instant of time, i.e., p1 = p2,
or M v1 = m v + (M - m)v2
where v1, v, and v2 are the velocities of the mass, the man, and the ladder, respec-
tively. Taking into account that v2 = - v1 and v = v2 + v ¿ , where v ¿ is the man’s
velocity relative to the ladder, we obtain
v1 = (m>2M)v ¿
On the other hand, the momentum of the whole system
p = p1 + p2 = 2p1 or 2M VC = 2M v1 (1)
where VC is the velocity of the centre of inertia of the system. With allowance made
for Eq. (1) we get
VC = v1 = (m>2M)v ¿
Finally, the sought displacement is
¢rC = VC dt = (m>2M ) v¿dt = (m>2M ) ¢r¿

3 3
1.161 Velocity of cannon as well as that of shell equals 22gl sin a down the inclined plane
taken as the positive x-axis. From the linear impulse momentum theorem in projec-
tion form along x-axis for the system (cannon + shell),
¢px = Fx ¢t
i.e., p cos a - M 12gl sin a = Mg sin a¢ t (as mass of the shell is negligible)
p cos a - M 12gl sin a

or ¢t =
Mg sin a
1.162 From conservation of momentum, for the system “ bullet + body ” along the initial
direction of bullet
mv0
mv0 = (m + M) v or v = (1)
m + M
where v0 is the initial velocity of the bullet and v is combined velocity, after the
collision.
From conservation of mechanical energy of the system (bullet + body) in the field
of gravity:
1
(m + M )v 2 = (M + m)gl (1 - cos u), or, v 2 = 2gl (1 - cos u) (2)
2
(a) From Eqs. (1) and (2),
(m + M ) 2(M + m)
v0 = 12gl (1 - cos u) = 1gl sin (u>2)
m m
2M
v0 ⬵ 2gl sin (u>2)
W
As m M,
m
(b) Fraction of initial kinetic energy turned into heat
1
Ti - Tƒ Tƒ (m + M)v 2
2
= = 1 - = 1 -
Ti Ti 1
mv02
2
⬵ a 1 - b (using Eq. 1)
m m
= 1 -
(m + M) M
1.163 When the disk breaks off the body M, its velocity towards right (along x-axis)
equals the velocity of the body M, and let the disk’s velocity in upward direction
(along y-axis) at that moment be v y¿ .
From conservation of momentum, along x-axis for the system (disk + body)
mv
mv = (m + M) v x¿ or vx¿ = (1)
m + M
And from energy conservation, for the same system in the field of gravity:
1 1 1
mv 2 = (m + M )v x¿ 2 + mv y¿ 2 + mgh¿
2 2 2
where h¿ is the height of break-off point from initial level.
1 1 m 2v 2 1
So, mv 2 = (m + M) + mv y¿ 2 + mgh¿ (using Eq. 1)
2 2 (M + m) 2
mv 2
or v y¿2 = v 2 - - 2gh¿
(m + m)
Also, if h– is the height of the disk from the break-off point, then,
v y¿ 2 = 2gh–
mv 2
So, 2g (h– + h¿) = v 2 -
(M + m)
Hence, the total height, raised from the initial level is

Mv 2
h¿ + h– =
2g (M + m)
1.164 (a) When the disk slides and comes to the plank, it has a velocity equal to
v = 12gh. Due to friction between the disk and the plank the disk slows down
and after some time the disk moves with the plank with velocity v ¿ (say).
From the momentum conservation for the system (disk + plank) along horizon-
tal towards right:
mv
mv = (m + M) v ¿ or v ¿ =
m + M
Now from the equation of the increment of total mechanical energy of a system:
1 1
(M + m)v ¿ 2 - mv 2 = Afr
2 2
1 m2 v 2 1
or (M + m) - mv 2 = Afr
2 (m + M) 2 2
v c - m d = Afr
1 2 m2
so,
2 M + m
Afr = - a b gh = - mgh
mM
Hence,
m + M
a where m = = reduced mass b .

mM
m + M
(b) We look at the problem from a frame in which the hill is moving (together with
the disk on it) to the right with speed u. Then in this frame the speed of the disk
when it just gets onto the plank is, by the law of addition of velocities,
v = u + 12gh. Similarly the common speed of the plank and the disk when
they move together is
m
v = u + 12gh
m + M
1 1 1
Then as above Afr = (m + M) v 2 - mv 2 - Mu 2
2 2 2
(m + M) e u2 + 2gh f
1 2m m2
= u 12gh +
2 m + M (m + M)2
1 1
- (m + M )u2 - m2u 12gh - mgh
2 2
We see that Afr is independent of u and is in fact just - mgh as in (a). Thus the
result obtained does not depend on the choice of reference frame.
Do note however that it will be incorrect to apply “conservation of energy” for-
mula in the frame in which the hill is moving. The energy carried by the hill is
not negligible in this frame. See also the next problem.
1.165 In a frame moving relative to the Earth, one has to include the kinetic energy of the
Earth as well as Earth’s acceleration to be able to apply conservation of energy to the
problem. In a reference frame falling to the Earth with velocity v0, the stone is initial-
ly going up with velocity v0 and so is the Earth. The final velocity of the stone is
0 = v0 - gt and that of the Earth is v0 + (m/M )gt (M is the mass of the Earth), from
Newton’s third law, where t = time of fall. From conservation of energy
mv 02 + Mv 02 + mgh = M a v0 + v0 b
1 1 1 m 2
2 2 2 M
v0 a m + b = mgh
1 2 m2
Hence,
2 M
Neglecting m /M in comparison with 1, we get

v02 = 2gh or v0 = 12gh
The point in this is that in the Earth’s rest frame the effect of Earth’s acceleration is
of order m>M and can be neglected but in a frame moving with respect to the Earth
the effect of Earth’s acceleration must be kept because it is of order one (i.e., large).
1.166 From conservation of momentum for the closed system “both colliding particles”
m1v1 + m2v2 = (m1 + m2) v
m1v1 + m2v2 1(3i - 2 j ) + 2(4 j - 6k)

or v = = = i + 2j - 4k
m1 + m2 3
Hence, | v | = 11 + 4 + 16 m/s = 4.6 m/s
1.167 For perfectly inelastic collision, in the C.M. frame, final kinetic energy of the colliding
system (both spheres) becomes zero. Hence initial kinetic energy of the system in
C.M. frame completely turns into the internal energy (Q) of the formed body.
1
Hence, Q = Ti = m| v1 - v2 | 2
2
1
Now from energy conservation ¢T = - Q = - m| v1 - v2 |2
2
In laboratory frame the same result is obtained as

1 (m1v1 + m2v2)
2
' 1 1
¢T = - m1| v1 |2 + m2| v2 |2
2 m1 + m2 2 2
1
= - m| v1 - v2 |2
2
1.168 (a) From conservation of linear momentum

p1 = p1¿ + p2¿ or, p1 - p1¿ = p2¿
As p¿1 ⬜ p1 so, p1 2 + p¿1 2 = p¿2 2 (1)
p12 p¿1 2 p¿2 2
From conservation of kinetic energy = + (2)
2m1 2m1 2m2
p12 p¿1 2 (p12 + p¿12)
Using Eq. (1) in Eq. (2) we get = +
2m1 2m1 2m2
p¿1 2 m2 - m1
which yields = a b (3)
p1 2 m2 + m1
T1 ¿ p¿ 1 2>2m1 p¿ 1 2
So, sought fraction of kinetic energy h = 1 - = 1 - = 1 -
T1 p1 2>2m1 p1 2
m2 - m1 2m1
Hence, h = 1 - a b =
m2 + m1 m1 + m2
(b) For two particles closed system momentum of each particle in their C.M. frame are
always equal and opposite. In C.M. frame the kinetic energy of the two particle
~
system T = p~ 2/2m where m is the reduced mass. In perfectly elastic collision, the
kinetic energy of the system is conserved.
' '
p ¿2 p2 ' '
So, = , which gives p ¿ = p
2m 2m
Being head on collision, both the particles have to keep their motion along the
same straight line before and after the collision. On collision, momentum vector of
each particle has to change due to the reaction force
by the other particle. So only choice left to each of the ∼
p1 ∼
p2
particle is to reverse the direction of its momentum before
after the collision keeping the magnitude constant, i.e., ∼ ∼ after
' ' p′1 p′2
pi¿ = - pi, where i = 1, 2.
The same can be said about the velocity of each particle in the C.M. frame
' '
v ¿i = - vi
' '
but v¿i = VC + v i¿ = VC - vi = VC - (vi - VC ) = 2VC - vi
Hence the velocity of i-th particle after collision.
v¿i = 2 VC - vi (where i = 1, 2)
So velocity of particle 1 just after the collision from above relation is
m1v1 (m1 - m2) v1
v¿1 = 2 VC - v1 = 2 a b - v1 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
v 1¿ 2 (m1 - m2) 2
Therefore, =
v1 2 (m1 + m2) 2
T1 ¿ v ¿1 2 (m1 - m2)2 4m1m2
Thus sought fraction = 1 - = 1 - = 1 - =
T1 v1 2 (m1 + m2 )2 (m1 + m2) 2
1.169 (a) Being perfectly elastic head on collision, the velocity of i-th particle after collision
v i¿ = 2VC - vi (where i = 1, 2) (see previous problem)
m1v1 (m1 - m2) v1
So, v¿1 = 2 a b - v1 = and (1)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m1v1
v¿2 = 2 a b (2)
m1 + m2
v¿2 = - v¿1
m1v1 (m2 - m1) v1
so, 2a b = which gives 2m1 = (m2 - m1)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m1 1
Hence, =
m2 3
(b) From conservation of linear momentum in the direction perpendicular to initial
motion direction of striking particle 1 gives
p¿1 sin 30° = p¿2 sin 30°
So, p¿1 = p¿2 (1)
From conservation of linear momentum
p1 = p1¿ + p2¿ or, p1 - p1¿ = p2¿
so, p 21 + p¿1 2 - 2p1 p¿1 cos 30° = p¿2 2 (2)
On using Eq. (1) in Eq. (2) we get on manipulation

p1 p1
p¿1 = = (3)
2 cos 30° 13
From conservation of kinetic energy
p 21 p 1¿ 2 p 2¿ 2
= +
2m1 2m1 2m2
On using Eq. (1) and Eq. (3), we get on solving
m1
= 2
m2
1.170 At the moment of maximum deformation the velocity of colliding bodies along
their common normal n (here the line joining the mass centres of the balls) must be
equal so
v¿1n = v¿2n = v¿n (say) (1)
t
As the balls are smooth so, velocity of each ball along
v1
their common tangent t remains constant.
45° n
So, v¿ 1t = v1t = v1 sin 45° and v¿ 2t = v2t = 0 (2)
Now, from conservation of linear momentum

v1
mv1 cos 45° = 2m v¿n so, v¿n = (3)
2 12
From energy conservation, gain in internal potential energy is due to loss of kinetic
energy of the system. Initial kinetic energy of the system is the kinetic energy T1 of
striking ball only so, the sought fraction h = 1 - T system
¿ / T1.
1 1
But, T ¿ system = m [v¿1n 2 + v¿1t 2] + m [v 2n
¿ 2 + v¿2t2]
2 2
On using Eqs. (1), (2) and (3), we get
1 3v1 2
T ¿ system = m
2 4
T ¿ system 3v1 2 1
n mv1 2 =
1 3
So, = m
T1 2 4 2 4
3 1
Hence, sought fraction h = 1 - =
4 4
1.171 From the conservation of linear momentum of the shell just before and after its frag-
mentation
3v = v1 + v2 + v3 (1)
where v1, v2 and v3 are the velocities of its fragments.

From the energy conservation
3hv 2 = v12 + v22 + v32 (2)

'
Now v or viC = vi - vC = vi - v (3)
where vC = v = velocity of the C.M. of the fragments the velocity of the shell.
Obviously in the C.M. frame the linear momentum of a system is equal to zero so
' ' '
v1 + v2 + v3 = 0 (4)
Using Eqs. (3) and (4) in Eq. (2), we get
3hv2 = (v + v1)2 + (v + v2)2 + (v - v1 - v2)2 = 3v2 + 2v 12 + 2v 12 + 2 v1 # v2

' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' '

or 2 v 12 + 2 v1v 2 cos u + 2 v 22 + 3 (1 - h)v 2 = 0 (5)
' ' ' ' '
If we have had used v2 = - v1 - v3, then Eq. 5 would contain v 3 instead of v2 and
so on. The problem being symmetrical we can look for the maximum of any one.
Obviously it will be the same for each.
' ' '

For v 22 cos 2 u Ú 8 (2 v 22 + 3 (1 - h) v 2) or 6 (h - 1)v 2 Ú (4 - cos 2 u) v 22
' 6(h - 1) '
So, v2 … v or v2(max) = 12(h - 1) v
A 4 - cos2u
Hence, v2(max) = | v + v2 |max = v + 12(h - 1)v = v 11 + 12(h - 1)2 = 1 km/s

'
Thus, owing to the symmetry
v1(max) = v2(max) = v3(max) = v (1 + 12(h - 1)2 = 1 km/s
Alternate:
The maximum velocity can be attained by that fragment (say 1) which has experienced
the reaction force by the rest of two fragment (2 and 3) in the initial motion direction
of the shell. Symmetry of the problem tells us that the velocities of fragments 2 and 3
are same and so is the reaction force exerted by the fragment 2 and 3 on fragment 1.
Let v¿ is the velocity of each of the fragments 2 and 3 and v1 ¿ of fragment 1 after the
collision.
From conservation of linear momentum

3mv = mv1 ¿ - 2 (mv¿)
3v = v1 ¿ - 2v ¿ (1)
From conservation of energy
(3m) v 2 = mv1¿ 2 + a mv ¿ 2 b
h 1 1
2 2 2
So, h 3v 2 = v1¿ 2 + v 2 (2)
v1 ¿ = v 11 + 12(h - 1)2 = 1 km/s (on substituting values)
1.172 From the conservation of momentum

mv1 = mv 1¿ + mv 2¿ or, v1 = v 1¿ + v 2¿ (1)
From the given condition,
T - T¿ T¿ v ¿ 21 + v ¿ 22
h = = 1 - = 1 -
T T v1 2
or v ¿ 21 + v ¿ 22 = (1 - h) v 12 (2)
v ¿ 12 + (v1 - v 1¿ ) 2 = (1 - h) v 12
or 2v ¿ 12 - 2v 1¿ v1 + hv 12 = 0
2v1 14v 12 - 8h v 12
So, v¿1 =
4
= C v1 1v1 2 - 2h v 12 D = v1 A 1 11 - 2h B
1 1
2 2
Positive sign gives the velocity of the second particle which lies ahead. The negative
sign is correct for v1. So, v 1¿ = 1 /2 v1 11 - 11 - 2h2 = 5 m/s will continue moving
in the same direction.
Note that v 1¿ = 0 if h = 0.
Alternate:
As internal energy is independent of reference frame, so loss in kinetic energy of the
system in the C.M. frame is the same.
' '
So, T - T¿ = T - T¿
'
T¿ T¿
a1 - b = a1 - b
T
or ' '
T T T
T¿
Using a1 - b = h, T = mv 2, and T = mv 2rel = a b v 2, where m is mass of
1 ' 1 1 m
'
T 2 2 2 2
each particle, we get
T¿
a1 - ' b = 2h
T
Now, according to the problem
' ' '
T - T ¿ = 2hT
' ' '
p2 p ¿2 p2
- = 2h
2m 2m 2m
' '
which yields p ¿ = p 1(1 - 2h)
Being head-on collision, final momentum in C.M. frame of any particle should be re-
versed, so
' '
pi¿ = pi 1(1 - 2h) (where i = 1, 2)
' '
or v i¿ = - vi 1(1 - 2h),
' '
But, vi¿ = vi ¿ + vC = - vi 1(1 - 2h) + vC = - (vi - vC) 1(1 - 2h) + vC
Thus, vi¿ = vc [1 + 11 - 2h] - vi 11 - 2h
mv v
Using vC = = (where v is the velocity of striking particle)
2m 2
v
vi = (1 - 11 - 2h)
2
1.173 From conservation of linear momentum in the initial motion direction of striking par-
ticle 1 and perpendicular to it gives
mv1 = Mv 2¿ cos u and mv 1¿ = Mv 2¿ sin u , respectively
Thus, v1 ¿ = v1 tan u
T ¿system - Tsystem
Percentage change in the kinetic energy of the system = * 100
Tsystem
T ¿system
= a - 1 b * 100
Tsystem
mv1 2
mv12 tan 2 u + M a b
1 1
- 1 T * 100 = a tan2 u + sec 2 u - 1 b * 100

2 2 M cos u m
= D
1 M
mv 2
2 1
Putting the values of u and m /M , we get % of change in kinetic energy = - 40%.
1.174 (a) Let the particles m1 and m2 move with velocities v1 and v2, respectively. On the
basis of solution of problem 1.147(b):
'
p = mvrel = m| v1 - v2 |
As v1 ⬜ v2
' m1m2
so, p = m 2v12 + v 22 where m =
m1 + m2
(b) Again from solution of problem 1.147(b):
' 1 2 1
T = mv = m| v1 - v2 | 2
2 rel 2
T = m 1v12 + v222
' 1
So,
2
1.175 From conservation of momentum
p1 = p¿1 + p2 or, p1 - p¿1 = p2
So, p12 - 2 p1p1¿ cos u1 + p1¿ 2 = p2¿ 2, where u is the angle between p1 and p1¿.
From conservation of energy
p12 p1¿ 2 p2¿ 2
= +
2m1 2m1 2m2
Eliminating p2 ¿ we get
m2 m2
0 = p1¿ 2 a 1 + b - 2p1¿p1 cos u1 + p1 2 a1 - b
m1 m1
This quadratic equation for p1¿ has a real solution in terms of p1 and cos u1 only if
m22
4 cos 2 u1 Ú 4 a 1 - b
m12
m 22 m2
or sin 2 u1 … or, sin u1 Ú -
m12 m1
This clearly implies (since only + sign makes sense) that
m2
sin u1 max =
m1
Alternate:
The solution of the problem becomes standard in the frame of C.M., which is moving
with velocity vC = m1v1 /(m1 + m2) in the frame of laboratory. In the frame of C.M., the
momenta of the particles must always be equal and opposite.
' '
So, p1 = p2,
' ' '

but | p1 | = | p2 | = p = m vrel = m v1 (where m = m1m2 /(m1 + m2) is the reduced
mass of the system).
'
The initial kinetic energy of the system in the frame of C.M. Ti = p' 2 / 2m.
As the collision is perfectly elastic and the reduced mass the system is constant.
' '
' ' p2 p2
Ti = Tƒ or = C' C
2m 2m q
' '
Hence, p = p¿ D
q1 q~
A m1vc B
In the frame of laboratyry from the conservation q (1max) O m2vc
of linear momentum m1 > m2
p1¿ + p2¿ = p1 = (m1 + m2 ) vC
Now let us draw the so-called vector diagram (see figure) of momenta. First we de-
pict the vector p1 as the section AB and the p1 and p2 each of which represents ac-
cording to
'
p1¿ = p1¿ + m1vC
'
and p2¿ = p2¿ + m2vC
'
Note that this diagram is valid regardless of the angle u . The point C (centre of
'
mass) therefore can be located only on the circle of radius p having it’s centre at
the point O, which divides the section AB into two parts in the ratio AO : OB =
m1: m2. In our case, this circle passes through the point B, the end point of vector
' '
p1 since the section OB = m2vC = mv1 = p. This circle is the locus of all possible
locations of the apex C of the momenta triangle ABC, whose side AC and CB rep-
resent the possible momentum of particles p1¿ and p2¿ after the collision in the
frame of laboratory.
Depending on the particle mass ratio (m1 = m2) the point A, the beginning of the
vector p1 can be located inside the given circle, on it, or outside it. In our case point
A will lie outside the circle and it is also another intersting fact that the particle m1
can be scattered by the same angle u1, where it possesses the momentum AC or AD
(figure) The same is true for particle m2.The maximum scattering in the laboratory
u1 max corresponds to the case when the velocity vector in the frame of laboratory
become a tangent (AC ¿ ) to the circle (see figure).
It then follows that
(m1m2>m1 + m2) v1
'
OC ¿ p m2
sin u1 max = = = =
AO m1vC (m 1 >m1 + m2) v1
2 m1
Note: It is clear that um is limited to p>2 for m1 = m2, for the case m2 7 m1, point A
will be inside the sphere, and all angles of scattering from 0 to p>2 are permitted.
1.176 From the symmetry of the problem, the velocity of the disk A will be directed either
in the initial direction or opposite to it just after the impact. Let the velocity of the
disk A after the collision be v ¿ and be directed towards right after the collision. It is
also clear from the symmetry of the problem that the disks B and C have equal speed
(say v – ) in the directions shown. From the condition of the problem,
d
h
so, sin u = 24 - h2>2
2 h
cos u = = (1)
d 2
For the three disk system, from the conservation of linear momentum in the symme-
try direction (towards right)
mv = 2mv – sin u + mv ¿ or v = 2v – sin u + v ¿ (2)
From the definition of the coefficient of restitution, we have for disks A , B and C
v – - v ¿ sin u
e =
v sin u - 0
B v"
But e = 1, for perfectly elastic collision.
A
So, v sin u = v– - v ¿ sin u (3)
v
From Eqs. (2) and (3) v' d
v (1 - 2 sin2 u) d
v¿ =
(1 + 2 sin2 u) v"
C
- 2)
v (h2
= (using Eq. 1)
6 - h2
Hence, we have,
v (h 2 - 2)
v¿ =
6 - h2
Therefore, the disk A will recoil if h 6 12 and stop if h = 12.
Note:One can write the equations of momentum conservation along the direction
perpendicular to the initial direction of disk A and the conservation of kinetic ener-
gy instead of the equation of restitution.
1.177 (a) Let a molecule come with velocity v1 to strike another stationary molecule an just
after collision their velocities become v1¿ and v ¿2, respectively. As the mass of each
molecule is same, conservation of linear momentum and conservation of kinetic
energy for the system (both molecules), respectively, gives
v1 = v 1¿ + v 2¿
and v12 = v 1¿ 2 + v 2¿ 2
From the property of vector addition it is obvious from the obtained equations that
v1 ⬜ v2 or v1 # v2 = 0
(b) Due to the loss of kinetic energy in inelastic collision v12 7 v 1¿ 2 + v 2¿2 so,
v1 # v2 7 0 and therefore angle of divergence 6 90°.
1.178 Suppose that at time t, the rocket has the mass m and the velocity v, relative to the
reference frame, employed. Now consider the inertial frame moving with the veloc-
ity that the rocket has at the given moment. In this reference frame, the momentum
increment that the rocket and ejected gas system acquires during time dt is,
d p = md v + mdt u = F dt
dv
or m = F - mu
dt
or m w = F - mu
1.179 According to the question, F = 0 and m = - dm>dt so the equation for this system
becomes,
dv dm
m = u
dt dt
As d v c T u, so, m dv = - udm.
Integrating within the limits

v 0
1 dm v m0
dv = - or = ln
u 3 3 m u m
0 m0
m0
Thus, v = u ln
m
As d v c T u, so in vector form v = - u ln m0 /m .
1.180 According to the question, F (external force) = 0
dv dm
So, m = u
dt dt
As, dvc T u
So, in scalar form mdv = - udm
wdt dm
or = -
u m
Integrating within the limit for m (t)

m
wt dm v m
= - or, = - ln
u 3 m u m0
m0
Hence, m = m0 e – (wt>u)
1.181 As F = 0, from the equation of dynamics of a body with variable mass,

dv dm dm
m = u or d v = u (1)
dt dt m
Now dv c T u and since u ⬜ v, we must have | d v | = v0d a (because v0 is constant),
where da is the angle by which the spaceship turns in time dt.
dm u dm
So, - u = v0da or da = -
m v0 m
m
m0
ln a b
u dm u
or a = - =
v0 3 m v0 m
m0
dm
1.182 We have = - m or dm = - mdt
dt
m t
Integrating dm = - m dt or, m = m0 - mt
3 3
m0 0
As u = 0 so, from the equation of variable mass system

dv dv F
(m0 - mt) = F or = w =
dt dt (m0 - mt)
v t
dt
or dv = F
3 3 (m0 - mt)
0 0
m0
b
F
Hence, v = lna
m m0 - mt
1.183 Let the car be moving in a reference frame to which the hopper is fixed and at any
instant of time, let its mass be m and velocity v.
Then from the general equation, for variable mass system
dv dm
m = F + u
dt dt
We write the equation, for our system as,

dv dm
m = F - v as, u = - v
dt dt
d
So, (m v) = F
dt
Ft
and v = on integration
m
But m = m0 + mt
Ft
so, v =
m0 a 1 + b
mt
m0
Thus, the sought acceleration is
dv F
w = =
m0 a 1 + b
dt mt 2
m0
1.184 Let the length of the chain inside the smooth horizontal tube at an arbitrary instant
be x. From the equation,
dm
mw = F + u
dt
as u = 0, F c c w, for the chain inside the tube
m
lxw = T , where l = (1)
l
Similarly for the overhanging part, A T
u = 0 x
T
Thus, mw = F
h hg
or l hw = lhg - T (2)
dv
l(x + h) w = l hg or, (x + h) v = hg
ds
dv
or (x + h) v = gh
( - dx)
(As the length of the chain inside the tube decreases with time, ds = - dx.)
dx
or vdv = - gh
x + h
v 0
dx
Integrating, vdv = - gh
3 3 x + h
0 (l - h)
= gh ln a b 2gh ln a b
v2 l l
or or v =
2 h A h
1.185 The angular momentum of the particle relative to point O is given as function of a
time as M = a + bt 2.
So, force moment relative to point O, is given by
dM
= 2bt
N =
dt
As force moment N = 2bt , so vector N coincides with vector b.
α
Let us depict the vectors N and M at an arbitrary instant of time N
t, when angle between M and N is a (see figure). It is obvious
from the figure that tan a = a /bt 2, therefore a = 45°, the time a M
t = t0 = 1a /b .
bt 2
Thus, N = 2b 1a /b , when vector N forms angle a = 45° with vector M.
Alternate:
Let the angle between M and N, a = 45° at t = t0.
1 M#N (a + bt02) # (2bt0)

Then = =
12 |M| |N| 2a 2 + b 2t 40 2bt0
2b 2t03 bt 20
= =
2a 2 + b 2t0 4 2bt0 2a 2 + b 2t0 4
a
So, 2b 2t0 4 = a 2 + b 2t04 or t0 = (as t0 cannot be negative)
Ab
a
Hence, N = 2b
Ab
M(t) = r * p = a v0t + gt b * m (v0 + gt)

1 2
1.186
2
= mv0 gt 2 sin a + a b ( - k) + mv0gt 2 sin a + ab (k)

p 1 p
2 2 2
1
= mv0 gt 2 cos a(–k)
2
mv0 gt 2 cos a
Thus M(t) =
2
Thus, angular momentum at maximum height, i.e., at t
t v0 sin a v0
= mg
2 g r
y
mv 3
M a b = a 2g0 b sin 2 a cos a
t
2 α
O x
= 37 kg m 2/s
Alternate:
t t
M(0) = 0 so , M(t) = N dt = (r * mg)

3 3
0 0
t
c a v0t + gt b * mg d dt = (v0 * mg)

1 2 t2
=
3 2 2
0
1.187 (a) The disk experiences gravity, the force of reaction of the horizontal surface, and
the force R of reaction of the wall at the moment of the impact against it. The
first two forces counter-balance each y
other, leaving only the force R. It’s A
directed normally
moment relative to any point of the upward
line along which the vector R acts or
O n
along normal to the wall is equal to R
zero and therefore the angular mo-
mentum of the disk relative to any of l
these points does not change in the
given process. O'
(b) During the course of collision with wall the position of disk is same and is
equal to r00¿ . Obviously the increment in momentum
¢M = r00¿ * ¢p = 2mv l cos a n
Here, | ¢M | = 2mv l cos a
1.188 (a) The ball is under the influence of forces T and mg at all the moments of time,
while moving along a horizontal circle. Obviously the vertical component of T
balances mg and so the net moment of these two about any point becomes
zero. The horizontal component of T, which provides the centripetal accelera-
tion to ball is already directed toward the centre (C ) of the horizontal circle,
thus its moment about the point C equals zero at all the moments of time.
Hence the net moment of the force acting on the ball about point C equals
zero and that’s why the angular momentum of the ball is conserved about the
horizontal circle.
(b) Let a be the angle which the thread forms with the vertical . M
Now from equation of particle dynamics Mi
T cos a = mg and T sin a = mv 2l sin a Mf
O
Hence on solving, T
g
cos a = (1) C
v 2l
mg
As | M | is constant in magnitude, so from the figure
| ¢M | = 2M cos a
where M = | Mi | = | Mƒ |
= | rbo * m v | = mvl (as rbo ⬜ v)
Thus, | ¢M | = 2mvl cos a = 2 mvl 2 sin a cos a
1 - a b
2mgl g 2
= (using Eq. 1)
v C v 2t
1.189 During the free fall, time t = 22h /g, the reference point O moves in horizontal di-
rection by the distance Vt. In the translating frame as Mi(O) = 0, so
¢M = Mƒ = rf * m vƒ
= a gt - Vt b * m (gt - V)
1 2
2
1
= m (g * V) t 2
2
mgV a b (using the value of t and taking into account V⬜ g)

1 2h
So, | Mƒ | =
2 g
Hence, | ¢M | = mVh
1.190 The Coriolis force is 2m (v ¿ * V). Here V is along the z-axis (vertical). The mov-
ing disk is moving with velocity v0 which is constant, the motion is along the x-axis,
then the Coriolis force is along y-axis and has the magnitude 2mv0v. At time t, the
distance of the centre of moving disk from O is v0t (along x-axis). Thus the torque
N due to the Coriolis force is N = 2m v0v # v0t along the z-axis. Hence, equating this
to dM /dt, we get
dM
= 2mv 02 vt
dt
or
M = mv 02 vt 2 + constant
The constant is irrelevant and may be put equal to zero if the disk is originally set
in motion from the point O.
This discussion is approximate. The Coriolis force which causes the disk to swerve
from straight line motion and thus causes deviation from the above formula will be
substantial for large t.
#
1.191 If r = radial velocity of the particle then the total energy of the particle at any in-
stant is
1 #2 M2
mr + + kr 2 = E (1)
2 2mr 2
where the second term is the kinetic energy of angular motion about the centre O.
#
Then the extreme values of r are determined by r = 0 and solving the resulting
quadratic equation
M2
k (r 2) 2 - Er 2 + = 0
2m
E 2E 2 - 2M 2k /m
we get r2 =
2k
From this we see that
E = k1r 12 + r 122
mv 22 + kr22 = k1r12 + r222

1
So,
2
2kr1 2
Hence, m =
v22
Note: Eq. (1) can be derived from the standard expression for kinetic energy and
angular momentum in plane polar coordinates:
1 #2 1 # #
T = mr + mr 2 u2 and M = mr 2u, respectively
2 2
1.192 The swinging sphere experiences two forces: the gravitational force and the tension
of the thread. Now, it is clear from the condition, given in the problem, that the mo-
ment of these forces about the vertical axis, passing through the point of suspension
NZ = 0. Consequently, the angular momentum MZ of the sphere relative to the given
axis (z) is constant.
Thus, mv0 (l sin u) = mvl (1)
where m is the mass of sphere and v is its velocity in the position, when the thread
forms an angle p>2 with the vertical. Mechanical energy is also conserved, as the
sphere is under the influence of only one other force, i.e. tension, which does not
perform any work, as it is always perpendicular to the velocity.
1 1
So, mv 02 + mgl cos u = mv 2 (2)
2 2
v0 = 22gl>cos u
1.193 Forces, acting on the mass m are shown in the figure. As N = m g, the net torque
of these two forces about any fixed point must be equal to zero. Tension T, acting
on the mass m is a central force, which is always directed towards the centre O.
Hence the moment of force T is also zero about the point O and therefore the an-
gular momentum of the particle m is conserved about O.
#
So, mr 2u = mr02 v0
# v0r 02 N
or v = u=
r2
T
O
From Fr = mar
$ #
- T = m ( r - r u 2) mg
As the
# thread is pulled$ with constant speed F
so, r = constant and r = 0 (where dot stands
for time derivative).
#
Thus T = F = mr u2
Hence, the sought tension is

# v0r 02 2 m v 02r04
F = mr u 2 = mr a 2 b =
r r3
1.194 On the given system the weight of the body m is the only force whose moment is
effective about the axis of pulley. Let us take the sense of V of the pulley at an ar-
bitrary instant as the positive sense of axis of rotation (z-axis).
As Mz(0) = 0 so ¢Mz = Mz(t) = Nzdt

3
t
So, Mz(t) = mgR dt = mgRt

3
0
1.195 Let the point of contact of sphere at initial moment N

(t = 0) be at O. At an arbitrary moment, the forces r O
acting on the sphere are shown in the figure. fr
As N = mg cos a and both (N and mg cos a) pass mg cos a
mg sin a
through the same line, their net torque about any a
point is zero. The force of static friction passes
through the point O, thus its moment about point x
O becomes zero. Hence mg sin a is the only force
which has effective torque about point O, and is given by | N | = mgR sin a normal-
ly emerging from the plane of figure.
As M(t = 0) = 0 so ¢M = M(t) = N dt
3
Hence, M (t) = Nt = mg R sin at
1.196 Let position vectors of the particles of the system be ri and ri¿ with respect to the
points O and O¿ respectively, then we have
ri = ri¿ + r0 (1)
(where r0 is the radius vector of O¿ with respect to O ).
Now, the angular momentum of the system relative to the point O can be written
as follows:
M = ©ri * pi = © ( ri¿ * pi ) + © (r0 * pi ) (using Eq. 1)

3
or M = M¿ + (r0 * p) (where p = ©pi ) (2)

From Eq. (2), if the total linear momentum of the system, p = 0, then its an-
gular momentum does not depend on the choice of the point O .
Note In the C.M. frame, the system of particles, as whole is at rest.
1.197 On the basis of solution of problem 1.196. we have concluded that; “in the C.M.
frame, the angular momentum of system of particles is independent of the choice of
the point, relative to which it is determined” and in accordance with the problem
this is denoted by M.
We denote the angular momentum of the system of particles, '
relative to the point O,
by M. Since the internal and proper angular momentum M, in the C.M. frame, does
not depend on the choice of the point O¿ , this point may be taken coincident with
the point O of the K-frame, at a given moment of time. Then at that moment, the ra-
dius vectors of all the particles, in both reference frames, are equal (ri¿ = ri ) and the
velocities are related by the equation
'
vi = vi + vC
where vC is the velocity of C.M. frame, relative to the K-frame. Consequently, we may
write
'
M = ©mi(ri * vi ) = ©mi (ri * vi) + ©mi(ri * vC )
'
or M = M + m(rC * vC ), as ©mi ri = m rC (where m = ©mi )
' '
or M = M + (rC * m vC ) = M + (rC * p)
1.198 Taking striking ball as particle 1 and upper ball or the dumbbell as particle 2 the
velovity acquired by particle 2 on collsion, from the formula
v0 1
vi¿ = 2vC - vi (see solution of problem 1.168) m m /2
m v0
b - 0 =
4 y C
v2¿ = 2a v
m + m /2 3 0
x
m /2
To find the proper angular momentum of the dumbbell, let 2
us denote upper ball of the dumbbell as particle 1 and
lower ball as particle 2.
Then proper angular momentum vector is
' ' '
M = r1C * m1v1C + r2C * m2v2C = r1C * p1 + r2C * p2
' '
In C.M. frame net linear momentum of any system is zero, so, p1 = - p2.
' ' '
So, M = (r1C - r2C) * p1 = r12 * p1
'
We have p1 = m (v1 - v2) (see solution of problem 1.147)
m 4 v0 mv0
= a i - 0b = i
4 3 3
mv0 mv0 l
M = [r12 * p1] = c l j * id =
' '
Hence, ( - k)
3 3
' mv0 l
Hence, M =
3
1.199 In the C.M. frame of the system (both the disks + spring), the linear momentum of
' '
the disks are related by the relation, p1 = - p2, at all the moments of time.
' ' '
Where, p1 = p2 = p = mvrel
And the total kinetic energy of the system,
1
T = 2
mv rel [see solution of problem 1.147(b)]
2
Bearing in mind that at the moment of maximum deformation of the spring, the pr-
ojection of vrel along the length of the spring becomes zero, i.e., vrel (x) = 0 .
The conservation of mechanical energy of the considered system in the C.M. frame gives
a b v 02 = kx 2 + a b vrel2 (y)
1 m 1 1 m
(1)
2 2 2 2 2
Now from the conservation of angular momentum of the system about the C.M.,
1 l0 l0 + x m
a b a v0 b = 2 a b
m
v
2 2 2 2 2 rel (y)
v0l0 x -1
= v0 a1 + b = v0 a 1 - b ( as x V l0) (2)
x
or vrel (y) =
(l0 + x) l0 l0
mv 20 c 1 - a 1 - b d = kx 2
1 x 2
Using Eq. (2) in Eq. (1),
2 l0
mv 02 c 1 - a1 - + 2 b d = kx 2
1 2x x2
or
2 l0 l0
2
mv 0 x
or = kx 2 [neglecting x 2>l0 2 ]
l0
mv 02
As x Z 0, thus x =
kl0
1.4 UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION 123
1.4 Universal Gravitation
Mv 2 gMMS gMS
1.200 We have = 2
or r = 2 (here MS is the mass of the Sun)
r r v
v v v3
v = = =
gMS >v 2
Thus
r gMS
2pgMS 2p * 6.67 * 10-11 * 1.97 * 1030
So, T = = = 1.94 * 107 s = 225 days
v3 (34.9 * 103)3
(The answer is incorrectly written in terms of the planetary mass M in answer sheet.)
1.201 For any planet

gMMS gMS
MR v2 = or v =
R2 A R3
= 2pR 3>2> 2gMS

2p
So, T =
v
TJ RJ 3>2
(a) Thus, = a b
TE RE
RJ TJ
= a b
2>3
So, = (12)2>3 = 5.24
RE TE
gMS 1gMS
RJ = aT b
2>3
(b) V 2J = and
RJ 2p
1gMS22>3 12p22>3 2pgMS 2>3

So, V 2J = or VJ = a b
T 2>3 T
where T = 12 years, MS = mass of the Sun.
Putting the values, we get VJ = 12.97 km/s

VJ2 2pgMS
= a b * a b
2>3 2p 2>3
Acceleration =
RJ T T 1gMS
= a b (gMs )1/3
2p 4>3
T
= 2.15 * 10-4 km/s2
1.202 Semi-major axis = (r + R)>2. It is sufficient to consider the motion be along a circle
of semi-major axis (r + R)/2 for T does not depend on eccentricity.
3>2
[2 p (r + R )/2 ]
Hence, T =
1gMS
= p 21r + R23>2gMS (again MS is the mass of the Sun)
1.203 We can think of the body as moving in a very elongated orbit of maximum distance
R and minimum distance 0 so semi major axis = R>2. Hence if t is the time of fall
then
a b = a b or t2 =
2t 2 R/2 3 T2
T R 32
or t = T>4 22 = 365>412 = 64.5 days
1.204 T = 2p R 3>2> 1r Ms . If the distances are scaled down, R 3>2 decreases by a factor
h3>2 and so does Ms . Hence T does not change.
1.205 The double star can be replaced by a single star of mass m1m2/(m1 + m2) moving
about the centre of mass subjected to the force gm1m2>r 2. Then
2pr 3>2
T=
m1m2
gm1m2n
A m1 + m2
2pr 3>2
=
1gM
T
So, r 3>2 = 1gM
2p
r = a b 1gM21>3 = 32gM (T>2 p) 2

T 2>3
or
2p
1.206 (a) The gravitational potential due to m1 at the point of location of m2
q q
gm1 gm1
V2 = G .dr = - dx = -
3 3 x2 r
r r
gm1m2
So, U21 = m2V2 = -
r
gm1m2 r m2
Similarly, U12 = - m1 x
r x
dx
gm1m2
Hence, U12 = U21 = U = -
r
(b) Choose the location of the point mass as the origin. Then the potential energy dU
of an element of mass dM = M /l dx of the rod in the field of the point mass is
M 1
dU = - gm
dx
l x
where x is the distance between the element and the point. (Note that the rod
and the point mass are on a straight l m
line.) Then if a is the distance of the x
x
nearer end of the rod from the point
dx
mass,
a+l
ln a 1 + b
mM dx M l
U = -g = - gm
l 3 x l a
a
The force of interaction is
0U
a- b = -
mM 1 l gmM
F = - = g *
0a l l a 2
a 1a + l 2
1 +
a
Minus sign means attraction.
1.207 As the planet is under central force (gravitational interaction), its angular momentum
is conserved about the Sun (which is situated at one of the focii of the ellipse).
v 22 r 21
So, mv1r1 = mv2r2 or v 12 = (1)
r 21
From the conservation of mechanical energy of the system (Sun planet),
gMSm 1 gMSm 1
- + mv12 = - + mv22
r1 2 r2 2
gMS 2 gMS
1 2 r2
v2 2 = - a b + v 22
1
or - + (using Eq. 1)
r1 2 r2 r2 2
Thus, v 2 = 22g MS r 1>r 2 (r 1 + r 2) (2)
Hence, M = mv 2r 2 = m 22gMSr 1r 2>(r 1 + r 2)

1.208 From the previous problem, if r 1, r 2 are the maximum and minimum distances from
the Sun to the planet and v1, v2 are the corresponding velocities, then, say,
1 gmMS
E = mv 22 -
2 r2
gmMS
# r1 gmMS - gmMS gmMS
= - = = (using Eq. 2 of problem 1.207)
r 1 + r2 r 2 r2 r1 + r2 2a
where 2a = major axis = r 1 + r 2.

The same result can also be obtained directly by writing an equation analogous to
Eq. (1) of problem 1.191
1 M2 gmMS
E = mr 2 - 2
-
2 2mr r
(Here M is angular momentum of the planet and m is its mass.) For extreme posi-
.
tion r = 0 and we get the quadratic equation
M2
Er 2 + gm MS r - = 0
2m
The sum of the two roots of this equation is
gmMS
r1 + r2 = - = 2
E
gmMS
Thus, E = - = constant
2a
1.209 From the conservation of angular momentum about the Sun.

mv0r0 sin a = mv 1r 1 = mv 2 or v 1r 1 = v 2r 2 = v0r 2 sin a (1)
From conservation of mechanical energy,
1 gMSm 1 gMSm
mv02 - = mv 21 -
2 r0 2 r1
v 20 gMS v 20 r 20 sin 2 a gMS

or - = - (using Eq. 1)
2 r0 2r 21 r1
2gMS
or av 20 - b r 21 + 2gMS r1 - v02 r02 sin a = 0
r0
2gMS
- 2gMS 4g 2MS2 + 4 1v02r 20 sin2 a2 a v 20 - b
C r0
So, r1 =
2gMS
2 a v 20 - b
r0
v 20 r 20 sin2 a v 20
a b
2
r0 C 1 21 - (2 - h) sin2 a D
1 1 - -
B gMS r0 rMS
= =
v0 (2 - h)
a b
2
-
r0 gMS
where h = v 20 r0 >gMS .
1.210 At the minimum separation with the Sun, the cosmic body’s velocity is perpendicu-
lar to its position vector relative to the Sun. If rmin be the sought minimum distance,
from conservation of angular momentum about the Sun (C),
v0l
mv0l = mvrmin or v = (1)
rmin
From conservation of mechanical energy of the system (Sun 1 cosmic body),
1 gMSm 1
mv 20 = - + mv 2
2 rmin 2
v 20 gMS v 20
So, = - + (using Eq. 1)
2 rmin 2r 2min
or v 20 r 2min + 2gMSrmin - v 20 l 2 = 0
- 2gMS 24g2m2 + 4v 20 v 20 l 2 - gMS 2g 2MS2 + v 40 l 2

So, rmin = =
2v 20 v 20
Hence, taking positive root
rmin = 1gMS >v 202 3 21 + 1lv 20 >gMS22 - 14
1.211 (a) Suppose that the sphere has a radius equal to a. We may imagine that the sphere
is made up of concentric thin spherical shells (layers) with radii ranging from 0
to a, and each spherical layer is made up of elementary bands (rings). Let us first
calculate potential due to an elementary band of a spherical layer at the point of
location of the point mass m (say point P) (see figure). As all the points of the
band are located at the distance l from the point P, so,
g0M
0w = - (where 0M is mass of the band) (1)
l
0M = a b (2pa sin u) (adu)

dM
4pa2
= a b sin udu
dM
(2)
2
and l 2 = a 2 + r 2 - 2 ar cos u (3)

Differentiating Eq. (3), we get
ldl = ar sin ud u (4)
Hence using above equations
a
0w = - a b dl
gdM l
(5) d
2ar
O r m
Now integrating Eq. (5) over the whole P
spherical layer
r +a
gdM
dw = 0w = - dl
L 2ar 3
r -a
gdM
So, dw = - (6)
r
Eq. (6) demonstrates that the potential produced by a thin uniform spherical
layer outside the layer is such as if the whole mass of the layer were concentrat-
ed at its centre. Hence the potential due to the sphere at point P is given by
g gM
w = dw - dM = - (7)
L r L r
This expression is similar to that of Eq. (6).

Hence the sought potential energy of gravitational interaction of the particle m
and the sphere,
gMm
U = mw = -
r
0w
(b) Using the equation Gr = -
0r
gM
Gr = - 2 (using Eq. 7)
r
gM gmM
So, G = - 3 r and F = m G = - 3 r (8)
r r
1.212 (The problem has already a clear hint in the answer sheet of the problem book. Here
we adopt a different method.)
Let m be the mass of the spherical layer, which is imagined to be made up of rings.
At a point inside the spherical layer at distance r from the centre, the gravitational
potential due to a ring element of radius a equals
gm
dw = - dl (see Eq. (5) of solution of problem 1.211)
2ar
a+r
gm gm a
So, w = dw = - dl = -
L 2ar 3 a
a-r dq l
0w O r
Hence, Gr = - = 0
0r
Hence, gravitational field strength as well as field force becomes
zero inside a thin spherical layer.
1.213 One can imagine that the uniform hemisphere is made up of thin hemispherical lay-
ers of radii ranging from 0 to R. Let us consider such a layer (see figure). Potential at
point O due to this layer is
a b dr
gdm 3gM M 4pr 2
dw = - = - 3 rdr, where dm =
r r (2>3) pR 3 2
(This is because all points of each hemispherical shell are equidistance from O.)
R
3gM 3gM
Hence, w = dw = - 3 rdr = -
L R 3 2R
0
Hence, the work done by the gravitational field

force on the particle of mass m, to remove it to in- M
finity is given by the formula
dr
A = mw, since w = 0 at infinity r
r
Hence the sought work, m
O
3gmM
A 0: q = -
2R
(The work done by the external agent is – A .)
1.214 In the solution of problem 1.211, we have obtained w and G due to a uniform sphere,
at a distance r from it’s centre outside it. We have from Eqs. (7) and (8) of problem 1.211,
gM gM
w = - and G = - 3 r (A)
r r
In accordance with the Eq. (1) of the solution of 1.212, potential due to a spherical
shell of radius a, at any point, inside it becomes
gM 0w
w = = constant and Gr = - = 0 (B)
a 0r
For a point (say P) which lies inside the uniform solid sphere, the potential w at that
point may be represented as a sum
winside = w1 + w2
where w1 is the potential of a solid sphere having radius r and w2 is the potential of
the layer of radii r and R. In accordance with Eq. (A)
a pr 3 b = 3 r 2
g M 4 gM
w1 = -
r (4>3) pR 3 3 R
The potential w2 produced by the layer (thick shell) is the same at all points inside
it. The potential w2 is easiest to calculate, for the point positioned at the layer’s cen-
tre. Using Eq. (B)
R
dM 3 gM 2
w2 = - g = - (R - r 2)
3 r 2 R3
r
4pr 2dr = a 3 b r 2dr

M 3M
where dM = 3
(4>3) pR R
is the mass of a thin layer between the radii r and r + dr.
winside = w1 + w2 = a b a3 - 2 b
gM r2
Thus, (C)
2R R
- 0w
From Eq. (B) Gr =
0r
gMr
Gr =
R3
gM 4
or G = - r = - g prr
R3 3
M
where r = is the density of the sphere.
4 /3 pR 3
The plots w (r) and G (r) for a uniform sphere of radius R are shown in the figure
of answer sheet.
Alternate:
Like Gauss’s theorem of electrostatics, one can derive Gauss’s theorem for gravitation
in the form G.dS = - 4p gmenclosed. For calculation of G at a point inside the sphere
at a distance r from its centre, let us consider a Gaussian surface of radius r. Then
Gr4pr 2 = - 4pg a br
M 3 gM
or Gr = - r
r3 R3
r = - g pr r a as r = b
gM 4 M
Hence, G = -
R3 3 (4>3)pR 3
q R q
gM gM
So, w = Grdr = - 3 rdr + - 2 dr
3 3 R 3 r
r r R
Integrating and summing up, we get
a3 - 2 b
gM r2
w = -
2R R
From Gauss’ theorem for a point outside it,
gM
Gr4pr 2 = - 4pg M or Gr = -
r2
q
gM
Thus, w (r) = Grdr = -
3 r
r
1.215 Treating the cavity as negative mass of density - r in a uniform sphere density + r
and using the superposition principle, the sought field strength is
G = G1 + G2
4 4
or G = - pgrr + + - gp ( - r) r -
3 3
where r + and r - are the position vectors of an arbitrary r+ P
r_
point P inside the cavity with respect to centre of sphere l
and cavity, respectively.
4 4
Thus, G = - pgr (r + - r–) = - pgrl
3 3
1.216 We partition the solid sphere into thin spherical layers and consider a layer of thick-
ness dr lying at a distance r from the centre of the ball. Each spherical layer presses
on the layers within it. The considered layer is attracted to the part of the sphere lying
within it (the outer part does not act on the layer). Hence for the considered layer
dp 4pr 2 = dF
g (4 /3 p r 3 r) (4pr 2drr)
or dp 4 pr 2 = dr
r2
r
(where r is the mean density of sphere)
4
or dp = pgr2 rdr R
3
R
2p 2 2
Thus, p = dp = gr (R - r 2)
3 3
r
(the pressure must vanish at r = R )
(1 - (r 2>R 2)) gM 2>pR 4, putting r = M>(4>3) pR 3

3
or p =
8
Putting r = 0, we have the pressure at sphere’s centre, and treating it as the Earth
where mean density is equal to r = 5.5 * 103 kg/m3 and R = 64 * 102 km we
have, p = 1.73 * 1011 Pa or 1.72 * 106 atm.
1.217 (a) Since the potential at each point of a spherical surface (shell) is constant and is
equal to w = - gm /R , [as we have in Eq. (1) of solution of problem 1.212].
We obtain in accordance with the equation
1 1
U = dm w = w dm
23 2 3
a- b m = -
1 gm gm2
=
2 R 2R
(The factor 1/2 is needed otherwise contribution of different mass elements is

counted twice.)
(b) In this case the potential inside the sphere depends only on r (see Eq. (C) of the
solution of problem 1.214)
a1 - b
3gM r2
w = -
2R 3R 2
Here dm is the mass of an elementary spherical layer confined between the radii
r and r + dr given by
dm = (4pr 2 drr) = a b r 2dr

3m
R3
1
U = dm w
2 3
R
a 3 b r 2 dr - a1 - b
1 3m 3gm r2
=
23 R 2R 3R 2
0
After integrating, we get

3 gm2
U = -
5 R
gME
1.218 Let v = = circular frequency of the satellite in the outer orbit,
A r3
gME
v0 = = circular frequency of the satellite in the inner orbit.
A (r - ¢r)3
So, relative angular velocity = v0 v , where - ve sign is to be taken when the satel-
lites are moving in the same sense and + ve sign if they are moving in opposite sense.
Hence, time between closest approaches
2p 2p 1 4.5 days (d = 0)
= = b
v0 v 2gME >r 3>2 3¢r /2r + d 0.80 hour (d = 2)
where d is 0 in the first case and 2 in the second case.
gM 6.67 * 10-11 * 5.96 * 1024

1.219 v1 = = = 9.8 m/s2
R2 (6.37 * 106)2
2 * 22
v2 = v2R = a b R = a b 6.37 * 106 = 0.034 m/s2
2p 2 2
T 24 * 3600 * 7
gMS 6.67 * 10-11 * 1.97 * 1030

and v3 = = = 5.9 * 10-3 m/s2
R 2mean (149.50 * 106 * 103)2
Then, v1 : v2 : v3 = 1 : 0.0034 : 0.0006
1.220 Let h be the sought height in the first case, so

99 gM
g =
100 (R + h)2
gM g
= =
R2 (1 + h/R )2 (1 + h /R )2
h -2
= a1 + b
99
or
100 R
From the statement of the problem, it is obvious that in this case h V R
= a1 - b = a b km = 32 km
99 2h R 6400
Thus, or h =
100 R 200 200
In the other case, if h¿ be the sought height, then
h¿ -2 h¿ -2
= g a1 + b = a1 + b
g 1
or
2 R 2 R
From the language of the problem, in this case h¿ is not very small in comparison with
R. Therefore in this case we cannot use the approximation adopted in the previous case.
a1 + b = 2
h¿ 2
Here,
R
h¿
So, = 12 - 1
R
As ve sign is not acceptable
h¿ = ( 12 - 1) R = ( 12 - 1) 6400 km = 2650 km
1.221 Let the mass of the body be m and let it go upto a height h.
From conservation of mechanical energy of the system
gMm 1 - gMm
- + mv 20 = + 0
R 2 (R + h)
Using gM /R 2 = g, in above equation and on solving we get
Rv 20
h =
2gR - v 20
1.222 Gravitational pull provides the required centripetal acceleration to the satelite. Thus
if h be the sought distance, we have
mv 2 gmM
= or (R + h) v 2 = gM
(R + h) (R + h)2
gM
or Rv 2 + hv 2 = gR 2 as g =
R2
gR - Rv
2 2
= R c 2 - 1d
gR
Hence, h = 2
v v
1.223 A satellite that hovers above the Earth’s equator and co-rotates with it moving from
west to east with the diurnal angular velocity of the Earth appears stationary to an ob-
server on the Earth. It is called geostationary. For this calculation we may neglect the
annual motion of the Earth as well as all other influences. Then, by Newton’s law,
a b r
gMm 2p 2
= m
r2 T
where M = mass of the Earth, T = 86400 seconds = period of daily rotation of the
Earth and r = distance of the satellite from the centre of the Earth.
T 2
Then, r = 3 gM a b
A 2p
Substitution of M = 5.96 * 1024 kg, gives r = 4.220 * 104 km .

Thus instantaneous velocity with respect to an inertial frame fixed to the centre of
the Earth at that moment will be
a b r = 3.07 km/s
2p
T
and the acceleration will be the centripetal acceleration
a b r = 0.223 m/s 2
2p 2
T
1.224 We know from the previous problem that a satellite moving west to east at distance
R = 2.00 * 104 km from the centre of the Earth will be revolving round the Earth
with an angular velocity faster than the Earth’s diurnal angular velocity. Let
v = angular velocity of the satellite,
v0 = 2p /T = angular velocity of the Earth.
Then v - v0 = 2p /t
is the relative angular velocity with respect to Earth. Now by Newton’s law
gM
= v2R
R2
a b
R 3 2p 2p 2
So, M = +
g t T
a b
4 p2R 3 T 2
= 1 +
gT 2 t
Substitution gives
m = 6.27 * 1024 kg
1.225 The velocity of the satellite in the inertial space fixed frame is 2gM /R east to west.
With respect to the Earth fixed frame, from the v œ = v - (␻ * r), the velocity is
2pR gM
v¿ = + = 7.03 km/s
T A R
Here M is the mass of the Earth and T is its period of rotation about its own axis. If
the satellite were moving from west to east, velocity would be
2pR gm
- +
T A R
To find the acceleration we note the formula
m w¿ = F + 2 m (v¿ * ␻) + mv2 R
Here F = gMm /R 3 R and v ⬜ ␻ and v¿ * ␻ is directed towards the centre of the Earth.
+ 2 a b - a b R (toward the Earth’s rotation axis)

gM 2pR gM 2p 2p 2
Thus, w¿ = +
R 2 T A R T T
c d = 4.94 m/s2 on substitution

gM 2p 2pR gM
= + + 2
R 2 T T A R
1.226 From the well known relationship between the velocities of a particle with respect
to a space fixed frame (K) and rotating frame (K ¿) ,
v = v œ + (␻ * r)
v 1¿ = v - a b R
2p
we get,
T
Thus kinetic energy of the satellite in the Earth’s frame
mv 1¿ 2 = m a v - b
1 1 2pR 2
T 1¿ = (1)
2 2 T
Obviously when the satellite moves in opposite sense compared to the rotation of
the Earth, its velocity relative to the same frame would be
v2¿ = v + a b R
2p
T
and kinetic energy
mv 2¿ 2 = m a v + b
1 1 2pR 2
T 2¿ = (2)
2 2 T

1v + 2pR /T 22
T¿ =
1v - 2pR /T 22
(3)
Now from Newton’s second law

gMm mv 2 gM
= or v = = 1gR (4)
R2 R A R
Using Eqs. (3) and (4)
T2 ¿ 11gR + 2pR /T 22
= = 1.27 nearly (using Appendices)
T1 ¿ 1 1gR - 2pR /T 22
1.227 For a satellite in a circular orbit about any massive body, the following relation holds
between kinetic, potential and total energy
T = - E, U = 2E (1)
Thus, since total mechanical energy must decrease due to resistance of the cosmic
dust, the kinetic energy will increase and the satellite will ‘‘ fall’’. We see then, by work
energy theorem
dT = - dE = - dAfr
adt dv
So, mvdv = av 2vdt or = 2
m v
Now from Newton’s law at an arbitrary radius r from the Moon’s centre,
v2 gM gM
= 2 or v = (where M is the mass of the moon)
r r A r
gM gM
Then, vi = and vf = (where R = Moon’s radius)
A hR A R
vf t
dv am at
So, 2
= dt =
3 v m 3 m
vi 0
a - b =
m 1 1 m
or t = ( 1h - 1)
a vi vf a 2gM /R
m
= ( 1h - 1) (where g is Moon’s gravity)
a 1gR
The averaging implied by Eq. (1) (for non-circular orbits)makes the result approxi-
mate.
1.228 From Newton’s second law
gMm mv 20 gM
= or v0 = = 1.67 km/s (1)
R 2 R A R
From conservation of mechanical energy
1 gMm 2gM
mve2 - = 0 or ve = = 2.37 km/s (2)
2 R A R
In Eqs. (1) and (2), M and R are the mass of the Moon and its radius. In Eq. (1) if
M and R represent the mass of the Earth and its radius, then, using appendices, we
can easily get orbital and escape velocities for Earth as
v0 = 7.9 km/s and ve = 11.2 km/s
1.229 In a parabolic orbit, E = 0

1 gMm gM
So, mv 2i - = 0 or vi = 12
2 R A R
where M = mass of the Moon, R its radius and this is just the escape velocity. On
the other hand in orbit,
gMm gM
mvf 2 R = or vf =
R 2 A R
gM
Thus, ¢v = (1 - 12) = - 0.70 km/s
A R
1.230 From solution of problem 1.228 for the Earth surface
gM 2gM
v0 = and ve =
A R A R
Thus the sought additional velocity

gM
¢v = ve - v0 = ( 12 - 1) = 1gR ( 12 - 1)
A R
This ‘‘kick’’ in velocity must be given along the direction of motion of the satellite
in its orbit.
1.231 Let r be the sought distance then
ghM gM
= 2 or hr 2 = (nR - r)2
(nR - r)2 r
nR
or 1hr = (nR - r) or r = = 3.8 * 104 km
1h + 1
1.232 Between the Earth and the Moon, the potential energy (P.E.) of the spaceship will have
a maximum at the point where the attractions of the Earth and the moon balance each
other. This maximum P.E. is approximately zero. We can also neglect the contribution
of either body to the P.E. of the spaceship sufficiently near the other body. Then the
minimum energy that must be imparted to the spaceship to cross the maximum of the
P.E. is clearly (using E to denote the Earth)
gMEm
(1)
RE
With this energy the spaceship will cross over the hump in the P.E. and coast down
the hill of P.E. towards the moon and crash land on it. What the problem seeks is the
minimum energy required for soft-landing. That requires the use of rockets to lower-
ing and braking of the spaceship, and since the kinetic energy of the gases ejected
from the rocket will always be positive, the total energy required for soft-landing is
greater than that required for crash-landing. To calculate this energy we assume the
rockets are used fairly close to the moon when the spaceship has nearly attained its
terminal velocity on the moon 22gM0/R0 where M0 is the mass of the moon and R0
is its radius. In general dE = vdp and since the speed of the ejected gases is not less
than the speed of the rocket, and momentum transferred to the gases must equal the
momentum of the spaceship the energy E of the gas ejected is not less than the
kinetic energy of spaceship
g M0m
(2)
R0
Adding Eqs. (1) and (2) we get the minimum work done on the ejected gases to
bring about the soft landing.
ME M0
Amin = gm a + b
RE R0
On substitution we get 1.3 * 108 kJ.
1.233 Assume first that the attraction of the Earth can be neglected. Then the minimum ve-
locity, that must be imparted the body to escape from the Sun’s pull, is, as in solu-
tio of problem 1.230, equal to
(12 - 1) v1
where v 21 = gMS >r, r = radius of the Earth’s orbit, MS = mass of the Sun.
In the actual case near the Earth, the pull of the Sun is small and does not change
much over distances, which are several times the radius of the Earth. The velocity v3
in question is that which overcomes the Earth’s pull with sufficient velocity to es-
cape the Sun’s pull.
1 gME 1
Thus, mv 23 - = m ( 12 - 1)2v 21
2 R 2
where R = radius of the Earth and ME = mass of the Earth.
Writing v1 2 = gME >R, we get
v3 = 22 v 22 + (12 - 1)2v 21 .= 16.6 km/s
1.5 Dynamics of a Solid Body
1.234 Since, motion of the rod is purely translational, net torque about the C.M. of the rod
should be equal to zero.
F1
= F2 a - a b
l l a
Thus, F1 or = 1 - (1)
2 2 F2 l>2
For the translational motion of rod,
F1 mwC
F2 - F1 = mwC or 1 - = (2)
F2 F2
a mwC 2 aF2
= or l = = 1m
l>2 F2 mwC
1.235 Sought moment N = r * F = (a i + b j) * (A i + B j)

= aB k + Ab ( - k) = (aB - Ab) k
N aB - Ab
and arm of the force l = =
F 2A2 + B 2
1.236 Relative to point O, the net moment of force is given by

N = r1 * F1 + r2 * F2 = (a i * A j) + (b j * B i)
= ab k + AB ( - k) = (ab - AB)k (1)
Resultant of the external force
F = F1 + F2 = Aj + B i (2)
N # F = 0 (as N ⬜ F), so the sought arm l of the force F is given by
N ab - AB
l = = .
F 2A2 + B 2
1.237 For coplanar forces, about any point in the same plane,
©ri * Fi = r * Fnet (where Fnet = ©Fi = resultant force)
or Nnet = r * Fnet
Nnet
Thus length of the arm, l =
Fnet
1.5 DYNAMICS OF A SOLID BODY 141
Here obviously | Fnet | = 2F and it is directed toward right along AC. Take the origin
at C. Then about C,
N = a22 aF + F - 22 aF b , directed normally into the plane of figure

aF
22
(Here a = side of the square.)
a
Thus, N = F , directed into the plane of the figure.
12
F (a> 12) a a
Hence, l = = = sin 45°
2F 2 12 2
Thus the point of application of force is at the mid point of the side BC.
1.238 (a) Consider a strip of length dx at a perpendicular distance x from the axis about
which we have to find the moment of inertia of the rod. The elemental mass of
the rod equals
m
dm = dx
l
Moment of inertia of this element about the axis O
x
m
dI = dmx 2 = dx # x2 dx
l
Thus, moment of inertia of the rod, as a whole about the given axis
l
m 2 ml 2
I = x dx =
3 l 3
0
(b) Let us imagine the plane of plate as x–y plane taking the origin at the intersec-
tion point of the sides of the plate (see figure).
y
a
Obviously, Ix = dm y2
3
x b
a dx
a
b dy b y 2
m
= O x
3 ab y
0 a
ma2
= dx
3 b
mb 2 y
Similarly, Iy = O x
3
Hence from perpendicular axis theorem

m 2
Iz = Ix + Iy = (a + b 2)
3
which is the sought moment of inertia.
1.239 (a) Consider an elementary disk of thickness dx. Moment of inertia of this element
about the z-axis, passing through its C.M. is
(dm)R 2 R2
dIz = = r Sdx
2 2
where r = density of the material of the plate and S = area of cross section of
the plate. Thus, the sought moment of inertia
x
b
rSR 2 R2
Iz = dx = rSb
2 3 2
0 O R
p b dx
= rbR 4 (as S = pR 2)
2
Putting all the values we get Iz = 2.8 g>m2 .
(b) Consider an element disk of radius r and thickness dx at a distance x from the
point O. Then r = x tan a and volume of the disk
= px 2 tan2 a dx
Hence, its mass dm = px 2 tan a dx # r
where r = density of the cone = mn pR 2h.

1
3
Moment of inertia of this element, about the axis OA,
r2
dI = dm
2
x 2 tan2 a r
= (px 2 tan2 a dx) dx h
2
pr 4 x
= x tan4 a dx
2 A R
Thus the sought moment of inertia
h
pr
I = tan4 a x 4 dx
2 3
0
prR 4 # h 5
a as tan a = b
R
=
10h 4 h
aputting r = b
3mR 2 3m
Hence, I =
10 pR 2h
1.240 (a) Let us consider a lamina of an arbitrary shape and indicate by 1,2 and 3, three
axes coinciding with x, y and z-axes and the plane of lamina as x -y plane.
Now, moment of inertia of a point mass about x-axis,
dIx = dm y 2 y z(3)
y(2)
Thus moment of inertia of the lamina about this axis,
Ix = dmy 2 r (x,y)
3 O x(1)
Similarly, Iy = dmx 2
3
and Iz = dmr 2
3
= dm (x 2 + y 2) as r = 2x 2 + y 2
3
Thus, Iz = Ix + Iy or I3 = I1 + I2
(b) Let us take the plane of the disk as x -y plane and z

origin to the centre of the disk (see figure). From the y
symmetry Ix = Iy . Let us consider a ring element of
radius r and thickness dr, then the moment of inertia
O x
or the ring element about the y-axis is given by
m
dIz = dmr 2 = (2prdr)r 2 dr
pR 2
Thus the moment of inertia of the disk about z-axis
R
2m mR 2
Iz = 2 r 3dr =
R 3 2
0
But we have Ix = Ix + Iy = 2Ix

Iz mR 2
Thus, Iz = =
2 4
1.241 For simplicity let us use a mathematical trick. We consider the portion of the given disk
as the superposition of two complete disks (without holes), one of positive density and
radius R and other of negative density but of same magnitude and radius R>2.
As (area) r (mass), the respective masses of the consid-

ered disks are (4m/3) and ( - m/3), respectively, and 1
these masses can be imagined to be situated at their re-
spective centres (C.M.). Let us take point O as origin 2 O x
and point x-axis towards right. Obviously the C.M. of C
the shaded position of given shape lies on the x-axis.
Hence the C.M. (C) of the shaded portion is given by
( -m>3)( -R>2) + (4m>3)0 R

xC = =
a- b +
m 4m 6
3 3
Thus C.M. of the shape is at a distance R/6 from point O toward x-axis.
Using parallel axis theorem and bearing in mind that the moment of inertia of a
complete homogeneous disk of radius m0 and radius r0 equals 1>2m0r 20; the moment
of inertia of the small disk of mass (- m>3) and radius R>2 about the axis passing
through point C and perpendicular to the plane of the disk is given by
a- ba b + a- ba + b
1 m R 2 m R R 2
I2C =
2 3 2 3 2 6
mR 2 4
= - - mR 2
24 27
a bR + a ba b
1 4m 2 4m R 2
Similarly, I1C =
2 3 3 6
2 mR 2
= mR 2 +
3 27
Thus, the sought moment of inertia,
37
IC = I1C + I2C = mR 2
72
= 0.15 kg # m2
1.242 Moment of inertia of the shaded portion, about the axis pass-
ing through its centre,
r
I = a p R 3r bR 2 - a pr 3rb r 2
2 4 2 4 R
5 3 5 3
2#4
= pr(R 5 - r 5)
5 3
Now, if R = r + dr, the shaded portion becomes a shell, which is the required shape
to calculate the moment of inertia.
2#4
Now, I = pr {(r + dr)5 - r 5}
5 3
2#4
= pr (r 5 + 5r 4 dr + ... - r 5)
5 3
Neglecting higher terms, we get
2 2
= (4pr 2 drr) r 2 = mr 2
3 3
1.243 (a) Net force which is effective on the system (cylinder M + body m) is the weight
of the body m in a uniform gravitational field, which is a constant. Thus the ini-
tial acceleration of the body m is also constant.
From the conservation of mechanical energy of the said system in the uniform
field of gravity at time t = ¢t : ¢T + ¢Ugr = 0
1 1 MR 2 2
or mv 2 + v - mg ¢h = 0
2 2 2
1
or (2m + M)v 2 - mg ¢h = 0 (as v = vR at all times) (1)
4
But v 2 = 2w¢h
Hence using it in Eq. (1), we get
1 2mg
(2m + M) 2w ¢h - mg ¢h = 0 or w =
4 (2m + M)
w 2mg
From the kinematic relationship, b = =
R (2m + M) R
Thus the sought angular velocity of the cylinder
2mg gt
v(t) = bt = t =
(2m + M ) R (1 + M>2m) R
(b) Sought kinetic energy
1 1 ml 2 2
T (t) = mv 2 + v
2 2 2
1
= (2m + M ) R 2v2
4
mg 2 a 1 + b
1 M
= (on substituting value of v )
2 2m
1.244 For equilibrium of the disk and axle

2T = mg or T = mg>2
As the disk unwinds, it has an angular acceleration b
given by T T
2Tr mgr
2Tr = Ib or b = =
I I
The corresponding linear acceleration is mg
mgr 2
rb = w =
I
Since the disk remains stationary under the combined action of this acceleration and
the acceleration (–w) of the bar which is transmitted to the axle, we must have
w = mgr 2/I .
1.245 Let the rod be deviated through an angle w from its initial position at an arbitrary in-
stant of time, measured relative to the initial position in the positive direction. From
the equation of the increment of the mechanical energy of the system
¢T = Aext
1 2
or Iv = Nz d w
2 3
w
1 Ml 2 2
or v = Fl cos w dw = Fl sin w
2 3 3
0
6F sin w
Thus, v =
A Ml
1.246 First of all, let us sketch a free diagram of each body. Since the cylinder is rotating
and massive, the tension will be different in both the sections of threads. From
Newton’s law in projection form for the bodies m1 and m2 and noting that
w1 = w2 = w = bR (as the thread is not slipping), we have (m1 7 m2):
m1g - T1 = m1w = m1 bR
and T2 - m2g = m2w (1)
T1 T2
Now from the equation of rotational dynamics of a solid about sta-
tionary axis of rotation, i.e.,
Nz = Ib z (for the cylinder)
w m1 m2 w
mR 2 b
or (T1 - T2)R = Ib = (2) m1g m2g
2
Simultaneous solution of the above equations yields:

(m1 - m2)g T1 m1(m + 4m2)
b = and =
m2(m + 4m1)
R a m1 + m2 + m/2 b
T2
1.247 As the system (m + m1 + m2) is under constant forces, the acceleration of body m1
and m2 is constant. In addition to it the velocities and acceleration of bodies m1 and
m2 are equal in magnitude (say v and w) because the length of the thread is constant.
From the equation of increment of mechanical energy, i.e., ¢T + ¢U = Afr , at time t
when block m1 is distance h below from initial position corresponding to t = 0,
(m1 + m2)v 2 + a b
1 1 mR 2 v 2
- m2gh = - km1gh (1)
2 2 2 R2
(as angular velocity v = V/R for no slipping of thread).

