NOUNS

Overview of Nouns

A noun can name:

 a person - I'd like to speak to Mr. Nakamura, please.

 a job title - You should see a doctor about your sore throat.
 a place - Mexico is south of the United States.
 a thing - I left the report on your desk.
 a quality - Many countries have had to fight for independence.
 an activity - Swimming is good exercise.

Form of Nouns

Nouns may be:

 a single word without a suffix.

The door was open, and the office was empty.
 a word formed with an ending such as -er or -ment added to a verb.
She's a computer programmer.
After a year of talks, the two countries finally reached an agreement.
 a compound formed from two or more words.
Can I pay with a credit card?

Compound nouns occur when two or more words are used together in a fixed expression.
They can be written as one word or with a space or hyphen between the words. Compound
nouns can be formed from:

 noun + noun - There's a bookshelf in the corner.

 adjective + noun - He is a middle manager in a large company.
 gerund + noun - Does the hotel have a swimming pool?
 noun + gerund - Ice-skating is a winter sport.
 verb + preposition/particle - Employees have been unhappy with recent changes in
the company, and staff turnover has been high.

Noun + Noun Combinations

It is very common to use a noun as a modifier. Use noun + noun combinations to show:

 possession - Is the car door open?

 location - I left the umbrella in the hall closet.
 streets - Her house is on Oak Street.
  materials - He bought an expensive wool suit for the interview.
 types - I've been invited to a dinner party at their house.
 containers - There was an empty soda bottle on the table.

Proper Nouns and Common Nouns

Proper nouns are the names of unique things and begin with a capital letter. A/an or the are
not usually used before them. Proper nouns refer to particular:

 people, places, organizations - Anton works for Martek in Brussels.

 holidays, months, days of the week (but not seasons) - Next Tuesday is New Year's
Day.
 languages, nationalities - She grew up speaking Arabic and French.
 newspapers, magazines, and other unique things - Have you seen today's Wall
Street Journal?

Any noun that is not the name of a single particular person, place, or thing is a common
noun. Common nouns can be used with a/an, the, or no article. There are two kinds of
common nouns:

 Countable nouns refer to things that can be counted (a book, an envelope, three
stamps). They can be used in the plural.
We have to go to a meeting in about ten minutes.
 Uncountable nouns refer to things like materials (gold, plastic), liquids (blood,
water), qualities (courage, silence), feelings (anger, happiness), activities (reading,
shopping), conditions or processes (weather, education), and fields of study
(economics, history) that cannot be counted. They do not have a plural form.
I'd like some information about shipping costs.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

 Countable nouns (also called count nouns) have both a singular and plural form.
They can be used with a/an or with numbers.
Can we fit a table and two chairs in this corner?
 How many…? can be asked about countable nouns. (For more information about
quantity words used with countable nouns, see Overview of Quantifiers.)

How many people work in your office?

 Uncountable nouns (also called non-count) have only one form, with no plural. They
are not generally used with a/an or numbers.
We mixed flour and water together to make paste.
 Use a singular verb after uncountable nouns. Pronouns referring to uncountable
nouns are singular, too.
The music is very loud. Can you turn it down?
  How much…? can be asked about uncountable nouns. (For more information about
quantity words used with uncountable nouns, see Overview of Quantifiers.)

How much rain did we get yesterday?

 Some nouns are countable in other languages, but not in English. For
example: advice, furniture, hair, information, luggage, machinery, money, news.
New machinery is being installed in the factory.
 Some nouns are uncountable in one meaning and countable in another.
Do you think he has enough experience (= skill that comes from practice) to do the
job?
I had a couple of bad experiences (= something that happens to you) with that
airline, and I won't fly with them again.
 Some nouns are uncountable when talking about the thing in general and countable
when indicating different types or individual units.
There's more cake in the kitchen. I baked a chocolate cake for dessert.

