Chapter 8

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
AND SIMILARITY IN FLOW
CONDITIONS
EPF 3401
Food Engineering Fluid Mechanics
 Objectives
• Develop a better understanding of dimensions,
units, and dimensional homogeneity of equations
• Understand the numerous benefits of dimensional
analysis
• Know how to use the method of repeating
variables to identify nondimensional parameters
• Understand the concept of dynamic similarity and
how to apply it to experimental modeling

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DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Dimension: A measure of a physical quantity (without numerical values).
Unit: A way to assign a number to that dimension.
There are seven primary dimensions (also called fundamental or basic
dimensions): mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, amount of
light, and amount of matter.
All nonprimary dimensions can be formed by some combination of the
seven primary dimensions.

A dimension is a measure of a
physical quantity without
numerical values, while a unit is
a way to assign a number to the
dimension. For example, length
is a dimension, but centimeter
is a unit. 3
4
The water strider
is an insect that
can walk on water
due to surface 5
tension.
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
The law of dimensional homogeneity: Every additive
term in an equation must have the same dimensions.

Total energy
of a system
at state 1
and at state
2.

You can’t add apples and oranges! 6

An equation that is
not dimensionally
homogeneous is a
sure sign of an error. 7
The Bernoulli equation is a
good example of a
dimensionally homogeneous
equation. All additive terms,
including the constant, have
the same dimensions,
namely that of pressure. In
terms of primary dimensions,
each term has dimensions
{m/(t2L)}. 8
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Nondimensionalization of Equations
Nondimensional equation: If we divide each term in the equation by a
collection of variables and constants whose product has those same
dimensions, the equation is rendered nondimensional.
Normalized equatiion: If the nondimensional terms in the equation are of
order unity, the equation is called normalized.
Each term in a nondimensional equation is dimensionless.
Nondimensional parameters: In the process of nondimensionalizing an
equation of motion, nondimensional parameters often appear—most of
which are named after a notable scientist or engineer (e.g., the Reynolds
number and the Froude number).
This process is referred to by some authors as inspectional analysis.

A nondimensionalized form of the

Bernoulli equation is formed by
dividing each additive term by a
pressure (here we use P). Each
resulting term is dimensionless
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(dimensions of {1}).
Dimensional variables: Dimensional quantities
that change or vary in the problem. Examples: z
(dimension of length) and t (dimension of time).
Nondimensional (or dimensionless) variables:
Quantities that change or vary in the problem,
but have no dimensions. Example: Angle of
rotation, measured in degrees or radians,
dimensionless units.
Dimensional constant: Gravitational constant g,
while dimensional, remains constant.
Parameters: Refer to the combined set of
dimensional variables, nondimensional variables,
and dimensional constants in the problem. Object falling in a vacuum.
Vertical velocity is drawn
Pure constants: The constant 1/2 and the positively, so w < 0 for a
exponent 2 in equation. Other common examples falling object. 11
of pure constants are  and e.
To nondimensionalize an equation, we need to select scaling parameters,
based on the primary dimensions contained in the original equation.

Froude
number

In a typical fluid flow problem, the

scaling parameters usually include a
characteristic length L, a characteristic
velocity V, and a reference pressure
difference P0  P. Other parameters
and fluid properties such as density,
viscosity, and gravitational
acceleration enter the problem as well.
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The two key advantages of nondimensionalization of an equation.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY
In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a
geometrically scaled model, rather than on the full-scale prototype.
In such cases, care must be taken to properly scale the results. We introduce
here a powerful technique called dimensional analysis.
The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are
• To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments
(physical and/or numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
• To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from
model performance
• To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters
The principle of similarity
Three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a model and a
prototype.
(1) Geometric similarity—the model must be the same shape as the prototype,
but may be scaled by some constant scale factor.
(2) Kinematic similarity—the velocity at any point in the model flow must be
proportional (by a constant scale factor) to the velocity at the corresponding
point in the prototype flow. 14
(3) dynamic similarity—When all forces in the model flow scale by a
constant factor to corresponding forces in the prototype flow (force-scale
equivalence).

Kinematic similarity is
achieved when, at all
locations, the speed in the
model flow is proportional to
that at corresponding
locations in the prototype
flow, and points in the same
direction.