But v 2 = 2wh
So using it in Eq. (1), we get
2(m2 - km1)g
w = (2)
m + 2(m1 + m2)
Thus the work done by the friction force on m1
Afr = - km1gh = - km1g a wt 2 b

1
2
km1(m2 - km1)g 2t 2
= - (using Eq. 2)
m + 2(m1 + m2)
1.248 In the problem, the rigid body is in translation equilibrium but there is an angular
retardation. We first sketch the free body diagram of the cylinder. Obviously the fric-
tion forces, acting on the cylinder, are kinetic. From the condition of translational
equilibrium for the cylinder,
mg = N1 + kN2; N2 = kN1
mg mg
Hence, N1 = ; N2 = k kN 2 N2
1 + k2 1 + k2 C
For pure rotation of the cylinder about its rotation
mg
axis, Nz = Ib z N1
mR 2
or - kN1R - kN2R = bz
2 kN1
kmgR (1 + k) mR 2
or - = bz
1 + k2 2
2k (1 + k)g
or bz = -
(1 + k 2)R
Now, from the kinematical equation,
v2 = v20 + 2b z ¢w
v20 (1 + k 2)R
we have, ¢w = (because v = 0)
4k (1 + k)g
Hence, the sought number of turns,
¢w v20 (1 + k 2 )R
n = =
2p 8pk (1 + k)g
1.249 It is the moment of friction force which brings the disk to rest. The force of friction
is applied to each section of the disk, and since these sections lie at different distances
from the axis, the moments of the forces of friction differ from section to section.
To find Nz, where z is the axis of rotation of the disk let us z
partition the disk into thin rings (see figure). The force of dr
friction acting on the considered element dfr = k (2prdrs)g,
(where s is the density of the disk).
O r
The moment of this force of friction is
R
dNz = - rdfr = - 2pk sgr 2dr
Integrating with respect to r from zero to R, we get
R
2
Nz = - 2p k sg r 2dr = - pk sgR 3
3 3
0
For the rotation of the disk about the stationary axis z, from the equation Nz = Ib z
2 (pR 2s)R 2 4kg
- pk sgR 3 = b z or b z = -
3 2 3R
Thus, from the angular kinematical equation vz = v0z + b z t
3R v0
0 = v0 + a - bt or t =
4kg
3R 4kg
1.250 According to the question,

dv dv
I = - k 1v or I = - kdt
dt 1v
kt
Integrating, 1v = - + 1v0
2I
k 2t 2 1v0 kt
or v = - + v0 (noting that at t = 0, v = v0 )
4I 2 I
Let the flywheel stop at t = t0, then from Eq. (1), t0 = 2I2v0 /k
Hence sought average angular velocity
2I 2v0>k
1k 2t 2/4I 2 - 2v0 kt/I + v02dt

3
<v> =
0 v0
=
2I2v0>k 3
dt
3
0
1.251 Let us use the equation dMz /dt = Nz, relative to the axis through O. (1)
For this purpose, let us find the angular momentum of the system Mz about the given
rotation axis and the corresponding torque Nz . The angular momentum is
m0
Mz = I v + mvR = a + mb R 2 v
2
m0
where I = R 2 and v = vR (no cord slipping).
2
dMz
= a + mR 2 b b z
MR 2
So, (2)
dt 2
The downward pull of gravity on the overhanging part is the only external force,
which exerts a torque about the z-axis, passing through O and is given by,
Nz = a b xgR
m
l
dMz
Hence, from the equation = Nz
dt
a + mR 2 b b z =
MR 2 m
x gR
2 l
2mgx
Thus, bz = 7 0
lR (M + 2m)
Note: We may solve this problem using conservation of mechanical energy of the sys-
tem (cylinder thread) in the uniform field of gravity.
1.252 (a) Let us indicate the forces acting on the sphere and their points of application.
Choose positive direction of x and w (rotation angle) along the incline in down-
ward direction and in the sense of v (for unidirectional rotation) respectively.
Now from equations of dynamics of rigid body, i.e., Fx = mwC x and NC z = IC b z
we get
mg sin a - fr = mw (1) N fr
2 j
and frR = mR 2 b (2)
5
x a mg
But, fr … kmg cos a (3)
In addition, the absence of slipping provides the kinematical relationship between
the accelerations as.
w = bR (4)
The simultaneous solution of all the four equations yields
2 2
k cos a Ú sin a or k Ú tan a.
7 7
(b) Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) [of part (a)], we get
5
wC = g sin a
7
As the sphere starts at t = 0 along positive x-axis, for pure rolling
5
vC (t) = wC t = g sin at (5)
7
Hence, the sought kinetic energy is
mv 2C (as v = vC >R)
1 1 2 7
T = mv 2C + mR 2v2 =
2 2 5 10
m a g sin atb =
7 5 2 5
= mg 2 sin2at 2
10 7 14
1.253 (a) Let us indicate the forces and their points of application for the cylinder.
Choosing the positive direction for x and w as shown in the figure, we write the
equation of motion of the cylinder axis and the equation of moments in the C.M.
frame relative to that axis, i.e., from equation Fx = mwC and Nz = IC b z we get
mR 2
mg - 2T = mwC and 2RT = b
2
As there is no slipping of thread on the cylinder j

wC = bR
T x
From these three equations T
mg 2 g
T = = 13 N, b =
6 3 R
mg
= 5 * 102 rad /s2
2g
(b) We have b =
3R
2 2
So, wC = g 7 0 or in vector from wC = g
3 3
P = F # v = F # (wC t)
= m g # a gtb = mg 2t
2 2
3 3
1.254 Let us depict the forces and their points of application corresponding to the cylinder
attached with the elevator. Newton’s second law for solid in vector form in the frame
of elevator, gives
2T + m g + m ( - w0) = m w œ (1)
The equation of moment in the C.M. frame relative to the cylinder axis, i.e., from
Nz = IC b z, is
mR 2 mR 2 w ¿
2TR = b =
2 2 R T T
(as thread does not slip on the cylinder, w¿ = bR ) j
mw¿ w0
or T = mg
4
From Eq. (1), T c T w , and so in vector form, mw0
mw
T = - (2)
4
2
w = (g - w0)
3
1
and sought force F = 2T = m (g - w0)
3
1.255 Let us depict the forces and their points of application for the spool. Choosing the
positive direction for x and w as shown in the figure, we apply Fx = mwx and
NC z = IC bz and get mg sin a - T = mw, Tr = Ib .
“Notice that if a point of a solid in plane motion is O

connected with a thread, the projection of velocity
vector of the solid’s point of contact along the length T
of the thread equals the velocity of the other end of N
the thread (if it is not slacked)”. P φ
Thus in our problem, vP = v0 but v0 = 0, hence point r
P is the instantaneous centre of rotation
of zero velocity for the spool. Therefore vC = vr and
w
subsequently wC = br.
Solving the equations simultaneously, we get
mg
g sin a
w = = 1.6 m /s2
1 + I/mr 2
1.256 Let us sketch the force diagram for solid cylinder and apply Newton’s second law in
projection form along x- and y-axes (see figure). Then,
fr1 + fr2 = mwC (1)
N2
and N1 + N2 - mg - F = 0 j
or N1 + N2 = mg + F (2) N1
fr2
Now choosing positive direction of w as shown in
the figure and using NCz = IC b z, we get
fr1
FR - ( fr1 + fr2) R
mR 2 mR 2 wC
= b = (3)
2 2 R mg F
(as for pure rolling wC = bR ).
In addition,
fr1 + fr2 … k (N1 + N2) (4)
Solving the equations, we get
3k mg
F …
2 - 3k
3k mg
or Fmax =
2 - 3k
k (N1 + N2)
and wC (max) =
m
c mg + d =
k k 3kmg 2kg
= [mg + Fmax] =
m m 2 - 3k 2 - 3k
1.257 (a) Let us choose the positive direction of the rotation angle w, such that wCx and b z
have identical signs (see figure). Equation of motion, Fx = mwCx and NCz = IC b z
gives
F cos a - fr = mwCx and frR - Fr = IC b z = gmR 2 b z
In the absence of the slipping of the N
spool, wC x = b z R.
From the three equations we get F
F [cos a - (r>R)] R a
wCx = wC =
m (1 + g) r
C
(where cos a 7 r/R).
(b) As static friction ( fr) does not work on
x
the spool, from the equation of the incre- fr
ment of mechanical energy Aext = ¢T.
mg
1 1 v 2C 1
Aext = mv 2C + g mR 2 2 = m (1 + g)v 2C
2 2 R 2
m (1 + g)2wC x = m (1 + g) 2wC a wC t 2 b
1 1 1
=
2 2 2
F 2 a cos a - r/R b t 2
2
=
2m (1 + g)
Note: At cos a = r>R, there is no rolling and for cos a 6 r>R, wcx 6 0, i.e., the sp-
ool will move towards negative x-axis and rotate in anticlockwise sense.
1.258 For the cylinder, from equation Nz = I z about its stationary axis of rotation,
mr 2 4T
2Tr = b or b = (1)
2 mr
For the rotation of the lower cylinder, from equation NCz = IC b z ,
mr 2
2Tr = b¿
2 j
4T
or b¿ = = b
mr
T
Now for the translational motion of lower cylinder, from T
equation Fx = mwC x ,
mg - 2T = mwC (2) j'
mg
As there is no slipping of threads on the cylinders,

wC = b ¿r + br = 2br (3)
mg
T =
10
1.259 Let us depict the forces acting on the pulley and weight A, and indicate positive
direction for x and w as shown in the figure. For the cylinder from the equation,
Fx = m wx and NC z = IC b z, we get
Mg + TA - 2T = MwC (1)
IwC
and 2TR + TA(2R) = I b = (2)
R
T
For the weight A from the equation
T
Fx = mwx
We get, mg - TA = mwA (3)
As there is no slipping of the threads on the pulleys, R
2R
wA = wC + 2 bR = wC + 2wC = 3wC (4)
Simultaneous solution of above four equations gives TA
3 (M + 3m) g Mg
wA = TA
M + 9m + 1>R 2
mg
1.260 (a) For the translational motion of the system
(m1 m2), from the equation: FxmwCx , we get
F = (m1 + m2) wC or wC = F>(m1 + m2) (1)
Now for the rotational motion of cylinder from A
the equation: NCx = IC b z , we get
x
m1r 2 2F
Fr = b or br = (2) K
2 m1 F
B
But, wK = wC + br
F 2F F (3m1 + 2m2)
So, wK = + = (3)
m1 + m2 m1 m1(m1 + m2)
(b) From the equation of increment of mechanical energy: ¢T = Aext

Here, ¢T = T (t) so, T (t) = Aext
As force F is constant and is directed along x-axis the sought work done is given by
Aext = Fx
(where x is the displacement of the point of application of the force F during time
interval t) or
F 2t 2(3m1 + 2m2)
F a wKt 2 b =
1
= T (t) (using Eq. 3)
2 2m1(m1 + m2)
Alternate:
T (t) = Ttranslation (t) + Trotation (t)
1 m1r
2 F 2t 2(3m1 + 2m2)
(m1 + m2) a b + a b =
1 Ft 2 2Ft 2
=
2 (m1 + m2) 2 2 m1r 2m1 (m1 + m2)
1.261 Choosing the positive direction for x and w as shown in

figure, let us we write the equation of motion for the sphere C x
m2
Fx = mwC x and NC z = IC b z
fr
fr = m2w2; fr m1 F
2
(fr) r = m2r 2 b
5
(where w2 is the acceleration of the C.M. of sphere).
For the plank, from equation Fx = mwx , we have
F - fr = m1w1
In addition, the condition for the absence of slipping of the sphere yields the kine-
matic relation between the accelerations
w1 = w2 + br
Simultaneous solution of the four equations yields
F 2
w1 = and w2 = w
m1 + 2>7m2 7 1
1.262 (a) Let us depict the forces acting on the cylinder and their point of applications for
the cylinder and indicate positive direction of x and w as shown in the figure.
From the equations for the plane motion of a solid Fx = mwC x and NC z = IC b z ,
kmg = mwC x or wC x = kg (1)
kg x
mR 2
- kmg R = b z or b z = - 2 (2)
2 R 0 C mg
Let the cylinder start pure rolling at t = t0 after releasing
R fr
on the horizontal floor at t = 0.
From the angular kinematical equation,

vz = voz + b z t,
kg
or v = v0 - 2 t (3)
R
From the equation of the linear kinematics,
vC x = voC x + wC xt
or vC = 0 + kgt 0 (4)
But at the moment t = t0, when pure rolling starts vC = vR.
kgt0 = a v0 - 2 t0 b R
kg
So,
R
v0R
Thus, t0 =
3 kg
(b) As the cylinder picks up speed till it starts rolling, the point of contact has purely
translatory movement equal to 1>2 wC t 20 in the forward direction but there is also a
backward movement of the point of contact of magnitude (v0t0 - 1>2 bt 20) R.
Because of slipping the net displacement is backwards. The total work done is
then,
Afr = kmg c wC t 20 - (v0t0 + bt 20 )R d

1 1
2 2
= kmg c kg t 20 - a - b t 0 R - v0t0R d
1 1 2kg 2
2 2 R
v0 R v0R v0R mv20R 2
= kmg c + - v0R d = -
3kg 6 3 6
The same result can also be obtained by the work-energy theorem, Afr = ¢T.
1.263 Let us write the equation of motion for the centre of the sphere at the moment of
breaking-off
mv 2
= mg cos u
R + r
where v is the velocity of the centre of the sphere at that mo-
ment, and u is the corresponding angle (see figure). The veloc- h
ity v can be found from the energy conservation law r C
R
1 1
mgh = mv 2 + I v2
2 2 O mg
where I is the moment of inertia of the sphere relative to the axis passing through
the sphere’s centre. i.e. I = 2>5 mr 2. In addition,
v = vr and h = (R + r) (1 + cos u)
From these four equations we obtain
v = 210g (R + r)>17r 2
1.264 Since the cylinder moves without sliding, the centre of the cylinder rotates about the
point O, while passing through the common edge of the planes. In other words, the
point O becomes the foot of the instantaneous axis of rotation of the cylinder.
At any instant during this motion the velocity of the C.M. is v1.
When the angle (as shown in the figure) is b , we have N
mv 21
= mg cos b - N
R
(where N is the normal reaction of the edge)
mg
O
NR
or v 21 = gR cos b - (1)
m
From the energy conservation law,
2
1 v 21 1 v0
I0 - I = mg R (1 - cos b)
2 R2 2 0 R2
mR 2 3
But, I0 = + mR 2 = mR 2
2 2
(from the parallel axis theorem).
4
Thus, v 21 = v 20 + g R (1 - cos b) (2)
3
gR NR
v 20 = (7 cos b - 4) -
3 m
The angle b in this equation is clearly smaller than or equal to a, so putting b = a, we
get
gR N0R
v 20 = (7 cos a - 4) - (where N0 is the corresponding reaction.)
3 M
Note that N Ú N0. No jumping occurs during this turning if N0 7 0. Hence, v0 must
be less than
gR
vmax = (7 cos a - 4)
A 3
1.0 m/s (on substituting values)
1.265 Clearly the tendency of bouncing of the hoop will be maximum when the small body
A will be at the highest point of the hoop during its rolling motion. Let the velocity
of C.M. of the hoop equal v at this position. The static friction does no work on the
hoop, so from conservation of mechanical energy: E1 = E2
v0 2
mv 20 + mR 2 a b - mgR = m (2v)2 + mv 2 + mR 2 a b + mgR
1 1 1 1 1 v 2
or 0 +
2 2 R 2 2 2 R
or 3v 2 = v 20 - 2gR (1)
From the equation Fn mwn for body A at final position, as shown in Fig. (b):
mg + N ¿ = mv2R = m a b R
v 2
(2)
R
As the hoop has no acceleration in vertical N'

direction, so for the hoop,
N + N ¿ = mg (3)
N' mg
From Eqs. (2) and (3), v0
v
R mg
mv 2 A
N = 2mg - (4) (a) (b) N
R
As the hoop does not bounce,
N Ú 0 (5)
So from Eqs. (1), (4) and (5),
8 gR - v 20
Ú 0 or 8gR Ú v 20
3R
Hence, v0 … 28 gR
1.266 Since the lower part of the belt is in contact with the rigid floor, velocity of this part
becomes zero. The crawler moves with velocity v, hence the velocity of upper part of
the belt becomes 2v by the rolling condition and kinetic energy of upper part is
given by
a b(2v)2 = mv 2
1 m
2 2
which is also the sought kinetic energy, assuming that the length of the belt is much
larger than the radius of the wheels.
1.267 The sphere has two types of motion, one is the rotation about its own axis and the
other is motion in a circle of radius R. Hence the sought kinetic energy is,
1 1
T = I1 v21 + I2 v22 (1)
2 2
where I1 is the moment of inertia about its own axis, and I2 is the moment of iner-
tia about the vertical axis, passing through O.
2 2
But, I1 = mr 2 and I2 = mr 2 + mR 2 (using parallel axis theorem) (2)
5 5
In addition
v v
v1 = and v2 = (3)
r R
Using Eqs. (2) and (3) in Eq. (1), we get
mv 2 a1 + b
7 2r 2
T¿ =
10 7R 2
1.268 For a point mass of mass dm, looked at from C rotating frame, the equation is
dm w œ = f + dm v2r œ + 2dm (v œ * ␻)
where r radius vector in the rotating frame with respect to rotation axis and
v velocity in the same frame. The total centrifugal force is clearly
Fcf = a dm v2r œ = mv2 RC
where RC is the radius vector of the C.M. of the body with respect to rotation axis. Also
Fcor = 2m vCœ * v
where we have used the definitions,
m RC = a dm r œ and m v¿C = a dm v¿ .
1.269 Consider a small element of length dx at a distance x from the

point C, which is rotating in a circle of radius r = x sin u. O
Now, mass of the element = a b dx
m
B
l r
So, centrifugal force acting on this element dx
x
= a b dx v2 x sin u
m C
l
and moment of this force about C is
A
| dN | = a b dx v2x sin u # x cos u

m
O
l
mv2
= sin 2ux 2dx
2l
and hence, total moment
l>2
mv2 1
N = 2 sin 2ux 2dx = mv2l 2 sin 2u
3 2l 24
0
1.270 Let us consider the system in a frame rotating with the rod. In this frame, the rod is
at rest and experiences not only the gravitational force mg and the reaction force R,
but also the centrifugal Fcf .
In the considered frame, from the condition of equilibrium, i.e., N 0z 0
l
or Ncf = mg sin u (1)
2
where Ncf is the moment of centrifugal force about O. To calculate Ncf, let us consider
an element of length dx, situated at a distance x from the point O. This element
is subjected to a horizontal pseudo force (m /l )dx v2x sin u. The moment of this
pseudo force about the axis of rotation through the point O is
dNcf = a b dx v2 x sin ux cos u

m 0
l
mv2 C
= sin u cos ux 2dx Fcf
l
l mg
mv2
So, Ncf = sin u cos u x 2dx
3 l
0
mv2l 2
= sin u cos u (2)
3
It follows from Eqs. (1) and (2) that,
cos u = a b or u = cos-1 a b
3g 3g
(3)
2v2l 2v2l
1.271 When the cube is given an initial velocity on

the table in some direction (as shown in
figure) it acquires an angular momentum
about an axis on the table perpendicular to
the initial velocity and (say) just below the G N
centre of gravity (C.G.) This angular momen- x
tum will disappear when the cube stops and Initial
this can only be due to a torque. Frictional velocity
forces cannot do this by themselves because Axis to the
they act in the plane containing the axis. initial velocity on
But if the forces of normal reaction act ec- Initial the table
centrically (as shown in figure), their torque angular momentum
can bring about the vanishing of the angular momentum. We can calculate the dis-
tance ¢ x between the point of application of the normal reaction and the C.G. of
the cube as follows. Take the moment about C.G. of all the forces. This must van-
ish because the cube does not turn on the table.
Then if the force of friction is fr
a
fr = N¢x
2
But N = mg and fr = kmg, so
ka
¢x =
2
1.272 As the rod is smooth, in the process of motion of the given system, the kinetic en-
ergy and the angular momentum relative to rotation axis do not vary. Hence, it fol-
lows that
1 Ml 2 2 1 1 Ml 2 2
v0 = m (v2l 2 + v ¿ 2) + v
2 3 2 2 3
(where v is the final angular velocity of the rod)
Ml 2 Ml 2
and v0 = v + ml 2v
3 3
From these equations we obtain
v0
v =
(1 + 3m /M )
and v 0l
v¿ =
21 + 3m/M
1.273 As surface is smooth, for further motion the frame attached with the C.M. is inertial.
Due to hitting of the ball, the angular impulse received by the rod about the C.M. is
equal to p l /2. If v is the angular velocity acquired by the rod, we have
ml 2 pl 6p
v = or v = (1)
12 2 ml
In the frame of C.M., the rod is rotating about an axis passing through its mid point
with the angular velocity v. Hence the force exerted by one half on the other =
mass of one half * acceleration of C.M. of that part, in the frame of C.M.
9p2
a v2 b = m
m l v2l
= = = 9N
2 4 8 2ml
1.274 (a) In the process of motion of the given system the kinetic energy and the angular
momentum relative to rotation axis do not vary. Hence it follows that
mv 2 = mv ¿ 2 + a bv
1 1 1 Ml 2 3
2 2 2 3
l l Ml 2
and mv = mv ¿ + v
2 2 3
From these equations we obtain
3m - 4m
v¿ = a b v and v =
4v
3m + 4M l (1 + 4m>3M)
As v¿ c c v, so in vector form
3m - 4M
v¿ = a b v
3m + 4M
(b) Obviously the sought force provides the centripetal acceleration to the C.M. of the
rod and is
Fn = mwcn
l 8Mv 2
= Mv2 =
2 l (1 + 4M>3m)2
1.275 (a) About the axis of rotation of the rod, the angular momentum of the system is
conserved. Thus if the velocity of the flying bullet is v,
mvl = a ml 2 + b v
Ml 2
3
mv 3mv
v = = (as m V M ) (1)
m + (M>3)l Ml
Now from the conservation of mechanical energy of the system (rod with bullet)
in the uniform field of gravity,
a ml 2 + b v2 = (M + m) g (1 - cos a)
1 Ml 2 l
(2)
2 3 2
l
[because C.M. of rod raises by the height (1 - cos a)].
2
v = a b
M 2 a 6g a
gl sin and v = sin
m A3 2 A l 2
¢p = c m (vl ) + M a v b d - mv
l
(b) Sought
2
where vl is the velocity of the bullet and v (l>2) equals the velocity of C.M. of
the rod after the impact. Putting the value of v and v , we get
1 gl a
¢p = mv = M sin
2 A6 2
This is caused by the reaction at the hinge on the upper end.
(c) Let the rod start swinging with angular velocity v¿ in this case. Then, like in
part (a),
mvx = a + mx 2 b v¿ or v¿ L
Ml 2 3mvx
3 Ml 2
Final momentum is
t
M M 3 x
pf = mx v¿ + y v¿ dy L v¿l L mv
3 l 2 2 l
0
¢p = pf - pi L mv a - 1b
3x
So,
2l
This vanishes for x L 2>3l .
1.276 (a) As force F on the body is radial so its angular momentum about the axis becomes
zero and the angular momentum of system about the given axis is conserved.
Thus
v or v = v0 a 1 + b
MR 2 MR 2 2m
v0 + m v0R 2 =
2 2 M
(b) From the equation of the increment of the mechanical energy of the system
¢T = Aext
v - a + mR 2 b v20 = Aext
1 MR 2 2 1 MR 2
2 2 2 2
Putting the value of v from part (a) and solving we get
mv20R 2
a1 + b
2m
Aext =
2 M
1.277 (a) Among the external forces are, the reaction force by the support at the centre of
the disk, weight of disk, and weight of the man, acting on the system (disk man).
First two forces pass through the centre O of the disk, so no torque about O,
that’s why about the vertical axis of rotations OZ is also zero. The weight of the
man is collinear to axis OZ, so no torque about this axis.
Let the man m1 stand at point A (say) at the edge of the disk. Let Ox be a fixed
line and such that at t 0 the line joining O to A coincides with it. At time t, let
⬔AOx ␪ and ⬔AOP w¿ where P denotes the position of the . man on the disk
.
(relative to disk). The angle xOP increases at .the rate
. w¿ - u, therefore the ve-
locity of the man at right angles to OP is R ( w .- u) and
. its angular momentum
about the rotation axis Oz of the disk is mR 2 ( w¿ - u). .
The disk has angular momentum about the Oz axis which becomes (m2R 2/2) u in
the opposite sense to conserve the angular momentum of the (disk + man) sys-
tem, which is zero.
m2R 2 . . .
Therefore, u - m1R 2(w ¿ - u ) = 0
2
m2R 2
m1R 2w¿ = a + m1R 2 b u
.
2 z
m1
or du = dw¿ A
m2
J m1 + a bK
2 O x
j'
u w¿
P
m1
On integrating du = - d w¿
3 3£ m2 ≥
0 0 m1 +
2
m1 w¿
u = a b
or m1 + m2>2 (1)
This gives the total angle of rotation of the disk.

(b) From Eq. (1)
m1 m1
= - a b = - a b
du dw¿ v¿(t)
dt m1 + m2>2 dt m1 + m2>2 R
Differentiating with respect to time
m1
= -a b
d2u 1 dv¿(t)
dt 2 m1 + m2>2 R dt
Thus, the sought force moment from the equation Nz = Ib z is
m2R 2 d 2 u m2R 2 m1
a b
1 dv¿(t)
Nz = = -
2 dt 2 2 m1 + m2>2 R dt
m1m2R dv ¿(t)
Hence, Nz = -
2m1 + m2 dt
1.278 (a) From the law of conservation of angular momentum of the system relative to ver-
tical axis z, it follows that
I1 v1z + I2v2z = (I1 + I2)vz
Hence, vz = (I1v1z + I2v2z )>(I1 + I2) (1)
Note that for vz 7 0, the corresponding vector ␻ coincides with the positive di-
rection to the z-axis, and vice versa. As both disks rotate about the same verti-
cal axis z, thus in vector form
␻ = (I1 ␻ 1 + I2 ␻ 2)>(I1 + I2)
However, the problem makes sense only if ␻ 1 cc ␻ 2 or ␻ 1 c T ␻ 2.
(b) From the equation of increment of mechanical energy of a system: Afr = ¢T
1 1 1
Afr = (I1 + I2) v2z - I1 v21 + I2 v22z
2 2 2
Using Eq. (1)
I1I2
Afr = (v1z - v2z )2
2(I1 + I2)
1.279 For the closed system (disk rod), the angular momentum is conserved about any
axis. Thus from the conservation of angular momentum of the system about the ro-
tation axis of rod passing through its C.M. gives:
l l hml 2
mv = mv¿ + v (1)
2 2 12
(where v ¿ is the final velocity of the disk and v angular velocity of the rod).
For the closed system linear momentum is also conserved. Hence,
mv = mv ¿ + h mvC (2)
(where vC is the velocity of C.M. of the rod).
From Eqs. (1) and (2) we get
lv
vC = and v - v ¿ = hvC
3
Applying conservation of kinetic energy, as the collision is elastic

1 1 1 1 hml 2 2
mv 2 = mv ¿2 + hmv 2C + v (3)
2 2 2 2 12
or v 2 - v ¿2 = 4hv 2C and hence v + v ¿ = 4vC
4 - h 12v
Then v¿ = v and v = l/2
4 + h (4 + h)l
Vectorially, noting that we have taken v¿ parallel to v C
4 - h
v¿ = a bv
4 + h
So, v¿ = 0 for h = 4 and v¿ Tc v for h 7 4
Note: Instead of Eq. 3 one can also write the equation of coefficient of restitution.
1.280 See the diagram in the book (Fig. 1.72).

(a) When the shaft BB¿ is turned through 90, the platform must start turning with
angular velocity æ so that the angular momentum remains constant. Here,
I0v0
(I + I0)æ = I0 v0 or æ =
I + I0
The work performed by the motor is therefore,
2 2
1 1 I 0 v0
(I + I0)æ 2 =
2 2 I + I0
If the shaft is turned through 180, angular velocity of the sphere changes sign.
Thus from conservation of angular momentum,
I æ - I0v0 = I0v0
Here I0 v0 is the complete angular momentum of the sphere, i.e., we assume
that the angular velocity of the sphere is just - v0. Then
v0
æ = 2I0
I
and the work done must be
1 1 1 2I 20 v20
I æ 2 + I0 v20 - I0 v20 =
2 2 2 I
(b) In the first part of (a), the angular momentum vector of the sphere is processing
with angular velocity æ . Thus torque needed is
I 20 v20
I0v0 æ =
I + I0
1.281 The total centrifugal force can be calculated by,

O'
l0 T2
m 2 1
v xdx = ml0 v2
3 l0 2 A B
0
Then for equilibrium, mg mg
l l0 T1
O
(T2 - T1) = mg
2 2
1
and T2 + T1 = ml0v2
2
Thus T1 vanishes, when
2g 2g
v2 = ,v = = 6 rad>s
l A t
l0
Then T2 = mg = 25 N
l

(a) The angular velocity v about OO can be resolved into a com- 90−
ponent parallel to the rod and a component v sin u perpendi- 90−
cular to the rod through C. Then component parallel to the rod

does not contribute to the angular momentum.
1 90−
M = I v sin u = ml 2 v sin u
12 90−
1
Also, Mz = M sin u = ml 2 v sin2 u
12
This can be obtained directly also.
(b) The modulus of M does not change but the modulus of the change of M is
1
| ¢M | 2M sin (90° - u) = ml 2 v sin 2 u
12
(c) Here, M ⬜ = M cos u = I v sin u cos u MI

t
wd MI
Now, ` ` = I v sin u cos u
dM vdt 1 Mz
= ml 2v2 sin2 u
dt dt 24 Mz
as M processes with angular velocity v.
1.283 (a) Here M = Iv is along the symmetry axis. It has two

components, the part I v cos u is constant and the part M ⬜ = I v sin u precesses.
Then,
M^
M^
mg
` ` = I v sin u v¿ = mgl sin u

dM
dt
mgl
or v¿ = precession frequency = = 0.7 rad/s
Iv
(b) This force is the centripetal force due to precession. It acts inward and has the
magnitude
| F | = ` a miv¿ 2ri ` = m v¿ 2 l sin u = 12 mN
ri is the distance of the i th element from the axis. This is the force that the table
will exert on the top. See the diagram in the answer sheet.

The moment of inertia of the disk about its symmetry axis is 1>2 mR 2 . If the angular
velocity of the disk is v , then the angular moment is 1>2 m R 2v . The precession fre-
quency being 2pn, we have
` ` = mR 2 v * 2pn
dM 1
dt 2
This must equal m (g + w) l, the effective gravitational torques (g being replaced by

g + w in the elevator). Thus,
(g + w)l
v = = 300 rad/s
pR 2n
1.285 The effective g is 2g2 + w 2 inclined at angle tan–1 w/g with the vertical. Then
with reference to the new “vertical” we proceed as in solution of problem 1.283.
Thus,
ml 2g 2 + w 2
v¿ = = 0.8 rad/s
Iv
v
The vector ␻ ¿ forms an angle u = tan -1 = 6° with the normal vertical.
g
1.286 The moment of inertia of the sphere is 2>5 mR 2 and hence the value of angular
momentum is 2>5 mR 2 v. Since it processes at speed v¿ the torque required is
2
mR 2vv¿ = F ¿l
5
2
So, F¿ = mR 2vv¿>l = 300 N (the force F must be vertical)
5
1.287 The moment of inertia is 1>2 mr 2 and angular momentum is 1>2 mr 2v. The axle
oscillates about a horizontal axis making an instantaneous angle
2pt
w = wm sin
T
This means that there is a variable precession with a rate of precession dw/dt. The
maximum value of this is 2pwm /T. When the angle between the axle and the axis is
at its maximum value, a torque I vÆ acts on it which is equal to
1 2pw pmr 2v w
mr 2v =
2 T T
The corresponding gyroscopic force will be
pmr 2v w
= 90 N
lT
1.288 The revolutions per minute of the flywheel being n, the angular momentum of the
flywheel is l * 2pn. The rate of precession is v/R.
Thus, N = 2pINv>R = 5.97 kNm
1.289 As in the previous problem, a couple 2pInv>R must come in play. This can be done
if a force, 2pInv/Rl acts on the rails in opposite directions in addition to the centrifu-
gal and other forces. The force on the outer rail is increased and that on the inner
rail decreased. The additional force in this case has the magnitude 1.4 kN.
1.6 ELASTIC DEFORMATIONS OF A SOLID BODY 170
1.6 Elastic Deformations of a Solid Body
1.290 Variation of length with temperature is give by
¢l
lt = l0 (1 + a¢t) or = a¢t = e (1)
l0
s
But, e =
E
Thus, s = a ¢tE , which is the sought stress of pressure.

Putting the value of a and E from Appendix and taking ¢t = 100°C, we get
s = 2.2 * 103 atm
1.291 (a) Consider a transverse section of the tube and concentrate on an element which
subtends angle ¢w at the centre. The forces acting on a portion of length ¢l on
the element are:
(1) Tensile forces side ways of magnitude s¢r¢l.

The resultant of these is 2 s¢r ¢l sin ¢
>2 L s¢rl ¢
radically towards
the centre.
(2) The force due to fluid pressure = pr ¢
¢l .
Since these balance, we get pmax L sm ¢r>r
where sm is the maximum tensile force.
Putting the values, we get pmax = 19.7 atm.
(b) Consider an element of area dS = p (r ¢u>r)2 about z-axis

chosen arbitrarily. There are tangential tensile forces all around the ring of the
cap. Their resultant is
¢u ¢u
s c 2p ar b ¢r d sin
2 2
Hence, in the limit,
pmp a b = smp a b ¢r ¢u
r¢u 2 r¢u 2
2 2
2 sm ¢r
or pm = = 39.5 atm
r
1.292 Let us consider an element of rod at a distance x from its rotation axis (see figure).
From Newton’s second law in projection form directed towards the rotation axis,
m 2
- dT = (dm) 2x = x dx
l
m2 x2
On integrating -T = + C (constant)
l 2
l
But at x = or free end, T = 0
2
mv2 l 2 mv2l x dx
Thus, 0 = + C or C = -
2 4 8
a - b
m2 l x2
Hence T =
2 4 l
m2l
Thus Tmax = (at mid point)
8
Condition required for the problem is
Tmax = S sm
mv2l 2 2 sm
So, = S sm or v =
8 l B r
Hence the sought number of rps
1 2 sm
n = = (using the table n = 0.8 * 103 rps)
2p pl A r
1.293 Let us consider an element of the ring (see figure). From Newton’s law Fn = mwn
for this element, we get
Td u = a du b 2r (see solution of problem 1.93 or 1.92)

m
2p
m 2
So, T = r
2p T
Condition for the problem is
T m2r dq
… sm or … sm
pr 2 2p2r 2 r
2p2 smr sm T
or 2max = =
pr 2(2prr) rr 2
Thus, sought number of rps is

max 1 sm
n = =
2p 2pr A r
Using the table of appendices n = 23 rps.
1.294 Let the point O descend by the distance x (see figure). From the condition of equi-
librium of point O,
mg mg
2T sinu = mg or T = = 2(l>2)2 + x 2 (1)
2sin u 2x
T d2
Now, 2
= s = eE or T = eEp (2)
p(d>2) 4
(Here s is stress and e is strain.)

In addition to this,
2(l>2)2 + x 2 - l>2 l/2 l/2

1 + a b - 1
2x 2
e = = (3) x
l>2 B l T T
mg
From Eqs. (1), (2) and (3)
x mgl
x - =
21 + 12x>l22 pEd 2
x = l a b
mg 1>3
or 2
= 2.5 cm
2pEd
1.295 Let us consider an element of the rod at a distance x from the free end (see figure).
For the considered element T - T ¿ are internal restoring forces which produce
elongation and dT provide the acceleration to the element. For the element, from
Newton’s law
F0 F0
dT = (dm) w = a dx b
m
= dx
l m l
As free end has zero tension, on integrating the above expression,

T x
F0 F0
dT = dx or T = x
3 l 3 l
0 0
Elongation in the considered element of length dx is given by

s T Fxo xdx
0j = (x) dx = dx =
E SE SEl
l T T+dT
F0 F0l
Thus, total elongation j = xdx = x
SEl 3 2SE dx
x
Hence, the sought strain is

j F0
s = =
l 2SE
1.296 Let us consider an element of the rod at a distance r from its rotation axis. As the
element rotates in a horizontal circle of radius r, we have from Newton’s second law
in projection form directed toward the axis of rotation
T - (T + dT ) = (dm)2r
- dT = a dr b 2r =
m m 2
or rdr
l l
At the free end tension becomes zero. Integrating the above expression we get
0 l
m
- dT = 2 rdr
3 l 3
T r T dT
r
-
a b = a1 - b
m2 l2 r2 m2l r2 dr
Thus, T =
l 2 2 l2
Elongation in elemental length dr is given by
s(r) T
0j = dr = dr
E SE
(where S is the cross sectional area of the rod and T is the tension in the rod at the
considered element)
a 1 - 2 b dr
m2l r2
or 0j =
2SE l
Thus, the sought elongation

l
a 1 - 2 b dr
m2l r2
j = dj =
3 2SE 3 l
0
m2l 2l (Sl r) 2 3
or j = = l
2SE 3 3SE
1 r2l 3
= (where r is the density of the copper)
3 E
1.297 Volume of a solid cylinder

V = pr 2l
¢V p2r¢rl pr 2 ¢l 2¢r ¢l
So, = 2
+ 2
= + (1)
V pr l pr l r l
But longitudinal strain ¢l/l and accompanying lateral strain ¢r/r are related as
¢r ¢l
= -m (2)
r l
¢V ¢l
= (1 - 2m) (3)
V l
¢l - F>pr 2
But =
l E
(Because the increment in the length of cylinder ¢l is negative.)
¢V -F
So, = (1 - 2m) (where m is the Poisson’s ratio for copper)
V pr 2E
- Fl
Thus, ¢V = (1 - 2m)
E
= - 1.6 mm3
(Negative sign means that the volume of the cylinder has decreased.)
1.298 (a) As free end has zero tension, thus the tension in the rod at a vertical distance y
from its lower end
m
T = gy (1)
l
Let 0l be the elongation of the element of length dy, then
s(y)
0l = dy
E
T mgydy rgydy
= dy = = (where r is the density of copper)
SE SlE E
Thus, the sought elongation is

l
rgl 2>E
ydy 1
¢l = 0l = rg = (2)
3 3 E 2
0
(b) If the longitudinal (tensile) strain is e = ¢l>l, the accompanying lateral (compres-
sive) strain is given by
¢r
e¿ = = - me (3)
r
Then, since V = pr 2l, we have
¢V 2¢r ¢l
= +
V r l
¢l
= (1 - 2m) (using Eq. 3)
l
(where ¢l/l is given in part (a) and m is the Poisson ratio for copper).
1.299 (a) Since the hydrostatic pressure is uniform, the stress on each face of the bar is the
same (see figure (a)). The change in length of the bar can be thought of as the
sum of changes in length that would occur in the three independent cases sh-
own in the figures (b), (c) and (d).
p p p p
p
(a) (b)
p
p
(c) (d)
If we push on the ends of the block with a pressure p, the compressional strain
is p >E, and it is negative,
¢l1 p
= -
l E
If we push on the two sides of the block with pressure p, the compressional st-
rain is again p>Y, but now we want the lengthwise strain. We can get that from
the sideways strain multiplied by - m . The sideways strain is
¢w p
= -
w E
¢l2 p
So, = + m
l E
If the we push on the top of the block, the compressional strain in once more
p>E , and the corresponding strain in the sideways direction is again - mp>E. We
get
¢l3 p
= + m
l E
Combining the results of the three problems i.e., taking ¢l = ¢l1 + ¢l2 + ¢l3,
we get
¢l p
= - (1 - 2m) (1)
l E
The problem is, of course, symmetrical in all three directions; it follows that
¢w ¢h p
= = - (1 - 2m) (2)
w h E
The change in the volume under hydrostatic pressure is also of some interest.
Since V = lwh, we can write, for small displacements.
¢V ¢l ¢w ¢h
= + +
V l w h
Using Eqs. (1) and (2), we have
¢V p
= - 3 (1 - 2m) (3)
V E
(b) But volume strain
¢V p
= - (where K is called the bulk modulus) (4)
V K
From Eqs. (3) and (4), we have
E
K =
3 (1 - 2m)
Hence the compressibility
1 3 (1 - 2m)
b = =
K E
1.300 A beam clamped at one end and supporting an applied load at the free end is called
a cantilever. The theory of cantilevers is discussed in the advanced text book on me-
chanics. The key result is that elastic forces in the beam generate a couple, whose
moment, called the moment of resistances, balances the external bending moment
due to weight of the beam, load etc. The moment of resistance, also called internal
bending moment (I.B.M) is given by
I.B.M. = EI/R
Here R is the radius of curvature of the beam at the
representative point (x, y ). I is called the geometrical ds
moment of inertia of the cross section relative to the axis
z
passing through the natural layer which remains un-
scratched Fig. (a).
(a)
I = z 2 dS (1)
3
The section of the beam beyond P exerts the bending mo- h
x
ment N (x) and we have,
EI p(x,y)
= N (x) (2) y
R (b)
If there is no load other than that due to the weight of

the beam, then
1
N (x) = rg(l - x)2 bh
2
(where r = density of steel).
Hence, at x = 0
rgl 2bh
a b =
I
R 0 2EI
Here, b = width of the beam perpendicular to paper.

h/2
bh3
Also, I = z 2 bdz =
3 12
-h/2
6rgl 2
a b =
I
Hence,
R 0 Eh2
1 Eh 2
R = = 0.121 km
6 rgl 2
1.301 We use the equation given above and use the result that when y is small
1 d 2y d 2y N (x)
= ; thus, =
R dx 2 dx 2 EI
(a) Here N (x) = N0 is a constant. Then integration gives
dy N0x
= + C1
dx EI
a b = 0,
dy
But, for x = 0, so C1 = 0.
dx
N0x 2
Integrating again, y =
2EI
where we have used y = 0 for x = 0 to set the constant of integration at zero.
This is the equation of a parabola. The sag of the free end is
N0l 2
l = y (x = l ) =
2EI
(b) In this case N (x) = F (l - x) because the load F at the extremity is balanced by
a similar force at F directed upward and they constitute a couple. Then
d 2y F (l - x)
=
dx 2 EI
dy F (lx - x 2>2)
Integrating, = + C1
dx El
As before C1 = 0. Integrating again, using y = 0 for x = 0,
F 1lx 2>2 - x 3>62
a here l = b
Fl 3
y =
EI 3EI
Here for a square cross section
a>2
a4
I = z 2 adz =
3 12
-a>2
1.302 One can think of it as analogous to the previous F/2 F/2

case but with a beam of length l> 2 loaded upward
by a force F/2.
Fl 3
Thus, l =
48 EI
on using the last result of the previous problem.
1
1.303 (a) In this case N (x) = rgbh (l - x)2 (where b = width of the girder).
2
bh3
Also I =
12
Ebh2 d 2y r gbh 2
Then, = (l - 2lx + x 2)
12 dx 2 2
al 2x - lx 2 + b
dy 6rg x3
Integrating, =
dx Eh2 3
dy
Using = 0 for x = 0
dx
a b
6rg l 2x 2 lx 3 x4
Integrating again, y = - +
Eh2 2 3 12
6rgl 4 6rgl 4 3 3rgl 4
a b =
1 1 1
Thus, l = - + =
Eh2 2 3 12 2
Eh 12 2Eh2
d 2y
(b) As before, EI = N (x) where N (x) is the bending moment due to section PB.
dx 2
Thus, bending moment is clearly
2l
2l x
A y B
N = w dj(j - x) - wl (2l - x)
3 P
x
= w a 2l 2 - 2xl + b –wl (2l - x)

x2
2
= w a - xl b (here w = r gb h is weight of the beam per unit length)

x2
2
= w a b + c0
dy x3 x 2l
Now integrating, El -
dx 6 2
dy wl 3
or since = 0 for x = l, c0 =
dx 3
Integrating again, EIy = w a b +

x4 x 3l wl 3x
- + c1
24 6 3
As y = 0 for x = 0, c1 = 0. From this we find
5wl 4>24 5rgl 4
l = y (x = l ) = =
EI 2Eh2
1.304 The deflection of the plate can be noticed by going to a co-rotating frame. In this
frame each element of the plate experiences a pseudo force proportional to its mass.
These forces have a moment which constitutes the bending moment of the problem.
To calculate this moment we note that the acceleration of an element at a distance
j from the axis is a = jb and the moment of the forces exerted by the section
between x and l is
x
1
N = rlhb j2dj = rlh b (l 3 - x 3)
3 3
l
From the fundamental equation

d 2y 1
EI = rlh b(l 3 - x 3)
dx 2 3
+h>2
lh3
The moment of inertia I = z 2Idz =
3 12
-h>2
Note that the neutral surface (i.e. the surface which contains lines which are neither
stretched nor compressed) is a vertical plane here and z is perpendicular to it.
d 2y 4rb 3
= (l - x 3)
dx 2 Eh2
al x - b + c1
dy 4rb 3 x4
Integrating =
dx Eh2 4
dy
Since = 0, for x = 0, c1 = 0. Integrating again,
dx
a b + c2
4rb l 3x 2 x5
y = -
Eh2 2 20
c2 = 0 (because y = 0 for x = 0)
9rbl 5
Thus, l = y (x = l ) =
5Eh2
1.305 (a) Consider a hollow cylinder of length l, outer radius r + ¢r, inner radius r, fixed
at one end and twisted at the other by means of a couple of moment N. The an-
gular displacement w, at a distance l from the fixed end, is proportional to both
l and N. Consider an element of length dx at the twisted end. It is moved by an
angle w as shown. A vertical section is also shown and the twisting of the par-
allelopipe of length l and area ¢r dx under the action of the twisting couple can
be discussed by elementary means. If f is the tangential force generated, then

shearing stress is ƒ/¢r dx and this must equal
r
r
Gu = G , since u =
l l
r
Hence, f = G¢r dx
l
The force f has moment fr about the axis and so the total moment is

2 2pr 3 ¢r
N = G¢r r dx = G
l 3 l
(b) For a solid cylinder we must integrate over r. Thus

r
2pr 3 dr
G pr 4 G
N = =
3 l 2l
0
dx
q
F
f
dx
dr
d2>2
2pr 3 dr
G p
1.306 Clearly N = = G
(d 42 - d 41)
3 l 32l
d1>2
Using G = 81 GPa = 8.1 * 1010 Nm-2
d2 = 5 * 10-2 m, d1 = 3 * 10-2 m
p

= 2.0° = radians, l = 3 m
90
p * 8.1 * p
N = (625 - 81) * 102 Nm
32 * 3 * 90
= 0.5033 * 103 N # m L 0.5 kNm

1.307 The maximum power that can be transmitted by means of a shaft rotating about its
axis is clearly N where N is moment of the couple producing the maximum per-
missible torsion,
. Thus,
pr 4G
#
P = = 16.9 kW
2l
1.308 Consider an elementary ring of width dr at a distant r from the axis. The part outside
dN
exerts couple N + dr on this ring while the part inside exerts a couple N in the
dr
opposite direction. We have for equilibrium
dN
dr = - dIb
dr
where dI is the moment of inertia of the elementary ring, b is the angular accelera-
tion and minus sign is needed because the couple N (r) decreases, with distance,
vanishing at the outer radius, N (r2) = 0. Now
m
dI = 2pr dr r 2
p (r 22 - r 21 )
2mb
Thus, dN = r 3 dr
r 22 - r 21
1 mb
On integration, N = (r 4 - r 41 )
2 (r 2 - r 21 ) 2
2
dN
N + dr dr
r
dr
1.309 We assume that the deformation is wholly due to external load, neglecting the effect
of the weight of the rod (see next problem). Then a well known formula says, elas-
tic energy per unit volume
1 1
= stress * strain = se
2 2
1 m 2
This gives Ee L 0.04 kJ for the total deformation energy.
2 r
1.310 When a rod is deformed by its own weight the stress increases as one moves up, the
stretching force being the weight of the portion below the element considered.
The stress on the element dx is
rpr 2 (l - x) g>pr 2 = rg (l - x) x
The extension of the element is dx

¢dx = d¢x = rg(l - x) dx>E
Integrating we get the extension of the whole rod as l–x
1 rgl 2
¢l =
2 E
The elastic energy of the element is
1 rg ( l - x)
rg (l - x) pr 2dx
2 E
Integrating
1 pr 2r2g2l 3 ¢l 2
= pr 2lE a b
2
¢U =
6 E 3 l
1.311 The work done to make a loop out of a steel band appears as the elastic energy of
the loop and may be calculated from the same.
If the length of the band is l, the radius of the loop R = l>2p. Now consider an element
ABCD of the loop. The elastic energy of this element can be calculated by the same
sort of arguments as used to derive the formula for internal bending moment.
Consider a fiber at a distance z from the neutral surface PQ. This fiber experiences
a force p and undergoes an extension ds where d = Zd
, while PQ = s = Rd
.
Thus strain ds /s = Z /R #
If a is the cross sectional area of the fiber, the elastic energy associated with it is
ds
E a b Rd
a
1 Z 2
2 R B C
Summing over all the fibres we get p P Q p

A D
EI
E ld
R
a aZ 2 = R
2R 2R d
For the whole loop this gives, using d w = 2p

3
El p 2EI p2
=
R l
d>2
hd3
Now, I = z 2h dZ =
3 12
-d>2
So the energy is
1 p2Ehd3
= 0.08 kJ
6 l
Alternate:
Suppose that the steel band was made into a hoop of radius R, then length of the
hoop l = 2pR.
Consider an infinitesimally thin section of radius r and thickness dr in the hoop. The
length of this section of the hoop is 2pr. Hence the longitudinal strain correspon-
ding to this section is
2pr - 2rR r
e = = - 1
2pR R
So elastic energy density is
E e = E a - 1b
1 2 1 r 2
u =
2 2 R
Thus the sought work done is nothing but elastic energy stored.
R + d2
E a - 1 b 2prdr h =
1 x 2 1 p2 Ehd3
U = 1udV = (on integrating)
Ld 2 R l
R-2
1.312 A rod should be treated as a solid cylinder. Let the upper end of the cylindrical rod be
fixed and let a couple be applied to the lower end in a plane perpendicular to its length
(with its axis coinciding with that of the cylinder) twisting it through an angle u (radi-
ans). This is an example of “pure shear”. In equilibrium position the twisting couple is
equal and opposite to the restoring couple. Let us calculate the value of this couple.
Imagine the cylinder to consist of a large number of co-axial, hollow cylinders, and con-
sider one such hollow cylinder of radius v, and radial thickness dr Fig. (a). Each ra-
dius of the lower end is turned through the same angle u, but the displacement is the
greatest at the rim, decreasing as the centre is approached, where it is reduced to zero.
O'
A
r O dr l
r f
B'
B O
r q B'
B
(a) (b)
Let AB Fig. (b) be a line, parallel to the axis, before the cylinder is twisted. On twist-
ing, since the point B shifts to B ¿, the line AB takes up the position AB ¿. The angle
through which this hollow cylinder is sheared is, therefore, BAB ¿ = f, say. Then
clearly,
BB¿ = lf (see Figs. a and b)
Also BB¿ = ru, so, angle of shear or shear strain
ru
f =
l
Obviously, f will have the maximum value where r is the greatest, i.e., the maxi-
mum strain is on the outermost part of the cylinder, and the least, on the innermost.
In other words, the shearing stress is not uniform all through.
Thus, although the angle of shear is the same for any one hollow cylinder, it is dif-
ferent for different cylinders, being the greatest for the outermost and the least for
the innermost one.
shearing stress F
Since G = =
strain or angle of shear f
Gru
We have F = Gf =
l
Now, face area of this hollow cylinder = 2pr dr .
Gru u
Therefore total shearing force this on area = 2pr dr * = 2pG r2dr
t l
Therefore, moment of this force about the axis OO ¿ Fig. (b) of the cylinder is
equal to
2pG ur2dr r 2pG ur3dr
=
l l
Integrating this expression between the limits, r = 0 and r = r, we have total twi-
sting couple on the cylinder,
r
u
N (u) = 1 2pG 2p G r3dr
0 l
r
c d =
2pG u 2pG u r4 r 2pG ur 4 pGur 4
= r3dr = = = Cu
l L l 4 0 2l 2l
0
where C = pGr 4>2l is twisting couple per unit twist of the cylinder or torsional rigid-
ity of the cylinder.
Thus, when the rod is twisted through an angle u, a couple
pr 4G
N (u) = u
2l
appears to resist this. Work done in twisting the rod by an angle
or elastic ener-
gy stored is then
pr4G 2
U = N (u) d(u) =
= 7 J (on substituting values)
L 4l
0
1.313 The energy between radii r and r + dr is given by differentiation of
pr 4G 2
U =
(see solution of problem 1.312)
4l
pr 3dr
So, dU = G
2
l
dU pr 3dr G
2 1 G
2r 2
Its density is u = = =
dV 2prdr l l 2 l2
Alternate:
The sought energy density
1
u = Gf2 (where f is angle of shear or shear strain)
2

But, f = ar b (see solution of problem 1.312)

l
1 G
2r 2
So, u =
2 l2
1.314 The energy density is as usual 1>2 stress * stress. Stress is the pressure rgh. Strain
is b * rgh by definition of b . Thus
1
u = b (rgh)2 = 23.5 kJ/m3 (on substituting values)
2
1.7 HYDRODYNAMICS 187
1.7 Hydrodynamics
1.315 Between points 1 and 2, fluid particles are in nearly circular motion and therefore
have centripetal acceleration. The force for this acceleration, like for any other
situation in an ideal fluid, can only come from the pressure variation along the line
joining 1 and 2. This requires that pressure at 1 should be greater than the pressure
at 2 so that the fluid particles can have required acceleration. If there is no turbu-
lence, the motion can be taken as irrotational. Then by considering
v # dl = 0
C
2
1
along the circuit shown, we infer that v2 7 v1 .
The portion of the circuit near 1 and 2 are streamlines while the other two arms are
at right angle to streamlines.
(By electrostatic analogy, the density of streamlines is proportional to the velocity.)
1.316 From the conservation of mass

v1S1 = v2S2 (1)
But S1 6 S2 as shown in the figure of the problem book, therefore

v1 7 v2
As every streamline is horizontal between 1 and 2, Bernoulli’s theorem becomes
1 2
p + rv = constant
2
which gives p1 6 p2 as v1 7 v2
As the difference in height of the water column is ¢h, therefore
p2 - p1 = rg¢h (2)
From Bernoulli’s theorem between points 1 and 2 of a streamline
1 2 1
p1 + rv 1 = p2 + rv 22
2 2
1
or p2 - p1 = r (v 21 - v 22)
2
1
or rg¢h = r (v 21 - v 22 ) (using Eq. 2) (3)
2
Using Eqs. (1) in (3), we get
2g¢h
v1 = S2
A S 22 - S 21
Hence the sought volume of water flowing per second
2g¢h
Q = v1S1 = S1S2
A S 22 - S 21
1.317 Applying Bernoulli’s theorem for points A and B,
1 2
pA = pB + rv as vA = 0
2
1 2
or rv = pA - pB = ¢hr0 g A
2
B
2¢hr0g
So, v = h
C r
Thus, rate of flow of gas,
2¢hr0g
Q = Sv = S
C r
The gas flows over the tube past it at B. But at A the gas becomes stationary as the
gas will move into the tube which already contains gas.
In applying Bernoulli’s theorem we should remember that

p 1
+ v 2 + gz
r 2
is constant along a streamline. In the present case, we are really applying Bernoulli’s
theorem somewhat indirectly. The streamline at A is not the streamline at B.
Nevertheless the result is correct. To be convinced of this, we need only apply
Bernoulli’s theorem to the streamline that goes through A by comparing the situa-
tion at A with that above B on the same level. In steady conditions, this agrees with
the result derived because there cannot be a transverse pressure differential.
1.318 Since, the density of water is greater than that of kerosene oil,
Kerosene oil h2
it will collect at the bottom. Now, pressure due to water level
equals h1r1g and pressure due to kerosene oil level equals
h2r2g. So, net pressure becomes h1r1g + h2r2g. Water h1
From Bernoulli’s theorem, this pressure energy will be con- A
verted into kinetic energy while flowing through the hole A.
1
i.e., h1r1g + h2r2g = r v2
2 1
r2
Hence, v = 2 a h1 + h2 b g = 3 m/s
C r1
1.319 Let H be the total height of the water column and the hole is made at a height h
from the bottom.
Then from Bernoulli’s theorem
1 2 v
rv = (H - h)rg
2
H h
or v = 1(H - h) 2g
which is directed horizontally.
l
For the horizontal range, l = vt
= 22g (H - h) # 2h
A g
= 2 2(Hh - h2)
Now, for maximum l

d (Hh - h2)
= 0
dh
H
which yields h = = 25 cm
2
1.320 Let the velocity of the water jet near the orifice be v ¿. Then applying Bernoulli’s
theorem,
1 2 1
rv = h0 rg + rv 2
2 2
or v¿ = 2v 2 - 2gh0 (1)
Here the pressure term on both sides is the same and is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
Now, if water rises up to a height h, then at this height, whole of its kinetic energy
will be converted into potential energy. So,
1 v¿ 2
rv¿ 2 = rgh or h =
2 2g
v2
= - h0 = 20 cm (using Eq. 1)
2g
1.321 Water flows through the small clearance into the orifice. Let d be the clearance, then
from the equation of continuity
(2pR1d)v1 = (2prd) v = (2pR2d) v2
or v1R1 = vr = v2R2 (1)
where v1,v2 and v are respectively the inward radial velocities of the fluid at 1, 2 and
3. Now by Bernoulli’s theorem just before 2 and just after it in the clearance
1 2
p0 + hrg = p2 + rv (2)
2 2
Applying the same theorem at 3 and 1, we find that this also equals
1 2 1
p + rv = p0 + rv 21 (3)
2 2
(since the pressure in the orifice is p0).
From Eqs. (2) and (3) we also have
v1 = 12gh (4)
rv a1 - a b b
1 2 v 2
and p = p0 +
2 1 v1
r
R2
R1
R1
= p0 + hrg a1 - a b b
2
ho
r
(using Eqs. 1 and 4) 23 1
1.322 For diagram of piston confirm that

ƒ = (p - p0 ) S (1)
as f is constant and p0 is constant, p is also constant.
From Bernouli’s equation from just inside and outside points of the orifice we get
1 2
p = p0 + rv
2 efflux V
S
1 B
or (p - p0) = rv 2efflux (2) A
2
If l is the length of liquid column at an arbitrary instant l
of time. Then from mass conservation
a- b S = vefflux
dl
(3)
dt
(where S is the piston area).
From Eq. (2) for constant p, we have vefflux = constant also.