Use words that mean a piece with uncountable nouns, words that mean a group with
countable nouns, and words that mean a container or a measure with either countable and
uncountable nouns. All of these words are followed by of + the noun. The words can refer
to:

 a single unit of an uncountable substance

The cat played with a ball of string.
 a piece of an uncountable substance - He ate two slices of bread and a piece of
cheese.
 a collection of people, animals, or things
I put the bunch of flowers in a vase.
 a container filled with something - I bought a box of cereal and a container of
orange juice.
 a particular amount of something
This recipe for onion soup calls for three pounds of onions and two quarts of beef
broth.

Plural Nouns

Form the regular plural by adding:

 -s to most nouns: call--calls, bird--birds, monkey--monkeys, prize--prizes, store--stores,

tree-trees.
They could hear the calls of birds and monkeys in the trees.
 -es to most nouns ending in -s/-x/-sh/-ch/-z: box--boxes, bush--bushes, class--classes,
watch--watches, quiz--quizzes (notice that z at the end of a word may be doubled).
I have quizzes today in my biology and English classes.
  -es and changing y to i for most nouns ending in consonant + y: city--cities, country--
countries, university-universities.
Damascus is one of the oldest cities in the world.
 -es to some nouns that end in -o: hero--heroes, potato--potatoes, tomato--tomatoes;
just -s to some: kilo--kilos, photo--photos, piano--pianos, video--videos; and either -
es or -s to some: mosquito--mosquitoes or mosquitos, volcano--volcanoes or volcanos.
The book showed dramatic photos of active volcanoes.

Some nouns have irregular plural forms:

 A few nouns have special plurals: child--children, foot--feet, man--men, mouse--mice,

person--people, tooth--teeth, woman--women.
Thousands of men, women, and children were forced to leave their homes after the
earthquake.
 Some nouns ending in -f or -fe have a plural ending in -ves: half--halves, knife--knives,
leaf--leaves, life--lives, loaf--loaves, shelf--shelves, wife--wives.
I keep history books on the two lower shelves of the bookcase.
 Some nouns have the same singular and plural form: aircraft, deer, fish,
headquarters, moose, series, sheep.
We caught six fish yesterday.
 Some nouns borrowed from other languages have irregular plurals: analysis--
analyses, memorandum--memoranda, phenomenon--phenomena, stimulus--stimuli.
The discovery helps explain several natural phenomena.

Gender (Masculine or Feminine)

There is no grammatical gender for English nouns.

 Most nouns referring to people do not indicate whether the person is male or
female. Only the pronoun (he or she) indicates this.
My accountant says that he is moving his office.
My neighbor said that she sold her house.
 A few nouns exist in contrasting masculine and feminine forms; for
example: man/woman, boy/girl, hero/heroine, bull/cow.
Women, on average, live longer than men.
 A few feminine -ess endings are still used (for example, actor/actress,
waiter/waitress), but adding -ess to most words, like author, is now old-fashioned.
The actor and actress who played the couple in the movie are married in real life.
 Many people prefer to use nouns ending in -person or other gender-neutral nouns
rather than words ending in -man or -woman; for
example: chair/chairperson (rather than chairman or chairwoman),
firefighter (rather than fireman), police officer (rather
than policeman or policewoman), spokesperson (rather
than spokesman or spokeswoman).
Dr. Atkins is the new spokesperson for the hospital.
Form of the Possessive

Add apostrophe s ('s) or just an apostrophe (') to nouns to show possession:

 Add 's to most singular nouns.

The company's main office is in Caracas.
 Add 's or just an apostrophe (') to singular nouns ending in -s.
My boss's/boss' assistant is out sick today.
 Add 's or just an apostrophe (') to most names ending in -s.
James's/James' father is from Iran.
 Add an apostrophe (') to plural nouns ending in -s.
They checked all the passengers' tickets carefully.
 Add 's to irregular plural forms that do not end in -s.
The men's football team won last night.
 Add 's to the last part of a compound or a phrase used as a unit.
My sister-in-law's father is a pilot.
We stayed at Miguel and Lena's house.

Use of the Possessive

Use the 's (or s') form for possession by people, animals, and groups, but not for possession
by things. The possessive can be used for:

 things belonging or connected to someone

My sister's car is a Toyota.
 relationships
Have you met Gerhard's sister?
 parts of the body
The man's hair was very long.
 actions performed by someone
The government's decision to lower taxes surprised many people.
 the intended users of a thing
Women's clothes are on the first floor, and men's clothes are on the second.