In a general flow field, complete similarity between a model and prototype is

achieved only when there is geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity. 15
We let uppercase Greek letter Pi () denote a nondimensional parameter.
In a general dimensional analysis problem, there is one  that we call the
dependent , giving it the notation 1.
The parameter 1 is in general a function of several other ’s, which we call
independent ’s.

To ensure complete similarity, the model and prototype must be geometrically

similar, and all independent groups must match between model and prototype.

To achieve similarity

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 The Reynolds number Re is formed by
the ratio of density, characteristic
speed, and characteristic length to
viscosity. Alternatively, it is the ratio of
characteristic speed and length to
Geometric similarity between a kinematic viscosity, defined as  =/.
prototype car of length Lp and a model
car of length Lm.

The Reynolds number is the most well known and useful

dimensionless parameter in all of fluid mechanics. 17
A drag balance is a device used
in a wind tunnel to measure the
aerodynamic drag of a body.
When testing automobile models,
a moving belt is often added to
the floor of the wind tunnel to
simulate the moving ground (from
the car’s frame of reference). 18
19
A drag balance is a device used
in a wind tunnel to measure the
aerodynamic drag of a body.
When testing automobile models,
a moving belt is often added to
the floor of the wind tunnel to
simulate the moving ground (from
the car’s frame of reference). 20
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If a water tunnel is used instead of a wind tunnel to test their one-fifth
scale model, the water tunnel speed required to achieve similarity is

One advantage of a water tunnel

is that the required water tunnel
speed is much lower than that
required for a wind tunnel using
the same size model (221 mi/h
for air and 16.1 mi/h for water) .

Similarity can be achieved

even when the model fluid
is different than the
prototype fluid. Here a
submarine model is tested
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in a wind tunnel.
THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES
AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM
How to generate the
nondimensional parameters, i.e.,
the ’s?
There are several methods that
have been developed for this
purpose, but the most popular
(and simplest) method is the
method of repeating variables.

A concise summary of
the six steps that
comprise the method of
repeating variables.
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Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Setup for dimensional analysis of

a ball falling in a vacuum.
Elevation z is a function of time t,
initial vertical speed w0, initial
elevation z0, and gravitational 26
constant g.
Step 5

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The mathematical
It is wise to choose The  groups that result from the
rules for adding
common parameters as method of repeating variables are
and subtracting
repeating parameters since guaranteed to be dimensionless
exponents during
they may appear in each of because we force the overall
multiplication and
your dimensionless  exponent of all seven primary
division,
groups. dimensions to be zero.
respectively. 28
Step 6

The method of repeating variables cannot predict

the exact mathematical form of the equation.

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31
Although the Darcy friction
factor for pipe flows is most
common, you should be
aware of an alternative, less
common friction factor called
the Fanning friction factor.
The relationship between the
32
two is f = 4Cf .
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PUMP SCALING LAWS
Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis of a pump.

34
Dimensional analysis is useful for
scaling two geometrically similar
pumps. If all the dimensionless
pump parameters of pump A are
equivalent to those of pump B, the
35
two pumps are dynamically similar.
When a small-scale model is
tested to predict the performance
of a fullscale prototype pump, the
measured efficiency of the model
is typically somewhat lower than
that of the prototype. Empirical
correction equations such as Eq.
14–34 have been developed to
account for the improvement of
pump efficiency with pump size.

36
Pump Specific Speed

Pump specific speed is used to characterize the

operation of a pump at its optimum conditions
(best efficiency point) and is useful for
preliminary pump selection and/or design.

37
 Maximum efficiency as a function of
pump specific speed for the three
main types of dynamic pump. The
horizontal scales show
nondimensional pump specific speed
Conversions between the dimensionless, (NSp), pump specific speed in
conventional U.S., and conventional customary U.S. Units (NSp, US), and
European definitions of pump specific pump specific speed in customary
speed. Numerical values are given to four European units (NSp, Eur).
significant digits. The conversions for
NSp,US assume standard earth gravity. 38
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Affinity Laws Equations 14–38 apply to both pumps and
turbines.
States A and B can be any two homologous
states between any two geometrically
similar turbomachines, or even between two
homologous states of the same machine.
Examples include changing rotational
speed or pumping a different fluid with the
same pump.

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 Summary
• Dimensions and units
• Dimensional homegeneity
 Nondimensionalization of Equations
• Dimensional analysis and similarity
• The method of repeating variables and the
Buckingham pi theorem
• Pump scaling laws
 Dimensional analysis
 Pump specific speed
 Affinity laws

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