So, V = vefflux St
(where V and + ve have meaning in accordance with the piston).
V
So, vefflux = (4)
St
Now the differential work done by the constant for F = (p - p0) S is given by
- dl
dA = F a - b dt = (p - p0) S a b dt
dl
dt dt
As both p and (- dl /dt) are constants, so, total work
dA = (p - p0) S a - b t
dl
W =
3 dt
veff s
= a rv efflux b S a b t
1 2
(using Eqs. 2 and 3)
2 S
1 3
= rv St
2 efflux
r a b St
1 V 3
= (using Eq. 4)
2 St
1 V3
= r
2 S2t 2
1.323 Water jet coming out from the orifice of area s at an arbitrary instant of time when
the height of water column in the cylindrical vessel is H.
vefflux = 22gH
As the rate of out-flux should be equal to the rate with which volume of the water
in the vessel decreases
dH
-S = s 22gH
dt
0
S dh S 2h
Hence, t= - =
s 12h 3 2H sA g
h
1.324 In a rotating frame (with constant angular velocity), the Eulerian equation is
d v¿
- §p + rg + 2r(v¿ * ␻) + rv2 r = r
dt
In the frame of rotating tube the liquid in the “column” is practically static because
the orifice is sufficiently small. Thus the Eulerian equation in projection form along
r (which is the position vector of an arbitrary liquid element of length dr relative to
the rotation axis) reduces to
- dp O
+ rv2r = 0
dr
h B
A
or dp = rv2rdr
r dr
p r l
So, dp = rv2 rdr O
3 3
p0 (l - h)
rv2 2
Thus, p (r) = p0 + [r - ( l - h) 2] (1)
2
Hence the pressure at the end B just before the orifice is

rv2
p (l ) = p0 + (2lh - h 2) (2)
2
Then applying Bernoulli’s theorem at the orifice for the points just inside and out-
side of the end B
1 2 1
p0 + rv (2lh - h2) = p0 + rv 2 (where v is the sought velocity)
2 2
2l
So, v = vh - 1
Ah
1.325 The Euler’s equation is
dv
r = f - ¥p = - ¥(p + rgz) (where z is vertically upwards)
dt
0v
+ (v # ¥) v
dv
Now, = (1)
dt 0t
(v # ¥) v = ¥a v b - v * Curl v
1 2
But (2)
2
If we consider the steady (i.e. 0 v>0t = 0) flow of an incompressible fluid then

r = constant and as the motion in irrotational Curl v = 0
So from Eqs. (1) and (2)
r§a v2 b = - § (p + rgz)
1
2
rv 2 + rgz b = 0
1
§ap +
2
1 2
or p + rv + rgz = constant
2
1.326 Let the velocity of water flowing through A be vA and that through B be vB, then dis-
charging rate through A = QA = SvA and similarly through B = SvB.
Now, force of reaction at A is
h
A
FA = rQAvA = rSv 2B
S
Hence, the net force is h
F = rS 1v 2A - v 2B2 as FA c T FB
S
(1)
B
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem to the liquid flowing out of A we get
1 2
r0 + rgh = r0 + rv
2 A
And similarly at B
1 2
r0 + rg (h + ¢h) = r0 + rv
2 B
1v 2B - v 2A2
r
Hence, = ¢hrg
2
Thus, F = 2rgS ¢h = 0.50 N
1.327 Consider an element of height dy at a distance y from the top. The velocity of the
fluid coming out of the element is
v = 22gy
The force of reaction dF due to this is dF = rdAv 2 = r(bdy) 2gy, as in the previous
problem.
Integrating F = r gb 2ydy
3
h-1
= rgb [h2 - (h - l)2] = r gbl (2h - l )

= 5 N (on substituting values)
(The slit runs from a depth h - l to a depth h from the top.)
1.328 Let the velocity of water flowing through the tube at a certain instant of time be u,
then u = Q >pr 2, where Q is the rate of flow of water and pr 2 is the cross section
area of the tube.
From impulse momentum theorem, for the stream of
water striking the tube corner, in x-direction in the time
interval dt, l x
Fxdt = - rQ udt or Fx = - rQu O y
Similarly, Fy = rQu
Therefore, the force exerted on the water stream by the
tube,
F = - rQ u i + rQu j
According to third law, the reaction force on the tube’s wall by the stream equals ( - F)
rQu i - rQu j
Hence, the sought moment of force about O becomes
rQ 2
N = - li * (rQui - Qu j) = rQul k = lk
pr2
rQ 2l
and |N| = = 0.70 Nm
pr 2
1.329 Let us take an arbitrary cross section of radius r of the narrowing tube. If p is the in-
side pressure at the location of taken ring element of radius r and width dl, and p0 is
outside atmosphere pressure, from symmetry of the problem, net force exerted on the
taken ring element due to the inside and outside pressure difference.
= dF sin u = (p - p0) 2prdl sin u
= (p - p0) 2p rdr (because dl sin u = dr)
Hence the sought net force on the tube
F = Fx = dF sin u = (p - p0) 2prdr (1)

L L
From Bernoulli’s equation dF
1 r
p - p0 = r (v 2efflux - v 2),
2 s
where vefflux = 22gh (2) S dF
and v is the speed of water at the location of taken ring element.
From conservation of mass
rvpr2 = rvefflux pr1 2
r1 2
or v = vefflux (3)
r2
(where r1 is the radius at open end).
r1 4
r a v 2efflux - v 2efflux b
1
p - p0 =
2 r4
r1 2 r1 2
rv efflux a 1 - b = rgh a 1 - b
1 2
= (4)
2 r4 r4
r2
r1 2
F = rgh a 1 - b 2prdr (5)
3 r4
r1
After integration and using pr2 2 = S and pr1 2 = s, we get

rgh (S - s)2
F = = 6N (on substituting the values)
S
Note: If we try to calculate F from the momentum change of the liquid flowing out we will
be wrong even as regards the sign of the force. There is of course the effect of pressure
at S and s but quantitative derivation of F from Newton’s law is difficult.
1.330 The Euler’s equation is

dv
= f - §p
r
dt
in the space fixed frame where f = - rgk downward. We assume incompressible
fluid so r is constant.
Then f = - § (rgz) where z is the height vertically upwards from some fixed origin.
We go to the rotating frame where the equation becomes
dv
r = - § (p + rgz) + rv2r + 2r (v * ␻)
dt
The additional terms on the right are the well known coriolis and centrifugal forces.
In the frame rotating with the liquid v = 0, so
rv 2r 2 b = 0
1
§a p + rgz -
2
1
or p + rgz - rv2r 2 = constant
2
On the free surface p = constant; thus
v2 2
z = r + constant
2g
If we choose the origin at point r = 0 (i.e., the axis) of the free surface then
“constant” = 0 and
v2 2
z = r (the parabolic of revolution)
2g
At the bottom z = constant.
1
So, p = rv2r 2 + constant
2
If p = p0 on the axis at the bottom, then
1
p = p0 + rv2r 2
2
1.331 When the disk rotates the fluid in contact with it co-rotates, but the fluid in contact
with the walls of the cavity does not rotate. A velocity gradient is then set up lead-
ing to viscous forces.
At a distance r from the axis, the linear velocity is vr so there is a velocity gradient
vr>h both in the upper and lower clearance. The corresponding force on the element
whose radial width is dr is
a from the formula F = h A b

vr dv
h2prdr
h dx
The torque due to this force is
vr
h2prdr r
h
and the net torque considering both the upper and lower clearance is
R
v v
2 h 2pr 3 dr = pR 4h
3 h h
0
So power developed is
pR 4v2h
P = = 9.05 W (on substituting values)
h
(As instructed, end effects, i.e., rotation of fluid in the clearance r Ú R , has been
neglected.)
1.332 Let us consider a coaxial cylinder of radius r and thickness dr, then force of friction
or viscous force on this elemental layer is given by
dv
F = 2prlh
dr
This force must be constant from layer so that steady motion may be possible.
v
Fdr dr
So, = 2pl h dv (1)
r 3 R2 r R1
0
r v
dr
Integrating, F = 2pl h dv
3 r 3
R2 0
b = 2pl hv
r
or F lna (2)
R2
Putting r = R1, we get
R1
F ln = 2pl hv0 (3)
R2
Dividing Eqs. (2) by (3), we get

ln r /R2
v = v0
ln R1/R2
Note: The force F is supplied by the agency which tries to carry the inner cylinder
with velocity v0.
1.333 (a) Let us consider an elemental cylinder of radius r and thickness dr then from
Newton’s formula
dv dv
F = 2prl hr = 2pl hr 2 (1)
dr dr 2
and moment of this force acting on the element,

R1 dr
dv dv
N = 2pr 2l h r = 2pr 3l h r
dr dr
R2
dr
or 2pl hdv = N 3 (2)
r
As in the previous problem N is constant when conditions are steady

v r
dr
Integrating, 2pl h dv = N 3
3 3 r
0 R1
c - 2d
N 1 1
or 2pl hv = (3)
2 R 21 r
Putting r = R2, v = v2, we get
c - 2d
N 1 1
2pl hv2 = (4)
2 R 21 R2
R 21 R 22
c - 2d
1 1
v = v2
R 22 - R 21 R 21 r
(b) From Eq. (4)
N R 21 R 22
N1 = = 4 phv2 2
l R 2 - R 21
1.334 (a) Let dV be the volume flowing per second through the cylindrical shell of thick-
ness dr then,
2
v
r r
R
dr
dV = - (2prdr) v0 a1 - b a b dr
r2 r3
dr = 2pv0 r -
R2 R2
The total volume is
R
ar - b dr = 2pv0
r3 R2 p 2
V = 2pv0 2
= R v0
3 R 4 2
0
(b) Let dE be the kinetic energy within the above cylindrical shell. Then,
1 1
dT = (dm) v 2 = (2prldrr) v 2
2 2
(2plr)r dr v 20 a1 - 2 b = plrv 20 c r - 2 + d dr
1 r2 2 2r 3 r5
=
2 R R R4
Hence, total energy of the fluid,

R
pR 2rl v 20
ar - b
2r 3 r5
T = plrv 20 + dr =
3 R2 R4 6
0
(c) Here frictional force is the shearing force on the tube, exerted by the fluid, which
equals - hS dv>dt.
v = v0 a 1 - b
r2
Given,
R2
dv r
So, = - 2v0 2
dr R
dv 2v0
At r = R, = -
dr R
Then, viscous force is given by F = - h (2pRl ) a b

dv
dr r = R
2v0
= - 2pR hl a - b = 4phv0l
R
(d) Taking a cylindrical shell of thickness dr and radius r, viscous force,
dv
F = - h(2prl )
dr
Let ¢p be the pressure difference, then net force on the element is
dv
¢ppr 2 + 2phlr
dr
But, since the flow is steady, Fnet = 0
- 2plhr dv>dr - 2plhr 1 - 2v0 r>R 22 4hv0l

or ¢p = = =
pr 2 pr 2 R2
1.335 The loss of pressure head in travelling a distance l is seen from the middle section to
be h2 - h1 = 10 cm. Since h2 - h1 = h1 in our problem and h3 - h2 = 15 cm =
5 + h2 - h1, we see that pressure head of 5 cm remains in compensated and must
be converted into kinetic energy of the liquid flowing out. Thus,
rv 2
= rg¢h (where ¢h = 3 h - 2 h )
2
Thus, v = 1 2g¢h ⬵ 1 m/s
1.336 We know that, Reynold’s number (Re) is defined as, Re = rvl/h, where v is the ve-
locity, l is the characteristic length, and h the coefficient of viscosity. In the case of
circular cross-section the characteristic length is the diameter of cross-section d, and
v is taken as average velocity of flow of liquid.
rd1v1
Now, Re (Reynold’s number at x1 from the pipe end) = , where v1 is the
1 mh
velocity at distance x1.
rd2v2
Similarly, Re =
2 h
Re d1v1
=
1
So,
Re d2v2
2
From equation of continuity,

A1v1 = A2v2
or pr 21v1 = pr 22 v2 or d1v1r1 = d2v2r2
d1v1 r2 r0e-ax2
= = = e-a¢x (as x2 - x1 = ¢x)
d2v2 r1 r0e-ax1
Re
= ea¢x = 5
2
Thus,
Re
1
1.337 We know that Reynold’s number for turbulent flow is greater than that for laminar
flow.
rvd 2r1v1r1 2r2v2r2
Now, (Re )l = = and (Re)t =
h h1 h
But, (Re )t Ú (Re )l
r1v1r1 h2
So v2 = = 5 mm/s (on substituting values)
min r2r2h1
vr0d
1.338 We have R =
h
4p 2
and v is given by 6phrv = r (r - r0) g
3
(where r = density of lead, r 0= density of glycerine)

2 1
v = (r - r0)gr 2 = (r - r0) gd 2
9h 18h
1 1
Thus, = (r - r0) gr0d 3
2 18h2
and d = [9h2/r0(r - r0)g]1/3 = 5.2 mm (on substituting values)
dv
1.339 m = mg - 6phrv
dt
dv 6phr
or + v = g
dt m
+ kv = g awhere k =
dv 6phr a
or
dt m
dv d kt
or e kt + ke ktv = ge kt or e v = ge kt
dt dt
g g
or ve kt = e kt + C or v = + Ce-kt (where C is constant)
k k
g
Since v = 0 for t = 0, so 0 = + C
k
g
or, C = -
k
g
Thus, v = (1 - e-kt)
k
The steady state velocity is g /k .

v differs from g /k by n, where
e-kt = n
1
or t = ln n
k
1 (4p>3 )r 3P 4r 2r d 2r
Thus, = - = - = -
k 6phr 18h 18h
(We have neglected buoyancy in olive oil.)
- rd 2
t = lnn
18 h
= 0.20 s (on substituting values)

1.8 Relativistic Mechanics
1.340 From the formula for length contraction
a l0 - l0 b = hl0
v2
1 -
A c2
v2
So, 1 - = (1 - h)2 or v = c 2h(2 - h)
c2
1.341 (a) In the frame in which the triangle is at rest, the space coordinates of the vertices
23 a 23 a
are (000), aa , + , 0b a a , - , 0 b , all measured at the same time t. In
2 2 2 2
the moving frame the corresponding coordinates at time t ¿ are
A : (vt¿, 0, 0), B : a 23 21 - b 2 + vt¿, , 0 b and

a a
2 2
C : a 3311 - b 2 + vt¿, - , 0 b
a a
2 2
The perimeter P is then
P = a + 2a a (1 - b 2) + b = a C 1 + 24 - 3b 2 D
3 1 1>2
4 4
(b) The coordinates in the first frame are shown at time t. The coordinates in the
moving frame are
B a 3
‚a ‚ 0
B 2 2
A
C A
(0,0,0) C (a,0,0)
13
A : (vt¿, 0, 0), B : a 11 - b 2 + vt¿, a , 0 b , C : (a11 - b 2 + vt¿, 0, 0)
a
2 2
The perimeter P is then
a
P = a11 - b 2 + [1 - b 2 + 3]1>2 * 2
2
= a111 - b 2 + 14 - b 2 2 a where b = b
v
c
1.8 RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS 203
1.342 In the rest frame, the coordinates of the ends of the rod in terms of proper length l0
A : (0, 0, 0), B : (l0 cos u0, l0 sin u0, 0)
at time t. In the laboratory frame the coordinates at time t¿ are
A : (vt¿, 0, 0), B : (l0 cos u0 11 - b 2 + vt¿, l0sin u0, 0)
Therefore, we can write

l cos u0 = l0 cos u0 11 - b 2 and l sin u = l0 sin u0 B
cos2 u + (1 - b 2) sin2 u
Hence, l 20 = (l 2) a b A
1 - b2
1 - b 2 sin2 u
a where b = b
v
or l0 =
A 1 - b2 c
= 1.08 m (on substituting values)
1.343 In the frame K in which the cone is at rest, the coordinates of A are (0, 0, 0) and of
B are (h, h tan u, 0). In the frame K¿, which is moving with velocity v along the axis
of the cone, the coordinates of A and B at time t¿ are
A : (- vt¿, 0, 0), B : (h - 11 - b 2 - vt¿, h tan u, 0)

Thus the taper angle in the frame K¿ is
y¿B - y ¿A
= a b or u¿ = 59° (on substituting values)
tan u
tan u¿ =
11 - b 2 x ¿B - xA
The lateral surface area is
S = ph¿ 2 sec u¿ tan u¿
tan u tan2 u
= ph2 (1 - b 2) 1 +
11 - b 2 A 1 - b2
= S0 11 - b 2cos2 u
= 3.3 m2 (on substituting values)
Here, S0 = ph2 sec u tan u is the lateral surface area in the rest frame and
h¿ = h 11 - b 2 awhere b =
b
v
c
1.344 Because of time dilation, a moving clock reads less time. We write,
t - ¢t = t11 - b 2 awhere b = b
v
c
2 ¢t ¢t
+ a b = 1 - b2
2
Thus, 1 -
t t
¢t ¢t
or v = c a2 - b
A t t
= 0.6 * 108 m/s (on substituting values)
1.345 In the frame K, the length l of the rod is related to the time of flight ¢t by
l = v¢t
In the reference frame fixed to the rod (frame k¿ ) the proper length l0 of the rod is
given by
l0 = v¢t¿
v ¢t
awhere b = b
l v
But, l0 = =
11 - b 2 11 - b 2 c
v ¢t
Thus, v ¢t¿ =
11 - b 2
¢t 2 ¢t 2
So, 1 - b 2 = a b or v = c 1 - a b
¢t¿ A ¢t¿
¢t
and l0 = c 1(¢t¿)2 - (¢t)2 = c ¢t¿ 1 - a b = 4.5 m (on substituting values)
A ¢t¿
1.346 The distance traveled in the laboratory frame of reference is v¢t where v is the
velocity of the particle. But by time dilation
¢t0
¢t =
11 - v 2>c 2
So, v = c 11 - (¢t0> ¢t)2
Thus the distance traversed is

s = c¢t 11 - (¢t0> ¢t)2
= 5 m (on substituting values)
1.347 (a) If t0 is the proper life time of the mount, the life time in the moving frame is
t0 vt0
=
11 - v 2>c 2 11 - v 2>c 2
and hence l
11 - v2>c2
l
Thus, t0 =
v
= 1.4 ms (on substituting values)
(b) The words “from the muon’s stand point” are not part of any standard
terminology.
1.348 In the frame K in which the particles are at rest, their positions are A and B whose
coordinates may be taken as,
K
A : (0, 0, 0), B = (l0, 0, 0)
In the frame K¿ with respect to which K is moving with a A B

velocity v, the coordinates of A and B at time t¿ in
the moving frame are
A = (vt¿, 0, 0), B = (l0 11 - b 2 + vt¿, 0, 0) a where b = b

v
c
Suppose B hits a stationary target in K¿ after time t¿B while A hits it after time tB + ¢t.
Then,
l0 11 - b 2 + vt¿B = v (t¿B + ¢t)
v¢t
l0 =
11 - v 2>c2
So,
= 17 m (on substituting values)
1.349 In the reference frame fixed to the ruler the rod is moving with a velocity v and
suffers Lorentz contraction. If l0 is the proper length of the rod, its measured
length will be
¢x1 = l0 11 - b 2 awhere b = b
v
c
In the reference frame fixed to the rod, the ruler suffers Lorentz contraction and we
must have
¢x2 11 - b 2 = l0
Thus, l0 = 1¢x1 ¢x2 = 6.0 m (on substituting values)
¢x1
and 1 - b2 =
¢x2
¢x1
or v = c 1 - = 2.2 * 108 m/s (on substituting values)
A ¢x2
1.350 The coordinates of the ends of the rods in the frame fixed to the left rod are shown
in the figure. The points B and D coincide when
c1 - l0
l0 = c1 - vt0 or t0 =
v
A B D E
The points A and E coincide when (0,0,0) (l0,0,0) (c1–vt,0,0)
(c1+l0 1−β2−vt,0,0)
0 = c1 + l0 11 - b 2 - vt1
c1 + lo 11 - b 2
t1 =
v
l0
Thus, ¢t = t1 - t0 = 11 + 11 - b 22
v
a - 1 b = 1 - b2 = 1 - 2
v¢t 2 v2
or
l0 c
2c2 ¢t>l0 2l0> ¢t

v = =
c 2 ¢t 2>l02 1 + (l0>c¢t)2
From this
1 +
1.351 In K0, the rest frame of the particles, the events corresponding to the decay of the
particles are
A : (0, 0, 0, 0) and B : (0, l0, 0, 0)
In the reference frame K, the corresponding coordinates are by Lorentz transforma-

tion
vl0 l0
A : (0, 0, 0, 0), B : a , , 0, 0 b
c2 11 - b 2 11 - b 2
Now, l0 11 - b 2 = l , by Lorentz Fitzgerald contraction formula.

Thus the time lag of the decay time of B is
vl0 vl vl
¢t = = = 2
c 2 11 - b2 c 2(1 - b)
2 c - v2
= 20 ms (on substituting values)
B decays later. (B is the forward particle in the direction of motion.)

1.352 (a) In the reference frame K with respect to which the rod is moving with velocity
v, the coordinates of A and B are
A : t, xA + v 1t - tA2, 0, 0
B : t, xB + v 1t - tB2, 0, 0
l = xA - xB - v 1tA - tB2 = l0 11 - 2
B A
Thus,
xA - xB - v 1tA - tB2
So, l0 =
21 - v 2/c 2
(b) l0 - v 1tA - tB2 = l = l0 21 - v 2/c 2
1Since xA - tB can be either + l0 or - l0 .2
Thus, v 1tA - tB2 = 11 - 21 - v 2/c 2)l0
A 1 - 21 - v 2/c 2 B
l0
i.e., tA - tB =
v
l0
or tB - tA = v 11 + 11 - v 2/c22
1.353 At the instant the picture is taken the coordinates of A, B, A¿, B¿ in the rest frame
of AB are A' B'
A : 10, 0, 0, 02 v
B : 10, l0, 0, 02
B¿: (0, 0, 0, 0)
A¿: (0, or - l0 21 - v 2>c 2, 0, 0) A B
(a) In this frame the coordinates of B¿ at other times are B¿ : (t, vt, 0, 0). So B¿ is
opposite to B at time t (B) l0 /v. In the frame in which B¿, A¿ is at rest, the time
corresponding to this is given by Lorentz transformation.
l0 vl0 l0
a b =
1
t0 (B¿) = - 2
21 - v 2/c2
21 - v 2/c 2 v c v
(b) Similarly in the rest frame of A , B, the coordinates of A at other times are
A¿ : a t, - l0 21 - v 2/c 2 + vt, 0, 0 b
l0
A¿ is opposite to A at time t (A) = 21 - v 2/c 2
v
The corresponding time in the frame in which A¿, B¿ are rest is
l0
t (A¿) = gt (A) =
v
at - b
1 vx
1.354 By Lorentz transformation t¿ =
21 - v 2/c 2 c2
vx 1
So at time t = 0, t¿ =
c2 21 - v2>c2
If x 7 0,t¿ 6 0 and if x 6 0,t¿ 7 0, so we get the diagram given below “in terms of
the K-clocks”.
K:
K:
The situation in terms of the K ¿ clock is reversed.
1.355 Suppose x (t) is the locus of points in the frame K at which the readings of the clocks
of both reference system are permanently identical, then by Lorentz transformation
2> 2 a t b = t
1 Vx (t)
t¿ = -
21 - V c c2
a1 - 21 - V 2>c 2 b
c2
On differentiating x (t) =
V
11 - 21 - b 22 awhere b = b
c V
=
b c
Let b = tan h u, 0 … u 6 q . Then,
11 - 21 - tanh2u 2 = c a1 - b
c cosh u 1
x (t) =
tanh u sinh u cosh u
cosh u - 1 cosh u - 1 u
= c = c = c tanh … V
sinh u A cosh u + 1 2
( tan h u is a monotonically increasing function of u.)

1.356 We can take the coordinates of the two events to be
A : (0, 0, 0, 0); B : (¢t, a, 0, 0)

|a|
For B to be the effect and A to be cause we must have ¢t 7 .
c
In the moving frame, the coordinates of A and B become
A : (0, 0, 0, 0); B: c g a ¢t - b , g (a - V ¢t), 0, 0 d ¢where g =

aV 1
≤
21 - 1V 2>c22
c2
Since,
2 c a ¢t - b 2 d = (¢t)2 -
a¿ 2 aV 2 1 a2
(¢t¿)2 - = g - (a - V ¢t) 7 0
c2 c2 c2 c2
|a| ¿
we must have ¢t¿ 7 .
c
1.357 (a) The four-dimensional interval between A and B (assuming ¢y = ¢z = 0) is:

52 - 32 = 16 units ct
7
Therefore the time interval between these two B
6
events in the reference frame in which the 5
events occurred at the same place is 4
C
3
c (t¿B - t¿A ) = 216 = 4 m
2
4 4 1
or t¿B - t¿A = = * 10-8 s A
x
c 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(b) The four dimensional interval between A and C (assuming ¢y = ¢z = 0) is:
32 - 52 = - 16
So the distance between the two events in the frame in which they are simulta-
neous is 4 units = 4 m.
1.358 By the velocity addition formula

vx - V
vx¿ =
1 - Vvx >c 2
vy 21 - V 2>c 2
v y¿ =
1 - vxV>c 2
2(vx - V )2 + v y2 (1 - V 2>c 2)
and v¿ = 2v x¿ 2 + v ¿y2 = .
1 - vxV>c 2
1.359 (a) By definition, the velocity of approach is

dx1 dx2
vapproach = - = v1 - ( - v2) = v1 + v2 = 1.25c
dt dt
in the reference frame K .

(b) The relative velocity is obtained by the transformation law
v1 - (–v2) v1 + v2
vr = =
v1 ( - v2) v1v2
1 - 1 + 2
c2 c
= 0.19c (where c is the velocity of light )
1.360 The velocity of one of the rods in the reference frame fixed to the other rod is
v + v 2v
V = =
1 + v 2>c 2 1 + b2
The length of the moving rod in this frame is
4v 2>c 2 1 - b2
l = l0 1 - = l0
C (1 + b 2)2 1 + b2
1.361 The approach velocity is defined by
d r1 d r2
Vapproach = - = v1 - v2
dt dt
in the laboratory frame.
So, Vapproach = 2v12 + v22
On the other hand, the relative velocity can be obtained by using the velocity addition
formula and has the components
v12 v1v2
B - v1, v2 1 - a bR so , Vr = v12 + v22 -
C c2 A c2
1.362 The components of the velocity of the unstable particle in the frame K are
y
a V, v¿
V2 y'
1 - , 0b
A c2
So the velocity relative to K is v'
v¿ 2V 2
V 2 + v¿ 2 -
A c2
The life time in this frame dilates to
¢t0 n
V 2 v¿ 2 v¿ 2V 2
1 - - +
A c2 c2 c4
and the distance traversed is
2V 2 + v¿ 2 - (v¿ 2V 2)>c 2
s = ¢t0
21 - V 2>c 2 21 - v¿ 2>c 2
1.363 In the frame K ¿ the components of the velocity of the particle are
v cos u - V K'
v¿x = K
vV cos u
1 - v
c2
v
v sin u 21 - V 2>c 2
v¿y = θ x
vVcos u
1 -
c2
v y¿
21 - V 2>c 2
v sin u
Hence, tan u¿ = =
v¿x v cos u - V
1.364 In K ¿ the coordinates of A and B are

A : (t¿, 0, - v¿ t¿, 0); B : (t¿, l, - v¿ t¿, 0)
After performing Lorentz transformation to the frame K we get
B : t = g a t¿ + b
Vl
A : t = gt ¿;
c2
x = g Vt ¿; x = g (l + Vt ¿)
y = v ¿t ¿; y = - v ¿t¿
z = 0; z = 0
Vl
By translating t ¿ : t ¿ - , we can write the coordinates of B as B : t = gt ¿.
c2
v ¿2
x = gl a 1 - b + Vt¿g = l 1 - 2 + Vt ¿g
V2
c 2 A c
y = - v¿ a t¿ - b, z = 0
Vl K K'
c2
v
1 - a b, ¢y = 2
V2 v¿Vl A
Thus, ¢x = l v' B
C c 2 c
v¿V
Hence, tan u¿ =
c 2 21 - 1V>c22
t t + dt
1.365 - - K
v v + wdt
(a) In K the velocities at time t and t + dt are respectively v and v + wdt along x-
axis which is parallel to the vector V. In the frame K¿ moving with velocity V
with respect to K, the velocities are, respectively,
v - V v + wdt - V
and
1 - vV>c 2 1 - (v + wdt) V>c 2
The latter velocity is written as
v - V wdt v - V wV
+ + dt
1 - vV>c2 1 - vV>c2 (1 - vV>c ) c 2
2
v - V wdt 11 - V 2>c 22
= +
1 - vV>c 2 11 - vV>c 222
Also by Lorentz transformation
dt - Vdx>c2 1 - vV/c 2
dt¿ = = dt
21 - V 2>c 2 21 - V 2>c 2
Thus the acceleration in the K ¿ frame is
a1 b
dv¿ w V 2 3>2
w¿ = = -
dt¿ 11 - vV>c223 c2
(b) In the K frame, the velocities of the particle at the time t and t + dt are, respec-
tively (0, v, 0) and (0, v + wdt, 0), where V is along x-axis.
In the K¿ frame the velocities are 1 - V, v 21 - V 2>c 2, 02
and 1- V, (v + wdt) 21 - V 2>c 2, 02, respectively.
Thus the acceleration
wdt 2(1 - V 2>c 2)

= w a1 - b
V2
w¿ = along the y-axis
dt¿ c2
dt
aWe have used dt¿ = .
21 - V 2>c 2
a
1.366 In the instantaneous rest frame v = V and

w
w¿ =
11 - V 2>c 223>2
(from solution problem 1.365(a))
dv
= = w¿dt
11 - V 2>c223>2
So,
w¿ is constant by assumption. Thus, integration gives

w¿t
v =
21 + 1w ¿t>c22
¢ 1 + a b - 1≤
c2 w¿t 2
Integrating once again x =
w¿ B c
= 0.91 light year
The percentage difference of rocket velocity from velocity of light is given by
c - v
= a b = 0.47%
1 c 2
c 2 w¿t
1.367 The boost time t0 in the reference frame fixed to the rocket is related to the time t
elapsed on the Earth by
1w¿t>c22
t t
v2
t0 = 1 - dt = D1 - T dt
3A c2 3 1 + 1w¿t>c2
0 0
t w ¿t /c
ln c + 1 + a b d
dt c dj c w¿t w¿t 2
= = =
3 21 + 1w¿t>c2 w¿ 3 21 + j2 w¿ c B c
0 0
= 3.5 months (on substituting values)
m0
1.368 m =
21 - b 2
m 1 1
For b L 1, L =
m0 22 (1 - b) 22h
L 70 (on substituting values)
1.369 We define the density r in the frame K is such a way that r dx dy dz is the rest mass
dm0 of the element. That is r dxdydz = r0dx0dy0dz0, where r0 is the proper density,
dx0, dy0, dz0 are the dimensions of the element in the rest frame K0. Now,
dy = dy0, dz = dzo, dx = dx0 21 - v2>c2
if the frame K is moving with velocity v relative to the frame K0. Thus
r0
r =
21 - v 2>c 2
Defining h by r = r0 (1 + h)
1 v2 1 h(2 + h)
We get 1 + h = or = 1 - =
21 - v 2>c 2 (1 + h) 1(1 + h)2
c 2 2
h(2 + h) c 2h (2 + h)
or v = c =
A (1 + h)2 1 + h
= 0.6c (where c is the velocity of light)
m0v m0 p2
1.370 We have = p or = m0 2 +
21 - v 2>c 2 21 - v 2>c 2 A c2
v2 m20c 2 p2
or 1 - = = 1 -
c2 m20c 2 + p 2 p 2 + m20c 2
cp c
or v = =
2p 2 + mo2c 2 21 + (moC> p 2 2
c - v m0c 2 -1>2
So, = c1 - a1 + a b b d * 100 % = 0.44% (on substituting values)
c p
1.371 By definition of h,
m0v v2 1
= hm0v or 1- = 2
21 - v 2>c 2 c 2 h
1 c 1
or v = c 1 - = 2h2 - 1 = c 23 (on substituting for h)
A h2 h 2
1.372 The work done is equal to change in kinetic energy which is different in the two
cases. Classically, i.e., in non-relativistic mechanics, the change in kinetic energy is
1 1
m0c 2 ((0.8)2 - (0.6)2) = m0c2 0.28 = 0.14 m0c 2
2 2
Relativistically, it is
m0c 2 m0c 2 m0c 2 m0c 2
- = - = m0c 2 (1.666 - 1.250)
21 - (0.8)2 21 - (0.6)2 0.6 0.8
= 0.416 m0c 2 = 0.42 m0 c 2
m 0c 2
1.373 = 2m0c 2
v2
1 - 2
A c
v2 1 v2 1
or 1 - = or 1 - =
A c 2 2 c 2 4
v 23 23
or = , i.e., v = c = 2.6 * 108 m/s
c 2 2
1.374 Relativistically,
= a - 1 b = b 2 + b4
T 1 1 3
m0c 2 21 - b 2 2 8
- 1b rel
2 22 = - a b
2T 3 2T 3 2T 2
So, b 2rel ⬵ 2 2
m0c 4 m0c 4 m0c 2
- b rel = c d = a1 - b
2T T 2 1>2 2T 3 T
Thus, - 3
m0c 2 2
m0c 4 A m0c 2 4 m0c 2
2T
But classically, b cl =
A m0c 2
b rel - b cl 3 T
so , = = e
b cl 4 m0c 2
T 4
Hence if, 2
6 e L 0.013, then the velocity b is given by the classical formula
m0c 3
with an error less than e.
1.375 From the formula

m 0c 2 m0v
E = , p =
21 - v 2/c 2 21 - v 2>c 2
we find E 2 = c 2p 2 + m02c 4 or (m0c 2 + T ) 2 = c 2p 2 + m02c 4

1
or T (2 m0c 2 + T) = c 2p 2 i.e. p = 2T (2m0c 2 + T ) = 1.09 GeV/c
c
1.376 Let the total force exerted by the beam on the target surface be F and the power lib-
erated there be P. Then, using the result of the previous problem, we see
N I
F = Np = 2T (T + 2m0c 2) = 2T (T + 2m0c 2)
c ec
since, I = Ne, N being the number of particles striking the target per second. Also,
m0c 2
P = N a - m0c2 b =
I
T
21 - v 2>c 2 e
These will be, respectively, equal to the pressure and power developed per unit area
of the target if I is current density.
1.377 In the frame fixed to the sphere, the momentum transferred to the elastically scat-
tered particle is
2mv
21 - v 2>c 2
1
The density of the moving element is n (from solution of problem 1.369)
21 - v 2>c2
and the momentum transferred per unit time per unit area is the pressure, given by
2mv 1 #v 2mnv2
p =
1 - v 2>c2
n
21 - v 2>c 2 21 - v 2>c2
In the frame fixed to the gas, when the sphere hits a stationary particle, the latter
recoils with a velocity
v + v 2v
= =
1 + v >c
2 2 1 + v 2>c2
m # 2v
1 + v 2>c 2 2mv
4v 2>c 2
=
1 - v 2>c2
The momentum transferred is
1 -
A (1 - v 2>c 2)2
2
2mv # n # v = 2mnv2 2
1 - v >c 1 - v >c
and the pressure is 2 2
1.378 The equation of motion is

m0v
a b = F
d
dt 21 - v2>c2
v>c b Ft
Integrating, = = (using v = 0 for t = 0)
21 - v 2>c 2 21 - b 2 m0 c
= a b or b 2 =
b2 Ft 2 (Ft)2 Fct
or v =
1 - b 2 m0c (Ft) + (m0c)2
2
2(m0c)2 + (Ft)2
Fct dt c jdj c
or x = = = 2F 2t 2 + m 20 c 2 + constant
3 2F 2t 2 + m20c 2 F 3 2j 2 + (m c) 2
0
F
m0c 2 m0c 2
c 2t 2 + a b -
2
or using x = 0 at t = 0, we get, x =
B F F
1.379 Since, x = 2a 2 + c 2t 2
# c 2t
so, x = v =
a 2 + c 2t 2
v c 2t
or =
21 - v 2>c2 a
m0v m0c 2
a b =
d
Thus, = F
dt 21 - v 2>c2 a
m0v #
#
a b = m0 + m0 2 v # v
d v v 1
1.380 F =
dt 21 - v 2>c 2 21 - v >c
2 2 c 11 - v 2>c 223>2
#
Thus, F ⬜ = m0w 21 - b 2, w = v, w ⬜ v
w #
F7 = m0 , w = v, w7 v
(1 - b 2)3>2
1.381 By definition,
c2 m0c 3dt vx cm0dx

E = m0 = , px = m0 =
21 - vx2>c2 ds 21 - v 2>c2 dx
where ds 2 = c 2 dt 2 - dx 2 is the invariant interval (dy = dz = 0).
dx¿ (dx - Vdt) px - VE>c 2

Thus, px¿ = cm0 = cm0g =
ds ds 21 - V 2>c2
dt¿ 1dt - Vdx >c22 E - Vpx

E ¿ = m0c 3 - c 3 m0g =
ds ds V2
1 - 2
A c
1.382 For a photon moving in the x direction

e = cpx
and p = p = 0
y z
1 - V>c
ae - V b = e
1 e
In the moving frame, e¿ =
21 - b 2 c A 1 + V>c
e 1 1 - b 3 3c
Note that e¿ = if, = or b = , V =
2 4 1 + b 5 5
1.383 As before
dt
E = m0c 3
ds
dx
px = m0c
ds
dy dz
Similarly py = m0c , pz = m0c
ds ds
Then E - c p = E - c 1px + py + pz22
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(c 2dt 2 - dx 2 - dy 2 - dz 2)
= m02c 4 = m02c 4 is invariant
ds 2
1.384 (b) In the C.M. frame, the total momentum is zero, Thus
V cp1x 2T (T + 2m0c 2) T
= = =
c E1 + E2 T + 2m0c 2 A T + 2m0c 2
T
V = c = 2.12 * 108 m/s
A T + 2m0c 2
where we have used the result of problem 1.375.
(a) Then
1 1 T + 2m0c 2
= =
21 - V 2>c 2 1 -
T C 2m0c 2
A T + 2m0c 2
Total energy in the C.M. frame is
2m0c 2 T + 2m0c 2 '

= 2m0 c2 = 22m0c 2 ( T + 2m0c 2) = T + 2m0c 2
21 - V 2>c 2 C 2m0c 2
T = 2m0c 2 a - 1 b = 777 MeV

' T
So, 1 +
A 2m0c 2
' '
Also 2 2c 2 p 2 + mc 4 = 22m20c 2(T + 2m0c 2) Q 4c 2p 2 = 2m0c 2T
' 1
or p = m T = 940 MeV>c
A2 0
1.385 M0c 2 = 2E 2 - c 2p 2
2(2m0c 2 + T ) 2 - T (2m0c 2 + T ) = 22m0c 2 (2m0c 2 + T ) = c 22m0 (2m0c 2 + T )
c 2p T
Also cp = 2T (T + 2m0c 2), v = = c
E A T + 2m0c 2
1.386 Let T ¿ = kinetic energy of a proton striking another stationary particle of the same
rest mass. Then, combined kinetic energy in the C.M. frame
T¿ T¿
= 2m0c 2 a b a b
T 2
1 + - 1 = 2T, + 1 = 1 +
A 2m0c 2 m0c 2 2m0c 2
T¿ T (2m0c 2 + T) 2T (T + 2m0c 2)
= or T¿ =
2m0c 2 m20c4 m0c 2
1.387 We have
E1 + E2 + E3 = m0c 2, p1 + p2 + p3 = 0
Hence, (m0c 2 - E1) 2 - c 2 p12 = (E 2 + E3) 2 - (p2 + p3) 2c 2
L.H.S. = (m 20 c 4 - E1) 2 - c 2p12 = (m02 + m12) c 4 - 2m0c 2E1
The R.H.S. is an invariant. We can evaluate it in any frame. Choose the C.M. frame
of the particles 2 and 3.
In this frame, R.H.S. = (E 2¿ + E 3¿ ) 2 = (m2 + m3) 2c 4
Thus, (m02 + m12) c 4 - 2m0c 2E1 = (m2 + m3)2c 4
m02 + m12 - (m2 + m3)2

or 2m0c 2E1 … E m02 + m12 - (m2 + m3)2 F c4 or E1 … c2
2m0
1.388 The velocity of ejected gases is u relative to the rocket. In an Earth centered frame
it is
v - u
1 - vu>c2
in the direction of the rocket. The momentum conservation equation then reads
v - u
(m + dm) (v + dv) + ( - dm) = mv
1 - uv>c2
v - u
or mdv - a - vb dm = 0
1 - uv>c2
Here, - dm is the mass of the ejected gases. So,
- u + uv>c2
dm = 0 or mdv + u a 1 - b dm = 0
v2
mdv -
1 - uv2>c2 c2
(neglecting 1 - uv/c 2, since u is non-relativistic).

v
Integrating, using b = , we get
c
db u dm
+ = 0
31 - b
2 c 3 m
1 + b u
or ln + ln m = constant
1 - b c
u
The constant = ln m0, since b = 0 initially.
c
1 - b 1 - 1m>mo2u>c
= a b or b =
m u>c
1 + 1m>mo2u>c
Thus,
1 + b m0
THERMODYNAMICS AND
MOLECULAR PHYSICS
PART 2
2.1 Equation of the Gas State. Processes
2.1 Let m1 and m2 be the masses of the gas in the vessel before and after the gas is
released. Hence mass of the gas released,
¢m = m1 – m2
Now from ideal gas equation
R R
p1V = m1 M T0 and p2V = m2 M T0
as V and T are same before and after the release of the gas.
R R
So, (p1 - p2)V = (m1 - m2) T = ¢m T0
M 0 M
(p1 - p2)VM ¢pVM
or ¢m = = (1)
RT0 RT0
R M r
We also know p = r T so, = (2)
M RT0 p0
(where p0 = standard atmospheric pressure and T0 = 273 K).
¢p 0.78
¢m = rV = 1.3 * 30 * = 30 g
p0 1
2.2 Let V is volume of each vessel. For the vessel which contained the ideal gas,
p1V = n1RT1
When heated, some gas, passes into the evacuated vessel till pressure difference be-
comes ¢p. Let p¿1 and p¿2 be the pressure on the two sides of the valve. Then
p¿1 V = n¿1 RT2
and p¿2 V = n¿2 RT2 = (n1 - n¿1)RT2

224 PART TWO THERMODYNAMICS AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS
Putting the values of n1 and n2 from the first two equations

p1V p¿1V p1 p¿1
p¿2 V = a - b RT2 or p¿2 = a - bT
RT1 RT2 T1 T2 2
But, p¿1 - p¿2 = ¢p

p1 p¿2 + ¢p
So, p¿2 = a - b T2
T1 T2
p1T2
= - p¿2 - ¢p
T1
1 p1T2
or p¿2 = a - ¢p b = 0.08 atm
2 T1
2.3 Let the mixture contain n1 and n2 moles of H2 and He, respectively. If molecular weights
of H2 and He are M1 and M2, then their respective masses in the mixture are
m1 = n1M1 and m2 = n2M2
Therefore, for the total mass of the mixture we get,
m = m1 + m2 or m = n1M1 + n2M2 (1)
Also, if n is the total number of moles of the mixture in the vessels, then we know,
n = n1 + n2 (2)
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) for n1 and n2, we get
(nM2 - m) m - nM1
n1 = , n2 =
M2 - M1 M2 - M1
Therefore, we get
(nM2 - m) (m - nM1)
m1 = M1 and m2 = M2
M2 - M1 M2 - M1
m1 M1 (nM2 - m)
or =
m2 M2 (m - nM1)
One can also express the above result in terms of the effective molecular weight M of
the mixture, defined as
m RT
M = n = m
pV
m1 M1 M2 - M 1 - M>M2
Thus, = # =
m2 M2 M - M1 M>M1 - 1
2.1 EQUATION OF THE GAS STATE. PROCESSES 225
Using the data and table, we get

m1
M = 3.0 g and m = 0.50
2
2.4 We know, for the mixture, N2 and CO2 (being regarded as ideal gases, their mixture
too behaves like an ideal gas) , p0V = nRT , where, n is the total number of moles of
of the gases (mixture) present, p0 is the pressure and V is the volume of the vessel.
If n1 and n2 are number of moles of N2 and CO2, respectively present in the mixture,
then n = n1 + n2.
Now number of moles of N2 and CO2 is, by definition, given by
m1 m2
n1 = and n2 =
M1 M2
where, m1 is the mass of N2 (molecular weight = M1) in the mixture and m2 is the
mass of CO2 (molecular weight = M2) in the mixture.
Therefore density of the mixture is given by
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
r = =
V (nRT> p0)
p0 m1 + m2 p0(m1 + m2)M1M2
= =
RT n1 + n2 RT (m1M2 + m2M1)
= 1.5 kg/m3 (on substituting values)
2.5 (a) The mixture contains n1, n2 and n3 moles of O2, N2 and CO2, respectively. Then
the total number of moles of the mixture
n = n1 + n2 + n3
We know, ideal gas equation for the mixture
nRT
pV = nRT or p =
V
(n1 + n2 + n3)RT
or p = = 1.968 atm (on substituting values)
V
(b) Mass of oxygen (O2) present in the mixture: m1 = n1M1

Mass of nitrogen (N2) present in the mixture: m2 = n2M2
Mass of carbon dioxide (CO2) present in the mixture: m3 = n3M3
So, mass of the mixture:
m = m1 + m2 + m3 = n1M1 + n2M2 + n3M3
Molecular mass of the mixture
mass of the mixture

M =
total number of moles
n1M + n M + n M
1 2 2 3 3
= = 36.7 g/mol (on substituting values)
n1 + n2 + n3
2.6 Let p1 and p2 be the pressure in the upper and lower part of the cylinder, respectively
at temperature T0. At the equilibrium position for the piston:
p1S + mg = p2S
mg
or p1 + = p2 (where m is the mass of the piston)
S
RT0
But, p1 = (where V0 is the initial volume of the lower part)
hV0
RT0 RT0 RT0

a1 - b
mg mg 1
So, + = Q = (1)
hV0 S V0 S V0 h
Let T ¿ be the sought temperature and at this temperature the volume of the lower part be-
comes V ¿, then according to the problem the volume of the upper part becomes h¿V .
a1 - b
mg RT 1
Hence, = (2)
S V¿ h¿

RT0 RT ¿ T011 - 1>h2V ¿
a1 - b= a1 - b or T ¿ =
1 1
V011 - 1>h¿2
(3)
V0 h V¿ h¿
As, the total volume must be constant, so

V0(1 + h)
V0(1 + h) = V ¿(1 + h¿) or V ¿ =
1 + h¿
Putting the value of V ¿ in Eq. (3), we get

(1 + h)
T011 - 1>h2V0
(1 + h¿)
T =
V0 11 - 1>h¿2
T0(h2 - 1)h¿
= = 0.42 kK
(h¿ 2 - 1)h
2.7 Let r1 be the density after the first stroke. The mass remains constant.
Vr
So, Vr = (V + ¢V ) r1 Q r1 =
(V + ¢V )
Similarly, if r2 is the density after second stroke
Vr1 = (V + ¢V ) r2
r2 = a br1 = a b r0
V V 2
or
V + ¢V V + ¢V
In this way after nth stroke,
rn = a b r0
n
V
V + ¢V
Since pressure r density,
pn = a b p0 (because temperature is constant)

n
V
V + ¢V
It is required by pn >p0 to be 1>h,
a b or h = a b
n
1 V V + ¢V n
So, =
h V + ¢V V
ln h
n =
ln 11 + ¢V >V2
Hence,
m RT
2.8 From the ideal gas equation p =
M V
dp RT dm
= (1)
dt MV dt
In each stroke, volume v of the gas is ejected, where v is given by
V
v = m [mN - 1 - mN ]
N
In case of continuous ejection, if mN - 1 corresponds to mass of gas in the vessel at time

t, then mN is the mass at time t + ¢t, where ¢t, is the time in which volume v of the
gas has come out.
The rate of evacuation is therefore v >¢t, i.e.,
C =
v
= -
V # m (t + ¢t) - m (t)
¢t m (t + ¢t) ¢t
In the limit ¢t : 0, we get
V dm
C = (2)
m dt

dp C mRT C dp C
= - = - p or = - dt
dt V MV V p V
p0 0
dp C
Integrating we get, = - dt
3 p V3
p t
p C
or ln = - t
p0 V
Thus, p = p0e - Ct>V
2.9 Let r be the instantaneous density, then instantaneous mass = Vr. In a short interval
dt the volume is increased by Cdt.
So, Vr = (V + Cdt) (r + dr) (because mass remains constant in a short interval dt).
dr C
So, = - dt
r V
Since pressure r density,
dp C
p = - V dt
p2
dp C
or - p = t
3 V
p1
V p1 V 1
or t = ln p = ln h = 1.0 min
C 2 C
2.10 The physical system consists of one mole of gas confined in the smooth vertical tube.
Let m1 and m2 be the masses of upper and lower pistons and S1 and S2 be their
respective areas.
For the lower piston p0
pS2 + m2g = p0S2 + T
T
or T = (p - p0) S2 + m2g (1)
p
Similarly for the upper piston
T
p0S1 + T + m1g = pS1
p0
or T = (p - p0)S1 - m1g (2)

(p - p0)(S1 - S2) = (m1 + m2) g
or (p - p0) ¢S = mg
mg
So, p = + p0 = constant
¢S
From the gas law, pV = nRT or p¢V = nR¢T (because p is constant) .
a p0 + b ¢Sl = R¢T
mg
So,
¢S
1
Hence, ¢T = (p0 ¢S + mg)l
R
= 0.9 K
2.11 (a) Given that p = p0 - aV 2 = p0 - a1RT>p22 (as V = RT>p for one mole of gas).
1 1
Thus, T = p 1p0 - p = 2p0 p 2 - p 3 (1)
R 1a R 1a
d
For Tmax, (p p 2 - p 3) = 0
dp 0
which yields, p = 2>3 p0

Hence, using this value of p in Eq. (1), we get
2 p0 p0
p0 p0 - p0 = a b
1 #2 2
Tmax =
R 1a 3 A 3 3 R C 3a
(b) Given that p = p0e - bV = p0e - bRT>p
b RT p0 p p0
So, = ln and T = ln p (2)
p p bR
For Tmax, the condition is dT >dp = 0, which yields p = p0 >e.

Hence using this value of p in Eq. (2), we get
p0
Tmax =
ebR
2.12 Given that T = T0 + aV 2 = T0 + a (R 2T 2>p 2) (as V = RT>p for one mole of gas).
So, p = 1a RT (T - T0)-1>2 (1)

dp
For Pmin, = 0, which gives
dT
T = 2T0 (2)
pmin = 1a R 2T0 (2T0 - T0 )-1>2 = 2R 1aT0
2.13 Consider a thin layer at a height h and thickness dh. Let p and dp + p be the pres-
sures on the two sides of the layer. The mass of the layer is Sdhr. Equating vertical
downward force to the upward force acting on the layer, we get
Sdhrg + (p + dp)S = pS
dp
So, = - rg (1)
dh
(p+dp)S
r
But, p = RT dh
M
rR pS
So, dp = dT h
Sdh
M
rR
or - dT = rgdh (using Eq. 1)
M
dT gM
So, = - = - 34 K>km
dh R
That means, temperature of air drops by 34 K at a height of 1 km above bottom.
2.14 From the previous problem we have,
dp
= - rg (1)
dh
But, from p = Crn (where C is a constant), we get
dp >dr = Cnrn - 1 (2)
We have from gas law,
T or Crn = r # T
R R
p = r
M M
M
So, T = Crn - 1 (using Eq. 2)
R
dT M#
Thus, = C (n - 1) rn –2 (3)
dr R
dT dT # dr # dp
But, =
dh dr dp dh
Substituting from Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) we get

dT M 1 - Mg (n - 1)
= C (n - 1) rn - 2 n - 1
( - rg) =
dh R Cnr nR
2.15 We have, dp = - rgdh and from gas law r = (M>RT )p.

dp Mg
Thus, = - dh
p RT
Integrating, we get
p h
dp Mg
= - dh
3 p RT 3
p0 0
p Mg
or ln = - h (where p0 is the pressure at the surface of the Earth)
p0 RT
So, p = p0e-Mgh>RT
Under standard conditions, p0 = 1 atm, T = 273 K
Pressure at a height of 5 km = 1 * e-28 * 9.81 * 5000>8.314 * 273 = 0.5 atm
Pressure in a mine at a depth of 5 km = 1 * e-28 * 9.81 * (-5000)>8.314 * 273 = 2 atm
2.16 We have dp = - rgdh and from gas law p = ( r>M )RT .

dr
Thus, dp = RT (at constant temperature)
M
dr gM
So, = dh
r RT
Integrating within limits
r h
dr gM
= dh
3 r 3 RT
r0 0
r gM
or ln = h
r0 RT
RT r
So, r = r0e-Mgh>RT and h = - ln
Mg r0
(a) Given that T = 273 K and r0 >r = e.

RT
Thus, h = - ln e-1
Mg
RT
= = 8 km.
Mg
(b) Given that T = 273 K and (r0 - r)>r0 = 0.01 or r>r0 = 0.99.
RT r
Thus, h = - ln = 0.09 km (on substituting values)
Mg r0
2.17 From the Barometric formula, we have
p = p0e-Mgh>RT
pM
and from gas law r =
RT
So, at constant temperature from these two equations
Mp0
r = e-Mgh>RT = r0e-Mgh>RT (1)
RT
Eq. (1) shows that density varies with height in the same manner as pressure. Let us
consider the mass element of the gas contained in the column.
Mp0
dm = r (Sdh) = e-Mgh>RT Sdh
RT
Hence the sought mass,
h
Mp0S p0S
m = e - Mgh>RT dh = (1 - e-Mgh>RT )
RT 3 g
0
2.18 As the gravitational field is constant the centre of gravity and the centre of mass
(C.M.) are same. The location of C.M.
q q
hdm h rdh
3 3
0 0
h = q
= q
dm rdh
3 3
0 0
But from Barometric formula and gas law r = r0e-Mgh>RT

h(e-Mgh>RT )dh
3
0 RT
So, h = q
=
Mg
(e-Mgh>RT )dh
3
0
2.19 (a) We know that the variation of pressure with height of a fluid is given by
dp = - rgdh
r pM
But from gas law p = RT or r =
M RT
From these two equations

pMg
dp = - dh (1)
RT
dp - Mgdh
or =
p RT0(1 - ah)
p h
dp - Mg dh
Integrating we get, =
3 p RT0 3 (1 - ah)
p0 0
p
or ln = ln (1 - ah) Mg>aRT0
p0
p = p0(1 - ah)Mg>aRT0 aobviously h 6 b.

1
Hence,
a
(b) Proceed up to Eq. (1) of part (a), and then put T = T0(1 + ah) and proceed fur-
ther in the same fashion to get
p0
p =
(1 + ah)Mg>aRT0
2.20 Let us consider the mass element of the gas (thin layer) in the w
cylinder at a distance r from its open end as shown in the figure.
Using Newton’s second law for the element
Fn = mwn r
dr
(p + dp) S - pS = ( r S dr) ␻2r
pM
or dp = rv2rdr = v2rdr
RT
dp Mv2
So, = rdr
p RT
p r
dp
Mv2
or = rdr
3 p RT 3
p0 0
p Mv2 2
= r or p = p0e Mv r >2RT
2 2
Thus, ln
p0 2RT
2.21 For an ideal gas law

r
p = RT
M
500
On substitution, we get p = 0.082 * 300 * atm = 279.5 atm
44
From Van der Waal gas equation
ap + b (V - nb) = n RT (where V = nVM )

n2a
V2
nRT an2 mRT>M am2
or p = - 2 = - 2 2
V - nb V V - mb>M V M
rRT ar2
= - 2 = 79.2 atm
M - rb M
2.22 (a) p = c - 2 d (1 + h) =
RT a RT
, (where VM is the molar volume)
VM - b VM VM
(The pressure is less for a Van der Waal gas than for an ideal gas.)
a(1 + h) -1 -1 + h hVM + b
or = RT c + d = RT
2
VM VM VM - b VM (VM - b)
a (1 + h)(VM - b)
or T =
RVM (hVM + b)
1.35 * 1.1 * (1 - 0.039)
= L 125 K
0.082 * (0.139)
(b) The corresponding pressure is

RT a a (1 + h) a
p = - 2 = - 2
VM - b VM VM (hVM + b) VM
a (VM + hVM - hVM - b) a (VM - b)
= = 2
2
VM (hVM + b) V M (VM + b)
1.35 0.961
= * L 9.3 atm
1 0.139
1 a 1 a
2.23 Since, p1 = RT1 - 2 and p2 = RT2 - 2
V - b V V - b V
R (T2 - T1)
So, p2 - p1 =
V - b
R (T2 - T1) R (T2 - T1)
or V - b = Qb = V -
p2 - p1 p2 - p1
p2 - p1 a
Also, p1 = T1 -
T2 - T1 V2
a T1 ( p2 - p1) T1 p2 - p1 T2
Q = - p1 =
V 2 T2 - T1 T2 - T1
T1 p2 - p1T2
or a = V2
T2 - T1
Using T1 = 300 K, p1 = 90 atm, T2 = 350 K, p2 = 110 atm,V = 0.250, we get a = 1.87 atm
l2>mol2, and b = 0.045 l/mol.
0p
- 2 - V a b =
RT a RTV 2a
2.24 p = - 2
V - b V 0V T (V - b)2 V
- 1 0V
or k = a b
V 0p T
RTV 3 - 2a (V - b)2 -1 V 2(V - b)2
= c d =
V 2(V - b)2 [RTV 3 - 2a (V - b)2]
2.25 For an ideal gas, k0 = V>RT.
(V - b)2 2a (V - b)2 -1 b 2 -1
e1 - f a b e a b f
b 2 2a
Now, k = = k0 1 - 1 - 1 -
RTV RTV 3 V RTV V
= k0 e 1 - f (to leading order in a, b)

2b 2a
+
V RTV
2a 2b a
Now, k 7 k0 if 7 or T 6
RTV V bR
If a and b do not vary much with temperature, then the effect at high temperature is
clearly determined by b and its effect is repulsive so compressibility is less.
2.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics. Heat Capacity
2.26 Internal energy of air, treating it as an ideal gas is given by

m m R pV
U = CVT = T = (1)
M M g - 1 g - 1
(using (CV = R>(g - 1), since Cp - CV = R and Cp >CV = g).
Thus at constant pressure U = constant, because the volume of the room is a constant.
Putting the value of p = patm and V in Eq. (1), we get U = 10 M J.
2.27 From energy conservation

1
Ui + (nM ) v 2 = Uƒ
2
or ¢U = (1>2)nMv 2 (1)
nRT
Using, U = (from previous problem) (2)
g - 1
nR
We get ¢U = ¢T
g - 1
Hence from Eqs. (1) and (2),
Mv 2 (g - 1)
¢T =
2R
2.28 On opening the valve, the air will flow from the vessel at higher pressure to the ves-
sel at lower pressure till both vessels have the same air pressure. If this air pressure
is p, the total volume of the air in the two vessels will be (V1 + V2). Also if n1 and n2
be the number of moles of air initially in the two vessels, we have
p1V1 = n1RT1 and p2V2 = n2RT2 (1)
After the air is mixed, the total number of moles are (v1 + v2) and the mixture is at tem-
perature T.
Hence, p (V1 + V2) = (n1 + n2)RT (2)
Let us look at the two portions of air as one single system. Since this system is con-
tained in a thermally insulated vessel, no heat exchange is involved in the process.
That is, total heat transfer for the combined system Q = 0.
2.2 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS. HEAT CAPACITY 237
Moreover, this combined system does not perform mechanical work either. The walls of
the containers are rigid and there are no pistons, etc to be pushed, looking at the total system,
we know A = 0.
Hence, internal energy of the combined system does not change in the process.
Initially, energy of the combined system is equal to the sum of internal energies of the
two portions of air:
n1RT1 n2RT2
Ui = U1 + U2 = + (3)
g - 1 g - 1
Final internal energy of (n1 + n2) moles of air at temperature T is given by
(n1 + n2) RT
Uƒ = (4)
g - 1
Therefore, Ui = Uf implies
n1T1 + n2T2 p1V1 + p2V2 p1V1 + p2V2
T = = = T1T2
n1 + n2 (p1V1>T1) + (p2V2>T2) p1V1T2 + p2V2T1
From Eq. (2) therefore, final pressure is given by
n1 + n2 R p1V1 + p2V2
p = RT = (n1T1 + n2T2) =
V1 + V2 V1 + V2 V1 + V2
This process in an example of free adiabatic expansion of ideal gas.
2.29 By the first law of thermodynamics, Q = ¢U + A.

Here A = 0, as the volume remains constant.
nR
So, Q = ¢U = ¢T
g - 1
From gas law, p0V = nRT0
p0V¢T
So, ¢U = - = - 0.25 k J
T0(g - 1)
Hence amount of heat lost = - ¢U = 0.25 k J
2.30 By the first law of thermodynamics, Q = ¢U + A.

p ¢V A
But, ¢U = = (as p is constant)
g - 1 g - 1
A g#A 1.4
So, Q = + A = = * 2 = 7J
g - 1 g - 1 1.4 - 1
2.31 Under an isobaric process,

A = p¢V = R¢T (as n = 1) = 0.6 k J.
From the first law of thermodynamics,
¢U = Q - A = Q - R¢T = 1 k J
R¢T
Again increment in internal energy, ¢U = (for n = 1)
g - 1
R ¢T Q
Thus, Q - R ¢T = or g = = 1.6
g - 1 Q - R ¢T
2.32 Given n = 2 moles of the gas. In the first phase, under isochoric process, A1 = 0, there-
fore from gas law if pressure is reduced n times, the temperature, i.e., new temperature
becomes T0>n.
Now from first law of thermodynamics,
nR¢T
Q1 = ¢U1 =
g - 1
T0 nRT0 (1 - n)
a - T0 b =
nR
=
g - 1 n n (g - 1)
During the second phase (under isobaric process), A2 = p¢V = nR ¢T.
Thus from first law of thermodynamics,
nR¢T
Q2 = ¢U2 + A2 = + nR¢T
g - 1
T0
nR a T0 - bg
n nRT0(n - 1)g
= =
g - 1 n (g - 1)
Hence the total amount of heat absorbed,
nRT0(1 - n) nRT0(n - 1)g
Q = Q1 + Q2 = +
n (g - 1) n (g - 1)
nRT0(n - 1)
( - 1 + g) = nRT0 a 1 - b = 2.5 kJ (on substituting values)
1
=
n (g - 1) n
2.33 Number of moles in the mixture n = n1 + n2

At a certain temperature, U = U1 + U2 or nCV = n1CV + n2CV
1 2
a n1 b
R R
n1CV + n2CV + n2
g1 - 1 g2 - 1
CV = =
1 2
Thus,
n n
n1Cp + n2Cp
Cp =
1 2
Similarly,
n
g1 R g2R
n1g1CV + n2g2CV a n1 + n2 b
g1 - 1 g2 - 1
= =
1 2
n n
g1 g2
n1 R + n2 R
Cp g1 - 1 g2 - 1
Thus, g = =
CV R R
n1 + n2
g1 - 1 g2 - 1
n1g1(g2 - 1) + n2g2(g1 - 1)
=
n1(g2 - 1) + n2(g1 - 1)
= 1.33 (on substituting values)
2.34 From the previous problem,

R R
n1 + n2
g1 - 1 g2 - 1
CV = = 15.2 J>mol K (on substituting values)
n1 + n2
g1R g2R
n1 + n2
g1 - 1 g2 - 1
and Cp = = 23.85 J>mol K (on substituting values)
n1 + n2
Total mass 20 + 7
Now molar mass of the mixture (M ) = = = 36
Total number of moles (1>2) + (1>4)
CV Cp
Hence, cV = = 0.42 J>gK and cp = = 0.66 J>gK
M M
2.35 Let S be the area of the piston and F be the force exerted by the external agent.
Then, F + pS = p0S (see figure) at an arbitrary instant of time. Here p is the pressure at
the instant the volume is V. (Initially the pressure inside is p0 ). Work done by the agent,
hV0
F
A = F dx
3
V0
p0S
hV0 hV0
= (p0 - p)S # dx = (p0 - p)dV pS

3 3 V
V0 V0
hV0 hV0
nRT #
dV
= p0(h - 1)V0 - pdV = p0(h - 1)V0 -
3 3 V
V0 V0
= (h - 1) p0V0 - nRT ln h = (h - 1) nRT - nRT ln h
= nRT (h - 1 - ln h) = RT (h - 1 - ln h) (for n = 1 mole)
2.36 Let the agent move the piston to the right by x. In equilibrium position,
p1S + Fagent = p2S or Fagent = (p2 - p1)S
Work done by the agent in an infinitesimal change dx is

Fagent # dx = (p2 - p1) Sdx = (p2 - p1)dV
By applying pV = constant, for the two parts,

p1 (V0 + Sx) = p0V0 and p2 (V0 - Sx) = p0V0
p0V0 2Sx 2p0V0V

So, p2 - p1 = - S 2x 2 = (where Sx = V )
V 02 V 02 - V 2
When the volume of the left end is h times the volume of the right end,
h - 1
(V0 - V) = h (V0 - V ) or V = V
h + 1 0
v V
2p0V0V
A = (p2 - p1)dV = dV = - p0V0 [ln (V02 - V 2)]V0
3 V0 - V
2 2
3
0 0
= - p0V0 3ln1V 02 - V 22 - ln V 024
h - 1 2 2
= - p0V0 c ln eV 02 - a b V 0 f - ln V02 d
h + 1
(h + 1)2
= - p0V0 a ln b
4h
= p V ln
(h + 1)2 0 0
4h
2.37 In the isothermal process, heat transfer to the gas is given by

V2 V2 p1
Q1 = nRT0 ln = n RT0 ln h a for h = = b
V1 V1 p2
In the isochoric process, A = 0. Thus heat transfer to the gas is given by
¢T a for CV = b
nR R
Q2 = ¢U = nCV ¢T =
g - 1 g - 1
p2 T0 p1 p1
But, = Q T = T0 = hT0 a for h = b
p1 T p2 p2
or ¢T = hT0 - T0 = (h - 1)T0
nR
So, Q2 = . (h - 1)T0
g - 1
Thus, net heat transfer to the gas is
nR
Q = nRT0 ln h + . (h - 1)T0
g - 1
Q h - 1 Q h - 1
or = ln h + Q - ln h =
nRT0 g - 1 nRT0 g - 1
h - 1 6 - 1
or g = 1 + = 1 + = 1.4
Q 80 * 103
- ln h a b - ln 6
nRT0 3 * 8.314 * 273
2.38 (a) From ideal gas law, p = 1nR>V2T = kT 1where k = nR>V 2.

For isochoric process, V = constant, thus p = kT, represents a straight line pass-
ing through the origin and its slope is equal to k.
For isobaric process p = constant, thus on p -T curve, it is a horizontal straight line
parallel to T-axis, if T is along horizontal (or x-axis).
For isothermal process, T = constant, thus on p -T curve, it represents a vertical
straight line if T is taken along horizontal (or x -axis).
For an adiabatic process T gp 1 - g = constant.
On differentiating, we get
(1 - g) p-gdp T g + gp1 - g # T g - 1 # dT = 0
p1-g T g-1
= a b a -g b a g b = a b
So, dp g g p
dT 1 - g p T g - 1 T
The approximate plots of isochoric, isobaric, isothermal, and adiabatic processes

are drawn in the answer sheet.
(b) As p is not considered variable, we have from ideal gas law
T = k¿T awhere k¿ = b
nR nR
V =
p p
On V- T co-ordinate system let us, take T along x -axis.
For an isochoric process, V = constant, thus k ¿ = constant and V = k¿T obviously
represents a straight line passing through the origin of the coordinate system and
k¿ is its slope.
For isothermal process T = constant. Thus on the stated coordinate system it repr-
esents a straight line parallel to the V -axis.
For an adiabatic process, T V g - 1 = constant.
(g - 1)V g - 2 dVT + V g - 1dT = 0
= -a b#
So, dV 1 V
dT g - 1 T
The approximate plots of isochoric, isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic processes
are drawn in the answer sheet.
2.39 (a) According to T- p relation in adiabatic process, T g = kp g - 1 (where k constant).
Therefore, 1T2 >T12g = 1p2 >p12g - 1
So, T g>T0 g = hg - 1 1for h = p2 >p12
Hence, T = T0 # hg - 1>g = 290 * 10(1.4 - 1)>1.4 = 0.56 kK
(b) Using the solution of part (a), sought work done
nRT0
1h(g–1)/g - 12 5.61 kJ (on substituting values)
nR¢T
A = =
g - 1 g - 1
2.40 Let (p0, V0, T0) be the initial state of the gas.
We know that work done by the gas in adiabatic process is
- nR ¢T
Aadia =
g - 1
But from the equation T V –1 constant, we get T T0 (1 – 1).
- nRT0(hg - 1 - 1)
Thus, Aadia =
g - 1
On the other hand, work done by the gas in isothermal process is
A iso = nRT0 ln (1>h) = - nRT0 ln h
A adia hg - 1 - 1 50.4 - 1
Thus, A iso = = = 1.4
(g - 1) ln h 0.4 * ln 5
2.41 Since here the piston is conducting and it is moved slowly, the temperature on the two
sides increases and is maintained at the same value.
Elementary work done by the agent work done in compression – work done in
expansion, i.e., dA = p2dV – p1dV = (p2 – p1) dV, where p1 and p2 are pressures at any
instant of the gas on expansion and compression side, respectively.
From the gas law p1 (V0 + Sx) = nRT and p2 (V0 – Sx) = nRT, for each section
(x is the displacement of the piston towards section 2).
= nRT # 2
2Sx 2V
So, p2 – p1 = nRT (as Sx V )
V - S x
2
0
2 2 V0 - V2
2V
So, dA = nRT dV
V - V2
2
0
Also, from the first law of thermodynamics p1S
R
dA dU 2 n dT (as dQ 0) p2S
g - 1
Fagent
R
So, work done on the gas dA 2 n dT
g - 1
R 2V # dV
Thus, 2n dT nRT 2
g - 1 V 0 - V2
dT VdV
or = g - 1 2
T V 0 - V2
When the left end is times the volume of the right end,
h - 1
(V0 V ) (V0 V ) or V V
h + 1 0
T V
dT VdV
On integrating, = (g - 1)
3V0 - V
2 2
3 T
T0 0
( – 1) c - ln 1V 02 - V 22 d
T 1 V
or ln
T0 2 0
g - 1
- [ln 1V 02 - V 22 - lnV 02]
2
g - 1 h - 1 2 g - 1 (h + 1)2
c ln V 02 - ln V 02 e 1 - a b fd = In
2 h + 1 2 4h
g-1
(h + 1)2
Hence, T = T0 a b 2
4h
2.42 From energy conservation as in the derivation of Bernoulli’s theorem it reads

p 1 2
v gz u Qd constant (1)
r 2
In Eq. (1), u is the internal energy per unit mass and in this case is the thermal energy
per unit mass of the gas. As the gas vessel is thermally insulated Qd 0. Just inside
the vessel,
CVT RT p RT
u also
M M(g - 1) r M
Inside the vessel v = 0 and just outside p 0, and u 0. In general gz is not very
significant for gases.
Thus applying Eq. (1) just inside and outside the hole, we get
1 2 p
v u
2 r
RT RT gRT
+ =
M M (g - 1) M(g - 1)
2gRT
Hence, v2 =
M(g - 1)
2gRT
or v = = 3.22 km/s
A M (g - 1)
Alternate:
From Eulerian equation
- ¥p + rg = ra
In projection form along a stream line for steady flow, it
becomes,
- 0p 0v
+ g cos a = rv
0s 0s
In this problem,
- dp dv
= rv (only because a becomes 90°)
ds ds
Experiments show, when the particles move sufficiently fast it can be assumed that
the process is adiabatic. Then the connection between the pressure and the density is
given by the relation,
p pi
= = constant
rg rgi
where g is the adiabatic exponent dependent on the nature of the gas and ri is the
density of the gas inside the vessel. The adiabatic relation is a consequence of the fact
that during the expansion of a gas there is no heat exchange with the surrounding,
that is there is no loss or gain of heat.
On finding the density as a function of the pressure and substituting, we obtain the
equation
dp ri dv
- p-1>g = v
ds p 1>g
i
ds
This equation should be integrated along the stream tube. Since the pressure in the
vessel is pi and the pressure outside the vessel is p0, we must integrate from pi to p0
for the pressure and from zero to v = v0 (the outlet velocity) for the velocity.
p0 v0
ri
Thus, - p-1>g dp = v dv
3 pi1>g 3
pi 0
On performing the integration we find the outlet velocity,

2g pi p0 g g- 1
v = c 1 - a 1>g b d
C g - 1 ri pi
According the problem p0 = 0 because outside is vacuum.
2g pi 2g RT
Hence, v = = = 3.3 km/s (on substituting values)
A g - 1 ri Ag - 1 M
Note: The velocity here is the velocity of hydrodynamic flow of the gas into vacuum.
This requires that the diameter of the hole is not too small (D 7 mean free path l ). In
the opposite case (D V l ), the flow is called effusion. Then the above result does not
apply and kinetic theory methods are needed.
2.43 The differential work done by the gas,
a- 2 b dT = - nRdT 1as pV = nRT and V = a>T2

nRT 2 a
dA = pdV =
a T
T + ¢T
So, A =- nRdT = - nR¢T

3
T
From the first law of thermodynamics
nR
Q = ¢U + A = ¢T - nR¢T
g - 1
2 - g 2 - g
= nR¢T # = R ¢T # (for n = 1 mole)
g - 1 g - 1
2.44 According to the problem: A r U or dA = aU (where a is proportionality constant).

anRdT
So, pdV = (1)
g - 1
From ideal gas law, pV = nRT, which on differentiating gives

pdV + Vdp = nRdT (2)
Thus, from Eqs. (1) and (2)
a
pdV = ( pdV + Vdp)
g - 1
pdV a -1b +
a a
or Vdp = 0
g - 1 g - 1
a
or pdV (k - 1) + kVdp = 0 (where k = = another constant)
g - 1
k - 1
or pdV + Vdp = 0
k
k - 1
or npdV + Vdp = 0 awhere = n = ratiob
k
Dividing both the sides by pV, we get
dV dp
n + = 0
V p
On integrating we get,
n ln V + ln p = ln C (where C is constant)
or ln (pV n) = ln C or pV n = C
2.45 In the polytropic process work done by the gas is given by,
nR C Ti - Tƒ D
A =
n - 1
(where Ti and Tƒ are initial and final temperatures of the gas like in an adiabatic process).
nR
Also, ¢U = (T - Ti )
g - 1 ƒ
By the first law of thermodynamics,
Q = ¢U + A
nR nR
= (Tf - Ti ) + (T - Tƒ )
g - 1 n - 1 i
nR [n - g]
= (Tƒ - Ti )nR c d =
1 1
- ¢T
g - 1 n - 1 (n - 1) (g - 1)
According to definition of molar heat capacity when number of moles n = 1 and
¢T = 1, then Q = molar heat capacity.
R (n - g)
Here, Cn = 6 0 for 1 6 n 6 g
(n - 1) (g - 1)
2.46 Let the process be polytropic, according to the law pV n = constant.

Thus, pƒVƒn = pi Vin
or 1pi >pƒ2 = b
ln b
So, an = b or ln b = n ln a or n =
ln a
In the polytropic process molar heat capacity is given by
R (n - g) R R
Cn = = -
(n - 1) (g - 1) g - 1 n - 1
a where n = b
R R ln a ln b
= -
g - 1 ln b ln a ln a
8.314 8.314 ln 4
So, Cn = - = - 42 J> mol K
1.66 - 1 ln 8 - ln 4
2.47 (a) Increment of internal energy for ¢T becomes

nR¢T R ¢T
¢U = = = - 324 J (as n = 1 mole)
g - 1 g - 1
From first law of thermodynamics
R¢T R¢T
Q = ¢U + A = - = 0.11 kJ
g - 1 n - 1
(b) Sought work done,
Vƒ
dV 1where pV n = k = piVin = pƒVƒn2

k
An = pdV = n
3 3V
Vi
A pƒ Vƒn V 1ƒ - n - piVin V 1i - n B
AV - Vi B =
k - -
= 1 n 1 n
1 - n ƒ 1 - n
pƒVƒ - piVi nR (Tƒ - Ti )
= =
1 - n 1 - n
nR¢T R¢T
= = - = 0.43 kJ (as n = 1 mole)
n - 1 n - 1
2.48 Law of the process is, p = aV or pV - 1 = a, so the process is polytropic with index
n = -1. As p = aV so, pi = aV0 and pf = ah V0.
(a) Increment of the internal energy is given by

nR pƒVƒ - piVi
¢U = [Tƒ - Ti ] =
g - 1 g - 1
Putting pi = aV0 and pƒ = a hV0, we get
aV 02 (h2 - 1)
¢U =
g - 1
(b) Work done by the gas is given by
piVi - pƒVƒ aV02 - ahV0 # hV0
A = =
n - 1 -1 - 1
aV 02 (1 - h2) 1
= = a V 02 (h2 - 1)
-2 2
(c) Molar heat capacity is given by
R (n - g) R ( - 1 - g) R g + 1
Cn = = = #
(n - 1) (g - 1) ( - 1 - 1) (g - 1) 2 g - 1
nR
2.49 (a) ¢U = ¢T and Q = nCn ¢T , (where Cn is the molar heat capacity in the
g - 1
process.) It is given that Q = - ¢U.
R R
So, Cn ¢T = - ¢T or Cn = -
g - 1 g - 1
(b) By the first law of thermodynamics,
dQ = dU + dA
or 2dQ = dA (as dQ = - dU)
2R n
2nCn dT = pdV or dT + pdV = 0
g - 1
2Rv nRT 2dT dV
So, dT + dV = 0 or + = 0
g - 1 V (g - 1) T V
dT g - 1 dV
or + = 0 Q TV (g - 1)>2 = constant
T 2 V
(n - g) R
(c) We know Cn =
(n - 1) (g - 1)
But from part (a), we have Cn = - R>(g - 1).
R (n - g) R
Thus, - =
g - 1 (n - 1) (g - 1)
1 + g
which yields n =
2
From part (b), we know TV (g - 1)>2 = constant.

T0 V (g - 1)>2
So, = a b = h (g - 1)>2 (where T is the final temperature)
T V0
Work done by the gas for one mole is given by
R (T0 - T )
C 1 - h(1 - g>2) D
2RT0
A = =
n - 1 g - 1
2.50 Given p = aT a (for one mole of gas).