A possessive can be used without a following noun to refer to a person's home or place of
business.
We're having dinner at Molly's tonight.
I'm leaving work early to go to the doctor's.

Use a possessive with 's after a noun + of to refer to one of a number of things or people
that belong to or are connected with someone.
I'd like you to meet a friend of my brother's.
It reminded me of a story of Hemingway's that I once read.
Possession by Things

 Of can be used to show possession by things.

He opened the door of his office.
 It is also very common to use a noun + noun combination.
He opened his office door.

There are some phrases with of where it is not possible to form compound nouns. For
example:

 most parts of things - The inside of the car was covered in mud.

 many abstract phrases - The cost of living rose 3% this year.

There are some phrases referring to things where we use the 's/s' possessive rather than a
compound noun or a phrase with of. For example:

 time references - He received six months' severance pay.

 places named after people - St. Patrick's Cathedral is on Fifth Avenue in New York.
 features of the Earth and other planets - The Earth's atmosphere protects us from
the sun.

ARTICLE
IndefiniteArticle: a/an

Definite Article: the

The Zero Article

 PRONOUNS

Overview of Pronouns

A pronoun is a word like he, she, or it used in place of a noun. Use pronouns when it is

already known who or what is referred to. - Martina called. She wants you to call her back.

Words like I, me, they, and them are called personal pronouns.

 1st person forms refer to the speaker: I (singular); we (plural). We can either

include the listener or not.
We're leaving tomorrow. What about you?
 2nd person forms refer to the person or people who are being spoken to: you (both
singular and plural).
Are you ready to go?
 3rd person forms refer to the person or thing that is being spoken about: he, she,
it (singular); they (plural). It can refer to a thing, place, or animal, though animals
(for example, pets) can also be referred to with he or she.
Joanna is here. She can't stay long.
The car didn't sound right, so I took it to the mechanic.
The dog wagged his/its tail.

Subject Pronouns
Subject pronouns come before a verb. Notice that the pronoun you can refer to one person
or more than one person.
My name is Pietro Bustelli. I work in the New York office.
Don't forget your books. You'll need them to do your homework.
Greg isn't here. He's out sick today.
Please call Jennifer Green. She's in her office.
The clock isn't working. It needs a new battery.
Anna and I just got back from Greece. We had a great trip.
John and Sandra are here, but they can't stay long.

Object Pronouns

Object pronouns come after verbs or prepositions.

Tomorrow is my birthday. John is taking me out to dinner.
You don't have to go to the meeting. I'll take notes for you.
Vijay doesn't know about our decision yet. Please don't tell him.
Nadia has worked very hard. I think we should give her a promotion.
My suit is dirty. I'll have to take it to the cleaners.
Carly and I are going out to lunch. Would you like to join us?
The students didn't understand the assignment, so the teacher explained it to them again.
In informal speech, object pronouns are used after it is/it was:

A: Who said that?

B: It was him.

In informal speech, object pronouns are used in short answers, but in more formal speech
and writing, a subject pronoun + verb is used.

Informal
A: Who wants ice cream?
B: Me!

Formal
A: Who wants ice cream?
B: I do.

One and Ones

An adjective is not usually used by itself as if it were a noun.

Incorrect: I sold the old car and bought a new.
Correct: I sold the old car and bought a new one.

Use one or ones to replace a countable noun.

A: What kind of telephone did you buy?
B: A cordless one.

One and ones are often used after which, this, that, and adjectives.

A: I like the red roses. Which ones do you like?
B: The white ones.

It

Every English sentence needs a subject. Sometimes, it is used as an "empty" subject.

Use it to talk about:

 time
A: What time is it?
B: It's 12 o'clock.
 weather
Wear a coat. It's cold outside.
 the environment
It's getting dark. Let's go home.

Although it is possible to begin a sentence with a to-infinitive or a noun clause, it is more

common to begin with it and put the infinitive or noun clause later.
It was difficult to make a decision.
It's a shame that Henry isn't here.

For more information, see Adjective + Infinitive and Complex Sentences with Noun Clauses.