-a
pT -a = a or p a b
pV
So, = a
R
Q p 1 - aV -a = aR -a or pV a>(a - 1) = constant
Here polytropic exponent n = a>(a - 1).
(a) In the polytropic process for one mole of gas,
R¢T R¢T
A = = = R¢T (1 - a)
1 - n 1 - [a>(a - 1)]
(b) Molar heat capacity is given by
R R R R
C = - = -
g - 1 n - 1 g - 1 [a>(a - 1)] - 1
R
= + R (a - 1)
g - 1
2.51 Given U = aV a
pV
or nCVT = aV a or nCV = aV a
nR
CV
aV a #
R # 1
Q = 1 or V a - 1 # p-1 =
CV pV Ra
or pV 1 - a = Ra>CV = constant = a (g - 1) [as CV = R>(g - 1)]

So polytropic index n = 1 - a.
(a) Work done by the gas is given by

- nR¢T nR¢T
A = and ¢U =
n - 1 g - 1
- ¢U (g - 1) ¢U (g - 1)
Hence, A = = (as n = 1 - a)
n - 1 a
By the first law of thermodynamics
Q = ¢U + A
¢U (g - 1) g - 1
= ¢U + = ¢U c 1 + d
a a
(b) Molar heat capacity is given by
R R R R
C = - = -
g - 1 n - 1 g - 1 1 - a - 1
R R
= + (as n = 1 - a)
g - 1 a
2.52 (a) By the first law of thermodynamics

dQ = dU + dA = nCVdT + pdV
Molar specific heat according to definition is given by
dQ nCVdT + pdV
C = =
ndT ndT
nCV dT + (nRT>V )dV RT dV
= = CV +
ndT V dT
We have T = T0e aV
On differentiating, dT = aT0 e aV # dV
dV 1
So, =
dt a T0e aV
RT # 1 RT0e aV R
Hence, C = CV + aV
= CV + aV
= CV +
V aT0e aVT0e aV
(b) For the process, p = p0e aV.
So, p = RT>V = p0 e aV
or T = (p0>R)e aV # V
= CV + p0e aV #
RT dV R R
So, C = CV + = CV +
V dT p0e (1 + aV)
aV 1 + aV
2.53 (a) Using solution of Problem 2.52,

RT dV pdV
C = CV + = CV + (for one mole of gas)
V dT dT
a RT a
We have, p = p0 + or = p0 + Q RT = p0V + a
V¿ V V¿
Therefore, RdT = p0dV
So, dV>dT = R>p0
C = CV + a p0 + b + a1 + b
a # R R a
Hence, =
V p0 g - 1 p0V
Rg aR
R = +
g - 1 p0V
(b) Work done is given by
V2
V2
a p0 + b dV = p0(V2 - V1) + a ln
a
A =
3 V V1
V1
p2V2 p1V1
¢U = CV (T2 - T1) = CV a - b (for one mole)
R R
R
= (p V - p1V1)
(g - 1)R 2 2
p0(V2 - V1)
c (p0 + aV2) V2 - a p0 + b V1 d =
1 a
=
g - 1 V1 g - 1
By the first law of thermodynamics,

Q = ¢U + A
p01V2 - V12 V2
= + p0(V2 - V1) + a ln
(g - 1) V1
gp0 (V2 - V1) V2
= + a ln
(g - 1) V1
2.54 (a) From solution of Problem 2.52, heat capacity is given by

RT dV
C = CV +
V dT
T T0
We have T T0
V Q V -
a a
dV 1
=
dT a
RT # 1 R (T0 + aV ) 1
Hence, C = CV + =
R
+ #
V a g - 1 V a
T0 RT0 RT0
+ R a + 1b =
R gR RT
= + = CV + = Cp +
g - 1 aV g - 1 aV aV aV
(b) Given that T T0

V. and as T = pV>R for one mole of an ideal gas, so
R RT0
p = (T0 + aV ) = + aR
V V
V2 V2
RT0
Now, A = pdV = a + aR b dV (for one mole)
3 3 V
V1 V1
V2
= RT0 ln + a(V2 – V1)R
V1
Also, ¢U = CV (T2 - T1)
= CV [T0 + aV2 – (T0 + aV1)] = aCV (V2 - V1)
By the first law of thermodynamics

Q = ¢U + A
aR V2
= (V2 – V1) + RT0 ln + aR (V2 – V1)
g - 1 V1
V2
= aR (V2 – V1) c 1 + d + RT0 ln
1
g - 1 V1
V2
= aCp (V2 – V1) + RT0 ln
V1
2.55 Heat capacity is given by

RT dV
C = CV +
V dT
(a) Given that
C = CV + aT
RT dV a dV
So, CV + aT = CV + or dT =
V dT R V
Integrating both sides, we get
a
T = ln V + ln C0 = ln VC 0 (where C0 is a constant)
R
or V # C0 = e -aT>R
V # e -aT>R =
1
Hence, = constant
C0
(b) According to the problem C = CV + bV .

RT dV
But, C = CV +
V dT
RT dV
So, = bV
V dT
R -2 dT
or V dV =
b T
- V - 1 = ln T + ln C0 = ln T # C 0 (where C0 is a constant)
R
b
lnT # C0 = -
R
So,
bV
or T # C0 = e - R/bV
1
Hence, Te R/bV = = constant
C0
RT dV
(c) Given that C CV ap and C CV
V dT
RT dV RT dV
So, CV + ap = CV + Q ap =
V dT V dT
RT RT dV RT
or a = (as p = for one mole of gas)
V V dT V
or dV>dT = a Q dV adT or dT = dV>a
V
So, T = + constant or V aT constant
a
2.56 (a) By the first law of thermodynamics

A = Q - ¢U
or A CdT C V dT (C C V ) dT (for one mole)
Given that C = a>T
hT0
hT0
a
- CV b dT = a ln
a
So, A = - CV (hT0 - T0)
3 T T0
T0
= a ln h - CVT0 (h - 1)
RT0
= a ln h - (h - 1)
g - 1
dQ RT dV
(b) Given that C = + = + CV
dT V dT
and C = a>T
RT dV a
So, CV + =
V dT T
R 1 dV a
or + = dT
g - 1 RT V RT 2
dV a 1 # dT
or = dT -
V RT 2 g - 1 T
dV a(g - 1) dT
or (g - 1) = 2
dT -
V RT T
a(g - 1)
(g - 1) lnV = - - ln T + ln K
RT
- a(g - 1)
ln c V g - 1 # d =
T
or
K RT
- a(g - 1)
d =
pV
lnc V g - 1 #
RK pV
or pV g>RK = e -a(g - 1)/pV

or pV ge a(g - 1)/pV = RK = constant
2.57 The work done is

V2 V2
a - 2 b dV
RT a
A = p dV =
3 3 V - b V
V1 V1
V2 - b
+ aa b
1 1
= RT ln -
V1 - b V2 V1
2.58 (a) The increment in the internal energy is

V2
0U
¢U = a
b dV
3 0V T
V1
But from the second law of thermodynamics

0U 0s 0p
a b = T a b - p = Ta b - p
0V T 0V T 0T V
On the other hand
RT a
p = - 2
V -b V
0p 0U
Ta bV = a b =
RT a
or and
0T V - b 0V T V 2
¢U = a a b = 0.11 kJ (on substituting values)

1 1
So, -
V1 V2
(b) From the first law of thermodynamics
V2 - b
Q = A + ¢U = RT ln = 3.8 kJ (on substituting values)
V1 - b
2.59 (a) From the first law, for an adiabatic process, dQ = dU + pdV = 0.
From the previous problem
0U 0U
dU = a b dT + a b dV = CV dT + 2 dV
a
0T V 0V T V
RTdV
So, 0 = CV dT +
V - b
This equation can be integrated if we assume that CV and b are constant, then
R dV dT
+ = 0
CV V - b T
R
or ln T + ln (V – b) = constant or T (V – b)R>CV = constant
CV
a
(b) We use dU = CV dT + dV
V2
RT
Now, dQ = CV dT + dV
V - b
0V
a b
RT
So along constant p, Cp = CV +
V - b 0T p
0V
a b
RT
Thus, Cp - CV =
V - b 0T p
RT a
But, p =
V - b V2
0V
0 = a- + 2b a b +
RT 2a R
On differentiating,
(V - b)2 V 0T P V - b
0V RT>V - b V - b
or T a b = =
0T P RT 2a 2a (V - b)2
- 3 1 -
(V - b)2 V RTV 3
R
and Cp - CV =
2a(V - b)2
1 -
RT V 3
2.60 From the first law
Q Uf Ui A 0 (as the vessels are thermally insulated)
As this is free expansion, A 0, so, Uf Ui.
an2
But, U = nCVT -
V
- aV2 n
CV (Tf - Ti ) = a - bn =
a a
So,
V1 + V2 V1 V1(V1 + V2)
- a(g - 1)V2 n
or ¢T =
RV1(V1 + V2)
On substitution we get, T 3 K.
2.61 From the first law
Q Uf Ui A Uf Ui (as A 0 in free expansion).

2.3 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. BOLTZMANN’S LAW AND MAXWELL’S DISTRIBUTION 257
So at constant temperature,
- an2 V2 - V1
- a- b = an 2
an2
Q =
V2 V1 V1 # V2
0.33 kJ (on substituting values)
2.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases. Boltzmann’s Law and Maxwell’s

Distribution
2.62 From the formula p = nkT

p 4 * 10-15 * 1.01 * 105 - 3
n = = m
kT 1.38 * 1023 * 300
= 1 * 1011 per m3 = 105 cm - 3
Mean distance between molecules
110-5 cm321>3 = 101>3 * 10-2 cm = 0.2 mm
2.63 After dissociation each N2 molecule becomes two N-atoms and so contributes, 2 * 3
degrees of freedom. Thus the number of moles becomes
11 + h2
m
M
11 + h2 = 1.9 atm (on substituting values)

mRT
and p =
MV
(Here M is the molecular weight, in grams of N2.)
2.64 Let n1 = number density of He atoms, n2 = number density of N2 molecules.

Then, r = n1m1 + n2m2 (1)
(where m1 and m2 are masses of helium and nitrogen molecules).
Also, p = 1n1 + n22 kT (2)

a b
pr
-
kT m2
n1 = = 1.6 * 10-19 cm-3
m1
a1 - b
m2
2.65 Number of nitrogen molecules coming to strike the differential area ds

of the wall per unit time is given by
n
= n | 1v # dS2 | = 1nv dS cosu2
dN
dt
where n = N>V = number density or concentration of N2 molecules in the beam.
The change in linear momentum of each of N2 molecule is
¢pmolecule = 2mv cosu n (see figure)
So ¢p for all the molecules striking the wall per unit time, i.e., the force exerted by
the wall on incoming N2 molecules is
1nvds cosu)¢pmolecule = 2nv 2 cos2udS n
Therefore from Newton’s law, the force exerted by N2 molecules on the wall is
2nmv 2 cos2u dS 1- n2
Thus the sought pressure i.e. normal force per unit differential is
dFnormal
= 2nmv 2cos2 u
ds
2.66 From the formula

gp rv 2
v = or g =
Ar p
If i = number of degrees of freedom of the gas, then
i
Cp = CV + RT and CV = RT
2
Cp 2 2
g = = 1 + or i =
CV i g - 1
= 5 1on substituting values2

2
=
( v >p) - 1
r 2
gp gRT 3kT 3RT

2.67 vsound = = and vrms = =
Ar A M A m A M
vsound g i + 2
So, = =
vrms A3 A 3i
(a) For monoatomic gases i = 3, therefore

vsound 5
= = 0.75
vrms A9
(b) For rigid diatomic molecules i = 5, therefore

vsound 7
= = 0.68
vrms A 15
2.68 For a general non-collinear, non-planar molecule, mean energy
kT (translational) + kT (rotational) + 13N – 62kT (vibrational)

3 3
=
2 2
= 13N – 32kT (per molecule)
For linear molecules, mean energy
3
= kT (translational) + kT (rotational) + (3N – 5)kT (vibrational)
2
= a 3N - b kT (per molecule)
5
2
1 1
Translational energy corresponds to fraction and in non-linear and
linear molecules, respectively. 2(N - 1) 2N - 5>3
2.69 (a) A diatomic molecule has 3 translational, 2 rotational and one vibrational degrees
of freedom. The corresponding energy per mole is
3 1
RT (for translational) + 2 * RT (for rotational) + 1 * RT (for vibrational)
2 2
7
= RT
2
7 Cp 9
Thus, CV = R and g = =
2 CV 7
(b) For linear N-atomic molecules, energy per mole
= a 3N - b RT (as before)
5
2
6N - 3
CV = a 3N - b R and g =
5
So,
2 6N - 5
(c) For non-collinear N-atomic molecules
CV = 31N - 12 R (as before from Problem 2.68)
3N - 2 N - 2>3
and g = =
3N - 3 N - 1
2.70 In the isobaric process, work done is A = pdV = RdT (per mole).
On the other hand heat transferred is Q = C p dT .
Now Cp = (3N - 2) R for non-collinear molecules and C p = [3N - (3>2)] R for linear
molecules.
1
non-collinear
A 3N - 2
Thus, = d
Q 1
linear
3N - (3>2)
For monoatomic gases, Cp = 5>2 and A>Q = 2>5
2.71 Given specific heats cp , cV (per unit mass), then
M1cp - cV2 = R
R
or M = = 32 g/mol (on substituting values)
cp - cV
cp 2
Also, g = = + 1
cV i
2 2cV
i = = = 5 (on substituting values)
(cp >cV ) - 1
or
cp - cV
29
2.72 (a) Given, Cp = 29 J>K mol = R
8.3
20.7 29 7
CV = R, g = = 1.4 =
8.3 20.7 5
Cp
i = 2a - 1b = 5
R
(b) In the process, pT = constant and (T 2>V ) = constant.
dT dV
So, 2 - = 0
T V
RT 2RT
Thus, CdT = CV dT + pdV = CV dT + dV = CV dT + dT
V T
C = CV + 2R = a bR Q CV =
29 12.4 3
or R = R
8.3 8.3 2
d = 3 (monoatomic)
C 1
i = 2c +
1n - 12
Hence,
R
(where n = 1>2 is the polytropic index).
2.73 We know that,

1 3 5
C = n1 + n2
R V 2 2
(since a monoatomic gas has CV = (3>2)R and a diatomic gas has CV = (5>2)R )
1 3 5
and C = n1 + n2 + n1 + n2
R p 2 2
Cp 5 n1 + 7 n2
Hence, g = =
CV 3 n1 + 5 n2
2.74 The internal energy of the molecules is
mN 6 1u - v22 7 = mN 6 u2 - v 2 7
1 1
U =
2 2
(where v = velocity of the vessel, N = number of molecules, each of mass m).
When the vessel is stopped, internal energy becomes (1>2)mN 6 u2 7.
So, there is an increase in internal energy of ¢U = (1>2)mNv 2 . This will lead to a rise in
temperature of
(1>2)mNv 2
¢T =
(i>2)R
mNv 2
=
iR
Since there is no flow of heat, this change of temperature will lead to an excess pr-
essure, given by
R¢T mNv 2
¢p = =
V iV
¢p Mv 2
and finally = = 2.2%
p iRT
(where M = molecular weight of N2, i = number of degrees of freedom of N2 = 5).
2.75 (a) From the equipartition theorem

3 3kT 3RT
e = kT = 6 * 10-21 J and vrms = = = 0.47 km/s
2 A m A M
(b) In equilibrium, the mean kinetic energy of the droplet will be equal to that of a
molecule.
1p 3 2 3 2kT
So, d rvrms = kT or vrms = 3 = 0.15 m/s
26 2 A pd 3r
2.76 Given that, i = 5, CV = 5>2 R, g = 7>5.
3 RT 1 1 3RT 1
So, v ¿rms = = vrms = or T ¿ = T
A M h hA M h2
Now, in an adiabatic process
TV g-1 = TV 2>i = constant or VT i>2 = constant
V¿a
1 i>2
So, Tb = VT i>2 or V ¿h-i = V or V ¿ = hiV
h2
The gas must be expanded hi times, i.e., 7.6 times.
R 1as i = 52
5 m
2.77 Here, CV =
2 M
(where m = mass of the gas, M = molecular weight of the gas).
If vrms increases h times, the temperature will have increased h2 times. This will require
(neglecting expansion of the vessels), a heat flow of amount
R 1h2 - 12 T = 10 kJ
5 m
2 M
2.78 The root mean square angular velocity is given by
I v = 2 * kT 1for 2 degrees of rotations2

1 2 1
2 2
2kT
or v = = 6.3 * 1012 rad/s
A I
2.79 Under compression, the temperature will rise, as
TV g-1 = constant or TV 2>i = constant

So, T ¿1h-1 V022>i = T0V 2>i
0 or T ¿ = h+2>i T0
So mean kinetic energy of rotation per molecule in the compressed state is given by
kT ¿ = kT0h2>i = 0.72 * 10-20 J

2.80 Number of collisions is given by
1
n 6v 7 = v
4
v¿ n ¿ 6v ¿ 7 1 T¿
Now, = =
v n 6v 7 hA T
(When the gas is expanded h times, n decreases by a factor h.)

Also T ¿1hV 22>i = TV 2>i or T ¿ = h2>i T
v¿ 1
So, = h-1>i = h-(i + 1)>i
v h
i.e., collisions decrease by a factor h(i + 1)>i (where i = 5 h).
2.81 In a polytropic process pV n = constant, where n is the polytropic index. For this
process
pV n = constant or TV n-1 = constant
+ 1n - 12
So, dT dV
= 0
T V
Then, dQ = CdT = dU + pdV = CV dT + pdV
RdT = a - b RdT
i RT i 1 i 1
= RdT + dV = RdT -
2 V 2 n - 1 2 n - 1
i 1
Now, C = R so - = 1
2 n - 1
1 i i - 2 i
or = - 1 = or n =
n - 1 2 2 i - 2
n-1
v¿ n ¿ 6v ¿ 7 1 T¿
= a b
1 V 2
Now, = =
v n 6v 7 hA T h V¿
1 1 1>(i - 2) 1 (i - 1)>(i - 2)
= a b = a b
h h h
= 1h2-(i -1)>(i -2) times =

1
times
2.52
2.82 If a is the polytropic index, then

pV a = constant, TV a-1 = constant
v¿ n ¿ 6v ¿ 7 V T¿ V T -1>2
Now, = = = = 1
v n 6v 7 V¿ A T V ¿T ¿ -1>2
1 1
Hence, = - or a = -1
a - 1 2
iR R
Then, C = + = 3R
2 2
2kT 2RT 2p
2.83 vp = = = = 0.45 km/s
A m A M Ar
8p 3p
vavg = = 0.51 km>s and vrms = = 0.55 km>s
Ap r Ar
2.84 (a) The formula is
df 1u2 = u2e-u du 1where u = v>vp2

4 2
2p
1 + dh
v - vp
Now, Prob ¢ ` ` 6 dh≤ = df 1u2
vp 3
1 - dh
4 8
= e-1 * 2 dh =
dh = 0.0166 = 1.66%
2p 2pe
v - vrms vrms vrms
(b) Prob ¢ ` ` 6 dh≤ = Prob ¢ ` ` 6 dh
v
- ≤
vrms vp vp vp
= Prob ¢ ` u - ` 6
3 3
dh≤
A2 A2
3 3
+ dh
A2 A2
4 2 -u2
= u e du
3 p
3 3
- dh
A2 A2
4 3 -3>2 3
= * e * 2 dh
2p 2 A2
12 23
= e - 3>2dh = 0.0185 = 1.85%
22p
2.85 (a) vrms - vp = A 23 - 22 B

kT
= ¢v
Am
2
m ¢v
T = ¢ ≤ = 384 K
k 113 - 122
(b) Clearly v is the most probable speed at this temperature.
2kT mv 2
So, = v or T = = 342 K
A m 2k
2.86 (a) We have,

v 21 v 22 v1 v 21 - v 22
e-v 2 >v p Q a b = e v1
2 2kT
e-v 1 >v p = - v 22 >v p2 or v 2p = =
2 2 2 2 2
vp2 vp 2 v2 m (ln v 21>v 22)
m1v 21 - v 222
T = = 330 K
2 k ln v 21>v 22
So,
(b) F 1v2 = a comes from F 1v2dv = df 1u2, du = b

4 v 2 -v 2>v 2 1 1 dv
e p *
2 vp vp vp
2p v p
v 2 -v 2>v 2p v2 2kT0 2kT0

Thus, e 1 = = , v 2 = h
2 p
v 3p vp m 2 m
1 2
A B = a 1 - b = ln h
mv 2
- 2kT 1 - h1
1 mv 2 1 3
Now, e 0 or
h3>2 2kT0 h 2
3kT0 ln h
Thus, v =
B m A 1 - 1>h
2kT 2RT 2RT

2.87 vp = = ,v =
N A mN A MN p O A MO
MN
a1 - b
2RT
vp - vp = ¢v =
N o A MN B MO
MN 1¢v2 2 mN 1¢v22
T = = = 363 K
MN mN
2R a 1 - b 2k a 1 - b
2 2
A MO A mO
mHe
v2 )= a b
3>2
v 2 -v 2>v 2
= 3 e-v >vpHe or e v ( 2kT
2 2 2 m He m
- 2kTH
2.88 3
e p
H
vp vp mH
H He
ln mHe >mH
v 2 = 3kT
mHe - mH
On substitution, we get, v = 1.60 km/s.
N 4 v 2dv -v 2>v 2
2.89 dN (v) = e p
1p v 3p
H
For a given range v to v + dv , (dN (v)) is maximum when
a be
d dN (v) -4 +
2v 2 -v 2>v 2
= 0 = - 3v p
p
dvp Nv 2dv v 6p
3 2 3kT
or v2 = vp =
2 m
1 mv 2
Thus, T =
3 k
2.90 Given d 3v = 2pv ⬜ dv ⬜ dvx
dn 1v2 = N a b e 2kT x ⬜ 2pv ⬜ dv ⬜ dvx

m 3>2 - m 1v 2 + v 2 2
Thus,
2pkT
2.91 6vx 7 = 0 (by symmetry)

q q
| vx | e -mv x >2kT vxe -mv x >2kT dvx

2 2
dvx
3 3
0 0
6| vx | 7 = q = q
e -mv 2x >2kT dvx e -mv x >2kT dvx

2
3 3
0 0
q q
2kT 2kT 1 -x
ue-u du
2
e dx
A m 3 A m 32
0 0
= q = q
dx
e-u du e -x
2
3 3 2 1x
0 0
2kT
≠(1)
B m 2kT
= =
B mp
≠a b
1
2
q q
2kT dx
vx2 e-mv x >2kT dvx xe-x
≠a b
2
2kT 3
3 m 3 2 2x
0 0 m 2 kT
2.92 6v 2x 7 = q = q = =
m
≠a b
1
dx
e-mv x >2kT dvx e-x
2
2
3 3 2 2x
0 0
2.93 Here vdA is equal to number of molecules hitting an area dA of the wall per second
q
i.e., vdA = dN 1vx2 vxdA

3
0
q
dA
b e x
m 1>2 -mv 2 >2kT
or v = na vxdvx
3 2pkT
0
q
a
b e udu
2kT 1>2 -u2
n
=
3 2p m
0
= n 6 v 7 a where 6 v7 = b
1 2kT kT 1 8kT
= n = n
2 A mp A 2mp 4 A mp
2.94 Let the number of molecules per unit volume with x component of velocity in the
range vx to vx + dvx , be
dn1vx2 = na b e
m 1>2 - mv 2 /2kT
x dvx
2pkT
q
Then, p = 2mvx # vx dn 1vx2

3
0
q
2mv x2 n a b e x
m 1>2 -mv 2 >2kT
= dvx
3 2pkT
0
q
2kT 1
= 2mn u2e-u du
2
2p m 3
0
q
4 dx
= nkT xe -x = nkT
2p 3 2 2x
0
q
a b e x
m 3>2 -mv 2 >2kT 1
2.95 61>v7 = 4pv 2dv
3 2pkT v
0
q
= a b 4p
m 3>2 1 2kT
e - xdx
2pkT 2 m 3
0
b = a b = a 2 b =
m 1>2 2m 1>2 16 mp 1>2 4
= 2a
2pkT pkT p 8kT p6 v7
dN 1e2
2.96 dN 1v2 = N a b e
m 3>2 -mv 2>2kT
4pv 2dv = dN (e) = de
2pkT de
dN 1e2
= Na b e
m 3>2 -mv 2>2RT dv
or 4pv 2
de 2pkT de
1 dv 1
Now, e =mv 2 so =
2 de mv
dN 1e2
= Na b e
m 3>2 -e>kT 2e 1
or 4p
de 2pkT Am m
1kT 2-3>2 e-e>kT e1>2

2
= N
2p
dN 1e2 = N 1kT 2-3>2 e -e>kT e1>2 de
2
i.e.,
2p
The most probable kinetic energy is given by
d dN 1e2
= 0
de de
1 − 1>2 - e>kT e1>2 e>kT 1
or e e − e = 0 or e = kT = ep
2 kT 2
kT
The corresponding velocity is v = Z vp
Am
2.97 The mean kinetic energy is
q
e3>2 e-e>kTde
3 ≠15>22
0 3
6e 7 = q = kT = kT
≠13>22 2
e1>2 e-e>kTde
3
0
Thus,
2 11 + dh2kT
3
1kT 2-3>2 e - e>kTe1>2 de

dN 2
=
N 3 2p
2 kT 11 - dh2
3
e-3>2 a b 2dh = 3
2 3 3>2 6 -3>2
= e dh
2p 2 Ap
If dh = 1%, the fraction of molecules is 0.9%.
q
¢N
1kT 2-3>2 1e e-e>kT de
2
2.98 =
N 2p 3
e0
q
1kT 2-3>2 1e0 e-e>kTde 1e0 W kT 2

2
=
2p 3
e0
e0
1kT 2-3>2 1e0kT e-e0 >kT = 2
2
= e-e0 >k T
2p A pkT
(In evaluating the integral, we have taken out 1e as 1e0 since the integral is domi-
nated by the lower limit.)
2.99 (a) F 1v2 = Av 3e-mv >2k T

2
For the most probable value of the velocity

dF 1v2 2mv -mv 2>2kT
= 0 or 3 Av 2e -mv >2kT - Av 3 = 0
2
e
dv 2kT
3kT
So, vp =
A m
2kT
This should be compared with the value vp = for the Maxwellian distribution.
A m
1 2
(b) In terms of energy, e = mv
2
F 1e2 = Av 3 e-mv >2kT
2 dv
de
= Aa b e
2e 3>2 -e>kT 1 2e
= A 2 e-e>kT
m 12me m
From this the probable energy comes out as follows:
F 1e2 = 0 Q ae b = 0 or ep = kT
2A -e>kT e -e>kT
- e
m2 kT
2.100 The number of molecules reaching a unit area of wall at angle between u and u + du
to its normal per unit time is
v=q
dÆ
dv = dn1v2 v cos u
3 4p
v=0 v
q
na b e
m 3>2 -mv 2>2kT 3
= v dv sin u cos u du * 2p
3 2pkT
0
q
= na b e-x xdx sin u cos u du = n a b sin u cos u du

2kT 1>2 2kT 1>2
mp 3 mp
0
2.101 The number of molecules reaching per unit area of the wall with velocities in the
interval v to v + dv per unit time is
u = p>2
dÆ
dv = dn1v2 v cosu
3 4p
u=0
u = p>2
b e
m 3>2 -mv 2>2kT 3
= na v dv sin u cos u du * 2p
3 2pkT
u=0
= np a b e
m 3>2 -mv 2>2kT 3
v dv
2pkT
2.102 If the force exerted is F, then by the law of variation of concentration with height
n 1Z2 = n0 e-FZ>kT
kT ln h
So, h = eF¢h>kT or F = = 9 * 10-20 N
¢h
p 3 RT lnh 6RT lnh
2.103 Here, F = d ¢rg = or Na =
6 Nah pd 3g¢rh
Given T = 290 K, h = 2, h = 4 * 10-5 m, d = 4 * 10-7m, g = 9.8 m>s2,
¢r = 0.2 * 103 kg>m3 and R = 8.31 J>K.
6 * 8.31 * 290 * ln2

Hence, Na = * 1026 = 6.36 * 1023 mol-1
p * 64 * 9.8 * 200 * 4
concentration of H2 e -MN2gh>RT
2.104 h = = h0 = h0e (-MN2 + MH2)gh>RT
concentration of N2 e -MH2gh>RT
h
= e (-MN2 + MH2)gh>RT = 1.39
h0
2.105 We know that
n1(h) = n1e-m1gh>kt and n21h2 = n2e-m2gh> kt

They are equal at a height h, where n1 >n2 = e gh (m1 - m2)>kT
kT ln n1 - ln n2
or h =
g m1 - m2
2.106 At a temperature T the concentration n1z- 2 varies with height according to

n1z- 2 = n0e-mgz>kT
This means that particles per unit area of the base of cylinder are
q
- 2 d z-
n1z
3
0
q
n0kT
= n0e-mgz>kT dz- =
3 mg
0
Clearly this cannot change. Thus n0kT = p0 = pressure at the bottom of the cylin-
der, must not change with change of temperature.
q q
mgz e-mgz>ktdz xe-xdx

3 3
0 0 ≠(2)
2.107 6U 7 = q = kT q = kT = kT
≠(1)
e-mgz>kTdz e-xdx
3 3
0 0
When there are many kinds of molecules, this formula holds for each kind and the
average energy is given by
a FikT
6U 7 = = kT
a fi
where fi r fractional concentration of each kind of molecule at the ground level.
2.108 The constant acceleration is equivalent to a pseudo force wherein a concentration

gradient is set up. Then
e -MAwl>RT = 1 - h
RT ln11 - h2 hRT
or w = - L L 70 g
MAl MAl
2.109 In a centrifuge rotating with angular velocity ␻ about an axis, there is a centrifugal
acceleration v2r , where r is the radial distance from the axis. In a fluid if there are sus-
pended colloidal particles they experience an additional force. If m is the mass of
each particle then its volume is m/r and the excess force on this particle is
m>r 1r - r02v2r outward, corresponding to a potential energy of - (m>2r) ( r - r0 ) v2r 2.
This gives rise to a concentration variation, given by
n1r2 = n0 exp a + 1r - r02 ␻2r 2 b

m
2 r kT
n1r22
= h = exp a + 1r - r02␻21r 22 - r 212b
M
n1r12
Thus,
2 r RT
m M
(where = and M = NAm is the molecular weight).
k R
2 r RT ln h
M =
1r - r02␻21r 22 - r 212
Thus,
2.110 The potential energy associated with each molecule is - (1>2 )m v2r 2 and there is a
concentration variation, given by
n 1r2 = n0 exp a b = n0 exp a b

m␻2r 2 M␻2r 2
2kT 2RT
h = exp a b
Mv2l 2 2RT
Thus, or v = ln h
2RT A Ml 2
Using M = 12 + 32 = 44 g, l = 100 cm, R = 8.31 * 107 erg/K, T = 300 K, we get,
␻ = 280 rad/s
2.111 Here, the concentration variation is
n1r2 = n0exp a - b
ar 2
kT
(a) The number of molecules located at the distance between r and r + dr is
4 pr 2dr n1r2 = 4pn0exp a - b r dr

ar 2 2
kT
r n 1r2 = 0
d 2 2ar 3 kT
(b) rp is given by or 2r - = 0 or rp =
dr kT A a
(c) The fraction of molecules lying between r and r + dr is
dN 4pr 2dr n0 exp 1 - ar 2>kT 2

= q
N
4pr 2drn0 exp 1ar 2>kT 2
3
0
q q
4pr 2dr exp a - b = a b 4p x exp 1 - x2

ar 2 kT 3>2 dx
3 kT a 3 2 2x
0 0
= a b 2p≠ a b = a b
kT 3>2 3 pkT 3>2
a 2 a
- ar 2
= a b 4pr 2dr exp a b
dN a 3>2
Thus,
N pkT kT
- ar 2
dN = N a b 4pr 2dr exp a b
a 3>2
(d)
pkT kT
- ar 2
n1r2 = N a b exp a b
a 1>2
So,
pkT kT
When T decreases h times, n102 = n0 will increase h3>2 times.
2.4 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS. ENTROPY 273
U
2.112 (a) Let U = ar 2 or r =
Aa
1 dU dU
So, dr = =
A a 2 1U 2 1aU
exp a b
U dU U
So, dN = n04p
a 2 1aU kT
= 2pn0 a-3>2 U 1>2 exp a b dU

U
kT
(b) The most probable value of U is given by
-U
a b = 0 a b exp a b
d dN 1 U 1>2 1
- or Up = kT
dU dU 2 1U kT kT 2
From 2.111 (b), the potential energy at the most probable distance is kT.
2.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Entropy
2.113 The efficiency is given by

T1 - T2
h = (for T1 7 T2)
T1
Now, in the two cases the efficiencies are
T1 + ¢T - T2
hh = (T1 increased)
T1 + ¢T
T1 - T2 + ¢T
hl = (T2 decreased)
T1
Thus, hh 6 n1
p1V1
Q1
2.114 (a) For H2, g = 7>5. From the figure
p2V2
p1V1 = p2V2, p3V3 = p4V4 adiabatic
and p2V2g = p3V3g, p1V1g = p4V4g p4,V4
p3V3
Q'2
Define n by V3 = n V2.
Then p3 = p2n-g
So, p4V4 = p3V3 = p2V2n1-g = p1V1n1-g
since, p4V4g = p1V1g so, V41-g = V11-g n1–g or V4 = nV1
V2 V3 V3
Also, Q1 = p2V2 ln , Q 2¿ = p3V3 ln n 1 - g = p2V2 ln
V1 V4 V4
Q ¿2
Finally h = 1 - = 1 - n1 - g = 0.242
Q1
(b) Define n by p3 = p2>n
p2
Then, p2V g2 = V3 g or V3 = n1/gV2
n
So we get the formulae here by substituting n by n1/g in the previous case.
Then, h = 1 - n(1/g)-1 = 1 - n-(2/7) = 0.18
2.115 Used as a refrigerator, the refrigerating efficiency of a heat engine is Q1

given by
Q¿2 Q¿2 Q¿2 >Q1 1 - h A=Q1–Q'2
e = = = = = 9
A Q1 - Q¿ 2 Q ¿2 h Q'2
1 -
Q1
(where h is the efficiency of the heat engine).
2.116 Given V2 = nV1,V4 = nV3

Q1 = Heat taken at the upper temperature
= RT1 ln n + RT2 ln n = R (T1 + T2) ln n
p1,V1 T1 p2,V2
Now, T1V g-1
2 = T2V g-1
3
T2 p4,V4
p3,V3
T1
V3 = a b
1>g-1
or V2 p6,V6 p5,V5
T2 T3
T2 1>g - 1
Similarly, V5 = a b V4,
T3
T1 1>g - 1
V6 = a b V1
T3
Thus, heat ejected at the lower temperature
V6
Q2 = -RT3 ln
V5
T1 1>g - 1 V T1 1>g - 1 V2
= –RT3 ln a b = - RT3 in a b
1
T2 V4 T2 n2V3
T1 1>g - 1 1 T1 -1>g - 1
= –RT3 ln a b a b = 2RT3 ln n
T2 n2 T2
2T3
Thus, h = 1-
T1 + T2
CV
Q ¿2 = CV 1T2 - T32 = V2 1p2 - p32
p1,V1
2.117 Since, p2,V2
R
Q1
CV Q'2
V11p1 - p42
p4,V1
and Q1 = p3,V2
R
1V2 p2 - p32
h = 1-
V1 1p1 - p42
So,
On the other hand,

p1V g1 = p2V g2, p3V g2 = p4V g1 also , V2 = nV1
Thus, p1 = p2ng and p4 = p3ng

So, h = 1 - n1-g (where g = 7>5 for N2 )
Therefore, h = 0.602 = 60.2%
Cp
2.118 Since, Q1 = p1 1V2 - V12 Q1
R p1,V1 p1,V2
p2 1V3 - V42
Cp
and Q 2¿ =
R
p2 1V3 - V42 p2,V4 Q'2
p3,V2
h = 1 -
p11V2 - V12
So,
Now, p1 = np2 or V3 = n1/gV2
p2V 4g = p1V1g or V4 = n1>gV1

1 # 1>g
So, h= 1 - n = 1 - n(1>g) - 1
n
2.119 Since the absolute temperature of the gas rises n times both in the T1 nT1
Q11
isochoric heating and the isobaric expansion, we have p1,V1 p1,V2
p1 = np2 and V2 = nV1 Q12 Q'21
Heat taken is Q1 = Q11 + Q12 p2,V1 p2,V2

Q'22
Q11 = CP 1n - 12T1
(T1/n) T1
where,
Q12 = CVT1 a 1 - b
1
and
n
Heat rejected is Q¿2 = Q¿21 + Q¿22
Q¿21 = CVT1 (n - 1) Q¿22 = Cp T1 a1 - b
1
where,
n
Q ¿2 CV (n - 1) + Cp (1 - 1>n)
Thus, h = 1 - = 1 -
Q1 Cp(n - 1) + CV (1 - 1>n)
g
1 +
h - 1 + g(1 - 1>n) n + g
= a1 - b = 1 -
n
= 1 -
g(n - 1) + (1 - 1>n) 1 1 + ng
g +
n
2.120 (a) Here, p2 = np1, p1V1 = p0V0, Temp nT0
and np1V1g = p0V g0 Q1 adiabatic

p1,V1 p0,V0
V0
Also, Q¿2 = RT0 ln , Q1 = CVT0 (n - 1) isothermal
V1 Q'2 Temp T
0
But, nV1g - 1 = V0g - 1 or V1 = V0n-1>g - 1

RT0
Q¿2 = RT0 ln n-1>g - 1 ln n
g - 1
aon using CV = b
ln n R
Thus, h =1 -
n - 1 g - 1
(b) Here, V2 = nV1, p1V1 = p0V0
and p1(n V1)g = p0V0g Q1

p1,V2, nT0
i.e., ngV1g - 1 = V1g - 1 or V1 = ng>g - 1 V0 p1,V1
T0 adiabatic
Also, Q1 = C pT0 (n - 1), Q'2
isothermal p0,V0
V0 T0
Q 2¿ = RT0 ln
V1
Rg
or Q 2¿ = RT0 ln ng>(g - 1) = T ln n = C pT0 ln n
g - 1 0
ln n
Thus, h = 1 -
n - 1
2.121 Here the isothermal process proceeds at the maximum p0,V0 isothermal
T0 Q1
temperature instead of at the minimum temperature of p1,V1,T0
the cycle as in Problem 2.120. isochoric
p1 Q'2
(a) Here p1V1 = p0V0, p2 = adiabatic
n
p1,V1,T0 /n
and p2V g1 = p0V g0 or p1 V1g = np0V0g
(a)
i.e., V1g - 1 = nV0g - 1 or V1 = n1>g - 1 V0
V1 RT0
Q¿2 = CVT0 a 1 - b , Q1 = RT0 ln
1
= ln n = CVT0 ln n
n V0 g - 1
p0,V0,T0
Q¿2 n - 1
Thus, h = 1 - = 1 - Q1
Q1 n ln n adiabatic isothermal
V1
(b) Here, V2 = , p0V0 = p1V1 p1,V2,T0 /n Q'2 p1,V1,T0
n
(b)
p0V0g = p1V2g = p1n-g V1g = V0g - 1 n-g V1g - 1 or V1 = n(g>g - 1) V0
V1
Q¿2 = C pT0 a 1 - b , Q1 = RT0 ln
1 Rg
= T ln n = C pT0 ln n
n V0 g - 1 0
n - 1
Thus, h = 1 -
n ln n
2.122 The section from (p1, V1, T0) to (p2, V2, T0>n) is a polytropic process of index a. We shall
assume that the corresponding specific heat C is positive.
p0 ,V0 , T0
Here, dQ = CdT = CVdT + pdV Q1 isothermal
Now, pV a = constant or TV a - 1 = constant p1 ,V1, T0

Polytropic of
RT R
So, pdV = dV = - dT Q' index
2
V a - 1 adiabatic p2 ,V2 ,T0 /n
= R a b
R 1 1
Then, C = CV - -
a - 1 g - 1 a - 1
RT0 p1V1
We have p1V1 = RT0, p2V2 = =
n n
p0V0 = p1V1 = np2V2, p0V0g = p2V2g
1 g-1
p1V1a = p2V2a or V0g - 1 = V or V2 = V0n1>(g - 1)
n 2
1 a-1
V1a - 1 = V or V1 = n-1>(a - 1) V2 = n1>(g - 1) -1>(a - 1) V0
n 2
V1
Now, Q¿2 = CT0 a1 - b , Q1 = RT0 ln = RT0 a b ln n = CT0 ln n
1 1 1
-
n V0 g - 1 a - 1
n - 1
Thus, h = 1 -
n ln n
T1 T1
Q 2¿ = Cp a T1 - b = CpT1 a 1 - b, Q1 = CV a T0 - b
1
2.123 (a) Here,
n n n
Along the adiabatic line p0 ,V0 , T0
T0Vg0 - 1 = T11n V02g-1 or T0 = T1ng - 1

adiabatic
T1
So, Q1 = CV (ng - 1) Q1
n
p1 ,V1, T1 /n Q'2 p1 , nV0 , T1
g (n - 1)
Thus, h = 1 - (a)
ng-1
(b) Here Q 2¿ = CV (nT1 - T0), Q1 = C p # T1(n - 1) p1 ,V0 /n, T0 p1 ,V0 , nT1
Along the adiabatic line TV g-1 = constant. Q1
V0 g-1 Q 2'
So, T0V g-1
0 = T1 a b or T1 = ng - 1 T0 adiabatic
n
p0 ,V0 , T0
ng - 1
Thus, h = 1 - (b)
gng - 1(n - 1)
Q 2¿ = CpT0 a 1 - b , Q –1 = RT0 ln n
1
2.124 (a) Here, p0,V0,T0
n
Q ¿1 = CVT0 a 1 - b
1 adiabatic
and
n Q1"
Now, Q1 = Q ¿1 + Q –1 Q1
Q¿2 C p(1 - 1>n) p0/n,V0,T0/n Q2

p0/n,nV0,T0
So, h = 1 - = 1 -
Q1 CV (1 - 1>n) + R ln n (a)
g g (n - 1)
= 1 - = 1 -
R n ln n n - 1 + (g - 1)n lnn
1 +
CV n - 1
Q1
(b) Here, Q1 = CpT0 (n - 1), Q 2– = CVT0 (n - 1), np0,V0 /n ,T0 np0,V0,nT0n
and 2 = RT0 ln n
Q‡
Q2''
Now, Q 2¿ = Q 2– + Q 2‡
Q¿2 n - 1 + (g - 1) ln n Q2"'=RT0ln n
So, h = 1 - = 1 - p0,V0,T0
Q1 g(n - 1)
(b)
2.125 We have T0
Q¿1 = tRT0 ln ν, Q¿2 = CVT0(t - 1) Q1 '
and Q2¿ = RT0 ln ν , Q1– = CVT0 (t - 1)

Q1'' Q2''
as well as Q1 = Q1¿ + Q1¿ V0
T0
and Q2¿ = Q2– + Q2‡ vV0
Q2'''
Q¿2
So, h = 1 +
Q1
CV (t - 1) + R ln ν
= 1 -
CV (t - 1) + t R ln ν
t - 1
+ ln ν
g - 1 (t - 1) ln ν
= 1 - =
t - 1 t - 1
+ t ln ν t ln ν +
g - 1 g - 1
2.126 Here, Q1– = CpT0(t - 1), Q1¿ = tRT0 ln n
nT0
and Q2– = CpT0 (t - 1), Q2‡ = RT0 ln n V0
V0
In addition, we have Q1'
T0
Q1 = Q1¿ + Q1–
T0 Q1''
and Q2¿ = Q2– + Q2‡
Q2''' n V0
nV0
Q ¿2 Cp(t - 1) + R ln n Q2'' P0
So, h = 1 - = 1 -
Q1 Cp (t - 1) + tR ln n
t - 1 + a1 - b ln n
1
g (t - 1) ln n
= 1 - =
g(t - 1)
t - 1 + a1 - b t ln n
1
t ln n +
g g - 1
2.127 Because of the linearity of the section BC, whose equation is
p νV
= * ( K p = aV ) C
p0 V0 p0/V0,V0, T0/V
t Q1
We have ν = v or ν = 1t Q2''
Here, Q–2 = CVT0 11t - 12, B A p0,V0,T0

Q2'''
p0,V0/V,T0 /V
T0
Q‡2 = CpT0 a 1 - 11t - 12
1
= Cp
1t 1t
RT0
1 1t - 12 a 1 + b
g
Thus, Q¿2 = Q2– + Q2‡ =
g - 1 1t
Along BC, the specific heat C is given by
CdT = CV dT + pdV = CV dT + d a aV 2 b = a CV + R b dT
1 1
2 2
1 g + 1 t - 1
Thus, Q1 = RT0
2 g - 1 1t
Q ¿2 1t + g 1 (g - 1) 11t - 12
Finally h = 1 - = 1 - 2 =
Q1 1t + 1 g + 1 (g + 1)1 1t + 12
2.128 We write Claussius inequality in the form

d1 Q d2 Q
- … 0
3 T 3 T
where d1Q is the heat transferred to the system but d 2 Q is heat rejected by the system,
both are positive and this explains the minus sign before d 2 Q .
In this inequality Tmax 7 T 7 Tmin and we can write
d1 Q d2 Q
- 6 0
3 Tmax 3 Tmin
Q1 Q¿2 Tmin Q¿2

Thus, 6 or 6
Tmax Tmin Tmax Q1
Q ¿2 Tmin
or h = 1 - 6 1 - = hcarnot
Q1 Tmax
2.129 We consider an infinitesimal carnot cycle with isothermal process at temperatures

T + dT and T. Let dA be the work done in the cycle and dQ, be the heat received at
the higher temperature. Then by Carnot’s theorem
Q1
dA dT p+dp 1 2
=
dQ1 T p 4 3
On the other hand,
0p
dA = dpdV = a b dTdV
0T V
V V+dV
0U
while, dQ1 = dU12 + pdV = c a b + p d dV
0V T
0U 0p
Hence, a b + p = T a b
0V T 0T V
2.130 (a) In an isochoric process, the entropy change will be

Tƒ
CVdT Tƒ R ln n isotherm
¢S = = CV ln = CV ln n =
3 T Ti g - 1
Ti
For carbon dioxide g = 1.30, so

¢S = 19.2 J/K mol
(b) For an isobaric process, entropy change will be

Tƒ gR ln n
¢S = Cp ln = Cp ln n =
Ti g - 1
= 25 J>K mol
2.131 In an isothermal expansion, entropy change is

Vƒ
¢S = νR ln
Vi
Vƒ
So, = e ¢S>νR = 2.0 times
Vi
2.132 The entropy change depends on the final and initial states only, so we can calculate
it directly along the isotherm, it is ¢S = 2 R ln n = 20 J>K, assuming that the final
volume is n times the initial volume.
2.133 If the initial temperature is T0 and volume is V0 then in an adiabatic expansion,
TV g - 1 = T0V0g - 1
So, T = T0n1 - g = T1 (where n = V1>V0 )

V1 being the volume at the end of the adiabatic process. There is no entropy change
in this process. Next the gas is compressed isobarically and the net entropy change is
Tƒ
¢S = a Cp b ln
m
M T1
V1 V0 V0
But, = or Tƒ = T1 = T0n-g
T1 Tƒ V1
¢S = a C b ln = - Cp ln n = -
m 1 m m Rg
So, ln n = - 9.7 J>K
M p n M M g - 1
2.134 The entropy change depends on the initial and final state only so can be calculated for
any process. We choose to evaluate the entropy change along the pair of lines shown
in the figure. Then p0,V0,T0
T0>b aT0>b
CV dT dT
¢S = + nCp
3 T 3 T
T0 T0>b
nR p0 T0 p0 T0
= (- CV ln b + Cp ln a) n = (g ln a - ln b) ,V0 , , V0 ,
g - 1
L - 11 J>K
2.135 To calculate the required entropy difference we only have to calculate the entropy differ-
ence for a process in which the state of the gas in vessel 1 is changed to that in vessel 2.
T1>ab T1>b
p1,V1,T1
¢S = n ± Cp ≤
dT dT
CV +
3 T 3 T
T1 T1>ab
= n(Cp ln a - CV ln ab)
p0 T0 p1 T1
,V , = , aV1,
ln bb = n R aln a - b
a 0 a
= n aR ln a -
R ln b
g - 1 g - 1
¢S = 0.85 J>K
(using g = 5>3, a = 2, b = 1.5 and n = 1.2).
2.136 For the polytropic process with index n, pV n = constant.
Along this process (as in solution of Problem 2.122),
n - g
C = Ra b =
1 1
- #R
g - 1 n - 1 1g - 121n - 12
tT0
dT n - g
So, ¢S = =C R ln t
3 T (g - 1)(n - 1)
T0
2.137 The process in question may be written as

p V
= a
p0 V0
(where a is a constant and p0, V0 are some reference values).

For this process (from solution of Problem 2.127), the specific heat is
1 g + 1
R = Ra + b = R
1 1 1
C = CV +
2 g - 1 2 2 g - 1
Along the line volume increases a times then so does the pressure. The temperature
must then increase a2 times. Thus,
a2T0
dT nR g + 1 g + 1
¢S = nC = ln a2 = nR ln a
3 T 2 g - 1 g - 1
T0
¢S = 46.1 J/K.
5
(using n = 2, g = and a = 2)
3
2.138 Let p1, V1 be a reference point on the line and let 1p, V2 be any other point.
p1,V
Then, p = p0 - aV
The entropy difference

¢S = S1p, V) - S 1p1, V12
p,V
p V p1,V1
= CV ln + Cp ln
p1 V1
p0 - aV V
= CV ln + Cp ln
p1 V1
For an extremum of ¢S
0 ¢S - aCV Cp
= + = 0
0V p0 - aV V1
or Cp1p0 - aV2 - aVCV = 0
gp0
or g1p0 - aV2 - aV = 0 or V = Vm =
a1g + 12
0 2 ¢S
This gives a maximum of ¢S because 6 0
0 V2
Note that a maximum of ¢S is a maximum of S (p,V ).
2.139 For the process, S = aT + CV ln T

dS
and specific heat C = T = aT + CV
dT
On the other hand dQ = CdT = CV dT + pdV for an ideal gas.
RT
Thus, pdV = dV = aTdT
V
R dV R
or = dT or ln V + constant = T
aV a
Using T = T0 when V = V0
R V
we get T = T0 + ln
a V0
2.140 For a Van der Waal gas
ap + b1V - b2 = RT
a
V2
The entropy change along an isotherm can be calculated from

V2
0S
¢S = a
b dV
3 0V T
V1
It follows from solution of Problem 2.129 that
0S 0p
a b = a b =
R
0V T 0T V V - b
(assuming a, b to be known constants).
V2 - b
Thus, ¢S = R ln
V1 - b
V2,T2 T2 V2
0S 0S
2.141 We use, ¢S = dS (V,T ) = a b dT + a b dV
3 3 0T V1 3 0V T = T2
V1,T1 T1 V1
T2 V2
CV dT R T2 V2 - b
= + dV = CV ln + R ln
3 T 3V - b T1 V1 - b
T1 V1
(assuming CV, a, b to be known constants).
2.142 We can take S : 0 as T : 0.

T T
dT 1
Then, S = C = a T 2dT = aT 3
3 T 3 3
0 0
T2 T2
m(a + bT) T2
dT = mb 1T2 - T12 + ma ln
CdT
2.143 ¢S = =
3 T 3 T T1
T1 T1
= 2.0 kJ (on substituting values)

1
T = aS n or S = a b
T n
2.144 Here,
a
1
1 T n-1 S
Then, C = T =
n a1>n n
Clearly, C 6 0 if n 6 0
2.145 We know, T
C>0
T
CdT T
S - S0 = = C ln T0
3 T T0
T0 C<0
(assuming C to be a known constant).
S0 S
S - S0
Then, T = T0 exp a b
C
dS a
2.146 (a) C = T = -
dT T
T2
T1
(b) Q = CdT = a ln
3 T2
T1
(c) W = ¢Q - ¢U
T1
= a ln + CV (T1 - T2)
T2
Since for an ideal gas CV is constant and ¢U = CV (T2 - T1) (as U does not depend
on V ).
2.147 (a) We have from the definition

Q1
Q = TdS = area under the curve T S0,T0 S1,T0
3
Q1 = T0 1S1 - S02
1T + T1 21S1 - S02
1 Q2'
Q 2¿ =
2 0 S1,T1
T0 S
Thus, using T1 = (a)
n
T0 + T1 1 + 1>n n - 1
We get h = 1 - = 1 - =
2T0 2 2n T S0 ,T0
1S - S021T1 + T02
1
(b) Here, Q1 = Q1
2 1
Q¿2 = T1 1S1 - S02
2T1 T0 - T1 n - 1 S0 ,T1 Q ' S1,T1
h = 1 - = = 2
T1 + T0 T0 + T1 n + 1 S
(b)
2.148 In this case, known as free expansion, no work is done and no heat is exchanged. So
internal energy must remain unchanged, i.e., Uƒ = Ui . For an ideal gas this implies co-
nstant temperature, i.e., Tƒ = Ti . The process is irreversible but the entropy change
can be calculated by considering a reversible isothermal process. Then, as before
V2
dQ pdV
¢S = = = nR ln n = 20.1 J/K
3 T 3 T
V1
2.149 The process consists of two parts. The first part is a free expansion in which Uƒ =Ui . The
second part is an adiabatic compression in which work done results in change of
internal energy. Obviously,
V0
0 = UF - Uƒ + pdV and Vƒ = 2V0

3
Vƒ
Now in the first part
1
pƒ = p an Vƒ = 2V0
2 0
(because there is no change of temperature).
In the second part,
p 12V02 g = 2 g - 1p0V g0
1
p Vg =
2 0
V0 V0
2 g - 1p0V0g 2 g - 1p0V g0
dV = c V 1-g d
V0
pdV =
3 3 Vg -g + 1 2V0
2V0 2V0
2g-1 - 1
= 2 g - 1p0V0gV 0-g + 1
g - 1
RT0
= 11 - 2 g - 12
g - 1
RT0
Thus, ¢U = UF - Ui = 12 g - 1 - 12
g - 1
The entropy change ¢S = ¢SI + ¢SII.
¢SI = R ln 2 and ¢SII = 0 as the process is reversible adiabatic. Thus, ¢S = R ln 2.
2.150 In all adiabatic processes, by virtue of first law of thermodynamics

Q = Uƒ - Ui + A = 0
Thus, Uƒ = Ui - A
For a slow process,

V
A¿ = pdV (where for a quasistatic adiabatic process pV g = constant)

3
V0
On the other hand for a fast process, the external work done is A– 6 A¿. In fact
A– = 0 for free expansion. Thus U ¿ƒ (slow) 6 U –ƒ (fast).
Since U depends on temperature only, if T ƒ¿ 6 T –ƒ , consequently p– ƒ 7 p¿ƒ from the
ideal gas equation pV = RT.
Thus the pressure will be higher after the fast expansi on.
2.151 Let V1 = V0, V2 = hv0.

Since the temperature is the same, the required entropy change can be calculated by
considering isothermal expansion of the gas in either parts into the whole vessel.
Thus, ¢S = ¢SI + ¢SII
V1 + V2 V1 + V2
= ν1R ln + ν2 R ln
V1 V2
1 + n
= ν1R ln (1 + n) + ν2 R ln a b
n
= 5.1 J>K
2.152 Let c1 be the specific heat of copper and c2 be the specific heat of water.
.
T0 97 + 273
c2m2dT m1c1dT
Then, ¢S = -
3 T 3 T
7 + 273 T0
T0 370
= m2c2 ln - m1c1 ln
280 T0
T0 can be found from,

280m2c2 + 370m1c1
c2m2 1T0 - 2802 = m1c1 1370 - T02 or T0 =
c2m2 + m1c1
Using c1 = 0.39 J>g K, c2 = 4.18 J>g K,

T0 L 300 K and ¢S = 28.4 - 24.5 ⬵ 3.9 J>K
2.153 For an ideal gas the internal energy depends on temperature only. We can consider
the process in question to be one of simultaneous free expansion, then the total en-
ergy U = U1 + U2.
Since U1 = CVT1, U2 = CV T2 so, U = 2CV (T1 + T2)>2 and 1T1 + T22>2 is the final
temperature.
The entropy change is obtained by considering isochoric process because in effect,
the gas remains confined to its vessel.
1T1 + T22>2
1T1 + T222
T2
CV dT dT
So, ¢S = - CV = CV ln
3 T 3 T 4T1T2
T1 1T1 + T22>2
Since, 1T1 + T222 = 1T1 - T222 + 4T1T2,
We get ¢S 7 0
2.154 (a) Each atom has probability 1>2 to be in either compartment. Thus P = 2-N.
(b) Typical atomic velocity at room temperature is ' 105 cm/s so it takes an atom
10-5 s to cross the vessel. This is the relevant time scale for our problem. Let
T = 10-5 s, then in time T there will be t>T crossing or arrangements of the
atoms. This will be large enough to produce the given arrangement if
t -N ln t>t
2 L 1 or N L L 75
t ln 2
2.155 The statistical weight is

N! 10 * 9 * 8 * 7 * 6
NC = = = 252
N>2 N 8 * 4 * 3 * 2
N>2 ! !
2
The probability distribution is
NC 2-N = 252 * 2-10 = 24.6%
N>2
2.156 The probabilities that the half A contains n molecules is

N! 1 5 10 5 1
NC * 2-N = 2-N; , , , , , respectively.
n n !(N - n) ! 32 32 32 32 32
2.157 The probability of one molecule being confined to the marked volume is
V
P =
V0
We can choose this molecule in many 1NC ways. The probability that n molecules get
1
confined to the marked volume is clearly
NC P n 11 - P2N - n = P n 11 - P2N - n
N!
n n !1N - n2 !
2.5 LIQUIDS. CAPILLARY EFFECTS 289
2.158 In a sphere of diameter d, the number of molecules are

pd 3
N = n
6 0
where n0 = Loschmidt’s number = number of molecules per unit volume (1 cc) under NTP.
The relative fluctuation in this number is
0N 1N 1
= = = h
N N 1N
a b
1 p 3 6 6 1>3
or = d n0 or d 3 = Q d = = 0.41 mm
h2 6 pn0h2 ph2n0
The average number of molecules in this sphere is
1
= 106
h2
2.159 For a monoatomic gas , CV = 3>2R per mole.

The entropy change in the process is
T0 + ¢T
¢T
b
dT 3
¢S = S - S0 = CV = R lna 1 +
3 T 2 T0
T0
Now from the Boltzmann equation, S = k ln Æ .

3NA 3*6
Æ ¢T 2 * 10
23
= e 1S - S02>k = a 1 + b = a1 + b
2 1
= 101.31 * 10
21
So,
Æ0 T0 300
Thus the statistical weight increases by this factor.
2.5 Liquids. Capillary Effects
2.160 (a) ¢p = a a b =
1 1 4a
+
d>2 d>2 d
4 * 490 * 10-3 N N
= 2
= 1.307 * 106 2 = 13 atm
1.5 * 10-6 m m
(b) The soap bubble has two surfaces.
¢p = 2a a b =
1 1 8a
So, +
d>2 d>2 d
8 * 45
= = 1.2 * 10-3 atm
3 * 10-3
2.161 The pressure just inside the hole will be less than the outside pressure by 4a>d. This
can support a height h of Hg where,
4a 4a
r gh = or h =
d rgd
4 * 490 * 10-3 200
So, h = = L 0.21 m of Hg
13.6 * 103 * 9.8 * 70 * 10-6 13.6 * 70
2.162 By Boyle’s law

p0
a p0 + b a b = a + b a b
8a 4p d 3 8a 4p hd 3
d 3 2 n hd 3 2
p0 a 1 - b = 1h - 12
h3 8a 2
or
n d
p0d a1 - b n 1h2 - 12
1 h3
Thus, a =
8 n
2.163 The pressure has terms due to hydrostatic pressure and capillarity and they add as
4a
p = p0 + rgh +
d
5 * 9.8 * 10 4 * 0.73 * 10-3
= a1 + * 10-5 b atm = 2.22 atm
3
+
105 4 * 10-6
2.164 By Boyle’s law
a p0 + hgr + b d = a p0 + b nd
4a p 3 4a p 3 3
d 6 nd 6
1n - 12
4a 2
or hgr - p0 (n3 - 1 ) =
d
h = c p01n3 - 12 + 1n - 12 d ngr = 4.98 m of water.

4a 2
or
d
2.165 Clearly
¢hrg = 4a| cos u | a b

1 1
-
d1 d2
4a| cos u |1d2 - d12
¢h = = 11 mm
d1d2rg
2.166 In a capillary with diameter d = 0.5 mm, water will rise to a height
R
2a 4a
h = =
rgr rgd
4 * 73 * 10-3
= = 59.6 mm
103 * 9.8 * 0.5 * 10-3
Since this is greater than the height (= 25 mm) of the tube, a meniscus of radius
R will be formed at the top of the tube, where
2a 2 * 73 * 10-3
R = = 3 L 0.6 mm
rgh 10 * 9.8 * 25 * 10-3
2.167 Initially the pressure of air in the capillary is p0 and it’s length is l. When submerged
under water, the pressure of air in the portion above water must be p0 + 4a>d, since
the level of water inside the capillary is the same as the level outside. Thus by
Boyle’s law
a p0 + b 1l - x2 = p0l
4a
d
1l - x2 = p0x
4a
or
d
l
or x = = 1.4 cm (on substituting values)
1 + p0d>4a
2.168 We have by Boyle’s law
ap0 - rgh + b 1l - h2 = p0 l
4a cosu
d
4a cos u p0h
or = rgh +
d l - h
p0h
a = a rgh + b
d
Hence,
l - h 4 cos u
2.169 Suppose the liquid rises to a height h. Then the total energy of the liquid in the
capillary is
E 1h2 = A d 22 - d 12 B h * rg * - p 1d2 + d12 ah

p h
4 2
4a
h = = 6 cm
rg1d2 - d12
Minimising E , we get
2.170 Let h be the height of the water level at a distance x from the edge. Then the total
energy of water in the wedge above the level outside is
xdw # dx # h # rg - 2 dx # h # a cos u
h
E =
L 2 L
h
xrgdw a h2 - 2 hb
1 2a cos u x
= dx
L 2 xrgdw
xrgdw c ah - b - 2 2 2 2
1 2a cos u 2 4a2 cos2 u
= dx
L 2 xrgdw x r g dw
2a cos u
This is minimum when h =
xrgdw
2.171 From the equation of continuity
d v = a b #V
p 2# p d 2
or V = n 2v
4 4 n
We then apply Bernoulli’s theorem
p 1
+ v 2 + £ = constant
r 2
The pressure p differs from the atmospheric pressure by capillary effects. At the
upper section, p = p0 + 2 a>d neglecting the curvature in the vertical plane.
p0 + 2a>d 1 2 p0 + 2na>d 1
Thus, + v + gl = + n4v 2
r 2 r 2
2gl - 14a>rd21n - 12
or v =
B n4 - 1
Finally, the liquid coming out per second is,
1 2 2gl - 14a>rd21n - 12
V = pd = 0.9 cm3>s (on substituting values)
4 B n4 - 1
2.172 The radius of curvature of the drop is R1 at the upper end of the drop and R2 at the lower
end. Then the pressure inside the drop is p0 + 12a>R12 at the top end and p0 + 12a>R22
at the bottom end. Hence,
2a 2a 2a1R2 - R12
p0 + = p0 + + rgh or = rgh
R1 R2 R1R2
To a first approximation R1 L R2 L h>2.

So, R2 - R1 L 1>8 rgh3>a L 0.20 mm
and if h = 2.3 mm, a = 73 mN>m
2.173 We must first calculate the pressure difference inside the film from that outside. This is
given by
p = aa + b
1 1
r1 r2
h
Here, 2r1| cos u | = h and r2 L R, where R is the radius of
the tablet and can be neglected. Thus the total force exert-
ed by mercury drop on the upper glass plate is typically,
2pR 2a | cos u |
h
We should put h/n for h because the tablet is compressed n times. Then since Hg
is nearly incompressible, pR 2h = constant, so R : R 1n. Thus, total force
2pR 2a | cos u | 2
= n
h
Part of the force is needed to keep the Hg in the shape of a tablet rather than in the shape
of infinitely thin sheet. This part can be calculated being putting n = 1 above. Thus
2pR 2a | cos u | 2pR 2a | cos u |
mg + = n2
h h
2pR a | cos u |
2
or m = 1n2 - 12 = 0.7 kg
hg
2.174 The pressure inside the film is less than that outside by an amount
1 1
p = aa + b
r1 r2
(where r1 and r2 are the principal radii of curvature of the meniscus).
One of these is small, being given by h = 2r1 cos u while the other is large and will
be ignored.
2A cos u
Then, F L a
h
(where A area of the water film between the plates)
m
Now, A =
rh
2ma
So, F = [when u (the angle of contact) 0]
rh2
= 1.0 N (on substituting values)
2.175 This is analogous to the previous problem except that, A = pR 2.

2pR 2a
So, F = = 0.6 kN
h
2.176 The energy of the liquid between the plates is

h 1
E = ldh rg - 2 alh = rgldh2 - 2alh
2 2 h
rgld a h - b -
1 2a 2 2a2l
=
2 rgd rgd
This energy is minimum when, h = 2a>rgd and the minimum potential energy is then
2a2l
Emin = -
rgd
The force of attraction between the plates can be obtained from this as
- 0Emin 2a2l
F = = - (minus sign means the force is attractive)
0d rgd 2
alh
Thus, F = = 13 N
d
2.177 Suppose the radius of bubble is x at some instant. Then the pressure inside is
p0 + 4a>x. The flow through the capillary is given by Poiseuille’s equation,
pr 4 4a dx
Q = = - 4px 2
8hl x dt
Integrating we get,
t = p1R 4 - x 42
pr 4a
2hl
(where we have used the fact that t = 0 and x = R ).

The life time of the bubble corresponding to x = 0 is
2hlR 4
t =
ar 4
2.178 If the liquid rises to a height h, the energy of the liquid column becomes
- 2prha = rgp a rh - 2 b -
a 2 2pa2
E = rgpr2h #
h 1
2 2 rg rg
This is minimum when rh = 2a>rg and that is relevant height to which water must
rise.
2pa2
At this point, Emin = -
rg
Since E = 0 in the absence of surface tension, heat liberated must be

2pa2
Q =
rg
2.179 (a) The free energy per unit area being a,
F = pad 2 = 3 mJ (on substituting values)
(b) F = 2pad 2 because the soap bubble has two surfaces.

Substitution gives, F = 10 mJ.
2.180 When two mercury drops each of diameter d merge, the resulting drop has diameter d1
p 3 p
where, d 1 = d 3 * 2 or d1 = 21>3d
6 6
The increase in free energy is
¢F = p 22>3 d 2 a - 2pd 2 a = 2pd 2 a 12-1>3 - 12 = –1.43 mJ
2.181 Work must be done to stretch the soap film and compress the air inside. The former
is simply 2a * 4pR 2 = 8pR 2 a, there being two sides of the film. To get the latter
we note that the compression is isothermal and work done is
Vf = V
- pdV
3
Vi = V0
V0 p0 = a p0 + b V
4a # 4p 3
where, and V = R
R 3
pV 4a
or V0 = and p = p0 +
p0 R
and minus sign is needed because we are calculating work done on the system. Thus
since pV remains constant, the work done is
V0 p
pV ln = p V ln
V p0
p
So, A¿ = 8p R 2 a + p V ln
p0
2.182 When heat is given to a soap bubble, the temperature of the air inside rises and the
bubble expands but unless the bubble bursts, the amount of air inside does not
change. Further we shall neglect the variation of the surface tension with tempera-
ture. Then from the gas equations
a p0 + b
4a 4p 3
r = nRT (n = constant)
r 3
Differentiating we get,
ap0 + b 4pr 2dr = nRdT

8a
3r
nRdT
or dV = 4pr 2dr =
8a
p0 +
3r
Now from the first law of thermodynamics
a p0 + b
nRdT 4a
d Q = nCdT = nCV dT +
p0 + 8a>3r r
p0 + 4a>r
or C = CV + R
p08a>3r
using C p = CV + R, we get
1>2 R
C = Cp +
1 + 3p0r>8a
2.183 Consider an infinitesimal Carnot cycle with isotherms at T - dT and T. Let A be the
work done during the cycle. Then
A = [a1T - dT 2 - a1T 2] ds = -
da
dT ds
dT T – dT
(where ds is the change in the area of film; we are consider-

ing only one surface here).
T
q
Then by Carnot theorem σ
A dT
h = =
Q1 T
da
- dT ds
dT dT da
or = or q = - T
q ds T dT
2.6 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 297
2.184 As before we can calculate the heat required. It is taking into account two sides of the
soap film. So,
da
dq = - T ds * 2
dT
dq da
Thus, ¢S = = -2 ds
T dT
Now, ¢F = 2ads
¢U = ¢F + T¢S = 2 a a - T b ds
da
So,
dT
2.6 Phase Transformations
2.185 The condensation takes place at constant pressure and temperature and the work
done is A = p ¢V , where ¢V is the volume of the condensed vapour phase. It is
¢m
p ¢V = RT = 1.2 J
M
(where M = 18 g is the molecular weight of water).
2.186 The specific volume of water (the liquid) will be written as V ¿l . Since V ¿vap 7 7 V ¿l ,
most of the weight is due to water. Thus if ml is mass of the liquid and mvap that of
the vapour then
m = ml + mvap
V = mlV ¿l + mvapV ¿ vap or V - mV ¿l = mvap 1V ¿ vap - V ¿2

l
V - mV ¿l
So, mvap = = 20 g
V ¿ vap - V ¿l
Its volume is V ¿ vap = 1.0 l
2.187 The volume of the condensed vapour was originally V0 - V at temperature T = 373
K. Its mass will be given by
Mp01V0 - V 2
p0 1V0 - V 2 =
m
RT or m = = 2g
M RT
(where p0 = standard atmospheric pressure).
2.188 We let V ¿l = specific volume of liquid. V vap

¿ = NV ¿l = specific volume of vapour.
Let V = original volume of the vapour.
= 1ml + Nmvap2 V ¿l
pV V V
Then, M = ml + mvap = or
RT NV ¿l n
mlV ¿l n - 1
So, 1N - 12 ml V ¿l = V a 1 - b = 1n - 12 or h =
1 V
=
n n V>n N - 1
In the case when the final volume of the substance corresponds to the midpoint of
a horizontal portion of the isothermal line in the pV diagram, the final volume must
be 11 + N 2 V ¿l >2 per unit mass of the substance. Of this, the volume of the liquid is
V ¿>2
l per unit total mass of the substance.
1
Thus, h =
1 + N
2.189 From the first law of thermodynamics
¢U + A = Q = mq
(where q is the specific latent heat of vaporization).
So, increment in entropy is given by
Q mq
¢S = = = 6.0 kJ/K (on substituting values)
T T
A = p 1V ¿vap - V ¿2
RT
Now, l m = m
M
¢U = m a q - b
RT
Thus,
M
For water, this gives L 2.08 * 106 J.
2.190 Some of the heat used in heating water to the boiling temperature
T = 100°C = 373 K. The remaining heat = Q - mc¢T (here c = specific heat of
water, ¢T = 100 K) is used to create vapour. If the piston rises to a height h then
the volume of vapour will be L Sh (neglecting water). Its mass will be
p0Sh
* M
RT
Heat of vapourization will be
p0Sh Mq
RT
. To this must be added the work done in creating the saturated vapour = p0Sh.
Q - mc¢T
Q - m c¢T L p0S h a 1 + b
qM
Thus, or h L = 20 cm
p0S a 1 + b
RT qM
RT
2.191 A quantity mc1T - T02>q of saturated vapour must condense to heat the water to
bolling point T = 373 K. (Here c = specific heat of water, T0 = 295 K = initial water
temperature.)
The work done in lowering the piston will then be

mc1T - T02 RT
* = 25 J
q M
Since work done per unit mass of the condensed vapour is pV = RT>M .
2.192 Given
rvap 2a rvap 4a
¢P = = * = h pvap
rl r rl d
1m>M2 RT hRT
= h Pvap = h = r
Vvap M vap
4aM
or d =
rl RTh
For water, a = 73 dynes/cm, M = 18 g, rl = 1 g/cc and T = 300 K. Using these va-

lues and with h = 0.01, we get d L 0.2 m m.
2.193 At equilibrium the number of “liquid” molecules evaporating must equal the number
of “vapour” molecules condensing. By kinetic theory, this number is
1 1 8 kT
h * n 6 v 7 = h * n *
4 4 A m
p
The required mass is
kT m
m = m * h * n * = h nkT
A 2pm A 2pkt
M
= h p0 = 0.35 g/cm2
A 2pRT
where p0 is standard atmospheric pressure, T = 373 K and M = molecular weight of
water.
2.194 Here we must assume that m is also the rate at which the tungsten filament loses
mass when in an atmosphere of its own vapour at this temperature and that h (of the
previous problem) L 1. Then
2pRT
p = m = 0.9 nPa
A M
where p = pressure of the saturated vapor.
2.195 From the Van der Waal’s equation

RT a
- 2
p =
V - b V
(where V = volume of one gram mole of the substances).
For water V = 18 cm3 per mol = 1.8 * 10-2 l mol-1 and a = 5.47 atm l2/mol 2.
If molecular attraction vanishes, the equation will be
RT
p¿ = (for the same specific volume)
V - b
Thus,
a 5.47
¢p = m = * 104 atm L 1.7 * 104 atm
V2 1.8 * 1.8
2.196 The internal pressure being a>V 2, the work done in condensation is
Vg
a a a a
2
dV = - L
3V Vl Vg Vl
Vl
This by assumption is Mq, M being the molecular weight, q being specific talent heat of
vaporization and Vl , Vg being the molar volumes of the liquid and gas, respectively
a Mq
Thus, pi = 2 = = rq
Vl Vl
(where r is the density of the liquid).
For water pi = 2 * 104 atm
2.197 The Van der Waal’s equation can be written as (for one mole)
p 1V 2 =
RT a
- 2
V - b V
0p 0 2p
At the critical point a b and a b vanish. Thus,
0V T 0V 2 T
RT 2a RT 2a
0 = - 3 or = 3
1V - b22 V 1V - b22 V
2RT 6a RT 3a
0 = - =
1V - b2 1V - b2
3
or 3
V4 V4
Solving these simultaneously, we get on division
2
V - b = V, V = 3 b L VMCr
3
This is the critical molar volume. Putting this back, we get

RTCr 2a 8a
2
= 3
or TCr =
4b 27b 27bR
RTCr a 4a a a
Finally pcr = - = - =
VMCr - b 2
VMCr 27b2 9b 2 27b 2
From these we see that
pCrVMCr a>9b 3
= =
RTCr 8a>27b 8
pCr a>27b2 1
2.198 We have, = =
RTCr 8a>27b 8b
TCr 0.082 * 304
Thus, b = R = = 0.043 l/mol
8pCr 73 * 8
1RTCr22 64a 27 1RTCr2
2
and = or a = = 3.59 atm l 2/mol
pCr 27 64 pCr
2.199 Specific volume is molar volume divided by molecular weight. Thus

VMCr 3RTCr 3 * 0.082 * 562
V ¿Cr = = = l>g = 4.71 cm3>g
M 8MpCr 8 * 78 * 47
ap + b 1VM - b2 = RT
a
2.200 We have,
VM2
p + a>VM2 VM - b 8 T
or * =
pCr VMCr 3 TCr
ap + b * an - b = t
a b 8
or 2
pCrVM VMCr 3
p VM
awhere p =
T a
,n = ,t =
pCr VMCr TCr
ap + b a n - b = t or ap + b an - b = t
27b 2 1 8 3 1 8
or
V M2 3 3 n2 3 3
When p = 12 and n = 1/2, we get

3 1 3
t = * 24 * =
8 6 2
2.201 (a) The critical volume VMCr is the maximum volume in the liquid phase and the
minimum volume in the gaseous. Thus,
1000
Vmax = * 3 * 0.030 l = 5 l
18
(b) The critical pressure is the maximum possible pressure in the vapour phase in
equilibrium with liquid phase. Thus,
a 5.47
pmax = = = 225 atm
27b 2 27 * 0.03 * 0.03
8 a 8 3.62
2.202 We have, TCr = = * L 304 K
27 bR 27 0.043 * 0.082
M 44
rCr = = g/cm3 = 0.34 g/cm3
3b 3 * 43
2.203 The vessel is such that either vapour or liquid of mass m occupies it at critical point.
Then its volume will be
m 3 RTCr m
VCr = VMCr =
M 8 pCr M
The corresponding volume in liquid phase at room temperature is

m
V =
r
(where r = density of liquid ether at room temperature).

V 8MpCr
Thus, h = = L 0.254
VCr 3RTCr r
(using the given data and r = 720 g/l).
2.204 We apply the following relation, at constant T to the p

4
cycle 1234531
II
1 5
T dS = dU + pdV 3
I
C C C
2
Here, dS = dU = 0 V
C
So, pdV = 0
C
This implies that the areas I and II are equal. This reasoning is inapplicable to the
cycle 1231, for example. This cycle is irreversible because it involves the irreversible
transition from a single phase to a two-phase state at the point 3.
2.205 When a portion of super-cool water turns into ice some heat is liberated, which
should heat it upto ice point. Neglecting the variation of specific heat of water, the
fraction of water turning into ice is clearly
c|t|
f = = 0.25
q
(where c = specific heat of water and q = latent heat of fusion of ice).
Clearly f = 1 at t = - 80°C.
2.206 From the Clausius–Clapeyron (C - C ) equation

dT T 1V 2¿ - V 1¿ 2
=
dp q12
Here, q12 is the specific latent heat absorbed in 1 : 2 and 1 = solid, 2 = liquid.
T 1V 2¿ - V 1¿ 2 273 * 0.091
¢T = ¢p = - * 1 atm cm3 K>J
q12 333
atm * cm3 105N/m2 * 10-6m3

1 = = 10-1 Nm/J, ¢T = 0.0075 K
J J
2.207 Here 1 = liquid, 2 = steam.

T 1V 2¿ - V 1¿ 2
So, ¢T = ¢p
q12
q12 ¢T 2250 0.9

or V ¿2 L = * * 10-3 m3/g = 1.7 m3/kg
T ¢p 373 3.2
2.208 From C-C equation
dp q12 q12
= =
dT T 1V 2¿ - V 1¿ 2 TV 2¿
Assuming the saturated vapour to be ideal gas, we can write

1 mp
=
V 2¿ RT
Mq
Thus, ¢p = p ¢T
RT 2 0
p = p0 a 1 + ¢T b L 1.04 atm
Mq
and
RT 2
2.209 From C-C equation, neglecting the volume of the liquid

q12
1as q = q122
dp Mq
L L p
dT TV ¿ 2 RT 2
dp Mq dT
or =
p RT T
m MpV
Now, pV = RT or m = (for an ideal gas)
M RT
1V is constant = specific volume)

dm dp dT
So, = -
m p T
18 * 2250
= a = a - 1b *
Mq dT 1.5
- 1b L 4.85%
RT T 8.3 * 373 375
2.210 From C-C equation

dp q Mq
L L p
dT TV 2¿ RT 2
Mq
Integrating ln p = constant -
RT
p = p0 exp c a - bd
Mq 1 1
So,
R T0 T
This is reasonable for |T - T0|<<T0, and far below critical temperature.
2.211 As before from solution of Problem 2.206, the lowering of melting point is given by
C¢V ¿
¢T = - p
q
The superheated ice will then melt in part. The fraction that will melt is
CT¢V ¿
h = p = 0.03
q2
where C is the specific heat capacity of ice, T 273 K and q is the specific heat of
melting.
2.212 (a) The equations of the transition lines are

1800
log p = 9.05 - (solid-gas)
T
1310
= 6.78 - (liquid-gas)
T
At the triple point they intersect. Thus,
490 490
2.27 = or Ttr = = 216 K
Ttr 2.27
The corresponding ptr is 5.14 atm.
In the formula log p = a - b>T , we compare b with the corresponding term in the
equation in Problem 2.210. Then
2.303 b Mq
ln p = a * 2.303 - Q 2.303 =
T R
2.303 * 1800 * 8.31
or q solid-gas = = 783 J/g
44
2.303 * 1310 * 8.31
q liquid-gas = = 570 J/g
44
Finally q solid-liquid = 213 J/g (on subtraction)
T2
T2
L m a c ln b
dT mq q
2.213 ¢S = mc + +
3 T T2 T1 T2
T1
= 103 a 4.18 ln b L 7.2 kJ/K

373 2250
+
283 373
qm T2 qv
2.214 ¢S L + c ln +
T1 T T2
333 373
= + 4.18 ln L 8.56 J/K
273 283
2.215 Specific heat of copper, c = 0.39 J/gK. Suppose all the ice does not melt, then
heat rejected 90 0.39 (90 0) 3159 J

and heat gained by ice 50 2.09 3 x 333
This gives, x 8.5 g

The hypothesis is correct and final temperature will be T 273 K.

Hence change in entropy of copper piece
T 273
¢S = mc ln = mc ln = - 10 J/K
T1 363
2.216 (a) Here t2 = 60°C. Suppose the final temperature is t °C. Then,
heat lost by water = m2 c 1t2 - t2
heat gained by ice = m1qm + m1 c 1t - t12 (if all the ice melts)
In this case, m1qm = m2 * 4.18 160 - t2 (for m1 = m2 )
So the final temperature will be 0C and only some ice will melt.
Then 100 * 4.18 (60) = m¿1 * 333
or m¿1 = 75.3 g = amount of ice that will melt
333 273
Finally ¢S = 75.3 * + 100 * 4.18 ln
273 333
m¿ 1qm T1
¢S = + m2c ln
T1 T2
(T2 - T1) T2
= m2c - m2c ln
T1 T1
T2 T2
= m2c c - 1 - ln d = 8.8 J/K
T1 T1
(b) If m2ct2 > m1qm , then all the ice will melt as one can check and the final temper-
ature can be obtained like this
m2c 1T2 - T2 = m1qm + m1c 1T - T12
1m2T2 + m1T12 c - m1qm = 1m1 + m22 cT
m1qm
m2T2 + m1T1 -
c
or T = L 280 K
m1 + m2
m1q T2
+ c a m1 ln - m2ln b = 19 J/K
T
and ¢S =
T1 T1 T
mq2 T2 Mqice
2.217 ¢S = - - mc ln +
T2 T1 T1
where, mq ice = m 1q2 + c 1T2 - T122

T2 T2
= mq2 a b + mc a - 1 - ln b
1 1
So, ¢S -
T1 T2 T1 T1
= 0.2245 + 0.2564 = 0.48 J/K
2.218 When heat dQ is given to the vapour its temperature will change by dT, pressure by
dp and volume by dV, it being assumed that the vapour remains saturated.
Then by C-C equation,
dp q q
= ¿ 7 7 V l ¿) or dp =
(V vap dT
dT TV ¿ TV ¿
RT
On the other hand, pV ¿ =
M
RdT
So, pdV ¿ + V ¿dp =
M
pdV ¿ = a - b dT
R q
Hence,
M T
Finally dQ = CdT = dU + pdV ¿
= CvdT + a - b dT = CpdT - dT
T q q
M T T
(Cp , CV refer to unit mass here).

q
Thus, C = Cp -
T
For water, Cp =
Rg .1 (with g = 1.32 and M = 18)
g - 1 M
So, Cp = 1.90 J/g K
and C = - 4.13 J/g K = - 74 J/mol K
2.219 The required entropy change can be calculated along a process in which the water is
heated from T1 to T2 and then allowed to evaporate. The entropy change for this
is
T2 qM
¢S = Cp ln +
T1 T2
where q = specific latent heat of vaporization.

2.7 Transport Phenomena
2.220 (a) The fraction of gas molecules which traverses distances exceeding the mean free
path without collision is just the probability to traverse the distance s = l with-
out collision.
1
Thus, P = e-1 = = 0.37
e
Hence the sought fraction h = 0.37.

(b) This probability is
P = e-1 - e-2 = 0.23
Hence the sought fraction h = 0.23.
1 ¢l .
2.221 From the formula = e ¢l/l or l =
h ln h
2.222 (a) Let P (t) probability of no collision in the interval (0, t). Then
P (t + dt) = P (t) (1 - adt)
dP
or = - aP (t) or P (t) = e-at
dt
where we have used P (0) = 1.

(b) The mean interval between collision is also the mean interval of no collision. Then,
q
te-atdt
3
0 1 ≠(2) 1
6 t7 = q = =
a ≠(1) a
e-atdt
3
0
1 kT
2.223 (a) l = =
22pd 2n 22pd 2p
1.38 * 10 - 23 * 273
= = 6.2 * 10-8 m
22p (0.37 * 10-9)2 * 105
2.7 TRANSPORT PHENOMENA 309
l 6.2 * 10-8
t = = s = 0.136 ns
6v 7 454
(b) l = 6.2 * 106 m
t = 1.36 * 104 s = 3.8 h
2.224 The mean distance between molecules is of the order
22.4 * 10-3 1/3

a b a b * 10-9 m « 3.34 * 10-9 m
224 1/3
=
6.0 * 1023 6
This is about 18.5 times smaller than the mean free path calculated in Problem
2.223(a) above.
2.225 We know that the Van der Waal’s constant b is four times the molecular volume. Thus,
d or d = a b
p 3 3d 1/3
b = 4NA
6 2p NA
kT0 2pNA
l = a ba b
2/3
Hence, = 84 nm (on substituting values)
22pP0 3b
2.226 The velocity of sound in N2 is

gp gRT
=
Ar A M
1 gRT0 RT0
So, = =
n A M 22p d 2p0NA
= 5.5 GHz (on substituting values)
kT
2.227 (a) l 7 l if p 6
12p d 2l
L 0.7 Pa for O2
(b) The corresponding molecular concentration n is obtained by dividing by kT and

is 1.84 * 1020 per m3 = 1.84 * 1014 per cm3 and the corresponding mean dis-
tance is given by
l 10-2
= = 1.8 * 10-7 m L 0.18 mm
n1>3 (0.184)1>3 * 105
1 1 6 v7
2.228 (a) v = = =
t l> 6v 7 l
= 12pd 2 n 6 v7 = 0.74 * 1010 s-1
p0 8 RT
where n = and 6 v7 =
kT0 A pM
(b) Total number of collisions is
1
nv = 1.0 * 1029 s-1 cm-3
2
Note, the factor 1>2, which come because when two molecules collide we must
not count it twice.
1
2.229 (a) l =
12pd 2n
d is a constant and n is a constant for an isochoric process, so l is constant for
an isochoric process.
6 v7
nl
8RT
v = =
l B Mp
i.e., v r 1T
1 kT
(b) l = r T (for an isobaric process)
12pd 2 P
6v7 1T 1
v = r = (for an isobaric process)
l T 1T
2.230 (a) In an isochoric process l is constant and
v r 1T r 1pV r 1p r 1n
so v increases n times
kT
(b) l = must decrease n times in an isothermal process and v must in-
12pd 2p
crease n times because 6v 7 is constant in an isothermal process.
1 1 V
2.231 (a) l r Ú =
n N>V N
T 1>2
Thus, l r V and v r
V
But in an adiabatic process TV g - 1 = constant, so TV 2>5 = constant (as g = 7>5 here).
or T 1>2 r V -1>5
Thus, v rV -6>5
T
(b) Given l r
p
p a b = constant
T g
But,
p
T
or r p-1>g or T r p 1 - 1>g
p
Thus, l r p -1>g = p-5>7
6 v7 p
When, v = r r p1>2 + 1>2g = pg + 1>2g = p6>7
l 1T
(c) Given l r V
But, TV 2/5 = constant or V r T -5>2
Thus, l r T -5>2
T 1>2
v r r T3
V
2.232 In the polytropic process of index n , pV n = constant, TV n -1 = constant and p 1–n T n =
constant.
(a) When l r V,
T 1>2
v r = V 1 - n>2 V -1 = V -n + 1>2
V
T
(b) When l r ,
p
T n r p n - 1 or T r p 1 - 1>n
So, l r p -1>n
6 v7 p
v = r r p 1 - 1>2 + 1>2n = p (n + 1)>2n
l 1T
T
(c) When l r ,
p
p r T n>n - 1
l r T 1 - n>n - 1 = T - 1>n - 1 = T 1>1 - n

p
v r r T 1n>n - 12 - 11>22 = T 1n + 12>21n - 12
1T
2.233 (a) The number of collision between the molecules in a unit volume is
1 1 1T
nn = pd 2 n 2 6 v 7 r 2
2 12 V
This remains constant is polytropic process , pV -3 = constant.

Using solution of Problem 2.122, the molar specific heat for the polytropic pro-
cess, pV a = constant, is
C = Ra b
1 1
-
g - 1 a - 1
C = R a + b = R a + b =
1 1 5 1 11
Thus, R
g - 1 4 2 4 4
1
It can also be written as R (1 + 2i) (where i = 5 )
4
On substituting values C = 23 J/K mol.
1T
(b) In this case = constant and so pV -1 = constant.
V
C = R a + b = R a + b = 3R
1 1 5 1
So,
g - 1 2 2 2
R
which can also be written as (i + 1) (where i = 5).
2
On substituting values C = 29 J/K mol.
2.234 We can assume that all molecules incident on the hole, leak out. Then,
1
- dN = - d1nV2 = n 6 v 7 S dt
4
dt dt
or dn = - n = -n
4v>S 6 v7 t
Integrating, n = n0 e-t>t
8RT
Hence, 6v 7 =
A pM
2.235 If the temperature of the compartment 2 is h times more than that of compartment
1, it must contain 1>h times less number of molecules since pressure must be the
same when the big hole is open. If M = mass of the gas in 1 than the mass of the
gas is 2 must be M>h. So immediately after the big hole is closed,
M M
n 01 = and n 02 =
mV mVh
where m = mass of each molecule and n01, n02 are concentrations in 1 and 2. After
the big hole is closed the pressures will differ and concentration will become n1 and
n2, where
11 + h2
M
n1 + n2 =
mVh
On the other hand
n1 6 v1 7 = n2 6v2 7 , i.e. , n1 = 1h n2
n2 A 1 + 1h B = 11 + h2 = n0211 + h2
m
Thus,
mVh
1 + h
So, n2 = n 02
1 + 1h
2.236 We know
1 1 1
h = 6v 7lr = 6v 7 m a 1T
3 3 12 p d 2
Thus h changing a times implies T changing a2 times.

On the other hand
1 1 8kT kT
D = 6v 7l =
3 3A pm 12pd 2p
T 3>2
Thus D changing b times means changing b times.
p
a3
So p must change times = 2 times (on substituting values).
b
1T
2.237 D r r V 1T and h r 1T
n
(a) D will increase n times, and h will remain constant if T is constant.
T 3>2 1pV2 3>2

(b) D r r = p 1>2 V 3>2
p p
Also, h r 1pV
Thus D will increase n 3>2 times, h will increase n1>2 times, if p is constant.
2.238 D r V 1T and h r 1T
In an adiabatic process
TV g - 1 = constant or T r V 1-g
Now V is decreased 1>n times.
1 3 - g>2
D r V 3 - g>2 = a b = a b
1 4>5
Thus,
n n
1 -1>5
h r V 1g>2 = a b = n 1>5
n
So D decreases n 4>5 times and h increase n1>5 times L 6.3 and 1.6 times, respectively.
2.239 (a) D r V 1T r 1pV 3

Thus D remains constant in the process pV 3 = constant. So polytropic index
of the process n = 3.
(b) h r 1T r 1pV
So h remains constant in the isothermal process. pV = constant, n = 1, here.
(c) Heat conductivity k = hCV and CV is a constant for the ideal gas.
Thus n = 1 here also.
1 8kT m 2 mkT 1
2.240 h = =
3A pm 12 p d 2 3 A p3 d 2
1>2 4 * 8.31 * 273 * 10-3 1>4

or d = a b a 3 b = a * 106 b a b
2 1>2 mkT 1>4 2
3h p 3 * 18.9 p3 * 36 * 1046
1>2 4 * 83.1 * 273 1>4
= 10-10 a b a b L 0.178 nm
2
3 * 18.9 p3 * 0.36
1
2.241 k = 6 v7 lrcV
3
1 8kT 1 CV
= mn
3 A mp 12 p d n
2 M
cV is the specific heat capacity which is CV >M. Now CV is the same for all monoatom-
ic gases such as He and A.
1
Thus, k r
1Md 2
kHe 1MA dA2 dA2

or = 8.7 = = 110
kA 1MHe dHe
2 2
dHe
dA 8.7
= = 1.658 L 1.7
dHe A 110
2.242 In this case

r 22 - r 21
N1 = 4ph␻
r 21r 22
2R ¢R 2p h vR 3
or N1 L 4p h v or N1 =
R4 ¢R
To decrease N 1 n times, h must be decreased n times. Now h does not depend on

pressure until the pressure is so low that the mean free path equals, say, 1>2 ¢R.
Then the mean free path is fixed and h decreases with pressure. The mean free path
equals 1>2 ¢R , when
1
= ¢R (where n0 = concentration)
22pd 2n0
Corresponding pressure is
22kT
p0 =
pd 2 ¢R
The sought pressure is n times less, given by
22kT 10-23
p = = 70.7 * -18
L 0.71 Pa
2
pd n¢R 10 * 10-3
The answer is qualitative and depends on the choice 1>2 ¢R for the mean free path.
2.243 We neglect the moment of inertia of the gas in a shell. Then the moment of friction
forces on a unit length of the cylinder must be a constant as a function of r.
N1 1
- 2b
dv 1
4ph a r 1
So, 2pr 3h = N1 or v(r) = 2
dr r
N1 N1
a- 2b a - 2b
1 1 1 1
and v = or h =
4ph r 21 r2 4pv r 21 r2
2.244 We consider two adjoining layers. The angular velocity gradient is v>h. So the mo-
ment of the frictional force is
a
␻ pha 4␻
N = r 2prdr hr =
3 h 2h
0
2.245 In the ultra-rarefied gas we must determine h by taking l = 11>22h.

1 8kT 1 mp 1 2M
Then, h = * h * = hp
3 A mp 2 kT 3 A pRT
1 pM
So, N = va 4p
3 A 2RT
2.246 Take an infinitesimal section of length dx and apply Poiseuille’s equation to this.
dV - pa 4 0p
Then, =
dt 8h 0x
pV = RT #
m
From the formula,
M
RT
pdV = dm
M
dm pa 4M pdp
or = m = -
dt 8hRT dx
This equation implies that if the flow is isothermal, then

dp |p 22 - p 21|
p = = constant
dx 2l
pa 4M |p 2 - p 1|
2 2
Thus, m =
16hRT l
2.247 Let T be the temperature of the interface. Then heat flowing from left is equal to the
heat flowing into right in equilibrium.
T1 - T T - T2 1k1T12>l1 + 1k2T22>l2
k1 = = k2 = or T =
k1>l1 + k2>l2
Thus,
l1 l2
2.248 We have
T1 - T T - T2 T1 - T2
k1 = k2 = k
l1 l2 l1 - l2
or using the previous result

k1T1 k2T2
+
k1 l1 l2 T1 - T2
§T1 - ¥ = k
l1 k1 k2 l1 + l2
+
l1 l2
k2
(T1 - T2)
k1 l2 T1 - T2 l1 + l2
or = k Q k =
l1 k1 k2 l1 + l2 l1 l2
+ +
l1 l2 k1 k2
2.249 By definition the heat flux per unit area is
#
Q = -K
dT
= -a
d
ln T = constant = +
a ln T /T
1 2
dx dx l
x T2
Integrating ln T = ln + ln T1
l T1
(where T1 temperature at the end x 0)
T2 #
T = T1 a b
x/l a
So, and Q = ln T1/T2
T1 l
2.250 Suppose the chunks have temperatures T1, T2 at time t and T1 dT1, T2 dT2 at
time dt t.
kS
Then, C1dT1 = C2dT2 = (T1 - T2) dt
l
a b ¢T dt 1where ¢T = T1 - T22
kS 1 1
Thus, d¢T = – +
l C1 C2
k#S 1
¢T = (¢T )0e-t/t a where a bb
1 1
Hence, = +
t l C1 C2
# 0T 0T
2.251 Q = k = - A 2T (where A constant)
0x 0x
2 0T 3/2
= - A
3 0x
2 (T 1
3/2 - T 3/2
2 )
= A
3 l
x
Thus, T 3/2 = constant - (T13/2 - T23/2)
l
Using T = T1, at x = 0, we get
x T2 3/2
a b = 1 + aa b - 1 b
x 3/2 T 3/2
T 3/2 = T13/2 + (T - T13/2 ) or
l 2 T1 l T
T2 3/2
T = T1 c1 + e a b - 1 fd
x 2/3
l T1
where x is the distance from the plate maintained at the temperature T1.
1 8RT 1 R (i>2) R 3>2iT 3>2

2.252 k = mn =
3 A pM 22pd 2n M 3p3>2d 2 2MNA
Then from the previous problem
2iR 3>2(T 3>2

2 - T 3>2
1 )
q = ,
9p3>2d 2 2MNAl
i 3 here and d is the effective diameter of helium atom.
2.253 At this pressure and average temperature ( 27°C 300 K)

(T1 + T2)
T =
2
1 kT -5
l = = 2330 * 10 m = 23.3 mm 77 5.0 mm = l
22pd 2 p
The gas is ultra-thin and we write l = (1>2) l here.
dT T2 - T1
Then, q = k = k
dx l
1 1 MP R 1 p 6v 7
where, k = 6 v7 * l * * * = l
3 2 RT g - 1 M 6T (g - 1)
p 6v 7
and q = (T - T1) = 22 W/m2 (on substituting values)
6T (g - 1) 2
8RT
where, 6 v7 = .
A Mp
T2 + T1
We have used T2 - T1 6 6 here.
2
dT
2.254 At equilibrium, 2pr k = - A = constant.
dr
A
So, T = B - ln r
2pk
But T T1 , when r R 1 and T T2 , when r R2 .

T2 - T1 r
From this we find T T1
ln R2>R1
ln
R1
dT
2.255 At equilibrium 4pr2k = - A = constant
dr
A 1
T = B +
4pk r
Using T T1 when r R1 and T T2 when r = R2,
T2 - T1
a - b
1 1
T = T1 +
(1>R2) - (1>R1) r R1
2.256 The heat flux vector is - k§T and its divergence equals w. Thus,
w
§2T = –
k
1 0 0T
a b ar b = – in cylindrical coordinates.
w
or
r 0r 0r k
w 2
or T = B + A ln r - r
2k
Since T is finite at r 0, A 0. Also T T0 at r R
w 2
So, B = T0 + R
4k
w 2
Thus, T = T0 + (R - r 2)
4k
where r is the distance from the axis of the wire also called axial radius.
2.257 Here again w

§2T = –
k
So in spherical polar coordinates,
1 0 0T 0T 0T
ar 2 b = –
w w w
or r 2 = - or r 2 = - r3 + A
r 2 0r 0r k 0r k 0r 3k
A w 2
or T = B - - r
r 6k
w 2
Again A = 0 and B = T0 + R
6k
w
So finally, T = T0 + * (R 2 - r 2)
6k
ELECTRODYNAMICS
PART 3
3.1 Constant Electric Field in Vacuum
q2 gm 2
3.1 Fele (for electrons) = and Fgr =
4pe0r 2 r2
Fele q2
Thus, (for electrons) =
Fgr 4pe0gm 2
(1.602 * 10 –19 C) 2
= = 4 * 1042
a b * 6.67 * 10 –11m 3>(kg # s 2) * (9.11 * 10 –31 kg) 2
1
9 * 10 9
Fele q2
Similarly (for proton) =
Fgr 4pe0gm 2
(1.602 * 10-19 C)2

= = 1 * 1036
a b * 6.67 * 10 - 11 m3> (kg # s2) * (1.672 * 10 - 27 kg)2
1
9 * 109
For Fele = Fgr,

q2 gm 2 q
= or = 24pe0g
4pe0r 2 r 2 m
6.67 * 10 –11m 3 (kg # s 2)

= = 0.86 * 10 –10 C>kg
B 9 * 10 9
1
3.2 Total number of atoms in the sphere of mass 1 gram = * 6.023 * 10 23.
63.54
6.023 * 10 23
So the total nuclear charge l = * 1.6 * 10 -19 * 29.
63.54
322 PART THREE ELECTRODYNAMICS
Now the charge on the sphere = total nuclear charge - total electronic charge
6.023 * 10 23 29 * 1
= * 1.6 * 10 -19 * = 4.298 * 10 2 C
63.54 100
Hence, force of interaction between these two spheres,
1 # [4.398 * 10 2] 2
F = N = 9 * 10 9 * 10 4 * 19.348 N = 1.74 * 10 15 N
4pe0 12
3.3 Let the balls be deviated by an angle u from the vertical when separation between
them equals x.
Applying Newton’s second law of motion for any one of the spheres, we get
T cos u = mg (1)
and T sin u = Fele (2) T
x Fele
From the Eqs. (1) and (2)
mg
Fele
tan u = (3)
mg
But from the figure
x x
tan u = ⬵ as x 66 l
2l
2 l2 - a b
x 2
(4)
B 2
mg x q2 mg x
Fele = or =
2l 4pe0x 2 2l
2pe0mgx 3
Thus q2 = (5)
l
dq 2pe0mg dx
2q = 3x 2
dt l dt
aapproach velocity is b
dx a dx
According to the problem = v =
dt 1x dt
2pe0mg 3pe0mg
a x3b
1>2 dq a
so, = x2
l dt l 2x
3.1 CONSTANT ELECTRIC FIELD IN VACUUM 323
dq 3 2pe0mg
Hence, = a
dt 2 B l
Note: If the plane of figure is x-y plane and point of suspension is O, Eq. (3) can be
obtained more easily using net torque equal to zero about OZ-axis , i.e., t0Z = O .
3.4 Let us choose coordinate axes as shown in the figure and fix three charges, q1, q2 and
q3 having position vectors r1, r2 and r3, respectively.
Now, for the equilibrium of q3
q2q3 (r2 - r3) q1q3 (r1 - r3)
+ = 0 y q1
| r2 - r3 |3 | r1 - r3 |3 r1−r3
r1 q3
q2 q1 r2−r3
or = r3 q
| r2 - r3 | 2 | r1 - r3 | 2 r2 2
O x
r2 - r3 r1 - r3
because = -
| r2 - r3 | | r1 - r3 | z
So, 1q2 (r1 - r3) = 1q1 (r3 - r2)

1q2 r1 + 1q1 r2
or r3 =
1q1 + 1q2
Also for the equilibrium of q1
q3 (r3 - r1) q2 (r2 - r1)
+ = 0
| r3 - r1 |3 | r2 - r1 | 3
- q2
or q3 = | r1 - r3 | 2
| r2 - r1 | 2
Substituting the value of r3, we get
- q1q2
q3 =
1 1q1 + 1q222
3.5 When the charge q0 is placed at the center of the ring, the wire dFele
gets stretched. The component of extra tension ¢T towards the ∆T
center will balance the electric force dFele due to the charge q0 on d
a differential part of the ring which subtends angle du at the ∆T
center, having the charge q0
dq = a b du
q
2p
du
2¢T sin = dFele
2
As du is very small
du
2¢T sin L Tdu
2
q0dq 1 q0 q
Using dFele = = a b du
4pe0r 2 4pe0 r 2 2p
1 q0
a b du
q
¢Td u =
4pe0 r2 2p
qq0
Hence, ¢T =
8p 2e0r 2
q
3.6 Sought field strength E =
1 # (r - r0 ) = 2.7i - 3.6j kV/m
4pe0 | (r - r0 ) | 3
1 q
So, |E| =
4pe0 | r - r0 | 2
= 4.5 kV>m (on substituting values)
3.7 Electric field strength due to a point charge (q) at a field point (P ) in vacuum is given
by
1 qr
E = q
4pe0 r 3 r
q r0
1
= P
4pe0 | (r - r0 ) | 3 O r
Taking into account the expresion for E, let us fix the coordinate system by taking the
point of intersection of the diagonals as the origin and let k be the unit vector directed
normally, emerging from the plane of figure.
Hence the sought field strength:
q li + x k - q l ( - i) + x k +q y
E = + +q(−l,0,0)
4pe0 (l 2 + x 2)3>2 4pe0 (l 2 + x 2)3>2 (0,l,0)
–q lj + xk q l ( - j) + x k k
+ +
4pe0 (l 2 + x 2)3>2 4pe0 (l 2 + x 2)3>2 (l,0,0)
-q
q (0,−l,0) −q
x
= [2 l i - 2l j]
4pe0 (l 2 + x 2)3>2
ql
Thus, E = dl
12pe0 (l 2 + x 2)3>2 d
R
O x
3.8 From the symmetry of the problem the sought field strength
C E
E = dEx dE
3
where the projection of field strength along x-axis due to an elemental charge is
dq cos u q R cos ud u
dEx = =
4pe0R 2 4p2e0R 3
p>2
q q
Hence, E = cos u d u =
4p2e0R 2 3 2p 2e0R 2
- p>2
= 0.10 kV>m (on substituting values)
3.9 It can be easily shown that vector E in this case must be directed n
along the axis of the ring (see figure). Let us isolate differential lin- dE
E q
ear charge element dq on the ring in the vicinity of point A. We
write the expression for the component dEn of the field created by
this element at a field point P as
R
l
1 dq dq l
dEn = cos u = A r O
4pe0 R 2 4pe0 (r + l 2) 3>2
2
(where n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of ring or along the axis of the ring).
1 l q l
Hence, E = dEn = dq =
3 4pe0 (r + l ) 3
2 2 3>2 4pe0 (r + l 2)3>2
2
It can be seen that for l W r , the field E L q>4pe 0l 2, i.e., at large distances the system
behaves as a point charge.
From the expression of E = E (l ), the electric field is zero at the center of the ring
(l = 0) and also zero when l is very large. Hence, there must be a value of l for which
the electric field is maximum. This value of l can be obtained by setting the first de-
rivative of E to zero as follows
dE q (r 2 - 2l 2)
= 0 or = 0
dl 4pe0 (r 2 + l 2)5>2
r
which yields, l =
12
q
Emax =
6 13pe0r 2
3.10 The electric potential at a distance x from the given ring is given by
q q
w (x) = -
4pe0x 4pe0 (R + x 2)1/2
2
Hence, the field strength along x-axis (which is the net field strength in our case) is
c 2 - d
dw 1 q qx
Ex = - =
dx 4pe0 x (R + x 2)3>2
2
x 3 c a1 + 2 b - 1 d
q R 2 3>2
4pP0 x
=
x 2(R 2 + x 2)3>2
x3 c1 + + Ád
q 3 R2 3 R4
2
+
4pe0 2 x 8 x4
=
x 2 ( R 2 + x 2) 3>2
Neglecting the higher power of R>x, as x W R
3qR 2
E =
8pe0x 4
Note: Instead of w (x), we may write E (x) directly using solution of problem 3.9.
3.11 From the solution of Problem 3.9, the electric field strength due to ring at a point on
its axis (say x-axis) at distance x from the center of the ring is given by
qx
E (x) =
4pe0 (R 2 + x 2) 3>2
and from symmetry, E at every point on the axis is directed along the x-axis (see figure).
Let us consider an element dx on thread which carries the charge l dx . The electric
force experienced by the element in the field of ring
l qx dx
dF = (l dx) E (x) =
4pe0 (R 2 + x 2)3>2
Thus the sought interaction
q
R x
l qx dx
F = O x E
3 4 pe0 (R + x )
2 2 3/2
0
dx
On integrating we get
lq
F =
4pe0R
3.12 (a) The given charge distribution is shown in the figure. The symmetry of this distri-
bution implies that vector E at the point O is directed to the right, and its magni-
tude is equal to the sum of the projection onto the direction of E of vectors dE
from elementary charges dq. The projection of vector dE onto vector E is
1 dq
dE cos w = cos w
4pe0 R 2
where dq = lRdw = l0R cos wdw. (1)
Integrating Eq. (1) over w between 0 and 2p dq d
we find the magnitude of the vector E as R

2p O
E
l0 l0
E = cos2 wdw =
4pe0R 3 4e0R dE
0
It should be noted that this integral is evaluated in the most simple way if we take
into account that 6cos2 w 7 = 1>2. Then
2p
cos2 wdw = 6 cos2 w7 2p = p

3
0
(b) Let us take differential length element of the ring at an azimuthal angle w from the
x-axis, the element subtends an angle dw at the center, and carries charge
dq = l Rdw = (l0 cos w) Rdw.
Taking the plane of ring as x-y plane and center of the ring x
as origin O, locations of field point r, of charge element R (Field Point)
and of field point relative to charge element r are shown in
j r
the figure. R P z
O r
Electric field strength at the field point due to considered
charge element
y
1 dq
dE = r
4pe0 r3
Using r = r - R = x k - (R cos w i + R sin w j) and r 3 = (R 2 + x 2) 3>2
1 (l0 cos w) Rdw

dE = {x k - (R cos w i + R sin w j)}
4pe0 (R 2 + x 2) 3>2
So, sought net electric field strength
E = dE
3
2p 2p 2p
l0R
= xk cos wdw - R i cos2wdw - R j sin 2wdw
4pe0 (R 2 + x 2) 3>2 J 3 3 3 K
0 0 0
Taking into account

2p 2p 2p
cos wdw = 0, sin 2wdw = 0 and cos2wdw = p

3 3 3
0 0 0
1 pl0R ( - i)
2
We get E =
4pe0 (R 2 + x 2) 3>2
l0R 2
Hence, E =
4e0(R 2 + x 2) 3>2
For x W R ,
p
Ex = where p = l0pR 2
4pe0x 3
Alternate:
Take an element S at an azimuthal angle w from the x-axis, the element subtending
an angle dw at the center. The elementary field at P due to the element is
l0 cos wdwR
(along SP with components )
4pe0 (x 2 + R 2)
l0 cos wdw R
* {cos u along OP, sin u along OS }
4pe0 (x 2 + R 2)
x
where cos u =
(x 2 + R 2) 1>2
R
and sin u =
(x 2 + R 2) 1>2
2p
The component along OP vanishes on integration as cos wdw = 0.

3
0
The component along OS can be broken into the parts x
along Ox and Oy and given by
S
l0R 2 cos wdw R z
* {cos w along Ox, sin w along Oy } O x
4pe0 (x 2 + R 2) 3>2 (Field Point)
On integration, the part along Oy vanishes. y

2R
l0R 2
So, Ex = cos 2wdw
4pe0 (x 2 + R 2) 3>2 3
0
2R
as cos 2w sin wdw = 0

3
0
l0 R 2
Finally E = Ex =
4e0 (x 2 + R 2)3>2
3.13 (a) It is clear from symmetry considerations that vector E must be directed as shown
in the figure. This shows the way of solving this problem: we must find the com-
ponent dEr of the field created by the element dl of the rod, having the charge dq
and then integrate the result over all the elements of the rod. In this case
1 ldl
dEr = dE cosa = cos a
4pP0 r 20
where l = q / 2a is the linear charge density. Let us red- dl

da
uce this equation to the form convenient for integration. r0da
Figure shows that dl cos a = r0da and r0 = r / cos a. r0 da
a E
Consequently, O r
1 lr0da l dE
dEr = 2
= cos a da
4pe0 r 0 4pe0r
This expression can be easily integrated to yield
a0
l l
E = 2 cos ada = (2 sin a0)
4pe0r P 3 Q 4pe0r
0
where a0 is the maximum value of the angle a.

a
sin a0 =
1a2 + r2
a2 b
q>2a a
Thus, E =
4pe0r 2a 2 + r 2
q
=
4pe0r 2a 2 + r 2
q
Note that in this case also E L for r W a, as for the field of a point charge.
4pe0r 2
(b) Let, us consider the element of length dl at a distance l from the center of the rod,
as shown in the figure.
dl
Then field at P, due to this element is given by r P
l
ldl
dE = 2a
4pe0 (r - l) 2
if the element lies on the side as shown in the figure,
ldl
and dE =
4pe0 (r + l) 2
if the element lies on the other side.
a a
l dl l dl
Hence, E = dE = +
3 3 4pe0 (r - l )2
3 4pe0 (r + l )
2
0 0
q
On integrating and putting l = , we get
2a
q 1
E =
4pe0 (r 2 - a 2)
q
For r W a, E L
4pe0r 2
3.14 The problem is reduced to finding Ex and Ey , which are the projections of E, under
the assumption l 7 0 (see figure).
Let us start with Ex. The contribution to Ex from the charge element of the segment dx is
1 l dx dE
dEx = sin a (1)
4pe0 r 2 Ey E
Let us reduce this expression to the form convenient for integra-
tion. Thus, Ex
da
r da y a
dx = ,r =
cos a cos a y
r
l
Then, dEx = sin a da
4pe0y dx x
Integrating this expression over a between 0 and p>2, we find

l
Ex =
4pe0y
In order to find the projection Ey it is sufficient to recall that dEy differs from dEx in
that sin a in Eq. (1) is simply replaced by cos a.
This gives
dEy = (l cos a da)>4 pe0y and Ey = l>4pe0 y
We have obtained an interesting result that Ex = Ey independently of y, i.e., E is orie-

nted at the angle of 45° to the rod. The modulus of E is
l 12
E = 2E 2x + E 2y =
4pe0 y
3.15 For Fig. (a): Using the solution of Problem 3.14, the net electric field strength at the
point O due to straight parts of the thread equals zero. For the curved part (arc), let
us derive a general expression i.e. let us calculate the field strength at the center of
arc of radius R and linear charge density l and which subtends angle u0 at the center.
From the symmetry the sought field strength will be directed along dl
the bisector of the angle u0 and is given by
d
+ u0>2 0 /2
l (Rdu) l u0
E = 2
cos u = sin
3 4pe0R 2pe0R 2
-u0>2
dE E
In our problem u0 = p>2, thus the field strength due to the turned part at the point
12l
E0 =
4pe0R
which is also the sought result. For Fig. (b): Using the solution of Problem 3.14 (a),
net field strength at O due to straight parts equals
12 l
12 a b =
l
(directed vertically downward)
4pe0R 2pe0R
Now using the solution of Problem 3.15 (a) field strength due to the given curved
part (semi-circle) at the point O becomes
l
(directed vertically upward)
2pe0R
Hence the sought net field strength becomes zero.
3.16 Given charge distribution on the surface s = a # r is shown in the figure. Symmetry of
this distribution implies that the sought E at the center O of the sphere is opposite to
a. For the ring element
dq = s (2pr sin u) rdu = (a # r)
d
2pr 2 sin u du = 2par 3 sin u cos u du
O a
Again from symmetry, field strength due to any ring E r
element d E is also opposite to a, i.e., d E cT a. Hence,
dqr cos u –a
dE = (using the result of Problem 3.9)
4pe0 (r sin u + r cos u)
2 2 2 2 3>2 a
(2par 3 sin u cos u du) r cos u ( - a)

=
4pe0r 3 a
-ar
= sin u cos2 d u
2e0
p
( - a)r
Thus, E = dE = sin u cos2u du
3 2e0 3
0
Integrating, we get
ar 2 ar
E = = -
2e0 3 3e0
3.17 We start from two charged spherical balls each of radius R with equal and opposite
charge densities + r and - r. The center of the balls are at + a/ 2 and - a/ 2, resp-
ectively, so the equation of their surfaces are
`r - ` = R or r - cos u ⬵ R
a a
2 2
a
and r + cos u ⬵ R
2
considering a to be small. The distance between the two surfaces in the radial dir-
ection at angle is u | a cos u | and does not depend on the azimuthal angle. It is
seen from the diagram that the surface of the sphere has in effect a surface density
s = s0 cos u when s0 = ra.
Inside any uniformly charged spherical ball, the field is radial and has
z
the magnitude given by Gauss’s theorem
θ
4p 3
4pr 2E = r r/e0
3
rr –a
or E =
3e0
In vector notation, using the fact that V must be measured from the center of the ball,
we get, for the present case
ar - b - ar + b
r a r a
E =
3e0 2 3e0 2
s0
= - r a/3e0 = - k
3e0
where k is the unit vector along the polar axis from which u is measured.
3.18 Let us consider an elemental spherical shell of thickness dr. Thus surface charge
density of the shell s = rdr = (a # r) dr.
Thus using the solution of Problem 3.16, field strength due to this spherical shell
ar
dE = - dr
3e0
Hence, the sought field strength
R
a aR 2
E = - rdr = -
3e0 3 6e0
0
3.19 Due to the line charge

l l
E = ( - k) + (er) (see solution of Problem 3.14)
4pe0 r 4pe0 r
Distribution of field E allows us to take a finite ring element
of radius 0 6 r 6 R and thickness dr. Hence area vector of
the taken ring element dS = (2prdr) ( - k).
Now flux across the considered ring element
er Ee
-k
d£ = E # dS = c d # 2prdr ( - k)
l
+ EZK
4pe0 r r
2pl dr
d£ = + (because er ⬜ k) z
4pe0
lR
So, £ = d£ =
3 2e0
3.20 Take the line joining the point charges as E+q
z-axis, In this problem at a normal distance r
E
(from z-axis) E is the same and is directed to-
wards positive z-axis. So, symmetry of the field E–q
–q
E allows us to take a finite ring element of l +q
radius r and thickness dr.
E at all the locations of taken ring element is d
2q 2ql
E = cos u k = k
4pe0 (l 2 + r 2) 4pe0 (l 2 + r 2) 3/2
2ql qlrdr
So, d£ = E # d S = k # 2prdr k =
4pe0 (l 2 + r 2) 3/2 e0 (l 2 + r 2) 3/2
R
c1 - d
ql rdr q l
Hence, £ = d£ = =
3 e03 (l 2 + r 2 ) 3/2 e0 2l + R 2
2
0
It can also be solved by considering a ring element or by E

using solid angle.
dS
3.21 From Gauss’ theorem, electric field strength at an inside r0 x

point at a distance r from the center of uniformly charged
rr R
ball of volume density r is E = . So E is not uniform
3 e0
over the given section (a disk of radius 2R 2 - r0 2 ) of the ball. Thus the section is
considered to be made up of ring elements whose radii varies from zero to 2R 2 - r0 2.
Let us consider a ring element of radius x and thickness dx, as shown in the figure,
so that magnitude of E takes same value over the considered ring element.
Flux over the considered ring element
d£ = E # d S = ErdS cos u
Using Er = rr/ 3e0 , ds = 2pxdx, and cos u = r0 /r , we get
rr r0 rr0
d£ = 2px dx = 2pxdx
3e0 r 3e0
Hence, sought flux
2R 2 - r 2
2prr0 (R 2 - r20)
0
2pr r0 prr0
£ = xdx = = (R 2 - r 20)
3e0 3 3e0 2 3e0
0
3.22 The field at P due to each of the threads at A and B are is the same having the ma-
gnitude
l
E0 = (directed along AP and BP )
2pe0 (x 2 + l 2/4) 1/2
The resultant is along OP , given by
E = 2E0 cos u E
P
lx
=
pe0 (x 2 + l 2/4) E0 E0
x
l
= A
O B
pe0 c x + # 2x + l d
l2 l /2 l /2
- 2#
l
4x 2 2x
l
=
pe0 c a 2x - b + ld
1 2
2 2x
l l
This is the maximum when x = and E = Emax = .
2 pe0l
3.23 Take a section of the cylinder perpendicular to its axis through the point where the
electric field is to be calculated. (All points on the axis are equivalent.) Consider an
element S with azimuthal angle w. The length of the element is Rdw, R being the
radius of cross section of the cylinder. The element itself is a section of an infinite
strip. The electric field at O due to this strip is
s0 cos w (Rdw)
along SO y Rd
2pe0R
This can be resolved into x
O
s0 cos w dw dE
e f
cos w along Ox
2pe0 sin w along y O
On integration the component along yO vanishes. What remains is

2x
s0 cos 2 wdw s0
=
3 2pe0 2 e0
0
along xO, i.e., along the direction w = p.
3.24 Since the field is axis-symmetric (as the field of a uniformly charged filament),
we conclude that the flux through the sphere of radius R is equal to the flux
through the lateral surface of a cylinder having the same radius and the height R
2R, as shown in the figure.
Now, £ = E # d S = ErS
L
a
But, Er =
R
£ = S = 2 p R # 2R = 4paR
a a
Thus,
R R
Alternate:
The distribution of electric field is given by z
a (x i + y j)
a␳ dS
E= = r
x + y
2 2 r2
where ␳ = x i + y j , which is the vector component of position q y
vector r normal to the z-axis. Let us take a differential area el-
ement dS on the surface of the given sphere of radius R, as
shown in the figure. x
d£ = E # d S = 2 # d S = a b = dS
a␳ a a dS r a
Then, dS sin u =
r r r R R
a a
So, £ = dS = (4pR 2) = 4paR
R3 R
3.25 (a) Let us consider a sphere of radius r 6 R , then charge enclosed by the considered
sphere
r r
4pr 2 r0 a1 - b dr
r
q enclosed = 4pr 2drr = (1)
3 3 R
0 0
Now, applying Gauss’ theorem

qenclosed
Er4pr 2 =
e0
(where Er is the projection of electric field along the radial line)
r
r0
4pr 2 a1 - b dr
r
=
e0 3 R
0
r0r
c1 - d
3r
or Er =
3e0 4R
For a point outside the sphere r 7 R, so
R
4pr 2dr r0 a 1 - b (as there is no charge outside the ball)

r
qenclosed =
3 R
0
Again from Gauss’ theorem
4pr 2dr r0 a 1 - b
R
r
R
Er4pr 2 =
3 e0
0
r0 r0R 3
Er = 2 c d =
R3 R4
or -
r e0 3 4R 12 r 2e0
(b) As magnitude of electric field decreases with increasing r for r 7 R, field will be
maximum for r 6 R. Now, for Er to be maximum
ar - b = 0 or 1 -
d 3r 2 3r 2R
= 0 or r = rm =
dr 4R 2R 3
r0R
Hence, Emax =
9e0
3.26 Let the charge carried by the sphere be q, then using Gauss’ theorem for a spheri-
cal surface having radius r 7 R, we can write
r
qenclosed q 1 a
E 4pr 2 = = + 4pr 2dr
e0 e0 e0 3 r
R
On integrating, we get
(q - 2paR 2) 4par 2
E 4pr 2 = +
e0 2e0
The intensity E does not depend on r when the expression in the parentheses is equal
to zero. Hence,
a
q = 2paR 2 and E =
2e0
3.27 Let us consider a spherical layer of radius r and thickness dr, having its center coin-
ciding with the center of the system. Then using Gauss’ theorem for this surface,
r
qenclosed rdV
Er 4pr 2 = =
e0 3 e0
0
r
1
= r e –ar 3 4pr 2dr
e0 3 0
0
After integration
r 4p
Er4pr 2 = [1 - e-ar ]
3
3e0a
r0
Er = [1 - e-ar ]
3
or 2
3e0ar
r0
now when ar 3 W 1, Er L
3e0ar 2
r0r
and when ar 3 V 1, Er L
3e0
3.28 Using Gauss’ theorem we can easily show that the electric field
strength within a uniformly charged sphere is
E = a b r
r r¢
3e0 r+ r–
a
The cavity, in our problem, may be considered as the superposition
of two balls, one with the charge density r and the other with - r.
Let P be a point inside the cavity such that its position vector with respect to the cen-
ter of cavity be r- and with respect to the center of the ball be r + . Then from the
principle of superposition, field inside the cavity, at an arbitrary point P is given by
E = E+ + E-
r r
= (r + - r - ) = a
3e0 3e0
Note: The expression obtained for E shows that it is valid regardless of the ratio bet-
ween the radii of the sphere and the distance between their centers.
3.29 Let us consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and height h inside an infi-
nitely long charged cylinder with charge density r. Now from Gauss ’ theorem
qenclosed
Er 2prh =
e0
(where Er is the field inside the cylinder at a distance r from its axis) r+
rpr 2h rr r– h
or Er 2prh = Q Er =
e0 2e0 r
Now, using the method of Problem 3.28, field at a point P inside the
cavity is
r r
E = E + + E– = (r + - r–) = a
2e0 2e0
3.30 The arrangement of the rings is as shown in the figure. Now, potential at the point
1 is equal to sum of potential at 1 and due to the ring 1 and potential at 1 due to the
ring 2. So,
q - q +q –q
w1 = +
4pe0R 4pe0 (R 2 + a 2) 1/2
R R
Similarly, the potential at point 2 a
1 2
–q q
w2 = +
4pe0R 4 pe0 (R 2 + a 2) 1/2
Hence, the sought potential difference
-q
b +
q
w1 - w2 = ¢w = 2a
4pe0R 4pe0(R 2 + a 2) 1/2
a1 - b
q 1
=
2pe0R 21 + (a/R) 2
3.31 We know from Gauss ’ theorem that the electric field due to an infinitely long straight
wire, at a perpendicular distance r from it is
l
Er = .
2pe0r
So, the work done is
2 hx
l
Erdr = dr
3 3 2pe0r
1 x
(where x is perpendicular distance from the thread by which point 1 is removed from it).
l
Hence, ¢w12 = ln h
2pe0
= 5 kV (on substituting values)
3.32 Let us consider a ring element as shown in the figure. Then the charge carried by the
element, dq = (2pR sin u) Rd u s.
Hence, the potential due to the considered element at the center of the hemisphere is
1 dq 2 psR sin ud u sR
dw = = = sin ud u
4 pe0 R 4pe0 2e0
So potential due to the whole hemisphere is y

p/2
Rs sR
w = sin u d u =
2e0 3 2e0 d
0
x
O R
Now from the symmetry of the problem, net electric field of
the hemisphere is directed towards the negative y-axis. So, we have
1 dq cos u s
dEy = 2
= sin u cos u d u
4pe0 R 2e0
p/2 p/2
s s s
Thus, E = E y¿ = sin u cos u d u = sin 2ud u = (along yO )
2e0 3 4e0 3 4e0
0 0
3.33 Let us consider an elementary ring of thickness dy and radius y as shown in the fig-
ure. Then potential at a point P, at distance l from the center of the disk is
s 2 pydy
dw =
4pe0 (y 2 + l 2) 1/2
Hence potential due to the whole disk is given by dy

R
s 2pydy sl y E
w = = ( 21 + ( R/l ) 2 - 1)
3 4pe0 (y2 + l 2) 1>2 2e0 l P
0
From symmetry
dw
E = El = -
dl
c - 1d = c1 - d
s 2l s 1
= -
2e0 2 2R + l
2 2 2e0 21 + (R/l ) 2
sR s
when l : 0, w = and E =
2e0 2e0
sR 2 sR 2
when l W R, w L and E L
4e0l 4e0l 2
3.34 By definition the potential in the case of a surface charge distribution is defined by
1 sdS
w = (1)
4pe0 3 r
In order to simplify integration, we shall choose the area element dS in the form of
a part of the ring of radius r and width dr (see figure). Then dS = 2ur dr, r = 2R
cos u and dr = - 2R sin u du . After substituting these expresion into integral in Eq. (1),
we obtain the expression for w at the point O as
0
sR
w = - u sin u du r
pe0 3
p>2 dr
O
We integrate by parts, denoting u = u and sin u du = dv to get
u sin u du = - u cos u + cos u d u

3 3
= - u cos u + sin u
which gives - 1 after substituting the limits of integration. As a result, we obtain
sR
w =
pe0
3.35 In accordance with the problem w = a # r. Thus from the equation E = - §w , we

get
0 0 0
E = -c (ax x) i + (ay y) j + (a z) k d = - [ax i + ay j + azk] = - a
0x 0y 0x z
3.36 (a) Given, w = a (x 2 - y 2)
So, E = - §w = - 2a (x i - y j)
The sought shape of field lines is as shown in the figure (a) of answer sheet,
assuming a 7 0.
(b) Since, w = axy
So, E = - §w = - ay i - ax j
The plot of field lines is as shown in the figure (b) of answer sheet.
3.37 Given, w = a (x 2 + y 2) + bz 2
So, E = - §w = - [2 ax i + 2ay j + 2 bz k]
Hence, | E | = 2 2a 2 (x 2 + y 2) + b 2z 2
Shape of the equipotential surface:

Put r = xi + yj or r2 = x 2 + y 2
Then the equipotential surface has the equation
ar2 + bz 2 = constant = w
If a 7 0, b 7 0, then w 7 0 and the equation of the equipotential surface is

r z2
+ = 1
w>a w>b
which is an ellipse in r, z coordinates. In three dimensions, the surface is an ellipsoid
of revolution with semi-axes 1w>a and 1w>b .
If a 7 0, b 6 0, then w can be Ú 0. If w 7 0 then the equation is
r2 z2
- = 1
w>a w>| b |
This is a single cavity hyperboloid of revolution about z axis.
If w = 0, then the equation can be written as
ar2 - | b | z 2 = 0
a
or z = r
A|b|
This is the equation of a right circular cone.

If w 6 0, then the equation can be written as
| b | z 2 - ar2 = | w |
z2 r2
- = 1
|w|> |b| | w | >a
or
This is a two cavity hyperboloid of revolution about z-axis.
3.38 From Gauss’ theorem, intensity at a point inside the sphere, at a distance r from the
rr 1 q
center is given by, Er = and outside it, is given by Er = .
3e0 4pe0 r 2
(a) Potential at the center of the sphere
q R q
q r R2 q
E # dr =
rr
w0 = dr + 2
dr = +
3 3 3e0 3 4pe0r 3e 2 4pe0R
0 0 R
a as r = b
q q 3q 3q
= + =
8pe0R 4pe0R 8pe0R 4pR 3
(b) Now, potential at any point inside the sphere, at a distance r from it’s center
R q
r q dr
w(r) = r dr + 2
3 3e0 3 4pe0 r
r r
c1 - d = w0 c 1 - d
3q r2 r2
On integration, w(r) = 2
8e0R 3R 3R 2
3.39 Let two charges + q and - q be separated by a distance l. Then electric potential at
a point at distance r W l from this dipole
+q -q r- - r+
a b
q Er
w(r) = + = (1)
4pe0r + 4pe0r- 4pe9 r+ r- E
r+
+q
E
q r
But r- - r+ L l cos u and r+ r- L r 2 (2)
l O
r–
–q
ql cos u p cos u p#r
w(r) = = w =
4pe0r 2 4pe0r 2 4pe0r 3
where p is the electric moment vector.
- 0w 2 p cos u
Now, Er = =
0r 4pe0r 3
0w p sin u
and Eu = - =
r 0u 4pe0r 3
p p
So, E = 2E 2r + E 2u = 24 cos2 u + sin2 u = 21 + 3 cos2 u
4pe0 r3 4pe0r 3
3.40 From the results obtained in the previous problem
2p cos u p sin u
Er = and Eu =
4pe0r 3 4pe0r 3
From the given figure in the probem book, it is clear that,

p
Ez = Er cos u - Eu sin u = (3 cos 2 u - 1)
4pe0r 3
3 p sin u cos u
and E ⬜ = Er sin u + Eu cos u =
4pe0r 3
When, E⬜ p, | E | = E ⬜ and Ez = 0
1
So, 3 cos 2 u = 1 and cos u =
13
Thus E⬜ p at the points located on the lateral surface of the cone, with its axis coin-
ciding with the direction of z-axis and semi vertex angle u = cos -1 1> 13.
3.41 Let us assume that the dipole is at the center of the one equipotential surface which
is spherical (see figure). On an equipotential surface, the net electric field strength
along the tangent of it becomes zero. Thus,
p sin u
- E0 sin u + Eu = 0 or - E0 sin u + = 0
4pe0r 3
where E is electric field generated by the dipole.
r = a b
p 1>3
Hence,
4pe0E0
Alternate:
Potential at the point, near the dipole is given by
E0
p#r
w = - E0 # r + constant,
4pe0r 3
t Er
= a - E0 b cos u + constant
p
E
4pe0r 3
For w to be constant,
p p
- E0 = 0 or = E0
4pe0r 3 4pe0r 3
r= a b
p 1>3
Thus,
4pe0E0
3.42 Let P be a point, at distance r W l and at an angle u to the vector l (see figure).
Thus E at P
l l
r + r -
l 2 l 2
= -
`r + ` `r - `
2pe0 l 2 2pe0 l 2
2 2
r + l/2 r - l/2
l -
= C l 2 l2 S
2pe0 r 2 + + r l cos u r2 + - r l cos u P
4 4
a 2 - 3 cos u b
l l 2l r r
=
2pe0 r r
A O B
ll
Hence, E = |E| = (for r W l )
2pe0r 2
ln | r + l >2 | - ln | r - l >2 |
l l
Also, w =
2pe0 2pe0
l r 2 + rl cos u + l 2 >4 ll cos u

= = (for r W l )
r - rl cos u + l >4
ln 2 2
4pe0 2pe0r
3.43 The potential can be calculated by superposition. Choose the plane of the upper ring
as x = l/2 and that of the lower ring as x = - l >2.
q q
Then, w = -
4 pe0 [R 2 + (x - l/2) 2] 1/2 4pe0 [R 2 + (x + l/2) 2] 1/2
q q
L -
4pe0 [R 2 + x2 - lx] 1/2 4pe0 [R 2 + x 2 + lx] 1/2
a1 + b - a1 - b
q lx q lx
L
4pe0 (R 2 + x 2) 1/2 2(R 2 + x )
2 4pe0 (R + x )
2 2 1/2 2(R + x 2)
2
qlx
L
4pe0 (R 2 + x 2) 3/2
ql
For | x | W R, w L .
4pe0x 2
The electric field is
0w
E = -
0x
ql 3 ql ql (2x 2 - R 2)
= - + * 2x =
4pe0 (R 2 + x 2) 3/2 2 (R 2 + x 2) 5/2 4pe0 4pe0 (R 2 + x 2) 5/2
ql
For | x | W R, E L .
2pe0x 3
The plot is as shown in the answer sheet.
3.44 The field of a pair of oppositely charged sheets with holes can by superposition be
reduced to that of a pair of uniform opposite charged sheets and disks with opposite
charges. Now the charged sheets do not contribute any field outside them. Thus, using
the result of the previous problem
R R2+x2
(- s) l 2prdr x sxl dy
w = = - (putting y = x 2 + r 2 ) -s
3 4pe0 (r + x )
2 2 3/2 4e0 3 y 3/2
0 2 x
sxl
=
2e0 2R 2 + x 2 +s l
0 w
c d
sl 1 x2 slR 2
Ex = - = - - = -
0 x 2e0 2R 2 + x 2 (R 2 + x 2) 3/2 2e0(R 2 + x 2) 3/2
The plot is as shown in the answer sheet.
3.45 For x 7 0 , we can use the result as given above and write
|x |
a1 - b
sl
w L
2e0 (R + x 2) 1/2
2
for the solution that vanishes at a. There is a discontinuity in potential for | x | = 0.

The solution for negative x is obtained by s : - s. Thus,
slx
w = - + constant
2e0(R + x 2) 1/2
Hence, ignoring the jump
0w slR 2
E = - =
0x 2e0(R 2 + x 2) 3/2
For large | x |,
p p
w L and E L (where p = pR 2 sl)
4pe0 x2 2pe0| x | 3
3.46 In cylindrical coordinates r, u, z,
l
Er = , Eu = 0, Ew = 0
2pe0r
0E
and F =p
0l
or (p # § )E
(a) For p along the thread, F = 0

as E does not change as the point of observation is moved along the thread.
0 (E r er ) 0 Er 0er
(b) For p along r F = pr = p a b er abecause = 0b
0r 0r 0r
lp lp
= er = -
2pe0 r2 2pe0r 2
0 (Er er ) 0 0
(c) For p along e u F = pu = p a eb
r0u r 0u 2pe0r r
0er 0 er
a because = eu b
pl pl pl
= = eu =
2 pe0 r2 0u 2pe0r 2 2pe0 r2 0u
3.47 Force on a dipole of moment p is given by
F = `p `
0E
0l
In our problem, field due to a dipole at a distance l is given by
p
|E| =
2pe0l 3
Hence, the force of interaction

3p2
F = = 2.1 * 10-16 N
2pe0l 4
3.48 Given, - dw = E # dr = a (y dx + xdy) = ad (xy)
On integrating, w = - a xy + constant
3.49 Given, - dw = E # d r = [2 a xy i + 2(x 2 - y 2) j] # [dx i + dy j]
or dw = 2a x y dx + a 1x 2 - y 22dy = ad 1x 2y2 - ay 2 dy
y2
On integrating, w = ay a - x 2 b + constant
3
3.50 Given,
- d w = E # d r = 1ay i + 1ax + bz2 j + by k2 # 1dx i + dy j + dz k2

= a 1y dx + ax dy2 + b 1zdy + ydz2 = ad 1 xy2 + bd 1yz2
On integrating, w = - 1a xy + b yz2 + constant
3.51 Field intensity along x-axis

0w
Ex = - = 3 ax 2
0x
Then using Gauss’ theorem in differential form
wEx
r 1x2 = 6a e0x
r1x2
= so,
wx e0
3.52 In the space between the plates, we have by the Poisson equation
0 2w r0
= -
0x 2 e0
r0
or w = - x 2 + Ax + B
2e0
where r0 is the constant space charge density between the plates.