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives refer to the one who owns or has the thing possessed. They do not
refer to the thing that is possessed.

 Possessive adjectives are always used before nouns.

I left the report on my desk.
Thank you. I really appreciate your help.
Bob has a new supervisor. His name is Toshio Tanaka.
Gloria is away on business. Her assistant has the phone number.
We cannot accept the proposal in its present form.
We're moving to our new offices next week.
The employees met with their lawyer to discuss the new contract.
 Notice that the possessive adjective its has no apostrophe. It's is a short form for it
is or it has (+ past participle).

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns stand alone. Do not use them before nouns. Notice that there is no
possessive pronoun form for it.
That isn't my briefcase. Mine is black.
Bill's passport was on the desk, but I didn't see yours.
Sharon has her ticket and Andy has his.
Irene isn't here right now. Are you a friend of hers?
Most companies have a holiday tomorrow, but ours doesn't
The staff received their bonuses, but the supervisors haven't received theirs yet.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are formed from possessive adjectives + -self or -selves. Notice

that you has both a singular and plural reflexive form.
I enjoyed myself at the party last night.
Be careful with the knife. You'll cut yourself.
He looked at himself in the mirror
She doesn't live with her family any more. She lives by herself (= alone).
We don't need help. We can do it ourselves.
You and Kate will have to cook for yourselves while I'm away.
They're old enough to take care of themselves.

Use reflexive pronouns:

  when the subject and object of a verb are the same - He used the money to
buy himself some new shoes.
 when the object of a preposition is the same as the subject of the verb - Tell me a
little about yourself and why you want the job.
 to emphasize a noun or pronoun - I myself heard him make that promise.

Some verbs, such as get up, sit down, and stand up, are reflexive in other languages but not
in English. There are very few verbs in English that must be followed by a reflexive
pronoun. These include: absent, avail, busy, and pride.
She busied herself in the garden to make the time go faster.

Demonstrative Adjectives

Use that/those to refer to people or things that are far away or that have already been
mentioned. Use:

 that + singular countable noun

Do you see that man across the street? He's our new sales manager.
 that + uncountable noun
Don't forget to bring that information you promised me.
 those + plural countable noun
Those stars are called the Seven Sisters.

Use this/these to refer to people or things that are near or that have already been
mentioned. Use:

 this + singular countable noun

Look at this photo closely. Do you see anyone you know?
 this + uncountable noun
Ugh! This milk is sour! It smells awful.
 these + plural countable noun
Sales of Tasty Choice frozen foods were down. The market for these products has
become very competitive.

In referring to periods of time, use:

 that to refer to a time that has been mentioned

A: How about March 8th?
B: I have a meeting that morning, but I'm free in the afternoon.
 this to refer to a time in the present or near future
Are you working on any special projects this week?
Can I call you back this afternoon?
Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns stand alone. Do not use them before nouns.

Use that/those:

 to refer to something that is not very near in place or time.

That's a nice shirt you're wearing. Is it new?
 to refer to something that has been mentioned
A: Did you say September 20th?
B: That's right.

A: I threw the files away.

B: Oh no! Those were the only copies of the old contracts.
 to identify a person or to ask about identity. Notice that the pronoun that is used for
people only in this meaning.
A: Who's that in the blue suit?
B: That's our new CEO.

Use this/these:

 to refer to something that is near or currently taking place

"Is this the file you were looking for?" she asked, holding up a brown folder.
Is this your first trip to Japan?
 to refer to something that has already been mentioned
I like jeans, but these feel much too tight.
We have increased sales by 300%. This is a remarkable change.
 to refer to something that is going to be mentioned
I can tell you this--you won't regret your decision.
 to introduce or identify a person (for example, on the telephone). Notice that the
pronoun this is not used for people except with this meaning.
Hello. This is Julia Wong. Can I speak to Michael Esposito?

Indefinite Pronouns

Use somebody/someone and something in affirmative sentences and in questions inviting a

"yes" answer. Use a singular verb after these words.
Somebody/Someone's at the door. Please see who it is.
I'd like something to drink.
Can I get you something to eat?