We can choose w (0) = 0 so, B = 0
r0d 2 ¢w r0d
Then w (d ) = ¢w = Ad - or A = +
2e0 d 2e0
0w r0
Now, E = = x - A = 0 (for x = 0)
0x e0
¢w r0d
if A = + = 0
d 2e0
2e0 ¢w
then, r0 = -
d2
r0d
Also, E 1d2 =
e0
3.53 As w = w(r), so field intensity is along the radial line and is given by
0w
Er = - = - 2ar (1)
0r
Due to spherical symmetry of field of E, electric flux over a spherical Gaussian sur-
face of radius r is 4pr 2Er .
From Gauss’ theorem,
q
4pr 2Er =
e0
On differenting,
dq
4p d (r 2 Er ) =
e0
where dq is the charge contained between the sphere of radii r and r dr .
Therefore, dq = r # 4pr 2dr
r # 4pr 2 dr
So, 4p 1r 2dEr + 2rEr dr2 =
e0
0Er 2 r
+ Er =
0r r e0
2 r
- 2a + ( - 2ar) =
r e0
Hence, r = - 6e0a
3.2 CONDUCTORS AND DIELECTRICS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD 349
Alternate:
Here E = - §w = - 2ar er = Er er , where er is unit vector towards radius vector
and Er = - 2ar.
From Gauss’ law in the differential form
§#E =
r
e0
1 0 2 r
(r Er) =
r 0r
2 e0
1 0 2 r
- (r 2ar) = (using Er = - 2ar )
r 0r
2 e0
Hence, r = - 6e0a
3.2 Conductors and Dielectrics in an Electric Field
3.54 When the ball is charged, for the equilibrium of ball, electric force on it must counter
balance the excess spring force exerted on the ball due to the extension in the spring.
Thus, Fele = Fspring
q2
or = kx
4pe0 (2l )2 +q
l
(the force on the charge q might be considered to arise from attraction
by the electrical image),
l
–q
or q = 4> 1pe0kx
which is the sought charge on the sphere.
3.55 By definition, the work of this force done upon an elementary

displacement dx (see figure) is given by
q2 F q
dA = Fxdx = - dx, x
4pe0 (2x)2 x dx
where the expression for the force is obtained with the help of
the image method, Integrating this equation over x between l
and q, we find
q
q2 dx q2
A = - = -
16 pe0 3 x 2 16pe0l
l
3.56 (a) Using the concept of electrical image, it is clear that the magnitude of the force
acting on each charge,
q2 q2 Fq F–q
|F | = 12 - +q
l/2
–q
4pe0l 2 4pe0 ( 12 l )2 P
l /2 Fq
q2
= (2 12 - 1)
8pe0l 2
(b) Also, from the figure, magnitude of electrical field

strength at P –q l +q
E = 2 a1 - b
1 q
5 15 pe0l 2
3.57 Using the concept of electrical image, it is easily seen that

the force on the charge q is –q l l q
12 q 2 ( - q)2 l
F = +
4pe0 (2l)2 4pe0 (2 12 l)2
(2 12 - 1) q 2
= (It is an attractive force.) l
32pe0l 2
q –q
2l
3.58 Using the concept of electrical image, force on the dipole p,
0E
F = p
0l
(where E is field at the location of p due to (– p))
0E 3p2
|F| = p ` ` =
p –p
or
0l 32pe0l 4 l l
p
as |E| =
4 pe0 (2l )3
3.59 To find the surface charge density, we must know the electric field at the point P (see
figure) which is at a distance r from the point O.
Using the image mirror method, the field at P,
q 1 ql
E = 2E cos a = 2 =
4pe0x 2 x 2pe0(l + r 2)3>2
2
Now from Gauss’ theorem, the surface charge density +q

on conductor is connected with the electric field near its
surface (in vaccum) through the relation s = e0En, l P
where En is the projection of E onto the outward nor- r
O
mal n (with respect to the conductor). E– q E E+q
As our field strength E c T n, so –q
ql
s = - e0E = -
2p(l 2 + r 2)3>2
3.60 (a) The force F1 on unit length of the thread is

given by
F1 = lE1 x
l
where E1 is the field at the thread due to image
charge given by
-l
E1 =
2pe0 (2l )
l2
Thus, F1 = -
4pe0l
Here, minus sign means that the force is one of attraction.
(b) There is an image thread with charge density - l behind the conducting plane.
We calculate the electric field on the conductor considering the thread and its
image. It is
ll
E (x) = En(x) =
pe0 (x 2 + l 2)
ll
Thus, s(x) = e0En =
p (x 2 + l 2)
3.61 (a) At O
q
l dx l dx
En(O) = 2 2
=
3 4pe0x 2pe0l x
l
O r
l
So, s (O) = e0En =
2pl
q q
ldx x l x dx
(b) En (r) = 2 =
3 4pe0 (x + r ) (x + r ) 2pe0 3 (x + r 2)3>2
2 2 2 2 1>2 2
l l
q
l dy
= (putting y = x 2 + r 2)
4pe0 3 y3>2
2 2l +r
l
=
2pe0 1l 2 + r 2
Hence,
l
s (r) = e0En =
2p 1l 2 + r 2
3.62 (a) It can be easily seen that in accordance with the image method, a charge - q must
be located on a similar ring but on the other side of the conducting plane (see
figure) at the same perpendicular distance. From the solution of Problem 3.9,
electric field strength on axis of a ring of radius R at a distance l from it center is
ql
4pe0 (R 2 + l 2) 3>2
In our case this expression must be doubled. Hence, net field strength at point O
ql
E = 2 R q
4pe0(R 2 + l 2)3>2 ( - n)
l
O
where n is unit vector outward normal to the conducting plane.
s
Now, En = –q
e0
- ql
Hence, s =
2 p(R 2 + l 2) 3>2
where minus sign indicates that the induced charge is opposite in sign to that
of charge q 7 0.
(b) The net field strength at the center of the ring is vector sum of field strengths setup
by the charges q and - q and is given by
q (2l)
E = 0 + ( - n) (using result of Problem 3.9)
4pe0 [R 2 + (2l ) 2] 3>2
The potential at the center of the ring is equal to the algebraic sum of the poten-
tials at this point created by the charges q and - q , given by
q q
w = -
4pe0 R 4pe0 2R 2 + (2l)2
a - b
1 q q
=
4pe0 R 2R 2 + 4l 2
3.63 Potential w is the same for all the points of the sphere. Thus we can calculate its value
at the center O of the sphere, because only for this point, it can be calculated in the
most simple way.
So, 1 q
w = + w¿ (1)
4pe0 l
where the first term is the potential of the charge q, while the
second is the potential due to the charges induced on the sur-
face of the sphere. But since all induced charges are at the
same distance equal to the radius of the circle from the point +q O
C and the total induced charge is equal to zero, so w¿ = 0 .
Thus Eq. (1) is reduced to the form,
1 q
w =
4pe0 l
3.64 Point charge q is not placed at the center of the sphere, so the induced negative
charge - q on the inner surface is not distributed uniformly. The left over charge + q
on the outer surface of the conductor distributes itself uniformly so that the field
strength due to the left over charge at inside point of the conductor becomes zero.
Hence, the potential at O is given by
q 1 ( - s) ds q
w0 = + + R1
4pe0r 4pe0R1 4pE0R2 q
o r
q ( - q) q R2
w0 = + +
4pe0r 4pe0R1 4e0pR2 –q
q
It should be noticed that the potential can be found in such a simple way only at O,
since all the induced charges on the inner surface are at the same distance from this
point, and their distribution (which is unknown to us) does not play any role.
3.65 Potential at the inside sphere is given by

q1 q2
wa = +
4pe0a 4pe0b
b
Obviously, wa = 0 for q2 = - q1 (1)
a
When r Ú b,
q1 q2 q1
a1- b 冫 r
b
wr = + = (using Eq. 1)
4pe0r 4pe0 4pe0 a
And when r … b ,
q1 q2 q1
a - b
1 1
wr = + =
4pe0r 4pe0b 4pe0 r a
3.66 (a) As the metallic plates 1 and 4 are isolated and connected by means of a conduc-
tor, w1 = w4. Plates 2 and 3 have the same amount of positive and negative
charges and due to induction, plates 1 and 4 are respectively negatively and pos-
itively charged and in addition to it all the four plates are located at a small but
equal distance d relative to each other. Hence, electric field strength between 1–2
and 3–4 is the same (say E). Let E be the field strength between the plates 2
and 3, which is directed from 2 to 3. Hence E c T E (see figure).
E ¿d = ¢w = w2 - w3 (1)
In addition, O 1
w1 - w4 = (w1 - w2) + (w2 - w3) + (w3 - w4) E +
2
E'
or 0 = - Ed + ¢w - Ed 3
–
¢w E¿ E
or ¢w = 2Ed Q E = = (2) 4
2d 2 x
Distribution of potential w is also shown in the figure.
(b) Since E r s, we can state according to Eq. (2) for part (a), that the charge on
rge on the plate 2 is divided into two parts; such that 1/3rd of it lies on the
upper side and 2/3rd on its lower face.
Thus charge density of upper face of plate 2 or of plate 1 or plate 4 and lower
face of 3 is
e0 ¢w
s = e0E =
2d
and charge density of lower face of 2 or upper face of 3 is
¢w
s¿ = e0E ¿ = e0
d
Hence, the net charge density of plate 2 or 3 becomes
3e0 ¢w
s + s¿ =
2d
which is obvious from the argument.
3.67 The problem of point charge between two conducting planes is more easily tackled
(if we want only the total charge induced on the planes) if we replace the point charge
by a uniformly charged plane sheet.
Let s be the charge density on this sheet and E1, E2 be the outward electric field on the
on the two sides of this sheet.
s
Then, E1 + E2 =
e0
The conducting planes will be assumed to be grounded.
Then, E1x = E2 (l - x)
q
s s
Hence, E1 = (l - x) and E2 = x
le0 le0
This means that the induced charge densities on the plane conductors are
s s
s1 = - (l - x) and s2 = - x
l l
q q
Hence, q1 = - (l - x) and q2 = - x
l l
3.68 Near the conductor

s
E = En
e0
This field can be written as the sum of two parts E1 and E2. E1 is the electric field due
to an infinitesimal area dS. Very near it
s
E1 =
2e0
The remaining part contributes
s
E2 = (on both sides)
2e0
In calculating the force on the element dS, we drop E1 (because it is a ds En
self-force). Thus,
dF s s2
= s =
dS 2e0 2e0
3.69 The total force on the hemisphere is
p>2
s2
F = . cos u # 2pR sin uR du
3 2e0
0
p>2
2p R 2s2
= cos u sin u d u
2e0 3
0
q2
* * a b
2pR 2 1 q 2
= =
2e0 2 4pR 2 32pe0R 2
= 0.5 kN (on substituting values)
3.70 We know that the force acting on the area element dS of a conductor is,
s2
dF = dS (1)
2e0
If follows from symmetry considerations that the resultant force F is directed along the
z-axis, and hence, it can be represented as the sum (integral) of the projection of el-
ementary forces given in Eq. (1) onto the z-axis, so
dFz = dF cos u (2)
For simplicity, let us consider an element area dS = 2pR sin u du (see figure).
Now, Eq. (2) takes the form
z
ps2R 2 F
dFz = sin u cos u du dF
e0
ps20R 2 ds
= -a b cos3 u d cos u
R
e0 O
Integrating this expression over the half sphere, i.e., with respect to
cos u between 1 and 0, we obtain
ps20R 2
F = Fz =
4e0
3.71 The total polarization is P = (e - 1) e0E. This must be equal to n0p / N , where n0 is
the concentration of water molecules. Thus,
n0P
N = = 2.93 * 103 (on substituting values)
(e - 1) e0E
3.72 From the general formula in vector form

1 (3p # er) er - p
E =
4pe0 r3
1 2p
E = (where r = l and r c c p)
4pe0 l 3
This will cause the induction of a dipole moment

1 2p
pind = b * e0
4pe0 l 3
Thus, the force
b 2p d 1 2p 3bp2
|F| = =
4p l 3 dl 4pe0 l 3 4p2e0 l 7
3.73 The electric field E at distance x from the center of the ring is
qx
E (x) =
4pe0(R 2 + x 2 )3>2
The induced dipole moment is
q bx
p = be0E =
4p(R 2 + x 2)3>2
The force on this molecule is
0 q bx q 0 x q 2 b x (R 2 - 2x 2)
F =p E= =
0x 4p(R 2 + x 2)3>2 4pe0 0x (R 2 + x 2)3>2 16p2e0 (R 2 + x 2)
R
This vanishes for x = (apart from x = 0, x = q).
12
It is maximum when
0 x (R 2 - x 2 * 2)
= 0
0x (R 2 + x 2)4
or (R 2 - 2x 2)(R 2 + x 2) - 4x 2(R 2 + x 2) - 8x 2 (R 2 - 2x 2) = 0
R2
or R 4 - 13x 2R 2 + 10x 4 = 0 or x 2 = (13 2129)
20
R
or x = 313 2129 (on either side).
220
Plot of Fx(x) is as shown in the answer sheet.
3.74 Inside the ball

q r
D (r) = = e e0E
4p r 3
e - 1 e - 1 q r
Also e0E + P = D or P = D =
e e 4p r 3
e - 1 q e - 1
Also, q ¿ = - P # dS = - dÆ = q
C e 4p L e
s
3.75 Ddiel = ee0Ediel = Dconductor = s or Ediel =
ee0
e - 1
Pn = (e - 1)e0 Ediel = s
e
e - 1
s¿ = - Pn = - s
e
This is the surface density of bound charges.
3.76 From the solution of the Problem 3.74, charge on the interior surface of the conduc-
tor is given by
e - 1 e - 1
q ¿ in = - s dS = - q
e L e
Since the dielectric as a whole is neutral, there must be a total charge equal to
e - 1
q ¿ outer = + q
e
on the outer surface of the dielectric.
3.77 (a) Positive extraneous charge is distributed uniformly over the internal surface layer.
Let s0 be the surface density of the charge.
Clearly, for r 6 a E = 0
By Gauss’ theorem:
For a 6 r , e0E * 4pr 2 = 4pa2s0
s0
, a b (a 6 r 6 b )
a 2
or E =
e0 e r
For r 7 b, similarly
s0
a b
a 2
E =
e0 r
0w
Now, E = -
0r
So by integration from infinity, where w 1q2 = 0, we get
s0a 2
w = (r 7 b )
e0r
s0a2
For a 6 r 6 b, w = + B (where B is a constant)
eer
s0a2 s0a2
a - b +
1 1
By continuity, w =
e0e r b e0 b
For r 6 a, w = A = constant
s0a2 s0a2
a - b +
1 1
By continuity, w =
e0e a b e0b
(b) Positive extraneous charge is distributed uniformly over the internal volume of the
dielectric. Let r0 = volume density of the charge in the dielectric, for a 6 r 6 b.
Then,
E = 0 (for r 6 a)
4p 3
and e0 e 4pr 2E = (r - a 3) r0 (for a 6 r 6 b)
3
r0
ar -b
a3
or E =
3 e0e r2
4p 1b - a 2r0
3 3
E = (for r 7 b )
3 e0 4pr 2
1b 3 - a 32r0
or E = (for r 7 b )
3e0r 2
By integration,
1b 3 - a 32
w = (for r 7 b )
3e0r
r0
a b (for a 6 r 6 b )
r2 a3
or w = B - +
3e0e 2 r
By continuity,
b3 - a3 r0 b 2
a b
a3
r0 = B - +
3e0b 3e0e 2 b
r0 e1b 3 - a 32
e + a
bf
b2 a3
or B = +
3e0e b 2 b
r0 r0 a 2
ea + a2b = B -
a2
Finally w = B - (for r 6 a)
3e0e 2 2e0e
On the basis of obtained expressions, E 1r2 and 1w2 1r2 can be plotted as shown
in the answer sheet.
3.78 Let us take points 1 and 2 just left and right of the interface. Point 2 can be treated like A
given in the problem book. Continuity of tangential component of E at the interface gives
E1t = E2t
E1t = E0 sin a 0
As there is no free charge at the interface, so normal component of D has continuity
at the interface.
Hence, D1n = D2n
e0eE1n = e0 E0 cos a 0 n
E0 cos a0 2 A0
E 1n = 1 E0
e
E
So, E 1 = 2E 1t 2 + E 1n 2
E 1t
tan a = = e tan a0
E 1n
From the boundary condition of polarization vector P, we get
P2n–P1n = - s¿
0 - P1n = - s¿
P1n = s¿
e0(e - 1) E 1n = s¿
E0 cos a0
e0 (e - 1) = s¿
e
e0 (e - 1)
s¿ = E0 cos a 0
e
3.79 From the previous problem, we know
e - 1
s¿ = e0 E 0 cos u
e
E0
n 1 Length l
R 2
e - 1
E # dS =
1
(a) Then, Q = pR 2 E 0 cos u
I e0 e
(b) D # dr = 1D1t - D2t2 l = 1e0E0 sin u - ee0E0 sin u2

I
l = - 1e - 12 e0E0l sin u
0Dx
3.80 (a) div D = = r and D = rl
0x
rl
Ex = (for l 6 d )
ee0
rd
and Ex = constant (for l 7 d )
e0
(for l 6 d ) and w 1x2 = A -

rl 2 rld
Also, w1x2 = - (for l 7 d )
2ere0 e0
w 1x2 = ad -
rd d
By continuity, - 1b
e0 2e
On the basis of obtained expressions, E x (x) and w (x) can be plotted as shown
in the figure of answer sheet.
(e - 1)
(b) r¿ = - div P = - div (e - 1) e0 E = - r
e
s¿ = P1n - P2n (where n is the normal from 1 to 2)
= P1n (P2 = 0, as 2 is vacuum)
e - 1
= ( rd - rd>e) = rd
e
l 0 2
3.81 (a) div D = (r Dr ) = r
r 2 0r
r3 1 A
r 2Dr = r + ADr = rr + 2 , r 6 R
3 3 r
A = 0 as Dr Z q at r = 0,
rr
Thus, Er =
3ee0
B
For r 7 R, Dr =
r2
By continuity of Dr at r = R,
rr 3
B =
3
rR 3
So, Er = (for r 7 R )
3e0r 2
rR 3 rr 2
w = (for r 7 R ) and w = - + C (for r 6 R )
3e0r 6ee0
rR 2 rR 2
By continuity of w C = + +
3e0 6ee0
See answer sheet for graphs of E (r) and w (r).
1 0 r3 r (e - 1)
e r a1 - b f = -
1
(b) r¿ = div P = -
r 0r 3
2 e e
rR a 1 - b
1 1
s¿ = P1r - P2r = P1r =
3 e
3.82 Because there is a discontinuity in polarization at the boundary of the dielectric disk,
a bound surface charge appears, which is the source of the electric field inside and
outside the disk. We have for the electric field at the origin,
s¿dS
E = - 3
r
3 4pe0r
where r = radius vector to the origin from the element dS. s¿ = Pn = P cos u on the
curved surface (as Pn = 0 on the flat surface). Here u = angle between r and P. By
symmetry, E will be parallel to P.
2p
P cos u Rd u # cos u #
Thus, E⬵ - d
3 4pe0r 2
0
where, r = R , if d V R.
Pd
So, E⬵ -
4e0R
Pd
and E = -
4e0R
3.83 Since there are no free extraneous charges anywhere

0Dx
div D = = 0 or Dx = constant
0x
But Dx = 0 at q so, Dx = 0, everywhere
P0 P0
a1 - b a1 - b
x2 x2
Thus, E = - or Ex = -
e0 d2 e0 d2
P0x P0x 3
So, w = - + constant
e0 3e0d 2
2P0d 2P0d 3 4P0d
Hence, w ( + d) - w ( - d) = - =
e0 3d 2e0 3e0
3.84 (a) We have D1 = D2 or eE2 = E1

d d
Also, + E2 = E0 d Q E1 + E2 = 2E0
E1
2 2
2E0 2eE0
Hence, E2 = and E1 =
e + 1 e + 1
2ee0E0
and D1 = D2 =
e + 1
s
(b) We have D1 = D2 or e E2 = E1 = = E0
e0
E0
Thus, E1 = E0 and E2 =
e
and D1 = D2 = e0E0
3.85 (a) Constant voltage across the plates implies
E1 = E2 = E0, D1 = e0E0, D2 = e0eE0
(b) Constant charge across the plates implies
E1 = E2 D1 = e0E1, D2 = e e0E2 = eD1
2E0
So, E1(1 + e) = 2 E0 or E1 = E2 =
e + 1
1
3.86 At the interface of the dielectric and vacuum,
E1t = E2t
The electric field must be radial and
A 2
E1 = E2 = (for a 6 r 6 b)
e0er 2
A A
Now, q = (2pR 2) + (2pR 2)
R2 eR 2
= A a1 + b 2p
1
e
q
or E1 = E2 =
2pe0r 2(1 + e)
3.87 In air the forces are as shown. In K–oil,

r0
F : F ¿ = F>e and mg : mg a 1 - b
r T T
where r0 is the density of K–oil and r that of the material of F F
which the balls are made.
mg mg
Since the inclinations do not change
1 r0
= 1 -
e r
r0 1 e - 1
or = 1 - =
r e e
e
or r = r0
e - 1
= 1.6 g>cm3 (on substituting values)
3.88 Within the ball, the electric field can be resolved into normal and tangential components,
En = E cos u and Et = E sin u n
Then, Dn = ee0 E cos u
and Pn = (e - 1) e0 E cos u t
E
or s¿ = (e - 1) e0 E cos u
So, smax = (e - 1) e0 E,
= 3.5 nC>m2 (on substituting values)
and total charge of one sign,
1
q¿ = (e - 1) e0E cos u 2pR 2d (cos u)

3
0
= pR 2e0 (e - 1) E = 10 pC (on substituting values)

(Since we are interested in the total charge of one sign, we must integrate cos u from
0 to 1 only).
3.89 The charge is at A in the medium 1 and has an image point at A¿ in the medium 2.
The electric field in the medium 1 is due to the actual charge q at A and the image
charge q ¿ at A¿ . The electric field in 2 is due to a corrected charge q – at A. Thus, on
the boundary between 1 and 2
q¿ q
E1n = cos u - cos u
4pe0 r2 4pe0r 2
-q –
E2n = cos u
4pe0r 2
q¿ q
E1t = sin u + sin u
4pe0 r2 4pe0r 2
q–
E2t = sin u A' A
4pe0r 2 l l
2
The boundary conditions are
D1n = D2n and E1t = E2t
eq– = q - q¿
q– = q + q¿
2q e - 1
So, q– = and q¿ = - q
e + 1 e + 1
(a) The surface density of the bound charge on the surface of the dielectric is
s¿ = P2n = D2n - e0E2n = (e - 1) e0E2n
e - 1 q e - 1 ql
= - cos u = -
e + 1 2pr 2 e + 1 2pr 3
(b) Total bound charge is
q
e - 1 l e - 1
- q 2pxdx = - q
e + 1 3 2p ( l + x )
2 2 3>2 e + 1
0
3.90 The force on the point charge q is due to the bound charges. This can be calculated
from the field at this charge after extracting out the self field. This image field is
e - 1 q
Eimage =
e + 1 4pe0 (2l )2
e - 1 q2
Thus, F =
e + 1 16pe0l 2
q r1 q¿r2
3.91 Given EP = 3
+ (for P in 1)
4pe0r 1 4pr 32e0
r2 P
q– r1 r1
and EP = (for P in 2) A' A
4pe0r 31 l l
2q 2 1
where q– = and q¿ = q– - q
e + 1
In the limit l : 0
(q + q¿) r qr
EP = = (in either part)
4pe0r 3 2pe0(1 + e) r 3
q
Thus, EP =
2pe0 (1 + e)r 2
q
w =
2pe0 (1 + e)r
* e
q 1 in vacuum
D =
2pe0 (1 + e) r2 e in dielectric
q r2 q¿r1
3.92 EP = + (for P in 2)
4pe0er 32 4pe0r 31 1 2
P
q–r2
EP = (for P in 1) r1 r2
4pe0r 32
Using the boundary conditions, q
E1n = e E2n, E1t = E2t
This implies
q - eq ¿ = q – and q + eq ¿ = eq –
2q e - 1 q
So, q– = and q¿ =
e + 1 e + 1 e
Then, as earlier,
e - 1 #1
a b
ql
s¿ = #
2pr 3 e + 1 e
3.93 To calculate the electric field, first we note that an image charge will be needed to en-
sure that the electric field on the metal boundary is normal to the surface.
The image charge must have magnitude - q /e , so that the tangential component of the
electric field may vanish. Now,
a 2 b 2 cos u =
1 q ql
En = air
4pe0 er 2pe0er 3
(e - 1) ql E
Then, Pn = Dn - e0En = = s¿ q –q
2per 3 l
This is the density of bound charge on the surface.
3.94 Since the condenser plates are connected,

E1h + E2 (d - h) = 0 E2
E1 h d
and P + e0E1 = e0E2
P
or E1 + = E2
e0
Ph Ph
Thus, E2d - = 0 or E1 =
e0 e0d
a1 - b
P h
E2 = -
e0 d
3.95 Given P = ar, where r = distance from the axis. The space density of charges is
given by, r¿ = - div P = - 2a . On using these, we get
1 0 (r # r)
div r = = 2
r 0r
3.96 In a uniformly charged sphere

r0
E = r
3e0 r
+ –
The total electric field is dr
1 1
E = rr - (r - dr) r0
3e0 0 3e0
1 P
= r0 dr = - (where r dr = - P)
3e0 3e0
The potential outside is

P0 # r
a - b =
1 Q Q
w = (for r 7 R )
4pe0 r | r - dr | 4pe0r 3
4p 3
where P0 = - R r00r, is the total dipole moment.
3
3.97 The electric field E0 in a spherical cavity in a uniform dielectric of permittivity e is re-
lated to the far away field E, in the following manner. Imagine the cavity to be filled
up with the dielectric. Then there will be a uniform field E everywhere and a polar-
ization P, given by P = (e - 1) e0E.
Now take out the sphere making the cavity, the electric field
inside the sphere will be
P
-
3e0
P
By superposition, E0 - = E E0
3e0
E
1 1
or E0 = E + (e - 1) E = (e + 2) E
3 3
3.98 By superposition the field E inside the ball is given by

P
E = E0 -
3e0
On the other hand, if the sphere is not too small, then the macroscopic equation
P = (e - 1) e0 E must hold. Thus,
3E0
E a1 +
1
(e - 1)b = E0 or E =
3 e + 2
e - 1
Also, P = 3e0 E
e + 2 0
3.99 This is to be handled by the same trick as in Problem 3.96. We have effectively a two
dimensional situation. For a uniform cylinder full of charge, with charge density r0,
the electric field E at an inside point is along the (cylindrical) radius vector r and
is given by
1
E = rr
2e0
Since l 0 r r
div E = (rEr) = hence , Er = r
r 0r e0 2e0
Therefore the polarized cylinder can be thought of as two equal and opposite charge
distributions displaced with respect to each other. So,
1 1 1 P
E = rr - r (r - dr) = r dr = -
2e0 2e0 2e0 2e0
using P = - rdr (direction of electric dipole moment vector being from the negative
charge to positive charge).
3.100 As in solution of Problem 3.98, we can write
P
E = E0 -
2e0
Also, P = (e - 1) e0E
e + 1
So, Ea b = E0
2
2E 0 e - 1
or E = and P = 2 e0 E
e + 1 e + 1 0
3.3 ELECTRIC CAPACITANCE ENERGY OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD 369
3.3 Electric Capacitance. Energy of an Electric Field
3.101 Let us impart an imaginary charge q to the conductor, then

R2 q
q q
w+ - w- = dr + dr R2
3 4pe0 er 2 3 4pe0 r
2
–q
R1 R2
R1
c d +
q 1 1 q 1 +q
= -
4pe0 e R1 R2 4pe0 R 2
(e - 1)
c d
q 1
= +
4pe0 e R2 R1
Hence the sought capacitance,
q q 4pe0e 4pe0eR1
C = = =
w+ - w- (e - 1) R1
qc d
1
+ (e - 1) + 1
R2 R1 R2
3.102 From the symmetry of the problem, the voltage across each capacitor ¢w = j>2 and
charge on each capacitor q = C j>2 in the absence of dielectric.
Now when the dielectric is filled up in one of the capacitors, the equivalent capac-
itance of the system is given by
Ce
C ¿0 =
1 + e
and the potential difference across the capacitor, which is filled with dielectric is
q¿ Ce j j
¢w¿ = = =
eC (1 + e) Ce (1 + e)
But w r E .
So, as w decreases 1/ 2 (1 + e) times, the field strength also decreases by the same
factor and flow of charge
¢q = q ¿ - q
Ce C 1 (e - 1)
= j - j = Cj
(1 + e) 2 2 (e + 1)
3.103 (a) Since it is a series combination of two capacitors,

1 d1 d2 e0S
= + or C =
C e0e1S e0e 2S (d1/e1) + (d 2/e 2)
(b) Let s be the initial surface charge density, then density of bound + −
charge on the boundary plane is given by
s¿ = s a 1 - b - s a1 - b = sa - b
1 1 1 1
e1 e2 e2 e1 1 2
q CV e0S e1e 2 V
But, s = = =
S S e 2d1 + e1d 2 S d1 d2
e0V (e1 - e 2)
So, s¿ =
e 2d1 + e1d 2
3.104 (a) We point the x-axis towards the right and place the origin on the left hand side plate.
The left hand side plate is assumed to be positively charged. Since e varies lin-
early, we can write, + –
e(x) = a + bx
where a and b can be determined from the boundary condition. O x
We have,
e = e1 at x = 0 and e = e 2 at x = d
d
e 2 - e1
Thus, e (x) = e1 + a bx
d
Now potential difference between the plates

d d
E # dr =
s
w+ - w- = dx
3 3 e0e (x)
0 0
d
s sd e2
= dx = ln
e 2 - e1 (e 2 - e1) e0 e1
e0 a e1 + xb
3
0
d
Hence, the sought capacitance,
sS (e 2 - e1) e0S
C = =
w+ - w- (ln e 2 /e1) d
q q q
(b) Since, D = and P = -
S S Se (x)
and the space density of bound charge is
q (e 2 - e1)
r¿ = - div P = -
Sde 2(x)
3.105 Let us impart an imaginary charge q to the conductor. Now, the potential difference
between the plates will be
R2
w+ - w- = E # dr
3
R1
R2
q 1 q
= 2
dr = ln R 2 /R1
3 4pe0a/r r 4pe0a
R1
Hence, the sought capacitance

q q 4p e0a 4 pe0a
C = = =
w+ - w- q ln R 2 /R1 ln R 2 /R1
3.106 Let l be the linear charge density.

l
Then, E 1m = (1)
2pe0R1e1
l
and E2m = (2)
2pe0R 2e 2
The breakdown in either case will occur at the smaller value of r for a simultaneous
breakdown of both dielectrics. From Eqs. (1) and (2)
E1mR1e1 = E2mR 2e 2
which is the sought relationship.
3.107 Let l be the linear charge density, then, the sought potential difference
R2 R3
l l
w+ - w- = dr + dr
3 2pe0 e1r 3 2pe0 e2r
R1 R2
c ln R 2 /R1 + ln R3 /R 2 d
l 1 1
=
2pe0 e1 e2
As, E1R1e1 6 E 2R 2e 2, so
l
= E1R1e1
2pe0
is the maximum acceptable value, and for values greater than E1R1e1, dielectric
breakdown will take place.
Hence, the maximum potential difference between the plates
w+ - w- = E1R1e1 c ln R3 /R 2 d
1 1
ln R 2 /R1 +
e1 e2
e1
= E1R1 c ln R 2 /R1 + ln R3 /R 2 d
e2
3.108 Let us suppose that linear charge density of the wires be l, then the po- + –
tential difference will be w+ - w- = w - ( - w) = 2w. The intensity of
the electric field created by one of the wires at a distance x from its axis
can be easily found with the help of the Gauss’ theorem as
b
l
E =
2pe0x
a
b -a
l b - a
Then, w = E dx = ln
3 2pe0 a
a
Hence, capacitance per unit length is given by

l l pe0 pe0
= = ⬵ (as b W a )
w+ - w- 2w ln (b - a )/a ln b/a
3.109 The field in the regions between the conducting plane and the wire can be obtained
by using an oppositely charged wire as an image on the other side.
Then the potential difference between the wire and the plane is
E # dr
+ –
¢w =
3 a
b
E
c d dr
l l
= +
3 2pe0r 2pe0 (2b - r)
a
b b
l b l b
= ln - ln
2pe0 a 2pe0 2b - a
l 2b - a
= ln
2pe0 a
l 2b
= ln (as b W a )
2pe0 a
Hence, the sought mutual capacitance of the system per unit length of the wire
l 2pe0
=
¢w ln 2b /a
3.110 When b W a, the charge distribution on each spherical + –

conductor is practically unaffected by the presence of
the other conductor. Then, the potential w + (w-) on the
positive (respectively negative) charged conductor is a a
b
a- b
q q
+
4pe0ea 4pe0ea
q q
Thus, w+ - w- = and C = = 2pe0ea
2pee0a w+ - w-
Note: If we require terms which depend on a / b , we have to take account of dis-

tribution of charge on the conductors.
+q –q
3.111 Let us apply the method of image. Then the potential dif-
ference between the positively charged sphere and the
conducting plane is one half the nominal potential differ- E a
ence between the sphere and its image and is defined as
l l
1 q
¢w = (w+ - w-) ⬵
2 4pe0a
q
Thus, C = L 4pe0a (for l W a )
¢w
3.112 (a) Since w1 = wB and w 2 = wA . The arrangement of capacitors shown in the prob-
lem is equivalent to the arrangement shown in the figure.
1 2 C1
A B A, 2 B, 1
C1 C2 C3 C2
C3
Hence, the capacitance between A and B is
C0 = C1 + C 2 + C3
(b) From the symmetry of the problem, there is no potential difference between D
and E. So, the combination reduces to a simple arrangement shown in the figure.
D D
C C C C
A C B A B
C C C C
E E
Hence, the net capacitance between A and B is

C C
C0 = + = C
2 2
3.113 (a) In the given arrangement, we have three capacitors of equal capacitance
C = e0S /d and the first and third plates are at the same potential.
Hence, we can resolve the network into a simple form C
using series and parallel grouping of capacitors, as shown
in the figure. C
Thus, the equivalent capacitance is A B
1C + C2 C 2 2 e0S
C0 = = C=
1C + C2 + C
C
3 3 d
(b) Let us imagine that plates 1 and 2 have the charges q and q and these are
distributed to the other plates using charge conservation and electric induction
(see figure).
Since the potential difference between the plates 1 and 2 is zero,
q1 q2 q1 e 0S
- + - = 0 awhere C = b
C C C d
or q2 = 2q1
The potential difference between A and B

q2
w = wA - wB =
C
Hence, the sought capacitance
q q1 + q2 3q1 3 3e0S
C0 = = = = C =
w q2 >C 2q1 >C 2 2d
3.114 The amount of charge that the capacitor of capacitance C1 can withstand would be
q1 = C1V1 and similarly the charge that the capacitor of capacitance C2 can withstand
will be q2 = C2V2. But in a series combination, charge on both the capacitors will be
same, so, qmax that the combination can withstand = C1V1.
Also, C1V1 6 C2V2, from the numerical data given.
Now, net capacitance of the system

C1C2
C0 =
C1 + C2
qmax C1V1 C1
Vmax = = = V1 a 1 + b = 9 kV
C1C2 >C1 + C2
Hence,
C0 C2
3.115 Let us distribute the charges, as shown in the figure. Now, we know that in a clos-
ed circuit, - ¢w = 0.
So, in the loop DCFED,
q1 q2 q2
= j or q1 = C1 c j + q2 a + bd
1 1
- - (1)
C1 C1 C2 C1 C2
Again in the loop DGHED,
q1 q1 + q2
+ = j (2)
C1 C2
q1 –q1 G –q 2 q2 C
D A
C1 q1 + q2 C1 –q 2
x C2 –(q + q2) C2 +q
1 2
E B
H F
Using Eqs. (1) and (2), we get

C1 jC1
q2 c + 2d = -
1 3
+
C1 C2 C2 C2
- q2 j 1
wA - wB = =
C 22 >C1 1
Now,
C1
c + 2d
C2 3
+
C1 C2 C2
j j
or wA - wB = = = 10 V
C 22 3C2 h2 + 3h + 1
c 2 + + 1d
C1 C1
3.116 The infinite circuit may be reduced to the circuit shown in the figure where C0 is the
net capacitance of the combination.
1 1 1
So, + =
C + C0 C C0
Solving the quadratic equation, C
CC0 + C 20 - C 2 = 0
C C0
we get,
(15 - 1)
C0 = C (taking only + ve value as C0 cannot be negative)
2
= 0.62 C
3.117 Let us make the charge distribution as shown in the figure.

q q
Now, wA - wB = - j + +q –q x +q –q
C1 C2 A B
C1 C2
(wA - wB) + j
or q = C1C2
C1 + C2
Hence, voltage across the capacitor C1
q (wA - wB) + j
= = C2 = 10 V
C1 C1 + C2
and voltage across the capacitor, C2
q (wA - wB) + j
= = C1 = 5 V
C2 C1 + C2
3.118 Let j2 7 j1, then using - ¢w = 0 in the closed circuit +q –q

(see figure), A B
C1
-q q
+ j2 - - j1 = 0
C1 C2 x1 – – x2
+ +
(j2 - j1) C1C2
or q = C2
(C1 + C2) D C
–q q
Hence the potential difference (P.D.) across the left and
right plates of capacitors,
q (j2 - j1) C2
w1 = =
C1 C1 + C2
-q (j1 - j2) C1
and similarly, w2 = =
C2 C1 + C2
3.119 Using the solution of the foregoing problem, the amount of charge on each capaci-
tor is given by
| j2 - j1 | C1C2
|q| =
C1 + C2
3.120 Make the charge distribution as shown in the –q2 +q 2 –q2 +q 2

figure. In the circuit 12561, using - ¢w = 0 4 3
C1 C2
q1 q1 jC3C4
- - j = 0 or q1 = 5 –q1 +q 1 –q1 +q 1 2
C4 C3 C3 + C4 C3 C4
and in the circuit 13461, 6 1

x
q2 q2 j C1C2
+ - j = 0 or q2 =
C2 C1 C1 + C2
q2 q1
Now, wA - wB = -
C1 C3
C2 C4 C2C3 - C1C4
= j c - d = jc d
C1 + C2 C3 + C4 (C1 + C2) (C3 + C4)
It becomes zero, when
C1 C3
(C2C3 - C1C4) = 0 or =
C2 C4
3.121 Let us assume the charge q flows through the connect- +q

ing wires, then at the state of equilibrium, charge dis- +(CV – q) C2 – q
tribution will be as shown in the figure. In the closed C1 +q
circuit, using - ¢w = 0, we get –(CV – q) C3
–q
(C1V - q) q q
- + + = 0
C1 C2 C3
V
or q = = 0.06 mC
(1>C1 + 1>C2 + 1>C3 )
3.122 Initially, charge on the capacitor C1 or C2, is given by

jC1C2
q =
C1 + C2
since they are in a series combination Fig. (a).
When the switch is closed, in the circuit CDEFC, from - ¢ w = 0 Fig. (b).
q2
j- = 0 or q2 = C2 j (1)
C2
And in the closed loop BCFAB, from - ¢w = 0

- q1 q2
+ - j = 0 (2)
C1 C2
Sw –q +q C +q1 –q1
3 D B
C1 C1
+q +q2
x C2 x x C2 x
–q –q2
E A
1 2 1 F 2
(a)
(b)
From Eqs. (1) and (2), q1 = 0.

Now, charge flowing through section 1 = (q1 + q2) - 0 = C2 j
jC1C2
and charge flowing through section 2 = - q1 - q =
C1 + C2
3.123 When the switch is open Fig. (a),

2 jC1C2
q0 =
C1 + C2
1 1
x + q0 x C1
+q1
C1 – q0 –q1
Sw Sw
+q0 3 +q2
x 3 C2 x C2
– q0 –q2
2 2
(a) (b)
and when the switch is closed Fig. (b),
q1 = jC1 and q2 = jC2

Hence, the flow of charge, due to the shorting of switch

C1 - C2
through section 1 = q1 - q0 = jC1 c d = - 24 mC
C1 + C2
C1 - C2
through section 2 = - q2 - (q0) = jC2 c d = - 36 mC
C1 + C2
and through the section 3 = q2 - (q2 - q1) - 0 = j (C2 - C1) = 60 mC
3.124 First of all, make the charge distribution as shown in the figure.
In the loop 12341, using - ¢w = 0 –q 1 +q 1 1 A–q2 +q 2
2 6
q1 q1 - q2 C1 C2
- j1 + = 0 (1) –q 1+q 2
C1 C3 x C3
q1– q2
Similarly in the loop 61456, using - ¢w = 0
3 5
x1 4 B x2
q2 q2 - q1
+ - j2 = 0 (2)
C2 C3
From Eqs. (1) and (2) we have

j2C2 - j1C1
q2 - q1 =
C2 C1
+ + 1
C3 C3
q2 - q1 j2C2 - j1C1
Hence, wA - wB = =
C3 C1 + C2 + C3
3.125 In the loop ABDEA, using - ¢w = 0

q1 q1 + q2 – (q1 +q2) q +q
1
- j3 + + + j1 = 0 (1) E 1 2
D
C3 C1 x1 C1
+q2 –q 2
Similarly in the loop CDEFC F C
x2 2 C2
q1 + q2 q2 +q 1 –q 1
+ j1 - j2 + = 0 (2) A B
C1 C2 3
x3 C3
j2C2 - j1C2 - j1C3 + j3C3
q1 + q2 =
C3 C2
+ + 1
C1 C1
q1 + q2
Now, w1 - w0 = w1 = - (as w0 = 0)
C1
j1(C2 + C3) - j2C2 - j3C3
=
C1 + C2 + C3
j2(C1 + C3) - j1C1 - j3C3
Using symmetry, w2 =
C1 + C2 + C3
j3(C1 + C2) - j1C1 - j2C2
and w3 =
C1 + C2 + C3
The answers have wrong sign in the answer sheet.
3.126 Taking advantage of the symmetry of the problem, we can make a diagram for
charge distribution as shown in the figure.
q1 –q1 5 q2 –q 2
6 4
C1 C2
A q1 – q2 B
C3
+ q2 – q1 –
q2 –q 2 q1 –q 1
1 C2 2 C1 3
In the loop, 12561, using - ¢w = 0

q2 q2 - q1 q1
+ - = 0
C2 C3 C1
q1 C1(C3 + C2)
or = (1)
q2 C2(C1 + C3)
Now, capacitance of the network

q1 + q2 q1 + q2
C0 = =
wA - wB q2>C2 + q1>C1
(1 + q1>q2)
= (2)
q1
a b
1
+
C2 q2C1
2C1C2 + C3(C1 + C2)
C0 =
C1 + C2 + 2C3
q1q2
3.127 (a) Interaction energy of any two point charges q1 and q2 is given by , where
4pe0r
r is the separation between the charges.
+q +q +q –q +q +q
+q +q –q +q –q –q
a
(a) (b) (c)
Hence, interaction energy of the system is given by

q2 q2
Ua = 4 + 2
4pe0a 4pe01 12 a)
- q2 q2
Ub = 4 + 2
4pe0 a 4pe0 112 a2
q2 2q 2 2q 2 12 q 2
Uc = 2 - - = -
4pe0 112 a2
and
4pe0a 4pe0 a 4pe0 a
3.128 Since the chain is of infinite length, any two charges of the same sign will occur sym-
metrically to any other charges of the opposite sign. So, interaction energy of each
charge with all the others is given by
q2
c1 - + - Á up to q d
1 1 1
U = -2 (1)
4pe0 a 2 3 4
1 2 1
But, ln (1 + x) = x - x + x 3 Á up to q
2 3
Putting x = 1, we get 1 1
ln 2 = 1 - + + Á up to q (2)
2 3
- 2q 2 ln 2
U =
4pe0a
3.129 Using electrical image method, interaction energy of the charge q with those induced
on the plane is given by
-q2 q2
U = = -
4pe0 (2l ) 8pe0l
3.130 Consider the interaction energy of one of the balls (say 1) and thin spherical shell of
the other. This interaction energy can be written as
dQ
R
r θ
l
wd q
3
q1
= r2 (r) 2pr 2 sin u d u dr
3 4pe0 R
p l+r
r2 (r) q1r 2 sin u du dr q 1r
= = dr dx r2 (r)
3 2 e0 (l 2 + r 2 + 2lr cos u)1>2 2e0l 3
0 l-r
q1r q1
= dr j 2r r2 (r) # 2 = 4 pr 2 dr r2 (r)
2e0l 4pe0l
Then, finally integrating

q
q1q2
Uint = where q2 = 4pr 2 r2 (r) dr
4pe0l 3
0
3.131 Charge contained in the capacitor of capacitance C1 is q = C1w and the energy,
stored in it is given by
q2 1
Ui = = C1w 2
2C1 2
Now, when the capacitors are connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance of
the system C = C1 + C2 and hence, energy stored in the system is
C1 2 w 2
Uƒ = (since charge is conserved during the process)
2(C1 + C2)
So, increment in the energy
C1 2 w 2 - C2C1w 2
a b =
1 1
¢U = - = - 0.03 m J
2 C1 + C2 C1 2 (C1 + C2)
3.132 The charge on the condensers in position 1 is as shown in Fig. (a).

q q0 q + q0
Here, = =
C C0 C + C0
C (C + C0)
(q + q0) a + b = j or q + q0 =
1 1
and
C + C0 C C0 + 2C
C 2j CC0j
Hence, q = and q0 =
C0 + 2C C0 + 2C
q0 q0
+q +q 0 –q–q 0
C C0 C +q + q 0 –q 0 –q
–q –q 0 +q+q0 C C0 C
–q – q 0 +q 0 +q
2q 0
1 2 1 2
ξ q0 x q0
(a) (b)
After the switch is thrown to position 2, the charges change as shown in Fig. (b).
A charge q0 has flown in the right loop through the two condensers and a charge q0
through the cell, and because of the symmetry of the problem there is no change in
the energy stored in the condensers. Thus,
H (Heat produced) = Energy delivered by the cell
CC0 j 2
= ¢qj = q0j =
C0 + 2C
3.133 Initially, the charge on the right plate of the capacitor, q = C (j1 - j2) and finally,
when switched to the position 2, charge on the same plate of capacitor is
q¿ = C j1.
So, ¢q = q¿ = C j2
Now, from energy conservation,
¢U + Heat liberated = Acell
(where ¢U is the electrical energy),
1 1
or C j21 - C (j1 - j2)2 + Heat liberated = ¢q j1
2 2
as only the cell with e.m.f. j1 is responsible for redistribution of the charge.
1
So, C j1j2 - C j22 + Heat liberated = C j2 j1
2
1
Hence, heat liberated = C j22 .
2
qw
3.134 Self energy of each shell is given by , where w is the potential of the shell, created
2
only by the charge q on it.
Hence, self energies of the shells 1 and 2 are:
q1 2 q 22
W1 = and W2 =
8pe0R1 8 pe0R2
The interaction energy between the charged shells equals charge q of one shell, mul-
tiplied by the potential w created by other shell, at the point of location of charge q.
q2 q1q2
So, W12 = q1 =
4pe0R2 4pe0R2
Hence, total energy of the system
U = W1 + W2 + W12
q12 q22 q1q2
c d
1
= + +
4pe0 2R1 2R2 R2
3.135 Electric fields inside and outside the sphere is obtained with the help of Gauss ’ theorem.
qr q 1
E1 = (for r … R) and E2 = ( for r 7 R)
4pe0r 2 4pe 0 r 2
Sought self energy of the ball
U = W1 + W2
R q
e0E 21 e0E 22 q2
a + 1b
1
= 4pr 2dr + 4pr 2dr =
3 2 3 2 8pe0R 5
0 R
3q 2 W1 1
Hence, U = and =
4pe0 5R W2 5
3q 2
=
20pe0R
3.136 For a spherical layer,
1 1
e0eE 2 dV = ee0 E2 4pr 2dr
3 2 3 2
To find the electrostatic energy inside the dielectric layer, we have to integrate the
above expression in the limit [a, b]. We get,
b
q2
a b c - d = 27 mJ (on substituting values)
1 q 2
2 dr =
1 1
U = e0e 2
4pr
2 3 4pe0er 8pe0e a b
a
3.137 Since the field is conservative, the total work done by the field force
1
A = Ui - Uf = q (w1 - w2)
2
1 q2 q2
c d = c d
1 1 1 1
= - -
2 4pe0 R1 R2 8pe0 R1 R2
3.138 Initially, energy of the system, Ui = W1 + W12 where, W1 is the

self energy and W12 is the mutual energy. q
R1
1 q2 qq0 q0
So, Ui = +
2 4pe0R1 4pe0R1
R2
and on expansion, energy of the system is given by
Uf = W ¿ 1 + W ¿ 12
1 q2 qq0
= +
2 4pe0R1 4pe0R1
Now, work done by the field force, A equals the decrease in the electrical energy,
q (q0 + q/2)
a b
1 1
i.e., A = (Ui - Uf ) = -
4pe0 R1 R2
Alternate:
The work of electric forces is equal to the decrease in electric energy of the system,
A = Ui - Uf
In order to find the difference Ui - Uf , we note that upon expansion of the shell, the
electric field and hence the energy localized in it, changed only in the hatched
spherical layer consequently (see figure).
R2
A E 21 - E 22 B # 4pr 2dr
e0
Ui - Uf =
3 2
R2
where E1 and E2 are the field intensities (in the hatched region at a distance r from
the center of the system) before and after the expansion of the shell. By using Gauss’
theorem, we find
1 q + q0 1 q0
E1 = and E2 =
4pe0 r 2 4pe0 r 2
As a result of integration, we obtain

q (q0 + q/2) 1
a b
1
A = -
4pe0 R1 R2
3.139 Energy of the charged sphere of radius r can be obtained from the equation
1 1 q q2
U = qw = q =
2 2 4pe0r 8pe0r
If the radius of the shell changes by dr, then work done is
q2
4 pr 2 Fudr = - dU =
8pe0r 2
Thus sought force per unit area,
q2 (4pr 2 s)2 s2
Fu = = =
4pr 2 (8pe0r 2) 4pr 2 * 8 pe0r 2 2e0
3.140 Initially, there will be induced charges of magnitude - q and + q on the inner and
outer surfaces of the spherical layer, respectively. Hence, the total electrical energy
of the system is the sum of self energies of spherical shells having radii a and b, and
their mutual energies including the point charge q.
1 q2 1 ( - q)2 - qq qq - qq
Ui = + + + +
2 4pe0 b 2 4pe0 a 4pe0 a 4pe0b 4pe0b
q2
c - d
1 1
or Ui =
8pe0 b a
Finally, charge q is at infinity, hence Uf = 0.
Now, work done by the agent = increment in the energy
q2
c - d
1 1
= Uf - Ui =
8pe0 a b
3.141 (a) Sought work is equivalent to the work performed against the electric field creat-
ed by one plate held at rest, and moving the other plate away. Therefore the re-
quired work,
Aagent = qE (x2 - x1)
where E = s/ 2e0 is the intensity of the field created by one plate at the location
of other.
s q2
So, Aagent = q (x2 - x1) = (x - x1)
2e0 2e0S 2
Alternate:
Aext = ¢U (as field is potential)
q2 q2 q2
= x2 - x = (x2 - x1)
2e0S 2e0S 2e0S
(b) When voltage is kept constant, the force acting on each plate of capacitor will
depend on the distance between the plates.
So, elementary work done by agent, in its displacement over a distance dx, rel-
ative to the other is given by
dA = - Fxdx
e0V
Fx = - a b Ss (x) and s (x) =
s(x)
But,
2e0 x
x2
e0SV 2 1
c d
1 SV 2 1
Hence, A = dA = e0 2 dx = -
3 3 2 x 2 x1 x2
x1
Alternate:
From energy conservation,
Uf - Ui = Acell + Aagent
1 e0S 2 1 e0S 2 e0S e0S

or V - V = c - d V 2 + Aagent
2 x2 2 x1 x2 x1
(as Acell = (qf - qi )V = (Cf - Ci ) V 2).
Aagent = c d
1 1
So, -
x1 x2
3.142 (a) When a metal plate of thickness hd is inserted inside the capacitor, the capaci-
tance of the system becomes
e0S
C0 =
d (1 - h)
Initially, charge on the capacitor,
e0SV
q0 = C0V =
d (1 - h)
Finally, capacitance of the capacitor,
e0S
C =
d
As the source is disconnected, charge on the plates will remain same during the
process. From energy conservation,
Uf - Ui = Aagent (as the cell does no work)
2 2
1 q0 1 q0
or - = Aagent
2 C 2 C0
e0SV (1 - h)
c d c - d =
1 2 1 1 CV 2 h
Hence, Aagent = = 1.5 mJ
2 d (1 - h) C C 2 (1 - h)2
(b) Initially, capacitance of the system is given by

Ce
C0 = (since the two capacitors are in series)
h(1 - e) + e
So, charge on the plate q0 = C0V .

Capacitance of the capacitor, after the glass plate has been removed equals C.
From energy conservation,
Aagent = Uf - Ui
1 CV 2eh (e - 1)
q0 c - d =
1 2 1 1
= = 0.8 mJ
2 C C0 2 [e - h(e - 1)]2
3.143 When the capacitor which is immersed in water is connected to a constant voltage
source, it gets charged. Suppose s0 is the free charge density on the condenser
plates. Because water is a dielectric, bound charges also appear in it. Let s¿ be the
surface density of bound charges. (Because of homogeneity of the medium and uni-
formity of the field, when we ignore edge effects no volume density of bound
charges exists.) The electric field due to free charges is only s0 / e0 ; that due to bo-
und charges is s¿/ e0 and the total electric field is s0 / ee 0 . Recalling that the sign
of bound charges is opposite of the free charges, we have
s0 s0 e - 1
s¿ = a b s0
s¿
= - or
ee0 e0 e0 e
Because of the field that exists due to the free charges (not the total field; the field
due to the bound charges must be excluded for this purpose as they only give rise
to self energy effects), there is a force attracting the bound charges to the nearby
plates. This force is
1 s0 (e - 1) 2
s¿ = s0 (per unit area)
2 e0 2 ee0
The factor 1/2 needs an explanation. Normally the force on a test charge is qE in
an electric field E. But if the charge itself is produced by the electric filed then the
force must be constructed bit by bit and is
F = q (E ¿) dE ¿
3
0
if q (E ¿) r E ¿ , then we get
1
F = q (E ) E
2
This factor of 1/2 is well known. For example, the energy of a dipole of moment p in
an electric field E0 is - p # E0, while the energy per unit volume of a linear dielectric
in an electric field is - 1/2 P # E 0, where P is the polarization vector (i.e., dipole moment
per unit volume). Now the force per unit area manifests itself as excess pressure of
the liquid.
V s0
Noting that =
d ee0
e0e (e - 1)V 2
We get, ¢p =
2d 2
Using e = 81 for water, gives ¢p = 7.17 kPa = 0.07 atm.
3.144 One way of solving this problem will be exactly as in the previous case, so let us try
an alternative method based on energy. Suppose the liquid rises by the distance h.
Then let us calculate the extra energy of the liquid as a sum of the polarization ener-
gy and the ordinary gravitational energy. The latter is
1 # # 1
h rg Sh = rgSh2
2 2
If s is the free charge surface density on the plate, the h
bound charge density is, from the previous problem, a
e - 1
s¿ = s
e
This is also the volume density of induced dipole moment, i.e., polarization. Then
the energy is, as before
-1 # - (e - 1)s2
p E0 = - # s¿ E0 =
1 # 1 s
- s¿ =
2 2 2 e0 2e0e
where p is polarization vector and the total polarization energy is
(e - 1) s2
- S (a + h)
2e0e
Then, total energy is

(e - 1) s2 1
U (h) = - S (a + h) + rgSh2
2 e0e 2
The actual height to which the liquid rises is determined from the formula
dU
= U ¿(h) = 0
dh
(e - 1) s2
This gives h =
2e0erg
Alternate:
To find the stable height of the liquid, the process of its rise should be assumed to
be very slow (in equilibrium). From energy conservation in differential form,
dUele + dUgr = 0
dUele (h) dUgr (h)

So, + = 0
dh dh
d q2
a b + a mg b = 0
d h
dh 2C dh 2
Using m = rSh and q = sS = constant, where S is area of each of the plates,

q2 d 1
a b + a rShg b = 0
d h
2 dh C dh 2
1 a h d - h
But, = + + (where d is separation between the plates)
C ee0S ee0S e0S
d - h
a b = c d
d 1 d h
So, + (because initial liquid height a is constant)
dh C dh ee0S e0S
d ed - (e - 1)h (e - 1)
a b = c d = -
d 1
dh C dh e0 Se ee0S
q 2 (e - 1)
Hence, - + (rgS) h = 0
2 ee0S
s2 (e - 1)
= rgh
2 e0
s2 (e - 1)
h =
2rgee0
Note: Assuming that the lower plate is just immersed, the answer remains the same.
3.145 We know that the energy of the capacitor,
q2
U =
2C
0U
Hence, from Fx = `
0x q = constant
we have,
q 2 0C
Fx = nC 2 (1)
2 0x
Now, since d V R, the capacitance of the given capacitor can be calculated by the
formula of a parallel plate capacitor. Therefore, if the dielectric is introduced upto a
depth x and the length of the capacitor is l, we have,
2pe0 eRx 2pRe0 (l - x)
C = + (2)
d d
From Eqs. (1) and (2), we get,
pRV 2
Fx = e0 (e - 1)
d
3.146 When the capacitor is kept at a constant potential difference V, the work performed
by the moment of electrostatic forces between the plates, when the inner movable
plate is rotated by an angle dw, equals the increase in the potential energy of the
system. This comes about because when changes are made, charges flow from the
battery to keep the potential constant and the amount of the work done by these
charges is twice in magnitude and opposite in sign to the change in the energy of
the capacitor. Thus,
0U 1 0C
Nz = = V2
0w 2 0w
Now the capacitor can be thought of as made up of two parts (with and without the
dielectric) in parallel.
e 0 R 2w e0e(p - w) R 2
Thus, C = +
2d 2d
as the area of a sector of angle w is 1/2 R2
w. Differentiation then gives
(e - 1) e0R 2V 2
Nz = -
4d
The negative sign of Nz indicates that the moment of the force is acting clockwise
(i.e., trying to suck in the dielectric).
3.4 Electric Current
3.147 The convection current is

dq
I = (1)
dt
here, dq = ldx, where l is the linear charge density.

But, from the Gauss ’ theorem, electric field at the surface of the cylinder
l
E =
2 pe0a
Hence, substituting the value of l and subsequently of dq in Eq. (1), we get

2E pe0adx
I =
dt
= 2 pe0Eav aas = vb
dx
dt
= 0.5 mA (on substituting values)
3.148 Since d V r, the capacitance of the given capacitor can be calculated using the for-
mula for a parallel plate capacitor. Therefore, if water (permittivity e ) is introduced
up to a height x and the capacitor is of length l, we have
ee0 # 2prx e0(l - x) 2pr e02pr

C = + = (ex + l - x)
d d d
Hence charge on the plate at that instant, q = CV .

Again we know that the electric current intensity,
dq d (CV )
I = =
dt dt
Ve0 2pr d (ex + l - x) V 2pre0 dx
= = (e - 1)
d dt d dt
dx
But, = v
dt
2pre0(e - 1)V
So, I = v L 0.11 mA
d
3.4 ELECTRIC CURRENT 393
3.149 We have,
Rt = R0 (1 + at) (1)
where Rt and R0 are resistances at t °C and 0°C, respectively and a is the mean tem-
perature coefficient of resistance.
So, R1 = R0(1 + a1t) and R2 = hR0(1 + a2t)
(a) In case of series combination, R = ©Ri
So, R = R1 + R2 = R0 [(1 + h) + (a1 + ha2) t]

a1 + ha2
= R0 (1 + h)c 1 + td (2)
1 + h
Comparing Eqs. (1) and (2), we conclude that temperature coefficient of resista-
nce of the circuit
a1 + ha2
a =
1 + h
(b) In parallel combination
R0(1 + a1t) R0 h (1 + a2t) hR0
R = = R ¿(1 + a¿t), where R ¿ =
R0(1 + a1t) + h R0 (1 + a2t) 1 + h
Now, neglecting the terms proportional to the product of temperature coeffic-

ients, as they have very small values, we get
ha1 + a2
a¿ =
1 + h
3.150 Using the property of symmetry, the currents are flowing as shown in the figures.
(a) In the figures, Ohm’s law is applied between 1 and 7 via 1487 (say). So,
I I I 5 6 I/3
IReq = R + R + R = RI I/6
7 I
3 6 3 6 I/6 I/3
2 3 I/3
5R I/6
Thus, Req = I/6
6 I/3 8
5
I/3 I/6 I/6
(b) Between 1 and 2 from the loop 14321,
I 1 I/3 4
I1R = 2I2R + I3R or I1 = I3 + 2I2 (a)
From the loop 48734, 6 I2−I3 7

I I −I
(I2 - I3) R + 2(I2 - I3) R + (I2 - I3) R = I3R I2 2 3
2 3 2(I2−I3)
4 I3 I3
or 4 (I2 - I3) = I3 Q I3 = I I1 5 I2−I3
5 2 8
I2
14 1 I−I3
So, I1 = I I1+2 I3 I2 4
5 2
(b)
24
Then, (I1 + 2I2) Req = IR
5 2 eq
14
= I1R = IR
5 2
7
or Req = R
12
(c) Between 1 and 3 from the loop 15621 6 I1/2 7
I1 I1 0 I1/2 I1
I2R = I1R + R or I2 = 3 2
I2
I1/2
I1+2I2
2 2 3
I2
I1/2
Then, (I1 + 2I2)Req = 4I1Req I2
8
I1 5
0
= I2R + I2R = 3I1R 1
I2+2I2 I2 4
3 (c)
Hence, Req = R
4
3.151 Total resistance of the circuit will be independent of the number of cells,
(Rx + 2R)R 2R
if Rx =
Rx + 2R + R
R Rx Rx
or Rx2 + 2RRx - 2R 2 = 0
On solving and rejecting the negative root of the quadratic equation, we have
Rx = R ( 23 - 1)
3.152 Let R0 be the resistance of the network. A A

R1
R0R2 R2 R0 R0
Then, R0 = + R1
R0 + R2 B B
or R 20 - R0R1 - R1R2 = 0
On solving we get,
b = 6Æ
R1 R2
R0 = a1 + 1 + 4
2 A R1
3.153 Suppose that the voltage V is applied between the points A and B, then
V = IR = I0R0
where R is the resistance of the whole grid, I is the current through the grid and I0 is
the current through the segment AB. Now from symmetry, I/4 is the part of the cur-
rent flowing through all the four wire segments, meeting at the point A and similarly
the amount of current flowing through the wires meeting at B is also I/4. Thus a
current I/2 flows through the conductor AB, i.e.,
I
I0 =
2
R0
Hence, R =
2
3.154 Let us imagine a thin cylindrical layer of inner and
– l
outer radii r and r + dr, respectively. As lines of
dr
current at all the points of this layer are perpendi-
cular to it, such a layer can be treated as a cylin-
r
drical conductor of thickness dr and cross-section- + –
al area 2prl. So, we have,
dr dr
dR = r = r
S (r) 2prl
and integrating between the limit [a, b], we get

r b
R = ln
2pl a
3.155 Let us imagine a thin spherical layer of inner and outer radii r and r + dr. Lines of cur-
rent at all the points of this layer are perpendicular to it and therefore such a layer can
be treated as a spherical conductor of thickness dr and cross sectional area 4pr 2. So,
dr
dR = r
4pr 2
and integrating between the limits [a, b], we get,
c - d
r 1 1
R =
4p a b
Now, for b : q, we have r
R =
4pa
3.156 In this case, resistance of the medium is given by
c - d (where r is the resistivity of the medium)

r 1 1
R =
4p a b
The current is given by
w w
I = = (1)
c - d
R r 1 1
4p a b
- dq d(Cw) dw
Also, I= = - = -C (as capacitance is constant) (2)
dt dt dt
Equating Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
w dw
= -C
c - d
r 1 1 dt
4p a b
dw ¢t
or – =
L w
c - d
Cr 1 1
4p a b
¢t 4pab
or In h =
Cr(b - a)
Hence, resistivity of the medium
4p¢t ab
r =
C (b - a) ln h
3.157 Let us imagine that the balls have charge +q and - q , respectively. The electric fi-
eld strength at the surface of a ball will be determined only by its own charge and
the charge can be considered to be uniformly distributed over the surface, because
the other ball is at an infinite distance. Magnitude of the field strength is given by
q
E =
4pe0 a 2
So, current density
1 q
j =
r 4pe0a 2
and electric current
q q
I = j # d S = jS = # 4pa 2 =
L r4 pe0a 2 re0
But, potential difference between the balls

q
w+ - w- = 2
4 pe0 a
Hence, the sought resistance
w + - w– 2q/4pe0a r
R = = =
I q/r e0 2pa
3.158 (a) The potential in the unshaded region beyond the conductor has the potential of
the given charge and its image has the form
w = A a - b
1 1
r1 r2
where r1, r2 are the distances of the point from the E
charge and its image, respectively. The potential
P q
has been taken to be zero on the conducting plane
and on the ball. r
x
w L A a - b =V
1 1
q q
a 2l image l
So, A L Va. In this calculation, the condition a 66 l ,
is used to ignore the variation of w over the ball.
The electric field at P can be calculated similarly. The charge on the ball is
Q = 4p e0Va
Va 2alV 1 2alV
and EP = 2 cosu = then j = E =
r2 r3 r rr 3
(b) The total current flowing into the conducting plane is
q q
2alV
I = 2 pxdx j =
r1 x 2 + l 22 3>2
2pxdx
3 3
0 0
Putting y = x2 + l , we get
2
q
2 p alV dy 4paV
I = =
r 3 y 3>2 r
l2
V r
Hence, R = =
I 4pa
3.159 (a) The wires can be assumed to be perfect conductors, so the resistance is entire-
ly due to the medium. If the wire is of length L, the resistance R of the medium
is ^ 1/L because different sections of the wire are connected in parallel (by
the medium) rather than in series. Thus if R1 is the resistance per unit length of
the wire, then R = R1>L. Unit of R1 is ohm-meter.
E
The potential at a point P is by symmetry and P
superposition for (l W a ), is given by
q q
r1 =r r2 =r
A r1 A r2
w⬵ ln - ln
2 a 2 a
1 2
A r1
= ln +V/ 2 –V/2
2 r2 l
V A a
Then, w1 = = ln (for the potential of 1)
2 2 l
-V
or A =
ln l /a
ln r1>r2
V
and w = -
2 ln l>a
We then calculate the field at a point P which is equidistant from 1 and 2 and
at a distance r from both:
a b * 2 sin u
V 1
E =
2 ln l /a r
Vl 1
=
2 ln l>a r 2
1 Vl
and j = sE =
r 2r 2 ln l/a
V 1
(b) Near either wire E =
2 ln l>a a
1 V
and j = sE =
r 2 ln l/a
V V
Then I = = L = j2p aL
R R1
r
which gives R1 = ln l>a
p
3.160 Let us imagine that the plates of the capacitor have the charges +q and -q.
The capacitance of the network
ee0 En dS
q L
C = = (1)
w w
Now, electric current
I = 1 j # d S = 1sEndS, as j c c E (2)
Hence, using Eq. (1) in (2), we get

Cw Cw
I = s = = 1.5 m A
ee0 ree0
3.161 Let us imagine that the conductors have the charges q and - q. As the medium
is a poor conductor, the surfaces of the conductors are equipotential and the field
configuration is same as in the absence of the medium.
Let us surround, for example, the positively charged conductor, by a closed surface
S, just containing the conductor.
w w w
Then, R = = = (as j c c E )
I 1j # dS 1 sEndS
q ee0 1 EndS
and C = =
w w
ee0
So, RC = = ree0
s
3.162 The dielectric ends in a conductor. It is given that, on one side (the dielectric side)
the electric displacement D is as shown in figure. Within the conductor, at any point
A, there can be no normal component of electric field. For if there were such a field, a
current will flow towards depositing charge there which in turn will set up countering
electric field causing the normal component to vanish. Then by Gauss’ theorem, we can
easily derive s = Dn D cos a , where s is the
surface charge density it A.
The tangential component is determined D
from the circulation theorem as
a
Dielectric n A (Conductor)
E # dr = 0
C
It must be continuous across the surface of
the conductor. Thus, inside the conductor
there is a tangential electric field of magnitude
D sin a
at A
e0e
This implies a current, by Ohm’s law, of density
E D sin a
j = =
r e0er
3.163 The resistance of a layer of the medium, of thickness dx and at a distance x from
the first plate of the capacitor is given by
1 dx
dR = (1)
s1x2 S
Now, since s varies linearly with the distance from the plate, it may be represented
s2 - s1
as, s = s1 + a bx, at a distance x from any one of the plates.
d
1 dx
From Eq. (1) dR =
s2 - s1
s1 + a bx
S
d
d
1 dx d s2
or R = = ln
s2 - s1 S (s2 - s1) s1
s1 + a bx
S 3
0
d
V SV (s2 - s1)
Hence, I = = = 5 nA
R s2
d ln
s1
3.164 By charge conservation current density j, leaving the medium 1 must enter the
medium 2.
Thus, j1 cos a1 = j2 cos a2
Another relation follows from
E1t = E2t n
2
which is a consequence of a2 j2
E # dr = 0. 1
C a1
j1
1 1
Thus, j sin a1 = j sin a2
s1 1 s2 2
tan a1 tan a2
or =
s1 s2
tan a1 s1
or =
tan a2 s2
3.165 The electric field in conductor 1 is

r 1I
E1 =
pR 2
r 2I
and that in 2 is E2 =
pR 2
Applying Gauss’ theorem to a small cylindrical pill-box at the boundary,
r1I r2I sdS
- dS + dS =
pR 2 pR 2 e0
1
Thus, s = e0 (r2 - r1)
pR 2
and charge at the boundary = e0 (r2 - r1) I
3.166 We have, E1d1 + E2d2 = V and by current conservation

1 1
E = E E1 E2
r1 1 r2 2 +V O
r1V
Thus, E1 = d1 d2
r1d1 + r2d2
r2V
E2 =
r1d1 + r2d2
At the boundary between the two dielectrics,
s = D2 - D1 = e0e2E2 - e0e1E1
e0V
= (e2r2 - e1r1)
r1d1 + r2d2
3.167 By current conservation

E (x) E (x) + dE (x) dE (x) dx
= =
r (x) r (x) + dr (x) dr (x)
O
Solving we get, I
+V E E+dE
I r (x)
E (x) = Cr (x) = A
Hence, charge induced in the slice per unit area is given by
l I
ds = e0 [{e (x) + de (x)} {r (x) + dr (x)} - e (x) r (x)] = e0 d [e (x) r (x)]
A A
Thus, dQ = e0Id [e (x) r (x)]
Hence total charge induced obtained by integration is

Q = e0I (e2r2 - e1r1)
3.168 As in the previous problem,
E (x) = Cr (x) = C (r0 + r1x)

(h - 1) r0
where r0 + r1d = h r0 or r1 =
d
d
h - 1
Cr (x) dx = Cr0d a 1 + b = Cr0d (h + 1)
1
By integration, V =
3 2 2
0
2V
Thus, C =
r0d (h + 1)
Thus volume density of charge present in the medium
dQ
= = e0 dE (x)/dx
Sdx
2e0V (h - 1) r0 2e0 V (h - 1)
= * =
r0d (h + 1) d (h + 1) d 2
3.169 (a) Consider a cylinder of unit length and divide it into shells of radius r and thick-
ness dr. Different sections are parallel. For a typical section
da b =
1 2pr dr 2pr 3dr
=
R1 (a/r 2) a
1 pR 4 S2
Integrating, = =
R1 2a 2pa
2pa
or R1 =
(where S = pR 2)
S2
(b) Suppose the electric field inside is Ez = E0 (z-axis is along the axis of the con-
ductor). This electric field cannot depend on r in steady conditions when other
components of E are absent, otherwise it would violate the circulation theorem
E # dr = 0
I
The current through a section between radii (r and r +dr ) is
1 E
2prdr E = 2pr 3dr
a/r 2 a
R
E pR 4E
Thus, I = 2pr 3dr =
3 a 2a
0
2 apI
Hence, E = (where S = pR 2)
S2
3.170 The formula is,
q = CV0 (1 - e -t/RC )
q V
or V = = V0 (1 - e -t/RC ) or = 1 - e - t/RC
C V0
V V0 - V
or e -t/RC = 1 - =
V0 V0
V0
Hence, t = RC ln = RC ln 10, if V = 0.9 V0
V0 - V
Thus, t = 0.6 ms
3.171 The charge decays according to the formula
q = q0e -t/RC
Here, RC = mean life = half-life/ln 2
So, half life T = RC ln 2

ee0A rd
But, C = and R =
d A
T
Hence, r = = 1.4 * 10 13 Æm
ee0 ln 2
3.172 Suppose q is the charge at time t. Initially q = C j, at t = 0.

Then at time t, from Loop rule
hq
IR = - j (1)
C
Differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to time and considering that I = - dq /dt (-sign
because charge decreases)
dI h ξ
R = - I
dt C
dI -h # I
i.e., = dt
I RC –IR η q/c
Integration of this equation gives
I -ht
ln =
I0 RC
So, I = I0 e-ht /RC
where I0 is determined by condition of Eq. (1).
Indeed we can write
hq 0
I0R = - j
C
where q0 = C j is the charge of the capacitor before its capacitance has charged.
j
Therefore, I0 = (h - 1)
R
dq j1h - 12
Finally, I = - = e -ht/RC
dt R
3.173 Let r = internal resistance of the battery. We shall take the resistance of the amme-
ter to be = 0 and that of voltmeter to be G.
j
Initially, V = j - Ir, I =
r + G
G
So, V = j (1)
r + G
After the voltmeter is shunted x

V jr
= j - (Voltmeter) (2)
h RG V A
r +
R + G
R
j j
and = h (Ammeter) (3)
RG r + G
r +
R + G
From Eqs. (2) and (3) we have
V hr j
= j - (4)
h r + G
G
= r + G - h r or G = hr
h
Then Eq. (1) gives the required reading

V j
=
n h + 1
= 2.0 V (on substituting values)
3.174 Assume the current flow to be as shown in figure. Then potentials are as shown.
Thus,
w1 = w1 - IR1 + j1 - IR2 - j2
j1 - j2 j1 –IR1 j1 –IR1 + ξ1
or I = ξ1
R1 + R2
R1
and w2 = w1 - IR1 + j1 1 j1 j2 2
j1 - j2 I R2
So, w1 - w2 = - j1 + R1 ξ2 –IR1 + ξ1–IR2
R1 + R2 j
(j1R2 + j2R1)
= -
(R1 + R2)
= - 4V
3.175 Let us consider the current I, flowing through the circuit, as shown in the figure.
Applying loop rule for the circuit, - ¢w = 0.
So, - 2j + IR 1 + IR2 + IR = 0 1 x R1 2 x R2 3
or 2j = I 1R1 + R2 + R2
2j
or I = i
R + R1 + R2 R
Now, if w1 - w2 = 0
- j + IR 1 = 0
2jR1
or = j and 2R1 = R2 + R + R1
R + R1 + R2
or R = R1 - R2 (which is not possible as R2 7 R1 )
Thus, w2 - w3 = - j + IR2 = 0
2jR2
or = j
R + R1 + R2
So, R = R2 - R1
which is the required resistance.
Nj NaR
3.176 (a) Current, I = = = a (as j = aR)
NR NR
(b) wA - wB = nj - nI R = n a R - n a R = 0
3.177 Since the capacitor is fully charged, no current flows through it. x1 R1
So, current is given by
j2 - j1
I = (as j2 7 j1 ) x1 C
R1 + R2 1
A B
2
I
Hence, wA - wB = j1 - j2 + IR2 x2
R2
j2 - j1
= j1 - j2 + R2
R1 + R2
1j1 - j22R1
= = - 0.5 V
R1 + R2
3.178 Let us make the current distribution, as shown in the figure.

j I1 I2
Current I = (using loop rule)
R1R2 I1
R +
R1 + R2
x R R1 R2
So, current through the resistor R1,
j R2
I1 =
R1R2 R1 + R2
R +
R1 + R2
jR2
= = 1.2 A
RR1 + RR2 + R1R2
and similarly, current through the resistor R2,
j R1 jR1
I2 = = = 0.8 A
R1R2 R1 + R2 RR1 + R1R2 + RR2
R +
R1 + R2
3.179 Total resistance

xR0
R #
l - x l
= R0 +
l xR0
R +
l
l - x xRR0 V0
= R0 +
l lR + xR0 l
x R0
l - x
= R0 c d
xR
+
l lR + xR0 V
R
n a1 - b
xR x xR
Then V = V0 +
lR + xR0 l xR0 + lR
= V0Rx n e lR + R0 x a 1 - bf
x
l
x
For R 77 R0, V ⬵ V0
l
3.180 Let us connect a load of resistance R between the points A and B (see figure).
From the loop rule, ¢w = 0, so x1,R1

I1
IR = j1 - I1R1 (1) A B
and IR = j2 - 1I - I12R2 (2)
x2,R2
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we get I
j1R2 + j2R1 R1R2 j0
I = nR + = R
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 R + R0
j1R2 + j2R1 R1R2
where j0 = and R0 =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Thus one can replace the given arrangement of the cells by a single cell having the
e.m.f. j0 and internal resistance R0.
3.181 Make the current distribution, as shown in the figure.

Now, in the loop 12341, applying - ¢w = 0, we get R2 x2
6 + – 5
IR + I1R1 + j1 = 0 (1) – + R1 I – I1
1 4
and in the loop 23562, x1 I1
2 3
IR - j2 + (I - I1)R2 = 0 (2) I R
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we obtain current through the resistance R,
1j2R1 - j1R22
I = = 0 .02 A
RR1 + RR2 + R1R2
and it is directed from left to the right.
3.182 At first indicate the currents in the branches using charge conservation (which also
includes the point rule).
In the loops 1 BA61 and B34AB, from the loop rule using of - ¢w = 0, we get,
respectively
- j2 + 1I - I12R2 + j1 - I1R1 = 0 (1) I
A
IR3 + j3 - 1I - I12R2 + j2 = 0
6 4
(2) x1 x
R2
R3
On solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we obtain R1 I2 =(I–I1)
1j1 - j22R3 + R21j1 + j32
x2
1 3
I1 = I1 B I1
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
L 0.06 A
Thus, wA - wB = j2 - I2R2 = 0 .9 V
3.183 Indicate the currents in all the branches using charge conservation as shown in the
figure. Applying loop rule and using - ¢ w = 0 in the loops 1A781, 1B681 and B456B,
respectively, we get R 2 I1
8 7 6 5
j0 = 1I0 - I12R1 (1)
–
I3R3 + I1R2 - j0 = 0 (2) x0 +
R1 R3 x1
1I1 - I32R - j - I3 R3 = 0
(I0 – I1) I3 R
(3) 1 4
I0 A I1 B I 4 = (I1–I3)
Solving Eqs. (1), (2) and (3), we get the sought current
j1R2 + R32 + j0R3

1I1 - I32 =
R 1R2 + R32 + R2R3
3.184 Indicate the currents in all the branches using charge conservation as shown in the figure.
Applying the loop rule and using - ¢w = 0 in the loops 12341 and 15781, we get
- j1 + I3R1 - (I1 - I3)R2 = 0 (1) R3 7
8 6
I1 A B
- j2 + (I1 - I3)R2 + I1R3 = 0 (2) I1 x2
R2
1 4
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we get I2 5 R1 I3
j11R2 + R32 + j2R2

2 3
x1 I3
I3 =
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
Hence, the sought potential difference

wA - wB = j2 - I3R1
j2R31R1 + R22- j1R11R2 + R32
= = - 1V (on substituting values)
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
3.185 Let us distribute the currents in the paths as shown in the figure.
Now, w1 - w2 = IR1 + I1R2 (1)

2
and w1 - w3 = IR1 + (I - I1)R3 (2)
R2
I1
R1 I
Simplifying Eqs. (1) and (2) we get 1
R31w1 - w22 + R21w1 - w32 R3

I = = 0.2A I2
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 3
3.186 Distribution of current is as shown in figure. From R1 C I1 −I3

Kirchhoff’s second law
R2
I1R1 = I2R3 I3
A B
R4
I1R1 + (I1 - I3)R2 = V
I2 R3 D I2 +I 3
I2R3 + (I3 + I2) R4 = V
Eliminating I2, we get
I1(R1 + R2) - I3R2 = V

R1
I1 1R3 + R42 + I3R4 = V
R3
R1R2 R1
Hence, I3 c R41R1 + R22 + 1R3 + R42 d = V c1R1 + R22 - 1R3 + R42 d
R3 R3
[R31R1 + R22 - R11R3 + R42]V

I3 =
R3R41R1 + R22 + R1R21R3 + R42
On substitution, we get I3 = 1.0 A from C to D .
3.187 From the symmetry of the problem, current I1 r 5 R I–I1

flow is indicated, as shown in the figure. 6 4
A I –2I1 B
Now, wA - wB = I1r + (I - I1)R (1) r
I I–I1 I
1 3
In the loop 12561, from - ¢w = 0 R 2 r I1
(I - I1) R + (I - 2I1) r - I1r = 0
(R + r)I
or I1 = (2)
3r + R
Equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B using Eqs. (1) and (2),
is given by
R + r
c 1r - R2 + R dI
wA - wB 3r + R r 13R + r2
R0 = = =
I I 3r + R
3.188 Let, at any moment of time, charge on the plates be + q and - q , respectively, then
voltage across the capacitor
w = q /C (1)
Now, from charge conservation, 4 I 3 6

dq I1 I2
I = I1 + I2, where I2 = (2) ξ C
+q
dt R –q
In the loop 65146, using - ¢w = 0 1
R 2
5
I I
+ aI1 + bR - j = 0
q dq
(3)
C dt
using Eq. (1) and Eq. (2).

In the loop 25632, using - ¢w = 0
q q
- + I1R = 0 or I1R = (4)
C C
Using Eq. (4) in Eq. (3)
dq 2q dq dt
R = j1 - or = (5)
dt C 2q R
j -
C
On integrating Eq. (5) between suitable limits,

q
2q
3 dq
t j -
0 1 C C t
= dt or - ln =
2q R 3 2 j R
j- 0
C
= V = j11 - e 2t/RC2
q 1
Thus,
C 2
3.189 (a) Since current I is a linear function of time, and at t = 0 and ¢t, it equals I0 and
zero, respectively, it may be represented as
I = I0 a1 - b
t
¢t
¢t ¢t
I0 ¢t
I0 a 1 - b dt =
t
Thus, q = I dt =
3 3 ¢t 2
0 0
2q
So, I0 =
¢t
a1 - b
2q t
Hence, I =
¢t ¢t
The heat generated is given by
¢t ¢t
4q 2R
c a1 - b d R dt =
2q t 2
H = I 2Rdt =
3 3 ¢t ¢t 3¢t
0 0
(b) Obviously the current through the coil is given by
I = I0 a b
1 t /¢t
2
q q
I0 ¢t
Then, q = Idt = I02 -t /¢t dt =
3 3 ln 2
0 0
q ln 2
So, I0 =
¢t
Hence, heat generated in the circuit in the time interval t [0, q]
q q
q 2 ln 2
c 2 -t /¢t d Rdt = -
q ln 2 2
H = I 2Rdt = R
3 3 ¢t 2¢t
0 0
3.190 The equivalent circuit may be drawn as shown in the figure.

Resistance of the network = R0 + 1R >32.
Let us assume that e.m.f. of the cell is j, then current
R
j
I =
R0 + 1R>32 R
R
Now the thermal power generated in the circuit
j
P = I 2R >3 = 1R>32
I
1R0 + 1R>3222
For P to be maximum, x, R0
dP
= 0, which yields
dR
R = 3R0
3.191 We assume current conservation but not Kirchhoff’s second law. Then thermal
power dissipated is
P 1I12 = I 21 R1 + 1I - I122R2 R1
= I 12 1R1 + R22 - 2II1R 2 + I 2R2 I1
R2 R1R2
= [R1 + R2] cI1 - Id + I2
2 I I
R2
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
I2 = I – I1
The resistances being positive, we see that the power dissipated is minimum when
R2
I1 = I
R1 + R2
This corresponds to the usual distribution of currents over resistances joined in parallel.
3.192 Let internal resistance of the cell be r, then

V = j - Ir (1)
where I is the current in the circuit. We know that thermal power generated in the
battery is,
Q = I 2r (2)
Putting r from Eq. (1) in Eq. (2), we obtain

Q = 1j - V 2I = 0.6 W
In a battery, work is done by electric forces whose origin lies in the chemical
processes going on inside the cell. The work so done is stored and used in the elec-
tric circuit outside. Its magnitude just equals the power used in the electric circuit.
We can say net power developed by the electric force is
P = - IV = - 2.0 W
Minus sign means that power is generated and not consumed.
3.193 As far as the motor is concerned, the power delivered is displaced and can be rep-
resented by a load R0. Thus,
V R
I =
R + R0
V R0
V 2R0
and P = I 2R0 =
(R0 + R) 2
This is maximum when R0 = R and the current I is then,
V
I =
2R
The maximum power delivered is
V2
= Pmax
4R
V2 V2
The power input is and its value when P is maximum is .
R + R0 2R
1
The efficiency then is = 50% .
2
3.194 If the wire diameter decreases by d, then by the information given, power input
V2
P= = H (heat lost through the surface)
R
Now, H r (1 - d) like the surface area and R r (1 - d) -2.
V2
So, (1 - d) 2 = A(1 - d) or V 2 (1 - d) = constant
R0
But , V r 1 + h
So, (1 + h) 2 (1 - d) = constant = 1
Thus, d = 2h = 2%
3.195 The equation of heat balance is

V2 dT
- k (T - T0) = C
R dt
Put T - T0 = j
V2 k V2
So, Cj + k j = or j+ j =
R C CR
d V 2 kt>C
or je kt>C = e
dt CR
V 2 kt>C
or je kt>C = e + A
kR
where A is a constant. Clearly,
V2
j = 0 at t = 0, so A = -
kR
Hence, V2
T = T0 + (1 - e –kt>C)
kR
3.196 Let wA - wB = w. I R
A I'
Now, thermal power generated in the resistance Rx
R2 Rx
w R2 2
P = I ¿ 2Rx = Rx
C R2Rx R2 + Rx S B
R1 +
R2 + Rx
For P to be independent of Rx
dP
= 0, which yields
dRx
R1R2
Rx = = 12 Æ
R1 + R2
3.197 Indicate the current flow in the circuit as shown in the figure.
Applying loop rule in the closed loop 12561 and using - ¢w = 0, we get
I1R + IR1 = j1 (1) 6 4
x1 x2
and in the loop 23452,
(I - I1)R2 - I1R = - j2 (2)
R
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we get R1 R2
I
j1R2 + j2R1
I1 =
RR1 + R1R2 + RR2 1 I 2 I – I1 3
So, thermal power generated in the resistance R is given by
j1R2 + j2R1
P = I12 R = c d R
2
RR1 + R1R2 + RR2

For P to be maximum,
dP
= 0, which yields
dR
R1R2
R =
R1 + R2
(j1R2 + j2R1)2
Hence, Pmax =
4R1R2 (R1 + R2)
3.198 Suppose that there are x number of cells connected in series, in each of the n par-
allel groups, then
nx = N or x = N /n (1)
Now, for any one of the loop, consisting of x cells and the resistor R, we have from
the loop rule R
I
IR + xr - x j = 0 x xr
n
x xr
xj N/n j
So, I = = (using Eq. 1)
R + xr/n R +Nr/n 2
Heat generated in the resistor R, is given by
Q = I 2R = a b R
Nnj 2
n2R + NR
and for Q to be maximum,
dQ
= 0, which yields
dn
Nr
n = = 3
AR
3.199 When switch 1 is closed, maximum charge accumulated on the capacitor is given by
qmax = C j (1)
and when switch 2 is closed at any arbitrary instant of time, C
(R1 + R2) a - b =
q
dq
R2
dt c
R1
(because the capacitor is discharging), Sw
q t
2
1 1 1
or dq = - dt
3 q (R1 + R2)C 3
qmax 0 x
Integrating, we get
q -t -t
ln = or q = qmax e (R + R )C (2)
(R1 + R2) C
1 2
qmax
Differentiating with respect to time, we get
= qmax e (R + R )C a- b
dq -t 1
I(t) =
(R1 + R2)C
1 2
dt
Cj -t
or I(t) = e (R + R )C
(R1 + R2)C
1 2
Negative sign is ignored, as we are not interested in the direction of the current.
j -t
Thus, I (t) = e (R + R )C (3)
(R1 + R2)
1 2
When the switch (Sw) is at the position 1, the charge (maximum) accumulated on
the capacitor is, q = C j.
When the switch (Sw) is thrown to position 2, the capacitor starts discharging and
as a result, the electric energy stored in the capacitor totally turns into heat energy
through the resistors R1 and R2 (during a very long interval of time). Thus from the
energy conservation, the total heat liberated through the resistors is given by
q2 1
H = Ui = = C j2
2C 2
During the process of discharging of the capacitor, the current through the resistors
R1 and R2 is the same at all moments of time, thus
H1 r R1 and H2 r R2
HR1
So, H1 = (as H = H1 + H2)
(R1 + R2)
1 CR1
Hence, H1 = j2
2 R1 + R2
= 60 mJ (on substituting values)
3.200 When the plate is absent, the capacity of the condenser is

e0S
C =
d
When the plate is present, the capacity is

e0S C
C¿ = =
d (1 - h) 1 - h
(a) The energy increment is clearly

1 1 Ch
¢U = CV 2 - C ¿V 2 = V2
2 2 2(1 - h)
(b) The charge on the plate is
CV
qi = (initially) and qƒ = CV (finally)
1 - h
A charge CV h / 1 - h has flown through the battery, charging it and withdr-
awing CV 2 h / 1 - h units of energy from the system into the battery. The
energy of the capacitor has decreased by just half of this. The remaining half, i.e.,
(1/2) CV 2h / 1 - h is the work done by the external agent in withdrawing the
plate. This ensures conservation of energy.
3.201 Initially, capacitance of the system = C e.

1
So, initial energy of the system Ui = (C e)V 2
2
1
and final energy of the capacitor Uƒ = CV 2
2
Hence capacitance energy increment
1 1 1
¢U = CV 2 - (Ce)V 2 = - CV 2 (e - 1) = - 0.5 mJ
2 2 2
From energy conservation
¢U = Acell + Aagent
as there is no heat being released.
But, Acell = (Cf - Ci)V 2 = (C - Ce)V 2
Hence, Aagent = ¢U - Acell
1
= C (e - 1)V 2 = 0.5 mJ
2
3.202 If C0 is the initial capacitance of the condenser before water rises in it then
1 e02lpR
Ui = C0V 2, where C0 =
2 d
(R is the mean radius and l is the length of the capacitor plates.)
Suppose the liquid rises to a height h in it. Then capacitance of the condenser is
ee0h2pR e(l - h) 2pR e02pR
C = + = (l + (e - 1) h)
d d d
and energy of the capacitor and the liquid (including both gravitational and electro-
static contributions) is
1 e02pR h
(l + (e - 1) h)V 2 + rg (2pR hd)
2 d 2
If the capacitor were not connected to a battery this energy would have to be min-
imized. But the capacitor is connected to the battery and, in effect the potential en-
ergy of the whole system has to be minimized. Suppose we increase h by dh. Then
the energy the capacitor and the liquid increases by
e0 2pR
dh a (e - 1) V 2 + rg (2pRd) h b
2d
and that of the cell diminishes by the quantity Acell which is the product of charge
flown and V
e0 (2pR)
dh (e - 1) V 2
d
In equilibrium, the two must balance, so
e0 (e - 1) V 2
rgdh =
2d
e0 (e - 1) V 2
Hence, h =
2rgd 2
3.203 (a) Let us imagine a thin spherical layer with inner and outer radii r and r + dr, re-
spectively. Lines of current at all the points of this layer are perpendicular to it
and therefore such a layer can be treated as a spherical conductor of thickness
dr and cross sectional area 4pr 2, Now, we know that resistance,
dr dr
dR = r = r (1)
S (r) 4pr 2
Integrating Eq. (1) between the limits,
R b
c - d
dr r 1 1
dR = r or R = (2)
3 3 4pr 2 4p a b
0 a
Capacitance of the network,
4pe0e
C = (3)
c - d
1 1
a b
q = Cw c d
where q is the charge
and (4)
at any arbitrary moment
- dq
also, w = a b R, as capacitor is discharging. (5)
dt
From Eqs. (2), (3), (4) and (5), we get
c- drc - d
dq 1 1
4 p e0e dt a b dq dt
q = or =
ree0
c - d
1 1 4p q
a b
q t
dq 1 dt
Integrating - = dt =
3 q re0e 3 ree0
q0 0
Hence, q = q0 e-t/re0e
(b) From energy conservation, heat generated during the spreading of the charge
H = Ui - Uf (because Acell = 0)
2 q02 b - a
1 q0
c - d - 0 =
1 1
=
2 4pe0e a b 8pe0e ab
3.204 (a) Let, at any moment of time, charge on the plates be (q0 - q) then, current through
the resistor
d (q0 - q)
I = -
dt
because the capacitor is discharging.
dq –(q0 – q) (q0 – q)
or I =
dt C
Now, applying loop rule in the circuit
q0 - q R
IR - = 0
C dq
I=
dq q0 - q dt
or R =
dt C
dq 1
or = dt
q0 - q RC
At t = 0, q = 0 and at t = t, q = q .
q0 - q -t
So, ln =
q0 RC
Thus, q = q0 (1 - e –t>RC) = 0.18 mC
(b) Amount of heat generated = decrease in capacitance energy
1 3q0 - q0 (1 - e
2 2
–t>RC )4
1 q0
= -
2 C 2 C
2
1 q0
= [1 - e-2t>RC ] = 82 mJ
2 C
3.205 Let at any moment of time, charge flown be q, then current I = dq /dt .
Applying loop rule in the circuit and using ¢w = 0, we get
dq (CV0 - q) q
R - + = 0
dt C C
dq 1
or = dt
CV0 - 2q RC
CV0 - 2q t R
So, ln = -2 (for 0 … t … t ) –(CV0 – q)
CV0 RC –q
C C
CV0 +q
or q = (1 - e -2t>RC ) CV0 – q
2 dq
iI =
CV0 2 V0 dt
dq
Hence, I = = e –2t>RC = e –2t>RC
dt 2 RC R
Now, heat liberated will be given by
q q
V02 1
Q = I 2Rdt = R e -4t>RC dt = CV02
3 R2 3 4
0 0
3.206 In a rotating frame, to first order in v, the main effect is a Coriolis force given by
2m (v * v). This unbalanced force will cause electrons to react by setting up a mag-
netic field B so that the magnetic force e (v * B) balances the Coriolis force.
e 2m
Thus, - B = v or B = - v
2m e
The flux associated with this is
2m
£ = Npr 2B = Npr 2 v
e
where N = l / 2pr is the number of turns of the ring. If v changes (and there is
time for the electron to rearrange) then, B also changes and so does £ . An e.m.f.
will be induced and a current will flow, which is given by
2m
I = N pr 2
v>R
e
The total charge flowing through the ballastic galvanometer, as the ring is stopped, is
q = N pr 2 n
2m
v>R
e
e 2Npr 2v lvr
So, = =
m qR qR
= 1.8 * 1011 C>kg (on substituting values)
3.207 Let n0 be the total number of electrons then, total momentum of electrons,
p = n0mevd (where vd is drift velocity) (1)
n0e ne
Now, I = rSxvd = Sxvd = v (2)
V l d
Here Sx = cross sectional area, r = electron charge density, V = volume of sample.

me
p = Il = 0.40 m Ns
e
3.208 By definition nevd = j , where vd is the drift velocity, n is number density of electr-
ons.
l nel
Then t = =
vd j
So distance actually travelled
nel 6 v 7
S = 6 v7 t = = 107 m
j
(6 v 7 = mean velocity of thermal motion of an electron.)
3.209 (a) Let n be the volume density of electrons, then from I = rSvd , we get
l
I = neS | 6 v7 | = neS
t
neSl
So, t = = 3 Ms
I
(b) Sum of electric forces is given by
| (nv) e E | = | n Slerj | (where r is resistivity of the material)
I
= nSler = nel rI = 1.0 MN
S
3.210 From Gauss’ theorem, field strength at a surface of a cylindrical shape equals,
l / 2pe0 r , where l is the linear charge density.
1 2eV
Now, eV = m v 2 or v = (1)
2 e A me
dq dx
Also, dq = ldx so, = l
dt dt
I I
or I = lv or l = = (using Eq. 1)
v 2eV
A me
I me
Hence, E = = 32 V/m
2pe0r A 2eV
For the point inside the solid charged cylinder, applying Gauss’ theorem
q
2prhE = pr 2 h
e0pR 2l
q>l lr
or E = r =
2pe0R 2 2pe0R 2
dw
So, from E = -
dr
w2 R
l
we get - dw = 2
rdr
3 3 2pe0R
w1 0
c d =
l r2 R l
or w1 - w2 = 2
2pe0R 2 0 4pe0
I me
Hence, w1 - w2 = = 0.80 V
4pe0 A 2eV
3.211 (a) Between the plates

w = ax 4>3
0w 4
or = a * x l>3
0x 3
0 2w 4 -r
= ax -2>3 =
0x 2 9 e0
4e0a
or r = - x -2>3
9
(b) Let the charge on the electron be –e.
1
Then mv 2 - ew = constant = 0
2
(as the electron is initially emitted with negligible energy),
2e w 2e w
or v2 = and v =
m A m
4e0a 2we -2>3 4 2e
So, j = - rv = x = e0a 3>2
9 A m 9 Am
( j is measured from the anode to cathode, hence the - ve sign.)
3.212 We know that, E =V

d
So by the definition of the mobility

V V
v + = u0+ , v - = u0– -
d d
eV
and j = (n + u0+ + n– u –0)
d
The negative ions move towards the anode and the positive ions towards the catho-
de and the total current is the sum of the currents due to them.
On the other hand, in equilibrium
n+ = n-
n (u 0+ + u –0)
I eV
So, n+ = n- =
S d
Id
= = 2.3 * 10 8 cm -3
eVS (u 0+ + u –0)
3.213 Velocity = mobility * field
V0
or v = u sin vt (which is positive for 0 … vt … p)
l
So, the maximum displacement in one direction is
p
V0 2uV0
xmax = u sin vtdt =
3 l lv
0
2uV0
At v = v0, xmax = l so, = l
lv0
v0l 2
Thus, u =
2V0
3.214 When the current is saturated, all the ions produced reach the plate.
# Isat
Then, ni = = 6 * 10 9 cm -3 s -1
eV
(Both positive ions and negative ions are counted here.)
The equation of balance is
dn #
= ni - rn 2
dt
The first term on the right is the production rate and the second term is the recom-
bination rate which by the usual statistical arguments is proportional to n 2 (no of
positive ions * no. of –ve ions). In equilibrium
dn
= 0
dt
#
ni
So, neq = = 6 * 10 7 cm -3
Br
#
3.215 Initially, n = n0 = 2ni >r
Since we can assume that long exposure to the ionizer has caused equilibrium to be
set up. After the ionizer is switched off,
dn
= - rn 2
dt
dn 1
or rdt = - or rt = + constant
n2 n
1 1
But, n = n0 at t = 0 so, rt = -
n n0
The concentration will decrease by a factor h when
1 1 h - 1
rt0 = - =
n0 >h n0 n0
h - 1
or t0 = # = 13 ms
2r ni
3.216 Ions produced will cause charge to decay. Clearly,

# e0A
hCV = decrease of charge = ni eAdt = Vh
d
e0Vh
or t = # = 4.6 days
ni ed 2
Note that ni here, is the number of ion pairs produced.
3.217 If n = number of electrons moving to the anode at distance x, then

dv
= av or v = v0 e ax
dx
Assuming saturation,
I = ev0e ad
3.218 Since the electrons are produced uniformly through the volume, the total current at-
taining saturation is clearly,
d
# # e ad - 1
I = e (ni Adx) e ax = eni A a b
3 a
0
# e ad - 1
j = A = eni a b
I
Thus,
a
3.5 CONSTANT MAGNETIC FIELD. MAGNETICS 425
3.5 Constant Magnetic Field. Magnetics
3.219 (a) From Biot-Savart’s law

m0 d l * r
dB = I
4p r3
m0 1Rd u2R
So, dB = I (as d l ⬜ r)
4p R3
From symmetry
2p
m0 I m0 I
B = dB = du = = 6.3 mT
L 3 4p R 2 R
0
(b) From Biot-Savart’s law n

m0
dl * r dB
B = I (here r = x - R)
4p L r 3
m0 I
So, B = c dl * x - dl * Rd
4p r 3 C C x
r
Since x is a constant vector and |R| is also constant, so,
dl * x = a dlb * x = 0 abecause dl = 0 b O dl
R
I I I
I
and - dl * R = R dl n = nR dl = 2pR 2 n
I I I
Here n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing the current loop
(see figure) and in the direction of x.
m0 2 pR 2I
B =
4p 1x 2 + R 223>2
Thus, we get n
= 2.3 mT
3.220 Since l AOB = 2p/n ,OC or perpendicular distance of any segment from center equals
R cos p/n . Now magnetic induction at O, due to the right current carrying element AB
m0 I p
= 2 sin
4p R cos p/n n
From Biot–Savart’s law, the magnetic field at O due to any section such as AB is per-
pendicular to the plane of the figure and has the magnitude
p
n
m0 dx m0 I R cos p/n sec2udu m0I 1 p
B = I 2 cos u = 2 2
cos u = 2 sin
L 4p r 3p 4p R cos 2p/n sec u 4p R cos p/n n
-n
As there are n number of sides and magnetic induction vectors, due to each side at
O, are equal in magnitude and direction. So
m0
2 sin # n
nI p
B0 =
4p p n
R cos
n I O
m0 nI p 2
= tan A n dq R
2p R n
m0 I Lim tan pn
a b
C B
For n : q B0 =
2 R n : q p>n
m0 I
=
2 R
3.221 We know that magnetic induction due to a straight current carrying wire at any point,
at a perpendicular distance from it is given by
m0 I
B = 1sin u1 + sin u22 (as shown in figure) I
4p r q2
r
m0 q1
e cos + cos f
I w w
Here, B1 = B3 =
4p w 2 2
(d /2) sin
2
m0
asin + sin b
I w w
and B2 = B4 = 4
4p w 2 2
(d>2) cos
2 p –j j
2 2
1 3
Hence, the magnitude of total magnetic induction at O, O
d
2
B0 = B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 2
w w
m0 4I cos 2 sin
2
= D + T
4p d>2 w w
sin cos
2 2
4 m0 I
= = 0.10 mT
pd sin w
3.222 Magnetic induction due to the arc segment at O is given by I
m0 I O
Barc = (2p - 2 w)
4p R 2j R
and magnetic induction due to the line segment at O is given by

m0 I
Bline = [2 sin w]
4p R cos w
So, total magnetic induction
m0 I
B0 = Barc + Bline = [p - w + tan w] = 28 mT
2p R
3.223 (a) From the Biot-Savart law
m0 (d l * r)
dB = I
4p r3
So, magnetic field induction due to the arc of radius a at O is given by
m0 I
Ba = (2p - w) (directed inward)
4p a
and magnetic field induction due to the arc of radius b at O is given by
m0 I
Bb = w (directed inward)
4p a I
2
Due to each of straight current segments 1 and 2, magnetic
induction is zero, because d l 7 r. j b
a
m0 2p - w
I c + d
w O I
Hence, B0 = I
4p a b
(b) Due to each of straight currents directed towards (away)
center, magnetic induction vector at the center is zero. From b
the symmetry, direction of magnetic induction vector due to
rest of two straight wires and the arc current, all are directed
normally into the plane of the figure. Magnetic induction due b
a 45°
to each of straight current is O ƒ
m0 I
sin 45°
4p b
and due to arc current is
m0 I 3p
a b
4p a 2
Hence, the total magnetic induction at O is given by
m0 I 3p m0 I m0 I 3p 22
B0 = a b + 2 * sin 45° = c + d
4p a 2 4p h 4p n 2a b
3.224 The thin walled tube with a longitudinal slit can be considered equivalent to a full tube
and a strip carrying the same current density in the opposite direction. Inside the tube,
the former does not contribute so the total magnetic field is simply due to the strip. It is
m0 (I>2pR) h m0 Ih
B = =
2p r 4p 2 Rr
where r is the distance of the field point from the strip.
3.225 First of all let us find out the direction of vector B at point O. For this purpose, we
divide the entire conductor into elementary fragments with current dI. It is obvious
that the sum of any two symmetric fragments gives a resultant along B as shown in
the figure and consequently, vector B will also be directed as shown.
O
So, | B| = dB sin w j j
3 dj
m0 dB
= dI sin w B
3 2pR
p
m0
I sin w dw aas dI = dwb
I
=
3 2p 2R p
0
m0 I
Hence, B =
p2R
3.226 From symmetry, for Fig. (a)

2
B0 = B1 + B2 + B3 1 R
O 3
m0 I m0 I
= 0 + p + 0 =
4p R 4 R (a)
From symmetry, for Fig. (b)

B0 = B1 + B2 + B3 2
m0 I m0 I 3p R 3
= + + 0 O
4p R 2p R 2
m0 I 1
c1 + d
3p
= (b)
4p R 2
From symmetry, for Fig. (c)

3
B0 = B1 + B2 + B3
2 R
m0 I m0 I m0 I O
= + p +
4p R 4p R 4p R 1
m0 I (c)
= (2 + p)
4p R
3.227 B0 = B1 + B2
l
m0I 1 /2
or | B0 | = 12 = 2.0 mT (using Problem 3.221) /2
4pl
2
3.228 (a) B0 = B1 + B2 + B3
m0 I m0 I m0 I
= ( - k) + p ( - i) + ( - k)
4p R 4p R 4p R
m0 I
= - [2k + p i]
4p R
m0 I
So, | B0 | = 2p 2 + 4 = 0.30 mT
4p R
(b) B0 = B1 + B2 + B3
m0 I m0 I m0 I
= ( - k) + p ( - i) + ( - i)
4p R 4p R 4p R
m0 I
= - [k + (p + 1) i]
4p R
m0 I
So, | B0 | = 21 + (p + 1) 2 = 0.34 mT
4p R
(c) Here, using the law of parallel resistances
I1 1
I1 + I2 = I and =
I2 3
I1 + I2 4
So, =
I2 3
3 1
Hence, I2 = I and I1 = I
4 4
m0 I m0 I m0 3p I1 m0 (p>2) I2
Thus, B0 = ( - k) + (- j) + c a b ( - i) + id
4p R 4p R 4p 2 R 4p R
- m0 I
= ( j + k) + 0
4p R
m0 12I
Thus, | B0 | = = 0.11 mT
4p R
3.229 (a) We apply circulation theorem as shown in the figure. The current is vertically up-
wards in the plane and the magnetic field is horizontal and parallel to the plane.
m0I
B # d l = 2 Bl = m0 Il or
B
Then, B =
C 2
(b) Each plane contributes m0 I / 2 between the planes and P

outside the plane that is cancelled out.
B = e
m0 I between the plane
Thus,
0 outside
3.230 We assume that the current flows perpendicular to the plane of the paper, x=0
then by circulation theorem, inside the plate
2Bdl = m0 (2 x dl) j
or B = m0 x j, | x | … d
Outside the plate, 2Bdl = m0 (2d dl) j
or B = m0 dj | x | Ú d
3.231 It is easy to convince oneself that in both the regions 1 and 2, there can only be a
circular magnetic field (i.e., the component Bw). Any radial field in region 1 or any Bz
away from the current plane will imply a violation of Gauss’ law of magnetostatics.
Bw must obviously be symmetrical about the straight wire. Then in 1,
Bw 2pr = m0I
m0 I 1 I
or Bw =
2p r
O
Bw # 2pr = 0 or
2
In 2, Bw = 0
3.232 Along the axis of loop,

m0IR 2
B = = Bx (along the axis)
2 (R 2 + x 2) 3>2
q q
m0IR 2
B # dr =
dx
Thus, Bxdx =
3 3 2 3q (R 2 + x 2) 3>2
-q -
p>2
m0 IR 2 R sec 2 ud u
= 3 3
(on putting x = R tan u)
2 3 R sec u
-p>2
p>2
1
= m0I cos u d u = m0I
2 3
-p>2
q
The physical interpretation of this result is that Bx dx can be thought of as the

L- q
circulation of B over a closed loop by imaging that the two ends of the axis are con-
nected by a line at infinity (e.g., a semicircle of infinite radius).
3.233 By circulation theorem, inside the conductor

Bw2pr = m0 jzp r 2 or Bw = m0 jz r/2
1
i.e., B = m j * r
2 0
Similarly, outside the conductor
1 R2
Bw 2pr = m0 jz pR 2 or Bw = m0 jz
2 r
1 R2
So, B = m0 (j * r) 2
2 r
2.234 The given current, which will be assumed uniform, arises due
to a negative current flowing in the cavity superimposed on
the true current everywhere including the cavity. Then from r
the previous problem, by superposition, r'
O l O'
m0 m0 m0
B = [j * r] - [j * r¿] = [j * (r - r¿)]
2 2 2
m0
B = (j * l)
2
If l vanishes so that the cavity is concentric with the conductor, then there is no
magnetic field in the cavity.
3.235 By circulation theorem
r
Bw # 2 p r = m0 j 1r ¿2 * 2pr ¿dr ¿
3
0
Using Bw = br a, inside the stream,

r
br a + 1 = m0 j 1r ¿2r ¿dr ¿
3
0
So by differentiation,
(a + 1)br a = m0 j (r) r
b (a + 1) -1
Hence, j (r) = r–
m0
3.236 On the surface of the solenoid there is a surface current density, given by
js = nI ew
m0 ew * r0
Then, B = - nI R dw dz
4p L r03
where r0 is the vector from the current element to the field point, which is the center
of the solenoid,
Now, - ew * r0 = R ez
r0 = 1z 2 + R 221>2
l>2
m0nI dz
B = Bz = * 2pR 2
1R 2 + z 22 3>2
Thus,
4p 3
-l>2
l
+ tan-1 2R
1
= m nI cos a d a (on putting z = R tan a)
2 0 L l
− tan
-1
2R
l /2
= m0n I sin a = m0 nI
3(l /2) 2 + R 2
1 + a b
2R 2
= m0 n I>
B l
3.237 (a) We proceed exactly as in the previous problem. Then the magnetic induction
on the axis at a distance x from one end is clearly,
q q
m0 nl dz 1 dz
B = * 2pR 2 = m0nI R 2
4p 3 [R 2 + (z - x) 2] 3/2 2 3 1z 2 + R 22 3/2
0 x
p>2
cos u d u = m0nI a1 - b
1 1 x
= m0 nI
2 3
-1 x
2 2x 2 + R 2
tan R
x 7 0 means that the field point is outside the solenoid. B then decreases with
( x ). x 6 0 means that the point gets more and more inside the solenoid. B then
increases with (x) and eventually becomes constant, equal to m0nI. The B - x
graph is as given in the answer sheet.
(b) We have,
B0 - dB x0
c1 - d = 1 - h
1
=
B0 2 2R 2 + x0 2
x0
or – = 1 - 2h
2R 2 + x0 2
Since h is small (L 1%), x0 must be negative.
Thus, x0 = - | x0 |
| x0 |
and = 1 - 2h
2R 2 + | x0 | 2
| x0 | 2 = (1 - 4 h + 4 h2) (R2 + | x0 | 2)
0 = (1 - 2h)2 R2 - 4 h (1 - h) | x0 | 2
(1 - 2 h) R
or | x0 | =
2 2h(1 - h)
L 5R
3.238 If the strip is tightly wound, it must have a pitch of h. This means that the current
will flow obliquely, partly along ew and partly along ez. Obviously, the surface cur-
rent density is
c 21 - (h/2 pR )2 ew + ez d
I h
js =
h 2pR
By comparison with the case of a solenoid and a hollow straight conductor, we see
6
that field inside the coil (r R ) is
I
= m0 21 - (h/2pR)2
h
(Cf. B = m0 nI )
For the field outside the coil (r 6 R ), only the other term contributes, so
I h
Bw * 2pr = m0 * * 2pR
h 2pR
m0 2I
or Bw = #
4p r
= 0 .3 mT
Note: Surface current density is defined as current flowing normally across a unit
length over a surface.
3.239 Suppose a is the radius of cross-section of the core. The winding has a pitch 2pR/N,
so the surface current density is
I I
js ⬵ e1 + e
2pR/N 2pa 2
where e1 is a unit vector along the cross section of the core and e2 is a unit vector
along its length.
The magnetic field inside the cross section of the core is due to first term above, and
is given by
Bw # 2 pR = m0 NI
(NI is total current due to the above surface current (first term).)
Thus, Bw = m0 NI/2 pR.
The magnetic field at the center of the core can be obtained from the basic formula:
m0 js * r0
dB = dS
4p r 30
and is due to the second term.
m0 I 1
So, B = Bzez = ez Rdw * 2pa
4p 2pa L R 3
m0I
or Bz =
2R
N
The ratio of the two magnetic fields, h = = 8 * 102
p
3.240 We need the flux through the shaded area.

Now by Ampere’s theorem,
I # 2
Bw 2pr = m0 pr R
pR 2
m0 r
or Bw = I
2p R2
The flux through the shaded region is
R
£1 = 1 # d r#Bw(r)
3
0
R
m0 r m0
= dr I 2
= I
3 2p R 4p
0
= 1.0 mWb/m
3.241 Using solution of Problem 3.237, the magnetic field is given by,
m nI a 1 - b
1 x
B =
2 0 2x + R 2
2
1 1
At the end, B = m n I = B0 (where B0 = m0 nI )
2 0 2
is the field deep inside the solenoid. Thus,
1 £
£ = m0 nIS = where £ = m0nIS
2 2
is the flux of the vector B through the cross-section deep inside the solenoid.
3.242 Bw2 pr = m0NI

m0NI
or Bw =
2pR
a
Then, £ = Bwhdr (for a … r … b )

3
b
m0
awhere h = b
b
= 2NIh ln h
4p a
= 8 m Wb
3.243 Magnetic moment of a current loop is given by pm = n I S , where n is the number of
turns and S is the cross sectional area. In our problem,
m0 I
n = 1, S = pR 2 and B =
2 R
2BR 2pBR 3
So, pm = pR 2 = = 30 mA m2
m0 m0
N #
3.244 Take an element of length r d u containing rd u turns. Its magnetic moment is
pr
d u # d 2I
N p
p 4
A
normal to the plane of cross section. We resolve it along OA
and OB. The moment along OA integrates to q
p O
N 2 B
pm = d I cos u d u = 0
3 4
0 q
while that along OB gives
p
Nd 2I 1
pm = sin u d u = Nd 2I = 0.5 Am2
3 4 2
0
3.245 (a) From Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic induction due to a circular current carrying
wire loop at its center is given by
m0
Br = I
2r
The plane spiral is made up of concentric circular loops, having different radii,
varying from a to b. Therefore, the total magnetic induction at the center,
m0
B0 = I dN (1)
m0 3 2r
where I is the contribution of one turn of radius r and dN is the number of
2r
turns in the interval (r, r + dr), i.e.,
N
dN = dr
b - a
Substituting in Eq. (1) and integrating the result over r between a and b, we
obtain
b
m0IN m0IN b
B0 = dr = ln = 7 mT
3 2r (b - a) 2(b - a) a
a
(b) The magnetic moment of a turn of radius r is pm = I p r 2 and for all turns,
b
N pIN (b 3 - a 3)
p = pmdN = Ipr 2 dr =
3 3 b - a 3 (b - a)
a
= 15 mA m2
3.246 (a) Let us take a ring element of radius r and thickness dr. Then charge on the ring
element
dq = s 2prdr
and current due to this element
(s2prdr) v
dI = = s vr dr
2p
So, magnetic induction at the center, due to this element
m0 dI
dB =
2 r
and hence, from symmetry
R
m0 srdr m0
B = dB = = sR
3 3 r 2
0
(b) Magnetic moment of the element
dpm = (dI)pr 2 = sdr pr 2 = spr 3 dr
Hence, the sought magnetic moment
R
R4
pm = dpm = spr 3dr = sp
3 3 4
0
3.247 Since only the outer surface of the sphere is charged, consider the element as a ring,
as shown in the figure.
The equivalent current due to the ring element r dq
r sinq
dI = (2pr sin u rd u) s (1) dq`
2p q
w
O
and magnetic induction due to this loop element at the
center of the sphere O is given by
m0 2pr sin ur sin u m0 sin 2 u
dB = dI = dI
4p r3 4p r
Hence, the total magnetic induction due to the sphere at the center O is given by
p>2
m0
v 2pr 2 sin ud u sin 2u s
B = dB = (using Eq. 1)
3 3 4p 2p r
0
p>2
m0svr 2
Hence, B = sin 3 u d u = m svr = 29 pT
3 4p 3 0
0
3.248 The magnetic moment must clearly be along the axis of rotation. Consider a volume
element dV . It contains a charge 3 q /4 pR 3 dV. The rotation of the sphere causes this
charge to revolve around the axis and constitute a current given by
3q v
dV *
4pR 3 2p
Its magnetic moment will be
3q v
dV * * pr 2 sin2 u
4pR 3 2p
So the total magnetic moment is
R p
3q r 2 sin 2u
pm = 3
r 2 sin u d u * dr
3 3 2R 2
0 0
3q R5 4 1
= * * * = qR 2
2R 3 2 5 3 5
The mechanical moment is
2 pm q
M = mR 2 v so, =
5 M 2m
3.249 Because of polarization, a space charge is present within the cylinder. Its density is
rp = - div P = - 2a
Since the cylinder as a whole is neutral, a surface charge density sp , must be present
on the surface of the cylinder also. This has the magnitude (algebraically)
sp * 2pR = 2apR 2 or sp = aR
When the cylinder rotates, currents are set up which give rise to magnetic fields. The
contribution of rp and sp can be calculated separately and then added.
For the surface charge the current is (for a particular element),
v
sR * 2pR dx * = aR 2v dx
2p
Its contribution to the magnetic field at the center is
m0R 2 (aR 2 dx)
2(x 2 + R 2) 3/2
and the total magnetic field is
-q q
m0R 2 (aR 2 v dx) m0aR 4v dx
Bs = =
3 2(x 2 + R 2) 3/2 2 3 (x 2 + R 2) 3/2
q -q
m0aR 4v
2
= * 2 = m0aR 2v
2 R
For the volume charge density, consider a circle of radius r, radial thickness dr and
length dx.
The current is

- 2a * 2pr dr dx * = - 2 ardr dx
2p
The total magnetic field due to the volume charge distribution is
R q R q
m 0r 2
Bv = - dr dx 2p r v = - am0 vr 3dr dx (x 2 + r 2) 3/2
3 3q 2(x 2 + r 2) 3/2 3 3q
0 - 0 -
R
= - am0 vr * 2 = - m0 a v R 2 so, B = Bs + Bv = 0
3
0
3.250 Force of magnetic interaction, Fmag = e (v * B)

m0 e (v * r)
where, B =
4p r3
m0 e 2
So, Fmag = [v * (v * r)]
4p r 3
m0 e 2 m0 e 2
= 3
[(v # r) * v - (v # v) * r] = ( - v 2r)
4p r 4p r 3
1 er
and Fele = eE = e
4pe0 |r|3
|Fmag|
= - v 2m0e0 = a b = 1.00 * 10 -6
v 2
Hence,
|Fele| c
3.251 (a) The magnetic field at O is only due to the curved path, as for the line element,
d l c c r.
y
m0I m0I
Hence, B = p(- k) = ( - k)
4pR 4R
I
m0I 2
Thus, Fu = IB ( - j) = ( - j)
4R R
p0I 2 O
So, Fu = = 0.20 mN/m x
4R
z
(b) In this part, magnetic induction B at O will be effective only due to the two semi
infinite segments of wire. Hence,
m0I p y
B = 2. sin ( - k)
4p a b
l 2
2 B
m0I l
= ( - k) x
pl O
Thus force per unit length,
m0l 2
Fu = ( - i)
pl
= 0.13 mN/m
3.252 Each element of length dl = Rda experiences a force BI Rda, where da is the angle
subtended by the element at the center. This causes a tension T in the wire.
For equilibrium, ampere force BI Rda must be balanced by
the radial component of tensile forces, which is
2T sin (da/2) = Tda da
T 2 T
So, Tda = BI Rda,
Hence, T = BIR
Thus, the wire experiences a stress
BIR
pd 2/4
This must equal the breaking stress sm for rupture. Thus,
pd 2 sm
Bmax =
4IR
= 8 kT
3.253 The Ampere forces on the sides OP and O ¿P ¿ at their mid points are directed along
the same line, in opposite directions and have equal values, hence the net force as
well as the net torque of these forces about the axis OO¿ is zero. The Ampere force
on the segment PP ¿ and the corresponding moment of this force about the axis OO¿
is effective and deflecting in nature.
The weight of each segment develops restoring torque. Let the length of each side
be l and r be the density of the material then, mass of each segment m = Slr. The
Ampere force on the segment PP ¿ is IlB, from the formula of Ampere force on a
straight wire in a uniform magnetic field F = I (l * B).
In equilibrium the deflecting torque must be equal to the restoring torque. So,
Fl cos w = 2mg (l/2) sin w + mgl sin w
B O'
I lB (l cos w) = 2Srgl 2 sin w
O
2Srg
Hence, B = tan w (Sl g )
(Sl g )
I
= 10 mT
P P'
3.254 We know that the torque acting on a magnetic dipole ilB
(Sl g )
N = pm * B
But, pm = ISn, where n is the normal on the plane of the loop and is directed in
the direction of advancement of a right handed screw, if we rotate the screw in the
sense of current in the loop.
On passing current through the coil, the torque
acting on the magnetic dipole is counterbalanced
by the moment of additional weight about O. N
l
Hence, the direction of current in the loop must be pm O
in the direction shown in the figure. S
B
pm * B = - l * ¢mg
or NI SB = ¢ mgl
¢mgl
So, B = = 0.4 T (on substituting values).
NIS
3.255 (a) As is clear from the condition, Ampere’s forces on the sides 2 and 4 are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction. Hence, the net effective force on the fr-
ame is the resultant of the forces experienced by sides 1 and 3.
Now, the Ampere force on side 1,
m0 II0 ha
F1 = 2
ah - b
2p 1 I 3
2
I0
and that on side 3, 1
I
m0 I0I
F3 =
a
ah + b
2p 1 4
2
So, the resultant force on the frame = F1 - F3 (as they are opposite in nature).
2m0 II0
= = 0.40 mN
p(4h 2 - 1)
(b) Work done in turning the frame through some angle,
A = 1 Id £ = I (£ f - £ i )
where £f is the flux through the frame in final position and £ i in the initial
position.
Here, |£ f | = |£ i | = £ and £ i = - £ f
So, ¢£ = 2 £ and A = I 2 £
Hence, A = 2I 1 B # d S
a (h + 12 )
m0 I0a m0 II0a 2h + 1
= 2I dr = ln a b
3 2p r p 2h - 1
a (h - 12 )
= 0.10 m J
3.256 There are excess surface charges on each wire (irrespective of whether the current is
flowing through them or not). Hence, in addition to the magnetic force Fmag, we must
take into account the electric force Fele. Suppose that an excess charge l corresponds
to a unit length of the wire, then electric force exerted per unit length of the wire by
other wire can be found with the help of Gauss’ theorem.
1 2l 2l 2
Fele = lE = l = (1)
4pe0 l 4pe0l
where l is the distance between the axes of the wires. The mag-
++ + + + + + + + +
netic force acting per unit length of the wire can be found with
the help of the theorem on circulation of vector B E Fele R
m0 2I 2 –––––––––––
Fmag = F
4p l
where I is the current in the wire. (2)
Now, from the relation, l = C w, where C is the capacitance of the wires per unit
length, as given in solution Problem 3.108 and w = IR. Substituting we get,
pe0 I ln h
l = IR or = (3)
ln h l pe0R
I
Dividing Eq. (2) by (1) and then substituting the value of from Eq. (3), we get,
l
Fm m0 (ln h) 2
=
Fe e0 p 2R 2
The resultant force of interaction vanishes when this ratio equals unity. This is pos-
sible when R = R0, where
m0 ln h
R0 = = 0.36 kÆ
A e0 p
3.257 Using solution of Problem 3.225, the magnetic field due to the conductor with semi-
circular cross-section is given by,
m0I
B =
p 2R
0F m0I 2
Then = BI =
0l p 2R
3.258 We know that Ampere’s force per unit length on a wire element in a magnetic field
is given by
d Fn = I (n * B) (1)
where n is the unit vector along the direction of current.

Now, let us take an element of the conductor I2, as shown in the figure. This wire
element is in the magnetic field, produced by the current I1, which is directed nor-
mally into the sheet of the paper and its magnitude is given by
m0I1
| B| = (2)
2pr
I2
d Fn = dr (n * B) (because the current through the element = I2 /b dr)
b
m0 I1I2 dr
So, d Fn = (towards left, as n ⬜ B)
2p b r
Hence the magnetic force on the conductor:
a +b
m0 I1I2 r
dr dr
Fn = (towards left)
2p b 3 r I1
a I2
m0 I1I2 a + b a
= ln (towards left)
2p b a b
Then according to the Newton’s third law, the magnitude of sought magnetic inter-
action force
m0I1I2 a + b
= ln
2p b a
3.259 By the circulation theorem B = m0I, where I = current per unit length flowing alo-
ng the plane perpendicular to the paper. Currents flow in the opposite paper.
Currents flow in the opposite sense in the two planes and produce the given
field B by superposition. The field due to one of the plates is just 1/2 B. The force
on the plate is 1/2 B * I * length * breadth = B 2 / 2m0 per unit area.
−B
(Recall the formula F = Bll on a straight wire.)
3.260 In Fig. (a), the external field must be B1 + B2 / 2 , which when superposed with the
internal field B1 - B2 / 2 (of opposite sign on the two sides of the B1 B2
plate), must give the actual field.
B1 - B2 1
Now = mI
2 2 0
B1 - B2
or I = (a)
m0
B12 - B22
Thus, F =
2m0
In Fig. (b), the external field must be B1 - B2 / 2 upward B1 B2
with an internal field, B1 + B2 / 2 , upward on the left and do-

wnward on the right. Thus,
B1 + B2 B1 2 - B2 2
I = and F =
m0 2m0
(b)
In Fig. (c), the boundary condition from Gauss’ theorem is, B1 cos u1 = B2 cos u2. Also
(B1 sin u1 + B2 sin u2) = m0I , where I = current per unit length. The external field
parallel to the plate must be
B1 sin u1 - B2 sin u2
2
The perpendicular component B 1 cos u1, does not matter since the q1 q2
corresponding force is tangential.
B 12 sin 2 u1 - B 22 sin 2 u2
Thus, F = per unit area
2m0
B 12 - B 22
= per unit area B1 B2
2m0
(c)
The direction of the current in the plane conductor is perpendicu-
lar to the paper and beyond the drawing.
3.261 The current density is I /aL , where L is the length of the sec- B
tion. The difference in pressure produced must be
L I
I IB
¢p = * B * (abL)/ab = = 0.5 k Pa
aL a a
b
3.262 Let t = thickness of the wall of the cylinder. Then,
J = I/2 pRt (along z axis)
The magnetic field due to this at distance such that r (R - t / 2 6 r 6 R + t / 2 ), is
given by
p 5r 2 - (R - t /2)26
I
Bw (2pr) = m0
2pRT
m 0I
Bw = 5r 2 - (R - t /2) 26
4pRrt
R – t/2
Now, F = J * B dV R+t/2
L
Fr
and p =
2pRL
R + 2t
m0 I 2
e 2 - aR - b f * 2pr Ldr
1 t 2
= r
2pRL 3t 8p 2R 2t 2r 2
R-2
R + 2t
m0I 2
e r 2 - aR - b f dr
t 2
=
8p 2R 3t 2 3 2
R - 2t
aR + b - aR - b
m0I 2 t 3 t 3
= C t 2 S
- aR - b t
2 2
8p 2R 3t 2
3 2
m0I 2 m0I 2
= [Rt + 0 (t 2)] L
8p 2R 3t 8p 2R 2
3.263 When self-forces are involved, a typical factor of 1/2 comes into play. For example,
the force on a current carrying straight wire in a magnetic induction B is BIl. If the
magnetic induction B is due to the current itself then the force can be written as
I
F = B (I ¿) dI ¿l
3
0
1
If B (I ¿) ^ I ¿ , then this becomes, F = B (I ) Il.
2
In the present case, B (I ) = m0nI and this acts on nI ampere turns per unit length, so,
pressure is given by
F 1 I * nI * 1 * l 1
p = = m0n = m0n 2I 2
Area 2 1 * l 2
3.264 The magnetic induction B in the solenoid is given by B = m0nI. The force on an el-
ement dl = Rda of the current carrying conductor is
1 1
dF = m0n II Rda = m0 nI 2Rda
2 2
this is radially outwards. The factor 1/2 is explained dq

above. For equilibrium, it should be balanced by the ra- F dq F 2
dial component of the longitudinal tensile forces, Tda. 2
1
Hence, T = m0nI 2R
2
2 Flim
This equals Flim when, I = Im =
B m0nR
Note that Flim, here, is actually a force and not a stress.
rd
3.265 Resistance of the liquid between the plates =
S
Voltage between the plates = Ed = vBd
vBd
Current through the plates =
R + rd / S
Power generated in the external resistance R, is given by
v 2B 2R v 2B 2d 2 v 2B 2d 2
P = = =
aR + b a 1R + b
rd 2 rd 2
c e R 1>4 - a b f + 2 d
rd 1>2 2 rd 2
S S 1R s 1R B S
This is maximum when
rD v 2B 2Sd
R = and Pmax =
S 4r
3.266 The electrons in the conductor are drifting with a speed of
J I
vd = =
ne pR 2ne
where e = magnitude of the charge on the electron, n = concentration of the con-
duction electrons.
The magnetic field inside the conductor due to this current is given by
I m0 Ir
Bw (2pr) = pr 2 2
m0 or Bw =
pR 2p R 2
A radial electric field vBw must come into being in equilibrium. Its potential diff-
erence is
R
I m0 Ir
¢w = 2 2
dr
3 pR ne 2p R
0
m0I 1
a b R2
I
=
pR ne 2pR 2 2
2
m0I 2
=
4p 2R 2ne
= 2 pV
E
3.267 Here, vd = and j = ne vd
B
jB 200 * 10 4 A /m 2 * 1 T
So, n = =
eE 1.6 * 10 -19 C * 5 * 10 -4 V/m
= 2.5 * 10 28 per m 3 = 2.5 * 10 22 cm - 3
Atomic weight of Na being 23 and its density L 1, molar volume is 23 cm 3 . Thus,

number of atoms per unit volume is
6 * 10 23
L = 2.6 * 10 22 cm - 3
23
Thus, there is almost one conduction electron per atom.
Drift velocity
3.268 By definition, mobility =
Electric field component causing this drift
vd
or m =
EL
EL
On the other hand, ET = vd B = (as given)
h
1
So, m = = 3 .2 * 10 -3 m 2/(V # s)
hB
m 0I
3.269 Due to the straight conductor, Bw =
2pr
We use the formula, F = (pm # §) B
(a) The vector pm is parallel to the straight conductor, so

0
F = pmB = 0
0Z
because neither the direction nor the magnitude of B depends on z.
(b) The vector pm is oriented along the radius vector r, so
0
F = pm B
0r
The direction of B at r + dr is parallel to the direction at r. Thus only the w com-

ponent of F will survive.
0 m0I m0I pm
Fw = pm = -
0r 2pr 2pr 2
(c) The vector pm coincides in direction with the magnetic field, produced by the
conductor carrying current I.
0 m0I m0I pm 0ew
F = pm ew =
r 0w 2p 2pr 2 0w
m0Ipm 0ew
So, F = - e , as, = - er
2pr 2 r 0w
0Bx
3.270 We have, Fx = pm
0x
m0I Rdl m0IR 2
But, Bx = =
4p 3 + R 2) 3>2
(x 2 2(x 2 + R 2) 3>2
m0 I # 2 pR 2 3 m 2 pm
So, F = # 2x # pm = 0 6pR Ipmx x
4p (x 2 + R 2) 5>2 2 4p (x 2 + R 2) 5>2
#
0 ( m0 3p1m r) r - p1mr
2
3.271 F = p2m c d
0l 4p r5
0 m0 p1m - 3 m0 p1m p2m
= p2m c d = = 9 nN
0l 2p l 3 2 pl 4
3.272 From solution of Problem 3.270, for x W R,

m0I ¿R 2
Bx =
2x 3
2Bx x 3 2 * 3 * 10 -5T * (10 -1 m) 3

or I¿ L = L 0.5 kA
m0R 2 1.26 * 10 -6 * (10 -2 m) 4
3.273 B n¿ = B cos a, B'

B
1
H t¿ = B sin a, a
m0
H' n
B t¿ = mB sin a
Vacuum
So, B ¿ = B 2m 2 sin 2a + cos 2a
H # dS = a
- J b # d S = - J # d S, since B # d S = 0.
B
3.274 (a)
C C m0 C C
Now J is non-vanishing only in the bottom half of the sphere.
1 B
Here, Bn¿ = B cos u, H t¿ = B sin u, B t¿ = m B sin u, H n¿ = cos u
m0 mm0
m - 1
a 1 - b and Jt =
B cos u 1
Jn = B sin u
m0 m m0
Only Jn contributes to the surface integral, so
a1 - b
p R 2B cos u
J # dS = - J # dS =
1
- Jn d S =
C C C m0 m
lower lower
B
n
q l
S
r
R 2
h B' H'
(b) B # d r = (Bt - B ¿ t ) l = (1 - m)/B l sin u

C
3.275 Inside the cylindrical wire, there is an external current of density I / pR 2 . This gives
a magnetic field Hw with
r2 Ir
Hw2 pr = I or Hw =
R2 2pR 2
mm0Ir m - 1 Ir x Ir
From this Bw = and Jw = =
2pR 2 2p R 2 2pR 2
Hence, total volume of molecular current is

xI
Jw # d r = dl = xI
C L 2pR
r =R
The surface current is obtained by using the equivalence of the surface current den-
sity to J * n. This gives rise to a surface current density in the z-direction of
- xI
2pR
The total molecular surface current is
xI
I s¿ = - (2pR) = - xI
2pR
The two currents have opposite signs.
3.276 We can obtain the form of the curves required here, by qualitative arguments.
From H # dl = I
C
we get, H (x W 0) = H (x V 0) = nI
Then B (x W 0) = mm0nI
B (x V 0) = m0nI
Also,
B
B (x 6 0) = m0H (x 6 0) B
J (x 6 0) = 0 H H
J
B is continuous at x = 0, H is not. These give the re-
quired curves as shown in the answer sheet.
3.277 The lines of B as well as H field are circles around the wire. Thus,
I
H1pr + H2pr = I or H1 + H2 =
pr
Also, m0m1H1 = m2H2m0 = B1 = B2 = B
m2 I
Thus, H1 =
m1 + m2 pr
m1 I m1 m2
H2 =
m1 + m2 pr
m1m2 I
and B = m0
m1 + m2 pr
3.278 The medium I is vacuum and contains a circular current carrying coil with current I. The
medium II is magnetic with permeability m. The boundary is the plane z = 0 and the
coil is in the plane z = l. To find the magnetic induction, we note that the effect of the
magnetic medium can be written as due to an image coil in II as far as the medium I is
concerned. On the other hand, the induction in I can be written as due to the coil in I,
carrying a different current. It is sufficient to consider the far away fields and ensure that
the boundary conditions are satisfied there. Now for actual coil in medium I,
Br
Br x
Bq
q'
q'
r
Bq
q' q' q
II I I
2pm cos u¿ m0 pm sin u¿ m0

Br = - .a b anda b Bu =
r3 4p r3 4p
m0 pm m0 pm
So, B2 = (2 cos 2 u¿ - sin 2u¿) and Bx = ( - 3 sin u¿ cos u¿)
4p 4p
where, pm = I (pa 2), a = radius of the coil.
Similarly due to the image coil,

m0 P m¿ m0 P m¿
Bz = (2 cos 2 u¿ - sin 2 u¿), Bx = ¿ = I ¿(pa 2)
(3 sin u¿ cos u¿), P m
4p 4p
As far as medium II is concerned, we write similarly
m0 p –m m0 p –m
Bz = ( 2 cos 2 u¿ - sin 2 u¿), Bx = ( - 3 sin u¿ cos u¿), p –m = I –(pa 2)
4p 4p
The boundary conditions are
pm + P m¿ = p –m (from B1n = B2n)
1
- pm + P m¿ = - p –m (from H1t = H2t)
m
2m m - 1
Thus, I– = I and I¿ = I
m + 1 m + 1
In the limit when the coil is on the boundary, the magnetic field everywhere can be
obtained by taking the current to be
2m
I
m + 1
2m
Thus, B = B
m + 1 0
3.279 We use the fact that within an isolated uniformly magnetized ball, H ¿ = - J / 3 ,
B¿ = 2m0 J / 3 , where J is the magnetization vector. Then, in a uniform magnetic field
with induction B0 , we have by superposition,
2m0 J B0 J
Bin = B0 + , Hin = -
3 m0 3
or Bin + 2m0Hin = 3B0

Also, Bin = mm0 Hin
3B0 3 mB0
Thus, Hin = and Bin =
m0 (m + 2 ) m + 2
3.280 The coercive force Hc is just the magnetic field within the cylinder. This is by circu-
lation theorem,
NI
HC = = 6 kA/m
l
(from H # d r = I, total current, considering a rectangular contour).
C
3.281 We use, H # dl = 0
C H
Neglecting the fringing of the lines of force, we write this as
B
H (pd - b) + b = 0 B
m0
- Bb
or H L = 101 A/m
m0pd
The sense of H is opposite to B .
NI m0 - Bb
H # d l = NI or H (2pR) +
Bb
3.282 Here, = NI so, H =
C m0 2pRm0
B 2pRB
Hence, m = = = 3700
m0H m0NI - Bb
B
3.283 One has to draw the graph of m = versus H from the given graph. The m-H
m0H
graph starts out horizontally, and then rises steeply at about H = 0.04 kA/m before
falling again. It is easy to check that mmax L 10,000.
3.284 From the theorem on circulation of vector H
Bb m0NI m0pd
Hpd + = NI or B = - H = (1.51 - 0.987) H
m0 b b
where B is in Tesla and H in kA/m. Besides, B and H are interrelated as in the
Fig. 3.76 of the problem book. Thus we have to solve for B, H graphically by sim-
ultaneously drawing the two curves (the hysterisis curve and the straight line)
and find the point of intersection. It is at H L 0.26 kA/m, B = 1.25 T.
B
Then, m = L 4000
m0H
3.285 From the formula,
F = (pm.§ ) B : F = ( J # § ) B dV
3
x
Thus, F = (B # §) B dV
mm0 3
Since B is predominantly along the x-axis,

x =L
x 0Bx xS xSB 2 xSB 2
so, Fx = Bx Sdx = dB x2 = - =
m m0 3 0x 2m m0 3 2m m0 2m0
x =0
3.286 The force in question is

xBV dB
F = (pm # §) B =
m m0 dx
Since B is essentially in the x-direction,
xV dB 2 xB02V d xB02
Fx L = (e-2ax ) = - 4 ax e-2ax
2 2
so, V
2m0 dx 2m0 dx 2m0
This is maximum when its derivative vanishes, i.e.,
1
16a 2x 2 - 4a = 0 or xm =
14a
The maximum force is
1 xB02V xB02V a
Fmax = 4a e -1>2 =
14a 2m0 m0 A e
e
m0 Fmax
Aa
So, x = = 3.6 * 10 -4
VB02
3.287 The force is given by
xBV dB xV dB 2
Fx = (pm # § ) Bx = L
m m0 dx 2m0 dx
This force is attractive and an equal force must be applied for balance. The work
done by applied forces is
x =L
xV x =L xVB 2
A = - Fxdx = ( - B 2)x = 0 L
3 2m0 2m0
x =0
3.6 Electromagnetic Induction. Maxwell’s Equations
3.288 Taking the direction of vector B normally inward and direction on normal n to the
plane pointing outward. Here,
d£ = B # dS = - 2B xdy
y
y
Since y = ax 2 or x =
Aa B w
y dy
So, d£ = - 2B dy
Aa
From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
y
d£
jin = -
dt x
0
y dy
Hence, jin = 2B
A a dt
ausing
8w dy a
= By = 22wy
A a dt
From Lenz’s law, and right handed screw rule, the induced current and hence the
induced e.m.f. in the loop is anticlockwise.
3.289 Let us assume B is directed into the plane of the loop. Then the motional e.m.f.
jin = (v * B) # d l = vBl I
3
and is directed in the sense of (v * B). R1 R2

xin ,R
R1+ R2
jin R1R2
a where Ru = b
Bvl
So, I = =
R1R2 R + Ru R1 + R2
R +
R1 + R2
as R1 and R2 are in parallel connections.

3.290 (a) As the metal disk rotates, any free electron also rotates with it with the same angu-
lar velocity v, and that is why an electron must have an acceleration of v 2r directed
towards the disk’s center, where r is the separation of the electron from the center
of the disk. We know from Newton’s second law that if a particle has some acceler-
ation then there must be a net effective force on it in the direction of acceleration.
We also know that a charged particle can be influenced by two fields-electric and
magnetic. In our problem, magnetic field is absent hence there must be an electric
field near an electron and is directed opposite to the acceleration of the electron.
3.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 455
If E is the electric field strength at a distance r from the center of the disk, we
have from Newton’s second law
Fn = mwn
eE = mr v 2
mv 2r
or E =
e
and the potential difference is given by
a a
mv2r
wcen - wrim = E # dr = dr as E cT dr
3 3 e
0 0
mv 2 a2
Thus, wcen - wrim = ¢w = = 3.0 nV
e 2
(b) When field B is present, by definition of motional e.m.f.
2
w1 - w2 = - (v * B) # dr
3
1
Hence the sought potential difference,

a a
wcen - wrim = - vBdr = - vr Bdr (as v = vr)

3 3
0 0
1
Thus, wrim - wcen = w = vBa 2 = 20 mV
2
In general v 6 eB /m , so we can neglect the effect discussed in part (a) here.
3.291 By definition,
E = - (v * B)
C C d
So, E # dr = - (v * B) # dr = - vB dr
3 3 3
A A 0
But, v = vr, where r is the perpendicular distance of the point from A.

C d
E # dr =
1
Hence, - vBrdr = - vBd 2 = - 10 mV
3 3 2
A 0
This result can be generalized to a wire AC of arbitary planar shape. We have

C C
E # dr = - (v * B) # dr
3 3
A A A C
C
= - ((v * r) * B) # dr
3
A
C
= - (B # r␻ - B # ␻r) # dr
3
A
1
= - Bv d 2
2
= - 10 mV
d being AC and r being measured from A.
3.292 Magnitude of flux at any moment of time,
| £(t) | = B # S = B a R 2w b
1
2
where w is the sector angle, enclosed by the field.
Now, magnitude of induced e.m.f. is given by,
d£ t
jin = ` ` = ` ` =
BR 2 dW BR 2
v
dt 2 dt 2
where v is the angular velocity of the disk. But as it starts rotating from rest at t = 0
with an angular acceleration b , its angular velocity v(t) = bt. So,
BR 2
jin = bt
2
According to Lenz’s law the first half cycle current in the loop is in anticlockwise
direction, and in subsequent half cycle it is in clockwise direction.
BR 2
Thus, jin = ( - 1)n bt (where n is number of half revolutions)
2
The plot jm(t), where tn = 22pn/b , is as shown in the answer sheet.
3.293 Field, due to the current carrying wire in the region, right to it, is directed into the
plane of the paper and its magnitude is given by
m0 I
B =
2pr r
where r is the perpendicular distance from the wire.
As B is same along the length of the rod thus, motional e.m.f.
2
jin = ` (v * B) # dl ` = vBl
3
1
and it is directed in the sense of (v * B).

So, current (induced) in the loop
jin 1 m0lvI
Iin = =
R 2 pRr
3.294 Field due to the current carrying wire at a perpendicular distance x from it is
given by
m0 I
B (x) =
2p x
There will be no induced e.m.f. in the segments (2) and (4) as, v c c d l . The magni-
tude of e.m.f. induced in 1 and 3, will be
m0 m0avI
j1 = vB (a + x) a = v a b a =
2I
4p a + x 2p (a + x)
m0 2I m0av I
j2 = vB (x)a = v a b a =
4p x 2p x
respectively, and their sense will be in the direction of (v * B).

So, e.m.f. induced in the network
= j1 - j2 (as j1 7 j2)
avm0I 1 va 2m0I
c - d =
1
=
2p x a + x 2px (a + x)
3.295 As the rod rotates, motional e.m.f. is induced in it

a
1 2
j = (vr) B dr = a Bv
3 2
0
The net current in the conductor is then
1 2
j(t) - a Bv
2
R
A magnetic force will then act on the conductor of magnitude BI per unit length. Its
direction will be normal to B and the rod and its torque will be
1 2
a j(t ) - a Bv
2
£ ≥ dx Bx
3 R
0
Obviously both magnetic and mechanical torque acting on the C.M. of the rod must
be equal but opposite in sense. Then for equilibrium at constant v ,
1
j(t ) - a 2Bv
2 Ba 2 1
= mga sin vt
R 2 2
1 mg R 1
or j(t ) = a 2Bv + sin vt = (a 3B 2v + 2mg R sin vt)
2 aB 2aB
(The answer given in the book is incorrect dimensionally.)
3.296 The rod behaves like a cell of e.m.f. vBl, where v is the velocity of the rod at an
arbitrary instant of time. From Lenz’s law, current in the loop is in clockwise dire-
ction.
B
From Newton's second law for the rod, Fx = mwx R
g
ma
mg sin a - IlB = mw
F
or
I x in
For steady state, acceleration of the rod must be equal to zero. a
Hence, mg sin a = IlB (1) mg

a
jin vBl
But, I = = (2) x
R R
From Eqs. (1) and (2) mg sin aR
v =
B 2l 2
3.297 From Lenz’s law, the current through the copper bar is directed from 1 to 2 or in
other words, the induced current in the circuit is in clockwise direction.
Potential difference across the capacitor plates C B
1
ag
q
Fm
= jin or q = Cjin
C
l
2
Hence, the induced current in the loop
dq djin
I = = C x
dt dt
But the variation of magnetic flux through the loop is caused by the movement
of the bar.
So, the induced e.m.f. jin = Blv
djin dv
On differentiation = Bl
= Blw
dt dt
dj
Hence, I = C = C Bl w
dt
Now, the forces acting on the bars are the weight and the Ampere’s force, where
Famp = IlB (CB lw) B = Cl 2B 2w.
From Newton’s second law, for the rod,
Fx = mwx
or mg sin a - Cl 2B 2w = mw
mg sin a g sin a
Hence, w = 2 2 =
Cl B + m l 2B 2C
1 +
m
3.298 Flux of B, at an arbitrary moment of time t is given by
pa 2
£t = B # S = B cos vt
2
From Faraday’s law, induced e.m.f.
d£
jin = -
dt
d a Bp
a2
cos vtb
2 Bpa 2v
= - = sin vt
dt 2
and induced current
jin Bpa 2
Iin = = v sin vt
R 2R
Now, thermal power generated in the circuit at the moment at time t
P (t) = jin * Iin = ab

Bpa 2v 2 1
sin 2vt
2 R
and mean thermal power generated is given by
T
c d
Bpa 2v 2 1
sin 2 vtdt
2 2 3
a b
0 1 Bpa 2v 2
6 P 7 = T
=
2R 2
dt
3
0
Note: The calculation of jin, which can also be checked by using motional e.m.f. is
correct even though the conductor is not a closed semicircle, because the flux
linked to the rectangular part containing the resistance R is not changing. The
answer given in the book is off by a factor 1>4.
3.299 The flux through the coil changes sign. Initially it is BS per turn. Finally it is - BS
per turn. Now if flux is £ at an intermediate state, then the current at that moment
will be
d£
-N
dt
I =
R
So, charge that flows during a sudden turning of the coil is
N
q = I dt = - [£ - ( - £)]
3 R
BS
= 2N
R
1 qR
Hence, B = = 0.5 T (on substituting values)
2 NS
3.300 According to Ohm’s law and Faraday’s law of induction, the current I0 appearing in
the frame, during its rotation, is determined by the formula
d£ dI0 b O
I0 = - = -L
dt dt
I
Hence, the required amount of electricity (charge) is a
q = I 0 dt a O'
3
1
= - (d £ + LdI0)
R3
1
= - (¢ £ + L ¢I0)
R
Since the frame has been stopped after rotation, the current in it vanishes, and hence
¢I0 = 0. We have to find the increment of the flux ¢ £ through the frame
(¢£ = £ 2 - £ 1).
Let us choose the normal n to the plane of the frame, for instance, so that in the
final position, n is directed behind the plane of the figure (along B).
Then it can be easily seen that in the final position, £ 2 7 0, while in the initial
position, £ 1 6 0 (the normal is opposite to B), and ¢w turns out to be simply equal
to the flux through the surface bounded by the final and initial positions of the frame:
b+a
¢£ = £ 2 + | £ 1 | = B adr
3
b-a
where B is a function of r, whose form can be easily found with the help of the the-
orem of circulation. Finally omitting the minus sign, we obtain
¢£ m0aI b + a
q = = ln
R 2pR b - 1
3.301 As B, due to the straight current carrying wire, varies along the rod (connector) and
enters linearly so, to make the calculations simple, B is made constant by taking its
average value in the range [a, b].
b b
m0 I0 Bƒ
Bdr dr
3 3 2p r Famp v
a a
R
6B 7 = b
= b
Fext
x
a b
dr dr
3 3 I0
a a
m0 I0 b
or 6B 7 = ln
2p (b - a) a
(a) The flux of B changes through the loop due to the movement of the connector.
According to Lenz’s law, the current in the loop will be anticlockwise. The mag-
nitude of motional e.m.f.
jin = v 6 B 7 (b - a)
m0 I0 m0
a ln b (b - a)
b dx b
= = I0 ln v
2p (b - a) a dt 2p a
So, induced current
jin b m0 I0v
Iin = = ln
R 2p R a
(b) The force required to maintain the constant velocity of the connector must be
the magnitude equal to that of Ampere’s force acting on the connector, but in
opposite direction.
m0 I0 m0 I0
Fext = Iin l 6B 7 = a v ln b (b - a) a ln b
b b
So,
2p R a 2p (b - a) a
v m0
a I0 ln b
b 2
=
R 2p a
and will be directed as shown in the figure.
3.302 (a) The flux through the loop changes due to the movement of the rod AB.
According to Lenz’s law, current should be anticlockwise, since we have
assumed that B is directed into the plane of the loop. The motional e.m.f.
jin (t) = Bl v and induced current Iin = vBl /R .
From Newton’s law in projection form,
Fx = mwx
v dv A
So, - Famp = m
dx
v0
vB 2l 2
But Famp = Iin lB = R Famp
R Bƒ
vB 2l 2 dv
So, - = mv B
R dx
x 0
mR mRv0
or dx = - 2 2 dv or x =
3 B l 3 B 2l 2
0 0 v
(b) Sum of the works done by Ampere’s force and induced e.m.f. is zero, so from
energy conservation
¢E + Q = 0 (where Q is heat liberated)
c0 - mv 02 d + Q = 0
1
or
2
1
So, Q =
mv02
2
3.303 Using the calculation done in the previous problem, Ampere’s force on the connector,
vB 2l 2
Famp = (directed towards left)
R
Now from Newton’s second law, A
dv B R
F - Famp = m
dt Famp F
vB 2l 2 dv v
So, F = + m
R dt B
v
dv
or t = m 2 2
3 F - vB l
0
R
vB 2l 2
F -
t R R
or = - 2 2 ln P Q
m B l F
RF
v = (1 - e -tB
2l 2
/Rm
Thus, )
B 2l 2
3.304 According to Lenz’s law, the sense of induced e.m.f. is such that it opposes the cause
of change of flux. In our problem, magnetic field is directed away from the reader
and is diminishing. So,
(a) (b) (c) (d)
In Fig. (a), in the round conductor, it is clockwise and there is no current in the
connector.
In Fig. (b), in the outside conductor, it is clockwise.
In Fig. (c), in both the conductors, it is clockwise; and there is no current in
the connector to obey the charge conservation.
In Fig. (d), in the left side of the figure, it is clockwise.
3.305 The loops are connected in such a way that if the current is clockwise in one, it is
anticlockwise in the other. Hence the e.m.f. in loop b opposes the e.m.f. in loop a.
d d
In the loop with side equal to a, e.m.f. is (a 2B) = a 2 (B0 sin vt)
dt dt
Similarly, e.m.f. in loop with side equal to b = b 2 B0 v cos vt.
Hence, net e.m.f. in the circuit = (a 2 - b 2) B0v cos vt, as both the e.m.f ’s are in op-
posite sense, and resistance of the circuit = 4 (a + b) r.
Therefore, the amplitude of the current
(a 2 - b 2) B0v
= = 0.5 A
4(a + b)r
3.306 The flat shape is made up of concentric loops, having different radii, varying from O to a.
Let us consider an elementary loop of radius r, then, e.m.f. induced due to this loop
is
- d (B # S)
= pr 2B0v cos vt
dt
and the total induced e.m.f.
a
jin = (pr 2B0v cos vt) dN (1)
Lo
where pr 2v cos vt is the contribution of one turn of radius r and dN is the number
of turns in the interval (r, r + dr ).
dN = a b dr
N
So, (2)
a
a
N pB0v cos vtNa 2
j = - (pr 2B0v cos vt) dr =
3 a 3
0
Maximum value of e.m.f. amplitude

1
jmax = pB0 vNa 2
3
3.307 The flux through the loop changes due to the variation in B with time and also due
to the movement of the connector.
d (B # S)
So, jin = 2 2 = 2 d (BS) 2 (as S and B are collinear)
dt dt
But, B, after t seconds of beginning of motion = Bt, and S becomes = 1 /2 l wt 2, as

connector starts moving from rest with a constant acceleration w.
3
So, jin = Bl wt 2
2
= 12 mV (on substituting values)
3.308 We use B = m0 n I
Then, from the law of electromagnetic induction
E # dl = -
d£
C dt
So, for r 6 a
# 1 # #
Ew2pr = - pr 2m0n I or Ew = - m0 nrI (where I = dI/dt)
2
For r 7 a ,
# #
Ew 2pr = - pa 2m0nI or Ew = - m0nI a 2/2r
The meaning of minus sign can be deduced from Lenz’s law.

#
3.309 The e.m.f. induced in the turn is m0nI p d 2/ 4. The resistance is pd /S r. So, the cu-
#
rrent is m0nI Sd / 4 r = 2 mA, where r is the resistivity of copper.
3.310 The changing magnetic field will induce an e.m.f. in the ring, which is obviously
equal in the two parts by symmetry (the e.m.f. induced by electromagnetic induc-
tion does not depend on resistance). The current that will flow due to this will be
different in the two parts. This will cause an acceleration of charge, leading to the
setting up of an electric field E which has opposite sign in the two parts. Thus,
j # j
- paE = rI and + paE = h rI
2 2
where j is the total induced e.m.f. From this,
j = (h + 1)rI
1 1 h - 1
and E = (h - 1)rI = j
2pa 2pa h + 1
But by Faraday’s law, j = pa 2b

1 h - 1
So, E = ab
2 h + 1
3.311 Consider the rotating frame with an instantaneous angular velocity v(t). In this
frame, a Coriolis force, 2 m v ¿ * v(t) acts, which must be balanced by the magnetic
force e v * B(t).
e
Thus, v(t) = - B(t)
2m
It is assumed that v is small and varies slowly, so v 2 and v can be neglected.
3.312 The solenoid has an inductance,

L = m0n 2pb 2I
where n = number of turns of the solenoid per unit length. When the solenoid is
connected to the source, an e.m.f. is set up, which, because of the inductance and
resistance, rises slowly according to the equation
#
RI + LI = V
This has the well-known solution
V
I = (1 - e –tR/L)
R
Corresponding to this current, an e.m.f. is induced in the ring. Its magnetic field
B = m0 nI , in the solenoid, produces a force per unit length given by
dF m02n 2pa 2II
= BI =
dl r
m02 pa 2V 2
a be
n 2 –tR/L
= (1 - e –tR/L),
r RL
acting on each segment of the ring. This force is zero initially and zero for a large t.
Its maximum value is for some finite t. The maximum value of
- a - e –tR/L b =
1 1 2 1
e –tR/L (1 - e –tR/L) =
4 2 4
dFmax m02pa 2V 2 n 2 m0a 2V 2
So, = =
dl r 4RL 4rRlb 2
3.313 The amount of heat generated in the loop during a small time interval dt
d£
dQ = j2/R dt, but, j = - = 2at - at
dt
(2at - at) 2
So, dQ = dt
R
and hence, the amount of heat generated in the loop during the time interval 0 to t
t
(2at - at) 2 1 a 2t 3
Q = dt =
3 R 3 R
0
3.314 Take an elementary ring of radius r and width dr. The e.m.f. induced in this elemen-
tary ring is pr 2 b. Now the conductance of this ring is
da b =
1 h dr hrdr
so dI = b dr
R r 2pr 2r b
a
Integrating we get the total current as
b r
hrdr hb(b 2 - a 2)
I = b =
3 2r 4r
0
3.315 Given L = m0n 2V = m0n 2l0pR 2, where R is the radius of the solenoid.
L 1
Thus, n =
A m0I0p R
So, length of the wire required is
4pLl0
l = nl02pR = = 0.10 km
B m0
3.316 From the previous problem, we know that, length of the wire needed
Ll 4p
l¿ = (where l = length of solenoid)
A m0
r0l ¿
Now, R =
S
where S = area of cross section of the wire, also m = rSl ¿.
RS Rm Rm
Thus, l¿ = = or l ¿ =
r0 rr0l ¿ A rr0
where r0 = resistivity of copper and r = density of copper.
Rm Ll
Equating, =
rr0 m0/4p
m0 mR
or L =
4p rr0l
3.317 The current at time t is given by
V
I(t) = (1 - e -tR/L )
R
The steady state value is
V
I0 =
R
I(t)
and = h = 1 - e -tR/L or e -tR/L = 1 - h
I0
R 1 L 1
or t0 = ln or t0 = ln = 1.49 s
L 1 - h R 1 - h
3.318 The time constant t is given by
L L
t = =
R l0
r0
S
where r0 = resistively, l0 = length of the winding wire, S = cross section of the wire.
But m = lr0S
L mL
So eliminating S, t = =
r0l0 rr0l 20
m/rl0
4plL
From solution of Problem 3.315, l0 =
A m0
(Note the interchange of l and l0 because of difference in notation here.)

mL m
Thus, t = = m0 4p = 0.7 ms
4p rr0l
rr0 Ll
m0
3.319 Between the cables, where a 6 r 6 b, the magnetic field H satisfies

I
Hw2pr = I or Hw =
2pr
mm0I
So, Bw =
2pr
The associated flux per unit length is
r =b
mm0 I mm0 I b
£ = * 1 * dr = ln
3 2pr 2p a
r =a
Hence, the inductance per unit length is

£ mm0
ln h awhere h =
b a
L1 = =
I 2p a
mH
We get L1 = 0.26
m
3.320 Within the solenoid
Hw # 2 pr = NI or Hw =
NI NI
, B = mm0
2pr w 2pr
a+b
mm0 a dr
and the flux is £ = N £1 = N NI
2p 3 r
b
mm0
N 2 a ln a 1 + b
a
Finally, L =
2p b
3.321 Neglecting end effects, the magnetic field B between the

plates, which is mainly parallel to the plates, is
I
B = m0
b
Thus, the associated flux per unit length of the plates is b
h
* h * 1 = a m0 b * I
I h
£ = m0
b b
h
So, L1 = inductance per unit length = m0 = 25 nH/m.
b
3.322 For a single current carrying wire,
m 0I
Bw = (for r 7 a)
2pr
For the double line cable with current flowing in opposite direction in the two con-
ductors Bw L m0I / pr between the cables, by superposition. The associated flux is
d-a
m0I dr * 1 m0I d m0
£ = L ln = ln h * I per unit length
3 p r p a p
a
m0
Hence, L1 = ln h
p
is the inductance per unit length.
3.323 In a superconductor there is no resistance. Hence,
dI d£
L = +
dt dt
¢£ pa 2B
So integrating, I = =
L L
because ¢£ = £ f - £ i
£ f = pa 2B as £ i = 0
Also, the work done is

d£ 1 1 p 2a 4B 2
A = jIdt = I dt = LI 2 =
L L dt 2 2 L
3.324 In a solenoid, the inductance
N S
L = mm0 n 2V = mm0
l
where S = area of cross-section of the solenoid, l = its length, V = Sl, N = nl = total
number of turns.
When the length of the solenoid is increased, for example, by pulling it, its induc-
tance will decrease. If the current remains unchanged, the flux, linked to the sole-
noid, will also decrease. An induced e.m.f. will then come into play, which by Lenz’s
law will try to oppose the decrease of flux, for example, by increasing the current.
In the superconducting state, the flux will not change and so, I /l = constant.
I I0 l
Hence, = or I = I0 = I0 (1 + h) = 2A (on substituting values)
l l0 l0
3.325 The flux linked to the ring cannot change on transition to the super-conduction state,
for reasons similar to those given above. Thus, a current I must be induced in the
ring, where
£ pa 2B paB
I = = = = 50 A (on substituting values)
m0a a ln m0 a ln - 2b
L 8a 8a
- 2b
b b
3.326 We write the equation of the circuit as

L dI
RI + = j
h dt
for t Ú 0. The current at t = 0 just after inductance is changed is I = h j / R , so

that the flux through the inductance is unchanged.
We look for a solution of the above equation in the form

I = A + Be –t/C
L j
Substituting C = , B = h - 1, A =
hR R
j
We get, I = (1 + (h - 1) e -hRt/L
R
3.327 In the left loop, j - I0R = (I0 - I)R

I
or j + IR = 2I0R
x R L
(j + IR) j - IR I0
So, j - I0R = j - = R I0 – I
2 2
But in the bigger loop
dI
j - I0R = L
dt
j - IR dI
or = L
2 dt
dI
So, j - IR = L
dt
3.328 The equations are

L1
dI1 dI2
L1 = L2 = j - R (I1 + I2) I1
dt dt
I2 L2
d
Then, (L I - L2I2) = 0 I1+I2
dt 1 1
x R
or L1I1 - L2I2 = constant
But initially at t = 0, I1 = I2 = 0.
So, constant must be zero and at all times. Therefore,

L1I1 = L2I2
In the final steady state, current must obviously be I1 + I2 = j / R . Thus in steady state,
jL2 jL1
I1 = and I2 =
R (L1 + L2) R (L1 + L2)
3.329 Here,
m0I
B = (at a distance r from the wire)
2pr
The flux through the frame is,
a+l
m0I m0b
I ln a 1 + b
a
£ 12 = bdr =
3 2pr 2p l
l I b
£ 12 m 0b
ln a1 + b
a l
Thus, L12 = = a
I 2p l
b
m 0I l hdr
3.330 Here, B = and £ = m0m N
2pr 2p 3 r
a
mm0 hN b
Thus, L12 = ln
2p a
3.331 The direct calculation of the flux £ 2 is a rather complicated problem, since the con-
figuration of the field itself is complicated. However, the application of the reciproc-
ity theorem simplifies the solution of the problem. Indeed, let the same current I
flow through loop 2. Then the magnetic flux created by this current through loop 1
can be easily found.
As the loop is very small, so, induction value of B at the center is for the whole loop.
Magnetic induction at the center of the loop is
m0I
B =
2b b
So, flux through loop 1 is
m0I a
£ 12 = pa 2 I
2b
£ 21 1 m0pa
2
(a) So, L12 = =
I 2 b
(b) From reciprocity theorem,
m0pa 2I
£ 12 = £ 21, £ 21 =
2b
3.332 Let pm be the magnetic moment of the magnet M.

Then, the magnetic field due to this magnet is
m0 3 (pm # r) r ρ r
pm
c 5
- 3d x
4p r r
The flux associated with this, when the magnet is
along the axis at a distance x from the center, is
m0 3 (pm # r) r pm
£ = c - d # d S = £1 - £2
4p 3 r5 r3
a
m0 m0 pm 1
a - b
2prd r 1
where, £ 2 = pm =
4p 3 (x 2+ r )
2 3/2 2 x 2x + a 2
2
0
a
3m0 pmx 2 2prdr
and £1 =
4p 3 (x 2+ r 2) 5/2
0
m0 pmx 2
a b
1 1
= - 2
2 x 3 (x + a 2) 5/2
- m0 pma 2
So, £ =
2 (x 2 + a 2) 3/2
d£ N dw
When the flux changes, an e.m.f. - N is induced and a current - flows.
dt R dt
The total charge q, flowing as the magnet is removed to infinity from x = 0, is
N N # m0 pm
q = £ (x = 0) =
R R 2a
2aqR
or pm =
N m0
3.333 If a current I flows in one of the coils, the magnetic field at the center of the other coil is
m0a 2I m0a 2I
B = = , as l 77 a
2(l 2 + a 2) 3/2 2l 3
The flux associated with the second coil is then approximately m0p a 4I/2 l 3.
m0pa 4
Hence, L12 =
2l 3
3.334 When the current in one of the loops is I1 = at, an e.m.f. L12 dI1 / dt = L12 a, is ind-
uced in the other loop. Then, if the current in the other loop is I2, we must have,
dI2
L2 + RI2 = L12a
dt
This equation has the solution,

L12a
I2 = (1 - e - tR /L2 )
R
which is the required current.
3.335 Initially, after a steady current is set up, the current is flowing as shown in the figure.
In steady conditions, I20 = j / R and I10 = j /R 0 .
The current in the inductance cannot change suddenly. We then have the equation,
dI2
L + (R + R0) I2 = 0 L R
dt
This equation has the solution I2
I2 = I20e-t (R + R0)/L I1 R0
The heat dissipated in the coil is
q q I
Sw
Q = I22 Rdt = I 220R e -2 t ( R + R0 /L )dt
3 3
0 0
L L j2
= RI 220 * = = 3mJ
2(R + R0) 2R (R + R0)
3.336 To find the magnetic field energy we recall that the flux varies linearly with current.
Thus, when the flux is £ for current I, we can write f = AI. The total energy en-
closed in the field, when the current is I, is
d£
W = jIdt = N I dt
3 3 dt
I
1 1
= Nd£I = NA IdI = NAI 2 = N £I
3 3 2 2
0
The characteristic factor 1/2 appears in this way.
3.337 We apply circulation theorem,
H # 2pb = NI
NI
or H =
2pb
Thus the total energy,
BH # 2pb # pa 2 = p 2a 2b BH
1
W =
2
Given N, I, b, we know H, and can find out B from the B - H curve. Then W can
be calculated = 2.0 J.
3.338 From H # d r = NI
C
H # pd +
B #
b L NI, (d W b)
m0
Also, B = mm0 H
NI
Thus, H =
pd + md
Since B is continuous across the gap, B is given by,
NI
B = mm0
pd + mb
both in the magnetic field and the gap.
B2
* S * b
Wgap 2m0 mb
(a) = = = 3.0
Wmag B2 pd
* S * pd
2mm0
2
B # d S = N mm0 # S = m0 SN I
NI
(b) The flux is N
3 pd + mb pd
b +
m
m0SN 2
So, L L
pd
b +
m
Total energy
2
1 m0N S # 2
a
B 2 pd 1
= + bb S = I = LI 2 = 0.15H
2m0 m 2 pd 2
b +
m
The L found in the one way is similar with the one found in the other way. Note
that in calculating the flux, we do not consider the field in the gap since it is not
linked to the winding. But the total energy includes that of the gap.
3.339 When the cylinder with a linear charge density l rotates
with a circular frequency v, a surface current density
(charge> length * time) of I = lv>2p is set up.
The direction of the surface current is normal to the plane ds
Q
of paper at Q and the contribution of this current to the mag-
netic field at P is dB
dB r
m0 I (e * r)
dB = dS (where e is the direction of the current ) P
4p r3 dB||
In magnitude, | e * r | = r, since e is normal to r and the
direction of d B is as shown in the figure.
Its component, d B 7 , cancels out by cylindrical symmetry. The component that re-
mains is
m0 IdS m0I
| B⬜ | = 2
cos u = dÆ = m0I
4p 3 r 4p 3
where we have used,
dS cos u
= dÆ and dÆ = 4p
r2 3
which is the total solid angle around any point.
The magnetic field vanishes outside the cylinder by similar argument.
The total energy per unit length of the cylinder is

m0
m02 a b * pa 2 =
1 lv 2
W1 = a 2l 2v 2
2m0 2p 8p
1
3.340 wele = e0 E 2 (for the electric field)
2
1
wmag = B 2 (for the magnetic field)
2m0
1 1
Thus, B 2 = e0 E 2
2m0 2
B
or E = = 3 * 10 8 V/m
2e0m0
3.341 The electric field at P is
ql
EP =
4 pe0 1a 2 + l 22 3/2
To get the magnetic field, note that the rotating ring constitutes a current
I = q v/2p, and the corresponding magnetic field at P is
m0a 2I
BP =
21a 2 + l 22 3/2 a
wele e0m0E 2 ql * 2 l P
a b
2
Thus, = = e m
wmag B2 0 0
4p e0m0a 2I
a 2 b
1 l 2
=
e0 m 0 a v
wM e0m0 v 2a 4
or =
wE l2
= 1.1 * 10-15
3.342 The total energy of the magnetic field is
( B # H) dV = B# a - J b dV
1 1 B
23 23 m0
B # B dV - J # BdV
1 1
=
2m0 3 23
The second term can be interpreted as the energy of magnetization, and has the density
1
– J # B.
2
3.343 (a) In series, the current I flows through both coils, and the total e.m.f. induced
when the current changes is
dI dI
- 2L = - L¿
dt dt
or L¿ = 2L
I
(b) In parallel, the current flowing through either coil is, and the e.m.f. induced is
2
- L a b
1 dI
2 dt
- L a b = - L¿
Since, 1 dI dI
2 dt dt
1
We get, L¿ = L
2
3.344 We use L1 = m0n12 V, L2 = m0n22V
So, L12 = m0n1n2V = 2L1L2
3.345 The interaction energy is

1 2 1 2 1 2
| B + B2 | dV - | B | dV - | B | dV
2m0 L 1 2m0 L 1 2m0 L 2
1
= B # B dV
m0 3 1 2
Here, if B1 is the magnetic field produced by the first of the current carrying
loops, and B2 that of the second one, then the magnetic field due to both the
loops will be B1 + B2.
3.346 We can think of the smaller coil as constituting a magnet of dipole moment,
pm = pa 2I1
Its direction is normal to the loop and it makes an angle u with the direction of the
magnetic field, due to the bigger loop. This magnetic field is
m0I2
B2 =
2b
The interaction energy has the magnitude

m0 I1 I2
|W | = pa 2 cos u
2b
Its sign depends on the sense of the currents.
3.347 (a) There is a radial, outward conduction current. Let Q be the instantaneous charge
on the inner sphere, then,
dQ 1 dQ
j * 4pr 2 = - or j = - r
dt 4pr 2 dt
0D
a rb = -j
d Q
On the other hand jd = =
0t dt 4pr 2
where D is electric desplacement vector.
(b) At the given moment,
q
E = r
4pe0 er 2
E q
and by Ohm’s law j = = r
r 4pe0e rr 2
q
Then, jd = - r
4pe0 e rr 2
q q
jd # d S = -
dS cos u
and 2
= -
I 4pe0 er 3 r e 0er
The surface integral must be - ve because jd , being opposite of j, is inward.

3.348 Here also we see that on neglecting edge effects, jd = - j. Thus Maxwell ¿ s equations
reduce to, div B = 0, Curl H = 0, B = mH.
A general solution of this equation is B = constant = B0. Here , B0 can be thought of
as an extraneous magnetic field. If it is zero, B = 0.
3.349 Given I = Im sin vt

Im 0D
We see that j = sin vt = - jd = -
S 0t
Im
or D = cos vt
vS
So, amplitude of electric field
Im
Em = = 7 V/cm
e0vS
3.350 The electric field between the plates can be written as
Vm Vm
E = Re e i vt instead of cos vt
d d
This gives rise to a conduction current,

s
jc = sE = Re Vme i vt
d
and a displacement current,
0D Vm
jd = = Re e0e iv e i vt
0t d
The total current is
Vm
jT = 2s 2 + (e0e v) 2 cos (vt + a)
d
s
where, tan a =
e0ev
The corresponding magnetic field is obtained by using circulation theorem,
H # 2pr = pr 2j T
or H = Hm cos (vt + a)
rVm
where, Hm = 2s 2 + (e0ev) 2
2d
3.351 Inside the solenoid, there is a magnetic field, given by
B = m0nIm sin vt
Since this varies in time, there is an associated electric field. This is obtained by using,
d
E # dr = - B #dS
C dt 3
s #
# # Br
For r 6 R, 2 p rE = - B p r 2 or E = -
2
# 2
BR
For r 7 R, E = -
2r
The associated displacement current density is
$
0E - e B r>2
jd = e0 = c 0 $ 2
0t - e0 B R >2r
(The answer given in the book is dimensionally incorrect without the factor e0.)
3.352 In the non-relativistic limit,

q
E = r
4pe0r 3
(a) On a straight line coinciding with the charge path,
0E q -v
c d a using = -vb
3rr dr
jd = e0 = -
0t 4p r 3 r 4 dt
But in this case,

# r 2q v
r = - v and v = v so, jd =
r 4pr 3
#
(b) In this case, r = 0, as r ⬜ v.
qv
Thus, jd = -
4pr 3
qx
3.353 We have, Ep =
4pe0 (a 2 + x 2) 3>2
0D 0E qv
then, jd = = e0 = (a 2 - 2x 2)
0t 0t 4p(a + x 2) 5>2
2
This is maximum, when x = xm = 0, and minimum at some other value. The max-
imum displacement current density is
qv
( jd )max =
4pa 3
To check this, we calculate
0jd qv
= [( - 4x (a 2 + x 2) - 5x (a 2 - 2x 2)]
0x 4p
3
This vanishes for x = 0 and for x = a. The latter is easily shown to be a smaller
A2
local minimum (negative maximum).
3.354 We use Maxwell’s equations in the form

0
B # d r = e0m0 E # dS
C 0t 3
when the conduction current vanishes at the site.
r
We know that, a
q dS # r
E # dS = v x
3 4pe0 3 r 2
q q
= dÆ = 2p(1 - cos u)
4pe0 3 4pe0
where 2p (1 - cos u) is the solid angle, formed by the disk like surface, at the charge.
#
B # dr = 2paB = m0q # sin u # u
1
Thus,
C 2
On the other hand, x = a cot u
dx
Differentiating and using = -v
dt
#
we get, v = a cosec 2 u u
m0 qvr sin u
Thus, B =
4pr 3
This can be written as
m0q (v * r)
B =
4pr 3
q v * r
and H =
4p r 3
(The sense has to be checked independently.)
3.355 (a) If B = B(t), then,
- 0B
Curl E = Z 0
0t
So, E cannot vanish.
(b) Here also, curl E Z 0, so E cannot be uniform.

(c) Suppose for instance,
E = a ƒ(t)
where a is a spatially and temporally fixed vector. Then - 0B /dt = curl E = 0.
Generally speaking, this contradicts the other equation, curl H = 0D/0t Z 0 because
in this case the left hand side is time independent but right-hand side is depend-
ent on time. The only exception is when ƒ(t) is a linear function. Then the uni-
form field E can be time-dependent.
3.356 From the equation
0D
Curl H - = j
0t
We get on taking divergence of both sides,
0
- div D = div j
0t
But div D = r and hence,
0r
div j + = 0.
0t
0B
3.357 From the equation § * E = -
0t
On taking divergence of both sides,
0
0 = - div B
0t
This is compatible with div B = 0.
3.358 A rotating magnetic field can be represented by

Bx = B0 cos vt; By = B0 sin vt and Bz = Bzo
- 0B
Then, Curl E =
0t
So, - (Curl E)x = - vB0 sin vt = - vBy
- (Curl E)y = vB0 cos vt = vBx and - (Curl E )z = 0
Hence, Curl E = - ␻ * B
3.359 Consider a particle with charge e, moving with velocity v, in frame K. It experiences
a force F = e (v * B).
In the frame K ¿ , moving with velocity v, relative to K, the particle is at rest. This means
that there must be an electric field E in K ¿ , so that the particle experiences a force
given by
F¿ = eE¿ = F = e v * B
Thus, E¿ = v * B
3.360 Within the plate, there will appear a (v * B) force, which will cause the charge in-
side the plate to drift, until a countervailing electric field is set up. This electric field
is related to B, as E = eB, since v and B are mutually perpendicular, and E is per-
pendicular to both. The charge density s, on the force of the plate producing this
electric field is given by
s
E = or s = e0vB = 0.40 pC/m 2
e0
3.361 Choose ␻ c c B along the z–axis, and choose r as the cylindrical polar radius vector of
a reference point (perpendicular distance from the axis). This point has the velocity
v = ␻ * r
and experiences a (v * B) force, which must be counterbalanced by an electric field
E = - (␻ * r) * B = - (␻ # B) r
There must appear a space charge density
r = e0 div E = - 2 e0 ␻ # B = - 8 pC/m 3
Since the cylinder as a whole is electrically neutral, the surface of the cylinder must
acquire a positive charge of surface density,
2 e0 (␻ # B) pa 2
s= + = e0 a ␻ # B = + 2p C/m 2
2pa
3.362 In the reference frame K ¿ moving with the particle,

qr
E¿ ⬵ E + v0 * B =
4pe0r 3
E
B¿ ⬵ B - v0 * = 0
c2
Here, v0 = velocity of K ¿ relative to the K frame, in which the particle has velocity
v. Clearly, v0 = v. From the second equation,
v * E q v * r m0 q (v * r)
B⬵ 2
= e0 m0 * 3
=
c 4pe0 r 4p r3
3.363 Suppose, there is only electric field E in K. Then in K ¿ , considering non-relativistic

velocity v,
v * E
E¿ = E, B¿ = -
c2
So, E ¿ # B¿ = 0
In the relativistic case,
E¿7 = E7 B¿7 = B 7 = 0
t
E⬜ - v * E>c 2
E¿⬜ = B¿⬜ =
21 - v 2>c 2 21 - v 2>c 2
Now, E¿ # B¿ = E7 # B¿7 + E¿⬜ B¿⬜ = 0, since

- E ⬜ # (v * E)>(1 - v 2>c 2)
E⬜¿ # B⬜¿ =
- E ⬜ # (v * E ⬜) n a 1 - b = 0
v2
c2
yi - xj
3.364 In K, B = b (where b = constant)
x2 + y2
yj - xi bvr
In K ¿, E¿ = v * B = bv =
x2 + y2 r2
The electric field is radial (r = x i+ y j).
r
3.365 In K, E = a, r = (x i + y j)
r2
v * E ar * v
In K ¿ , B¿ = - 2
=
c c 2r 2
The magnetic lines are circular.
3.366 In the non-relativistic limit, we neglect v 2/c 2 and write
E¿7 = E7 B¿7 = B7
f
E¿ ⬜ ⬵ E⬜ + v * B B¿⬜ ⬵ B⬜ - v * E>c 2
These two equations can be combined to give

E¿ = E + v * B and B¿ = B - v * E>c 2
3.367 Choose E in the direction of the z–axis, E = (0, 0, E), The frame K ¿ is moving with
velocity v = (v sin a, 0, v cos a), in the x -z plane. Then in the frame K ¿,
E¿|| = E || B¿|| = 0
E⬜ - v * E/c 2
E¿⬜ = B¿⬜ =
21 - v 2/c 2 21 - v 2/c 2
The vector along v is e = (sin a, 0, cos a) and the perpendicular vector in the x -z
plane is f = ( - cos a, 0, sin a).
(a) Thus, using E E cos a e + E sin a f

E sin a
We get, E ||¿ = E cos a and E ⬜¿ =
21 - v 2/c 2
1 - b 2 cos 2 a
So, E¿ = E = 9 kV/m
B 1 - b2
tan a
and tan a ¿ = (where b = v /c )
21 - v 2/c 2
v * E/c 2
(b) B ||¿ = 0, B¿⬜ =
21 - v 2/c 2
b E sin a
B¿ =
c 21 - b 2
= 14 mT
3.368 Choose B in the z direction and the velocity v = (v sin a, 0, v cos a) in the x - z
plane, then in the K ¿ frame
E ¿|| = E|| = 0 B ¿|| = B||
v * B B⬜
E¿⬜ = B ⬜¿ =
21 - v 2/c 2 21 - v 2/c 2
c b B sin a
We find similarly, E¿ =
21 - b 2
1 - b 2 cos 2 a
B¿ = B
B 1 - b2
= 1.4 n V/m
tan a
and tan a¿ =
21 - b 2
3.369 (a) We see that, E¿ # B¿ = E¿ 7 # B¿ 7 + E¿ ⬜ # B¿ ⬜
v * E
(E⬜ + v * B) # a B⬜ - b
c2
= E7 # B7 +
v2
1 -
c2
E⬜ # B⬜ - (v * B) # (v * E)>c 2
= E7 # B7 +
1 - v 2>c 2
E⬜B⬜ - (v * B⬜) # (v * E⬜)>c 2
= E7 # B7 +
v2
1 -
c2
But, A * B#C * D = A#C B # D - A # DB # C
a1 - b
v2
c2
So, E¿ # B¿ = E7 # B7 + E⬜ # B⬜ = E#B
v2
1 - 2
c
(b) We see that, E ¿ 2 - c 2 B¿ 2
= E ¿ 72 - c 2B ¿ 72 + E ¿ ⬜2 - c 2B ¿ ⬜2
v * E 2
c (E ⬜ + v * B) 2 - c 2 aB ⬜ - b d
1
= E 2 7 - c 2B 2 7 +
v2 c2
1 -
c2
c E 2⬜ - c 2B 2⬜ + (v * B ⬜ ) 2 - (v * E ⬜ ) 2 d
1 1
= E 2 7 - c 2B 2 7 +
v2 c2
1 -
c2
C E 2⬜ - c 2B 2⬜ D a1 - b = E 2 - c 2B 2
1 v2
= E 2 7 - c 2B 2 7 +
v2 c2
1 -
c2
(Since, (v * A⬜) = v A⬜2 .)
2 2
3.370 In this case, E # B = 0, as the fields are mutually perpendicular. Also,
E 2 - c 2B 2 = - 20 * 10 8 a b
V 2
m
Thus, we can find a frame in which E ¿ = 0, and
1 E2
B¿ = 2c 2B 2 - E 2 = B 1 - 2 2
c B c B
4 * 10 4
1 - a b = 0.15 mT
2
= 0 # 20
B 3 * 10 8 * 2 * 10 –4
3.371 Suppose the charge q moves in the positive direction of the x–axis of the frame K.
Let us go over to the moving frame K¿ , at whose origin the charge is at rest. We take
the x and x¿ axes of the two frames to be coincident, and the y- and y ¿-axes to be
parallel.
In the K ¿ frame,
1 q r¿
E =
4pe0 r ¿ 3
and this has the following components
1 qx ¿ 1 qy ¿
E ¿x = and E ¿ y = .
4pe0 r ¿ 3 4pe0 r ¿ 3
Now let us go back to the frame K. At the moment when the origins of the two
frames coincide, we take t = 0. Then,
v2
x = r cos u = x ¿ 1 - and y = r sin u = y ¿
B c2
Also, Ex = E x¿ , Ey = E y¿ > 21 - v 2>c 2
r 2 (1 - b 2 sin 2 u)
From these equations, r ¿2 =
1 - b2
y¿
c (1 - b 2) 3>2 ax ¿i + jb d
q 1
E¿ =
4pe0 r3 (1 - b sin u)
2 2 3>2
21 - b 2
q r (1 - b 2)
=
4pe0r 3 (1 - b 2 sin 2 u) 3>2
3.7 Motion of Charged Particles in Electric and Magnetic Fields
3.372 Let the electron leave the negative plate of the capacitor at time t = 0.
dw w at
As, Ex = - , E = =
dx l l
therefore, the acceleration of the electron is
eE eat
w = =
m ml
dv eat
or =
dt ml
v t
ea
or dv = tdt
3 ml 3
0 0
1 ea 2
or v= t (1)
2 ml
But from, s = vdt

3 t
1 ea
l = t 2dt
2 ml 3
0
eat 3
or l =
6 ml
1/3
6 ml 2
t = a b
or ea
Putting the value of t in Eq. (1), we get
2/3 1/3
a b = a b = 16 km/s
1 ea 6 ml 2 9 ale
v =
2 ml ea 2 m
3.373 The electric field inside the capacitor varies with time as, E = at . Hence, electric
force on the proton, F = eat and subsequently, acceleration of the proton is
eat
w =
m
Now, if t is the time elapsed during the motion of the proton between the plates,
then t = l / v 7 , as no acceleration is effective in this direction. (Here v 7 is velocity alo-
ng the length of the plate.)
dv ⬜
From kinematics, = w
dt
3.7 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 487
v⬜ t
So, dv ⬜ = wdt
3 3
0 0
as initially, the component of velocity in the direction ⬜ to plates was zero.

t
ea t 2 ea l 2
or v⬜ = =
3 m 2m 2m v 2 7
0
v⬜ eal 2
Now, tan a = =
v7 2mv 3 7
1
, as v 7 = a b (from energy conservation)

eal 2 2eV 2
= 3
m
2m a b
2eV 2
m
al 2 m
=
4 A 2eV 3
3.374 The equation of motion is

dv dv q
= v = (E0 - ax)
dt dx m
1 2 q 1
Integrating, v - (E0x - ax 2) = constant
2 m 2
But initially, v = 0 when x = 0, so “constant” = 0.
aE0x - ax 2 b
2q 1
Thus, v2 =
m 2
2E0
Thus, v = 0, again for x = xm =
a
The corresponding acceleration is
qE0
a b =
dv q
(E0 - 2E0) = -
dt x m m
m
3.375 From the law of relativistic conservation of energy

m0c 2
- e Ex = m0c 2
21 - (v 2/c 2)
as the electron is at rest (v = 0 for x = 0) initially.

Thus clearly, T = eEx

m0c 2
On the other hand, 21 - (v 2/c 2) =
m0c 2 + eEx
v 2(m0c 2 + eEx) 2 - m 20c 4

or =
c m0c 2 + eEx
(m0c 2 + eEx) dx
or ct = cdt =
3 3 2(m0c 2 + eEx) 2 - m 20c 4
1 dy 1
= = 2(m0c 2 + eEx) 2 - m 20c 4 + constant
2 eE 3 2y - m 2c 4 eE
0
The “constant” = 0, at t = 0, for x = 0.

1
So, ct = 2(m0c 2 + eEx) 2 - m 20 c 4
eE
Finally, using T = eEx, we get
ce # E t0 =, 2T (T + 2m0c 2)
2T (T + 2m0c 2)
or t0 = = 3.0 ns
eEc
3.376 As before, T = eEx . Now in linear motion,
d m0v m0w m 0w v
= + w
dt 21 - v 2/c 2 21 - v /c
2 2 (1 - v /c )
2 2 3>2 c 2
m0 (T + m0c 2) 3
= w = w = eE
(1 - v 2/c 2) 3>2 m 20c 6
eEm 20c 6 -3
a1 + b
eE T
So, w = =
(T + m0c 2) 3 m0 m0c 2
3.377 The equations are

m0vx m0vy
a b = 0 a b = eE
d d
and
dt 21 - (v 2/c 2) dt 21 - v 2/c 2
vx v0
Hence, = constant =
21 - v 2/c 2 21 - (v02/c 2)
Also, by energy conservation

m0c 2 m0c 2
= + eEy
21 - (v 2/c 2) 21 - (v02/c 2)
v0e0 m0c 2
Dividing, vx = , e0 =
e0 + eEy 21 - (v20/c 2)
m0 e0 + eEy
Also, =
21 - (v 2/c 2) c2
Thus, (e0 + eEy)vy = c 2eEt + constant
This “constant” = 0 as vy = 0 at t = 0.
Integrating again,
1 1
e0 y + eEy 2 = c 2Et 2 + constant
2 2
Again, this “constant” = 0, as y = 0, at t = 0.
Thus, (ce E t) 2 = (eyE ) 2 + 2e0eEy + e20 - e20
or ceEt = 2(e0 + eEy)2 - e20
or e0 + eEy = 2e 20 + c 2e 2E 2t 2
v0e0 c 2eEt
Hence, vx = also, vy =
2e20 + c 2e 2E 2t 2 2e20 + c 2e 2E 2t 2
vy eEt
and tan u = = 21 - (v 20 /c 2)
vx m0v0
3.378 From the figure,

d dqB
sin a = =
R mv
as radius of the arc R = mv / qB , where v is the velocity of the particle when it
enters into the field. From initial condition of the problem
1 2qV
qV = mv 2 or v =
2 B m
dqB q
Hence, sin a = = dB
2qV A 2 mV
m
B m
a = sin -1 a dB b = 30° (on substituting values)
q
and
A 2 mV
3.379 (a) For motion along circle, the magnetic force acted on the particle will provide the
centripetal force necessary for its circular motion,
mv 2 eBr
i.e., = evB or v = = 100 km/s
r m
2p 2pr 2pm
and the period of revolution, T = = = = 6.5 ms
v v eB
dp
(b) Generally, = F
dt
# #
dp d m0v m0v m0 v (v # v )
But, = = +
dt dt 21 - (v 2/c 2 ) 21 - (v 2/c 2) (1 - (v 2/c 2)) 3>2 c2
#
For transverse motion, v # v = 0 so,
#
dp m0v m0 v2
= =
dt 21 - (v 2/c 2) 21 - (v 2/c 2) r
m0v 2 v/c Ber
Thus, = Bev or =
r 21 - v 2/c 2 21 - (v 2/c 2) m0c
v Ber
or =
c 2B 2e 2r 2 + m02c 2
2pr 2pm0 2p
Finally, T = = = 2B 2e 2r 2 + m20c 2 = 4.1 n s
v eB 21 - v 2/c 2 cBe
3.380 (a) As before, p = B qr

(b) T = 2c 2p 2 + m20 c 4 = 2c 2B 2q 2r 2 + m20c 4
v2 c2
(c) w = = -
r r [1 + (m0c /Bqr) 2]
using the result for v from the previous problem.
3.381 From solution of Problem 3.279,

2pe 2pm0c 2
T = 2 (relativistic), T0 = (non-relativistic)
c eB c 2eB
Here, m0c 2> 21 - v 2>c 2 = e
2pT
Thus, dT = , (T = K.E.)
c 2 eB
dT T
Now, = h = so, T = h m0c 2
T0 m0c 2
3.382 The given potential difference is not large enough to cause significant deviations
from the non-relativistic formula. So,
1
T = eV = mv 2
2
2eV
Thus, v =
A m
2eV 2eV
So, v || = cos a v⬜ = sin a
A m A m
mv 2⬜ mv ⬜
Now, = Bev ⬜ or r =
r Be
2pr 2pm
and T = =
v⬜ Be
2pm 2eV 2mV
Pitch p = v || T = cos a = 2p cos a = 2.0 cm
Be A m A eB 2
3.383 The charged particles will traverse a helical trajectory and will be focused on the axis
after traversing a number of turns. Thus,
L n #
1 2pm 2pm
= (n + 1)
v0 qB1 qB2
n n + 1 1
So, = =
B1 B2 B2 - B1
1 2pm
Hence, =
v0 q (B2 - B1)
l2 (2 p) 2 1
= *
(q >m) 2
or
2 qV>m (B2 - B1) 2
q 8p 2V
or = 2
m l (B2 - B1) 2
3.384 Let us take the point A as the origin O and the axis of the solenoid as z-axis. At an
arbitrary moment of time let us resolve the velocity of electron into its two rectan-
gular components, v || along the axis and v ⬜ to the axis of solenoid. We know the
magnetic force does no work, so the kinetic energy as well as the speed of the elec-
tron | v ⬜ | will remain constant in the x-y plane. Thus v ⬜ can change only its direc-
tion as shown in the problem figure, v || will remain constant as it is parallel to B.
Thus at time = t ,
vx = v ⬜ cos vt = v sin a cos vt
vy = v ⬜ sin vt = v sin a sin vt
and vz = v cos a (where v = eB /m )
As at t = 0, we have x = y = z = 0, so the equation of motion of the electron is

z = v cos at
v sin a
x = sin vt
v
v sin a
y = (cos vt - 1)
v
The equation of the helix.
l
On the screen z = l, so t =
v cos a
a1 - cos b
2v 2 sin 2 a vl
Then, r2 = x2 + y2 = 2
v v cos a
2v sin a 2 vl 2 = 2 mv sin a 2 sin leB 2

r = sin
v 2v cos a eB 2 mv cos a
3.385 Choose the wire along the z–axis, and the initial direction of the electron, along the
x–axis. Then the magnetic field in the x –z plane is along the y–axis and outside
the wire it is
m0I
B = By = (as Bx = Bz = 0, if y = 0)
2px
The motion must be confined to the x - z plane. Then the equations of motion are
d
mvx = - evx By
dt
d (mvz )
= + evx By
dt
Multiplying the first equation by vx and the second by vz and then adding, we get
dvx dvz
vx + vz = 0
dt dt
or v 2x + v 2z = v 20, say or vz = 2v 20 - v 2x
dvx e m0I
Then, vx = - 2v 20 - v 2x
dx m 2px
vxdvx m0Ie dx
or - =
2v 20 - v x2 2pm x
m0Ie x
Integrating, 2v 20 - v 2x = ln
2pm a
on using, vx = v0, if x = a (i.e., initially).

Now, vx = 0, when x = xm
m0Ie
So, xm = ae v0/b , where b =
2pm
3.386 Inside the capacitor, the electric field follows the 1 / r law, and so the potential can
be written as
V ln r /a -V 1
w = and E = ,
ln b /a ln b /a r
Here r is the distance from the axis of the capacitor.
mv 2 qV 1
Also, =
r ln b/ar r
qV
or mv 2 =
ln b/a
On the other hand, mv = qBr in the magnetic field.
V q v V
Thus, v = and = = 2 2
Br ln b/a m Br B r ln (b/a)
3.387 (a) The equations of motion are

dvx dvy dvz
m = - qBvz , m = qE and m = qvx B
dt dt dt
These equations can be solved easily.
qE qE
First, vy = t, y = t¿2
m 2m
Then, v 2x + v 2z = constant = v 20 (as before)
In fact, vx = v0 cos vt and vz = v0 sin vt as one can check.

Integrating again and using x = z = 0, at t = 0, we get
v0 v0
x = sin vt, z = (1 - cos vt)
v v
2p
Thus, x = z = 0 for t = tn = n
v
qE 2p 2p 2p 2 mEn 2
At that instant, yn = * * n2 * =
2m qB/m qB/m qB 2
vx
(b) Also, tan an = (vz = 0 at this moment)
vy
mv0 mv0 qB 1 Bv0
= = * * =
qEtn qE m 2pn 2pEn
3.388 The equation of the trajectory is
v0 v0 qE 2
x = sin vt, z = (1 - cos vt), y = t ( as in Problem 3.384)
v v 2m
Now on the screen x = l, so
vl vl
sin vt = or vt = sin -1
v0 v0
a sin -1 b
qE vl 2
At that moment, y =
2mv 2 v0
vl 2mv 2y 2qB 2y
So, = sin = sin
v0 B qE B Em
v0 vt vt
and z = 2 sin 2 = l tan
v 2 2
qB 2y
= l tan c sin -1 d = l tan
1 vl
2 v0 B 2mE
qB 2y
= a tan -1 b L 2
z 2 z2
For small z,
2 mE l l
or
2mE
y = # z2
qB 2l 2
This is the equation of a parabola.
E
3.389 In crossed field, eE = evB so v =
B
I E mIE
Then force exerted on the plate, F = * m = = 20 mN
e B eB
3.390 When the electric field is switched off, the path followed by the particle will be
helical and pitch
¢l = v || T
(where v || is the velocity of the particle, parallel to B and T the time period of re-
volution).
= v cos (90 - w) T = v sin w T
a as T = b
2pm 2p
= v sin w (1)
qB qB
Now, when both the fields were present, qE = qvB sin (90 - w), as no net force was
effective on the system.
E
So, v = (2)
B cos w
E 2 pm
From Eqs. (1) and (2), ¢l = tan w = 6 cm
B qB
3.391 When there is no deviation,
- q E = q (v * B)
E
or in scalar from, E = vB (as v ⬜ B) or v = (1)
B
Now, when the magnetic field is switched on, let the deviation in the field be x.
Then,
a bt
1 q vB 2
x =
2 m
where t is the time required to pass through this region.
a
Also, t =
v
a ba b =
1 qvB a 2 1 q a 2B 2
Thus, x = (2)
2 m v 2m E
For the region where the field is absent, velocity in the upward direction
= a bt =
qvB q
aB (3)
m m
qaB
Now, ¢x - x = t¿
m
qa B 2b b bB
= , where t¿ = = (4)
m E v E
1 q a 2B 2 q aB 2b
¢x - =
2m E m E
q 2E ¢x
or =
m aB 2 (a + 2b)
3.392 (a) The equation of motion is
d 2r
m = q (E + v * B)
dt 2
i j k
3 # # # # #
Now, v * B = x y z 3 = iBy - jBx
0 0 B
So, the equation becomes,

dvx qBvy dvy qE qB dvz
= ; = - v and = 0
dt m dt m m x dt
# # #
(Here, vx = x, vy = y, vz = z ).
The last equation is easy to integrate as vz = constant = 0, since vz is zero ini-
tially. Thus integrating again, z = constant = 0, and motion is confined to the
x-y plane.
Method 1:
Let us put j = vx + ivy
# dvx dvy
or j = + i
dt dt
vy + i a v b
qB qE qB
= -
m m m x
= vvy + i a - vvx b awhere v =

vE qB a
B m
E
= vvy + i v - ivvx
B
E
= iv - iv (vx + ivy) (because i 2 = - 1)
B
This equation after being multiplied by e i vt can be rewritten as
d E
(j e i vt) = i ve i v t
dt B
and integrated to give,

E
j = + Ce -i vt - i a
B
where C and a are two real constants. Taking real and imaginary parts,
E
vx = + C cos (vt + a) and vy = - C sin (vt + a)
B
Since vy = 0, when t = 0, we can take a = 0, then vx = 0 at t = 0 gives,

E
C = -
B
and we get,
E E
vx = (1 - cos vt) and vy = sin vt
B B
Integrating again and using x = y = 0, at t = 0, we get
at - b , y (t) =
E sin vt E
x (t) = (1 - cos vt)
B v vB
This is the equation of a cycloid.
Alternate of method 1, to find vx(t) and vy(t):
We have,
# qB # qE qB
vx = vy and v y = - v
m m m x
# #
and vy = v a - vx b
E
or vx = vvy
B
#
After differentiating vy with respect to time, we get
$ #
v y = - vvx = - v2vy
At t = 0, vy = 0, so its solution becomes
vy = vym sin vt (where vym is velocity amplitude)
# qE
At t = 0, vy =
m
vE E
So, v vym = Q vym =
B B
E
Hence, vy = sin vt
B
E
So ¢x = vy dt = [cos vt ]t0
L Bv
E
= [1 - cos vt ]
Bv
because at t = 0, x = y = 0.
#
Now differentiating vx = vvy with respect to time, we get
$ #
vx = vvy = v2 [E/B - vx ]
or v¶x + v2vx = v2E (1)
$
This equation is the form x + v2x = A
(where A is any constant.)

$
x + v2 a x - 2 b = 0
A
or
v
A
Putting x¿ = x -
v2
$ $
and x ¿ = x in the solutions
We get x ¿ = a cos (vt + d)
A
or x - = a cos (vt + d)
v2
A
or x = a cos (vt + d) +
v2
Thus the solution of Eq. (1) is
E
vx = vxm cos (vt + d) +
B
On differentiation
.
vx = - vvxm sin (vt + d)
.
At t = 0, vx = 0, d = 0, hence
E
vx = vxm cos vt +
B
Again at t = 0,
E
vx = 0, so, vxm = -
B
E
or vx = [1 - cos vt]
B
Alternate:
Suppose we have two inertial systems of reference: the system K and the system
K ¿ moving relative to the first system at a velocity v0. We know the magnitudes
of the fields E and B at a certain point in space and time in the system K. If
v0 V c the fields E¿ and B¿ at the same point in space and time in the system
E¿ are given by
E = E + (v0 * B), B¿ = B - (v0 * E)>c2
The particle moves under the action of the Lorentz force. It can be easily seen
that the particle always remains in the plane xy. Its motion can be described
most easily in a certain system K ¿ where only the magnetic field is present. Let
us find this reference system. It follows from transformation
E¿ = E + (v0 * B), E¿ = 0 in a reference system that moves with a velocity v0
satisfying the relation E = - (v0 * B). It is more convenient to choose the sys-
tem K ¿ whose velocity v 0 is directed towards the positive values on the x-axis,
since in such system the particle will move perpendicular to vector B¿ and its
motion will be the simplest.
Thus in the system K ¿ that moves to the right at a velocity v0 = E /B, the field
E ¿ = 0 and only the field B¿ is observed. In accordance with transformation
B¿ = B - (v0 * E)>c 2 and figure, we have
B¿ = B - (v0 * E)>c2 = B(1 - v20>c2)
Since for a non-relativistic particle v0 V c , we can assume that B¿ = B.

In the system K ¿, the particle will move only in the magnetic field, it’s velocity
being perpendicular to this field. The equation of motion for this particle in the
system K ¿ will have the form
mv20
= qv0B
R
This equation is written for the instant t = 0, where the particle moved in the
syatem K ¿ as is shown in Fig. (a). Since the Lorentz force F is always perpendi-
cular to the velocity of the particle, v0 = constant, and it follows from above equa-
tion that in the system K ¿ the particle will move in a circle of radius
mv0
R =
qB
Thus the particle moves uniformly with the velocity v0 in a circle in the system K ¿,
which, in turn, moves uniformly to the right with the same velocity v0 = E/B. This
motion can be compared with the motion of the point q at the rim of a wheel Fig. (b)
rolling with the angular velocity v = v0/R = qB/m.
K′
y K
B R v0 = E
R ωt B
F q q
x
v0 O (a) O (b) x
Fig. (b) readily shows the coordinates of the particle q at the instant t are given by
x = v0t - R sin vt = a (vt - sin vt)
y = R - R cos vt = a (1 - cos vt)
mE qB
where a = 2
and v =
qB m
(b) The velocity is zero, when vt = 2n p. We see that
v 2 = vx2 + vy2 = a b (2 - 2 cos vt)

E 2
B
ds 2E 2 vt
or v = = sin 2
dt B 2
The quantity inside the modulus is positive for 0 6 vt 6 2p. Thus we can drop
the modulus and write for the distance traversed between two successive zeroes
of velocity as
a 1 - cos b
4E vt
S =
vB 2
Putting vt = 2p, we get
8E 8mE
S = =
vB qB 2
(c) The drift velocity is in the x-direction and has the magnitude
E E
6vx 7 = 6 (1 - cos vt) 7 =
B B
m0I
3.393 When a current I flows along the axis, a magnetic field Bw = is set up, where
2 pr
r = x + y . In terms of components,
2 2 2
m0Iy m0Ix
Bx = - 2
, By = and Bz = 0
2 pr 2 pr 2
Suppose a potential difference V is set up between the inner cathode and the outer
anode. This means a potential function of the form
ln r/b
w = V (a 7 r 7 b )
ln a/b
as one can check by solving Laplace equation.

The electric field corresponding to this is
Vy a
Vx
Ex = - , Ey = - 2 ,E = 0
2
r ln a/b r ln a/b z b
The equations of motion are
d |e |Vz |e | m0I #
mvx = + 2 + xz
dt r ln a/b 2pr 2
d |e | Vy |e | m0I #
mvy = + 2 + yz
dt r ln a/b 2pr2
d m0I # # m0I d
and mvz = - | e | 2
(xx + yy ) = |e | ln r
dt 2 pr 2p dt
( - | e | ) is the charge on the electron.
Integrating the last equations, we get
m0I r #
mvz = - | e | ln = mz
2p a
#
Since vz = 0 when r = a , we now substitute this z in the other two equations to get
a mv 2x + mv 2y b
d 1 1
dt 2 2
# #
|e|V | e | m0I 2 r xx + y y
2
= c - a b In d #
ln a/b m 2p b r2
|e|V | e |2 m0I 2 r
= c a b ln d #
1 d 2
- r
ln a/b m 2p b 2r 2 dt
|e | V |e |2 m0I 2 r d r
= c - a b ln d ln
ln a/b m 2p a dt b
Integrating and using v 2 = 0, at r = b, we get,
|e | V m0I 2
mv 2 = c |e |2 a b a ln b d
1 r 1 r
ln -
2 ln a/b a 2m 2p b
The RHS must be positive, for all a 7 r 7 b. The condition for this is
1 | e | m0I 2
a b ln
a
V Ú
2 m 2p b
3.394 This differs from the previous problem in (a 4 b) and the magnetic field is along the
z-direction. Thus Bx = By = 0, Bz = B .
Assuming as usual the charge of the electron to be - | e | , we write the equation of
motion as
d | e | Vx # d | e | Vy #
mvx = 2 - | e | By, mvy = 2 + | e | Bx
dt r ln b>a dt r ln b>a
d
and mvz = 0 = 7 z = 0
dt
The motion is confined to the plane z = 0. Eliminating B from the first two equations,
# #
| e | V xx + yy
a mv 2 b =
we get d 1
dt 2 ln b/a r2
1 ln r/a
or mv 2 = |e | V
2 ln b/a
So, as expected, since magnetic forces do not work
2 |e | V
v = (at r = b )
B m
On the other hand, eliminating V, we also get

d # #
m (xvy - yvx) = | e | B (xx + yy )
dt
|e | B 2
i.e., (xvy - yvx) = r + constant
2m
The constant is easily evaluated, since v is zero at r = a. Thus,
|e|B 2
(xvy - yvx) = (r - a 2) 7 0
2m
At r = b, (xvy - yvx) … vb . Thus,
|e|B 2
vb Ú (b - a 2)
2m
2mb 2 |e | V 1
or B … *
b2 - a B
2 m |e |
2b 2mV
or B …
b2 - a B |e |
2
3.395 The equations are as in solution of Problem 3.392.

dvx qB dvy qEm qB dvz
= vy, = cos vt - vx and = 0
dt m dt m m dt
qB
with v = , j = vx + ivy
m
dj Em
We get, = i v cos v t - ivj
dt B
Or multiplying by e i vt , we get
d Em
(je i vt ) = i v (e 2i vt + 1)
dt 2B
Em Em
Integrating, je i vt = e 2i vt + i vt
4B 2B
Em
or j = (e i vt + 2i vte i vt ) + Ce i vt
4B
Em
Since j = 0 at t = 0, C = -
4B
Em Em
Thus, j = i sin vt + i vt e i vt
2B 2B
Em Em Em
or vx = vt sin vt and vy = sin vt + vt cos vt
2B 2B 2B
Integrating again,
a a
x = 2
(sin vt - vt cos vt ), y = t sin vt
2v 2v
where a = qEm /m , and we have used x = y = 0, at t = 0.
The trajectory is an unwinding spiral.
3.396 We know that for a charged particle (proton) in a magnetic field,

mv 2
= Bev or mv = Ber
r
eB
But, v =
m
1 1
Thus, E = mv 2 = mv 2r 2
2 2
So, ¢E = mv 2r ¢r = 4p2n 2 mr ¢r
On the other hand ¢E = 2eV, where V is the effective acceleration voltage across
the dees, there being two crossings per revolution.
So, V Ú 2p 2 n2mr ¢r/e
= 0.10 MV
mv 2
3.397 (a) From = Bev or mv = Ber
r
(Ber ) 2 1
We get, T = = mv 2 = 12 MeV
2m 2
2p 2 pr
(b) From =
v v
v 1 T
We get, fmin = = = 20 MHz
2pr pr A 2m
3.398 (a) The total time of acceleration is

1
t = .n
2n
where n is the number of passages of the dees.
B 2e 2r 2
But, T = neV =
2m
B 2er 2
or n =
2mV
p B 2er 2 pBr 2 p 2m nr 2
So, t = * = = = 17 ms
eB/m 2mV 2V eV
(b) The distance covered is
1
s = a nn
2n
2eV
But, vn = 1n
B m
eV eV eV 2 3>2
So, s = a 1n = 1n dn = n
B 2m n2 B 2m n 3
2 B 2m n2 3
B 2e 2r 2 2 p 2mn 2r 2
But, n = =
2 eVm eV
4p 3n 2mr 2
Thus, s L = 0.74 km
3eV
3.399 In the nth orbit,

2prn n
= nT0 =
nn n
We ignore the rest mass of the electron and write vn L c. Also W L cp = cBern.
2pW n
Thus, 2
=
Bec n
2pWn
or n = = 9
Bec 2
3.400 The basic condition is the relativistic equation
mv 2 m0v
= Bqv or mv = = Bqr
r 21 - v 2/c 2
Bq
Using, v =
m
v0 Bq
We get, v = and v0 = r
v 20 r 2 m0
1 +
C c2
The time of acceleration is
N 1 N p N pW
n
t = a = a = a 2
n=1 2n n v
n=1 n n qBc
N is the number of crossings of either Dee.
But, n¢W
Wn = m0c 2 +
2
there being two crossings of the Dees per revolution.
pm0c 2 p¢Wn
So, t = a 2
+ a
qBc 2qBc 2
p N (N + 1) p¢W p¢W
=N + 2
⬵ N2 (N W 1)
v0 4 qBc 4qBc 2
vN c 0t ¢W
Also, r = rN L ⬵ N
vN p 0N 2 qBc
v0
Hence finally, v =
q2B2 ¢W 2
1 + * N2
B m20 c 2 4q 2B 2c 2
v0 v0
= =
1¢W 2 2 4 qB c 2 21 + at
1 + * t
B 4m0 2 c 4 p¢W
qB ¢W
a =
p m02c 2
3.401 When the magnetic field is set up in the solenoid, an electric field is induced in it, which
will accelerate the charged particle. If B is the rate at which the magnetic field is
increasing, then
# 1 #
pr 2B = 2prE or E = r B
2
dv 1 # qBr
Thus, m = r B q or v =
dt 2 2m
After the field is set up, the particle will execute a circular motion of radius r, where
1
mv = B q r or r = r
2
3.402 The increment in energy per revolution is e £ , so the number of revolutions is
W
N = = 5 * 106 revolutions
e£
The distance traversed is s = 2 prN = 8 * 103 km.
3.403 We know that,

r
dp e d£ e d
= eE = = 2pr ¿ B (r ¿) dr¿
dt 2pr dt 2pr dt 3
0
On the other hand, p = B (r) er (where r = constant)

dp d #
So, = er B (r) = er B (r)
dt dt
# e d
Hence, er B (r) = pr 2 6B 7
2pr dt
# 1 d
So, B (r) = 6B7
2 dt
This equation is most easily satisfied by taking
1
B (r0) = 6B 7
2
r0
1 1 dr
3.404 The condition, B (r0) = 6B 7 = B # 2pr 2
2 23 pr0
0
r0
1
or B (r0 ) = Brdr
r20 3
This gives r0. 0
In the present case,

r0
1
B0 - ar 20 = 2 (B - ar 2) rdr
r0 3
0
a B0 - ar02 b
1 1
=
2 2
3 1
or ar 2 = B0
4 0 2
2B0
or r0 =
B 3a
3.405 The induced electric field (or eddy current field) is given by
r
1 d
E (r) = 2pr ¿ (r ¿) B (r ¿) dr ¿
2pr dt 3
0
r
dE 1 d dB (r)
Hence, = - 2pr ¿ B (r ¿) dr ¿ +
dr 2pr 2 dt 3 dt
0
1 d dB (r)
= - 6B 7 +
2 dt dt
This vanishes for r = r0 by the betatron condition, where r0 is the radius of the equi-
librium orbit.
dE # 1 #
Hence, = B (r0) - B = 0
dr 2
3.406 From the betatron condition,

1 d dB B
6B 7 = (r ) =
2 dt dt 0 ¢t
d 2B
Thus, 6B7 =
dt ¢t
d£ d 6B 7 2pr 2B
and = pr 2 =
dt dt ¢t
So, energy increment per revolution is
d£ 2pr 2eB
e = = 0.10 keV
dt ¢t
3.407 (a) Even in the relativistic case, know that p = Ber.

Thus, W = 2c 2p 2 + m20c 4 - m0c 2 = m0c 2 121 + (Ber/m0c) 2 - 12
(b) The distance traversed is
W W W¢t
2pr = 2pr 2
=
e£ 2pr eB/¢t Ber
on using the result of the previous problem.

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What are some of the topics covered in the book?

What are some of the topics covered in the book?

Abhay Kumar Singh

Other Wiley Editorial Offices:

It is my privilege to bring to you the third edition of SOLUTIONS TO IRODOV’S PROBLEMS

You can email me at: authoraks@gmail.com

Abhay Kumar Singh

Abhay Kumar Singh

Part One: Physical Fundamentals of Mechanics 1

Part Two: Thermodynamics and Molecular Physics 223

Part Three: Electrodynamics 321

Hence the sought average velocity is given by

1.4 (a) Sought average velocity s (m)

= 39.7 km/h (on substituting values) v'

In the time t2, drifting of the swimmer 2, becomes

= 1v ¿cos u + v02 = 1cot u + h cosec u2d

For xmin (minimum drifting) A x B

l = 2x 22 + ( y1 - y2 )2 = 2(v0 cos ut)2 + {v0t (1 - sin u)2}

| r12 | = v0t 22 (1 - sin u0 ) = 22 m

As v¿1 ⬜ v¿2 so, v¿1 # v¿2 = 0

Initially 3O equals a> 13, so the sought time 1

- ds = (v - u cos a) dt (where T is the sought time)

and similarly the coordinate of the second event is

in the reference frame ﬁxed on the Earth.

AP = AM sin u = (OA - OM ) sin u = (l2 - l1 cot u) sin u

1.19 (a) Mean velocity

So, from Eqs. (1) and (3)

1.20 (a) We have r = at (1 - at)

1.21 (a) As the particle leaves the origin at t = 0

v0 a 1 - b dt for t … t = v0t (1 - t/2t)

= v0t[1 + (1 - t>t)2]>2 for t 7 t (5)

On integrating and simplifying, we get

Again according to the problem

Differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to time, we get

(d) The mean velocity vector

Hence, | 6v 7 | = 2a2 + ( - bt)2 = 2a 2 + b 2t 2

1.25 (a) We have

(b) Differentiating Eq. (1) we get

Differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to time

(c) From Eqs. (2) and (3) we have v = a i + a (1 - 2at) j and w = 2a a j.

So, v = a v cos vt i + a v sin vt j (1)

s = v dt = a v dt = avt (using Eq. 2)

(b) Taking scalar product of v and w

So, v # w = - a 2v 2 sin vt cos vt + a 2v 3 sin vt cos vt = 0

1.27 According to the problem

Again differentiating with respect to time

- w = a (0) - 2b a b - 2bx (0) (using Eq. 1)

So, v  over the ﬁrst t seconds

v0 cos a 2 v0 cos a 2 v 20 cos2 a

1.30 We have, vx = v0 cos a, vy = v0 sin a - gt

Thus, v 2 = v 2x + v 2y = v 02 - 2gt v0 sin a + g 2t 2

On simplifying t 4 - 2400t2 + 1083750 = 1

Thus, t = 42.39 s = 0.71 min

1.34 According to the problem

Integrating dy = v0 dt or y = v0t (1)

(b) According to the problem

So, v over the ﬁrst t seconds

(a) At the point l = 0, sin vt = 0 and cos vt = 1 so, vt = 0, p, etc.

a b = v (since tangential velocity is constant = v)

Hence, vz = 22b 0 sin w

Putting the values of (a) and (b) and taking t 10 s, we get