Use nobody/no one and nothing to mean "not a single person/thing" in affirmative

sentences. Use a singular verb after these words.
I didn't go to the meeting because nobody/no one told me about it.
She's always complaining. Nothing makes her happy.
Use anybody/anyone and anything in questions and negative statements.
Was anybody/anyone there when you arrived?
I didn't do anything yesterday. I just stayed home and rested.

Use everybody/everyone and everything, meaning all the members of a group, in affirmative

statements.

 Everybody/everyone and everything take singular verb forms.

If everybody/everyone is here, let's start the meeting.
We made the deadline. Everything was finished by noon.
 Plural pronouns (they, their, etc.) are often used in referring back to everyone. Some
speakers do not consider this correct, and use masculine pronouns (he, his, etc.)
unless the context is clearly female.
Everyone has their own computer.

Indefinite pronouns can also be used with:

 adjectives - He gave me something special for my birthday.

 comparatives - Don't you have anything cheaper?
 infinitives - Is there no one to help you?

QUANTITY
Overview of Quantifiers

Quantifiers are words like a lot of, a little, and some, or numbers. They show how much of
something or how many things we are talking about.
I have a lot of work to do.
The soup needs a little salt.
I could use some help setting up the equipment.
Can you give us two hours?

Numbers and exact measure words are definite quantifiers.

We need five eggs and half a pound of butter for this recipe.

Most quantifiers are indefinite. They do not give an exact amount.

We have enough eggs, but we don't have much butter.

Some quantifiers are used with uncountable nouns.

He had a great deal of confidence in himself and was sure he would succeed.

Some quantifiers are used with countable nouns.

I called them several times, but there was no answer.
Some quantifiers are used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
A lot of employees are at a training course now.
There was a lot of information on their web site.

Uses of some and any

Use some + plural noun or uncountable noun:

 in affirmative statements
I have some phone calls to make.
 in questions inviting a "yes" answer
A: Do you need some more time?
B: Yes. I'm not quite finished.
 in offers
A: Would you like some coffee?
B: Yes. Thank you.
 in requests
A: May I have some milk?
B: Of course.
 to mean "certain"
Some people will believe anything they read.

Use any + plural noun or uncountable noun:

 in negative statements
I didn't take any sick days last year.
 in uncertain questions
Are there any holidays in May?
 in statements with a negative meaning
There were hardly any (= very few) seats left by the time we got to the theater.
 in conditional sentences
If you have any questions, I'll be happy to answer them.
 to mean "every"
Any child could answer that question.

Uses of no and none

No + countable or uncountable noun can be used in place of not any to show complete
absence. No may sound more emphatic.
There are no sandwiches because there was no time to make them.
There aren't any sandwiches because there wasn't any time to make them.

None can be used by itself as a pronoun to refer to a noun used earlier.

I can't find the eggs. There are none in the refrigerator.
A: Did you have any trouble getting here?
B: No, none. Your directions were very clear.

Uses of many, much, and a lot of

Use many + plural noun:

 in negative sentences
Not many people know who he is.
 in questions
How many people work in your office?
 after so and too or with as…as (see Comparatives and Superlatives.)
So many qualified people have applied for the job that it will be difficult to choose just
one.
 in ordinary affirmative statements. A lot of is more usual in
conversation; many sounds more formal in affirmative statements.
Many foreign companies have set up factories there.

Use much + uncountable noun:

 in negative sentences
There wasn't much traffic this morning, since it's a holiday.
 in questions
How much water should I give the plants?
 in statements with a negative meaning
The noise prevented her from getting much sleep.
 after so and too or with as…as
I can't go out to dinner tonight. I have too much work to do.
(For more information about as...as, see Comparatives with  As.)

Much can be used in ordinary affirmative statements, but it sounds very formal. Other
quantifiers are usually used in its place, such as a lot of or a great deal of.
Much effort went into the development of this project.

A lot of is more usual in conversation than many or much in affirmative sentences. Use a lot
of (informal lots of) with:

 plural nouns
I took a lot of pictures on the trip. (more natural than: I took many pictures on the
trip.)
 uncountable nouns
He has a lot of experience in marketing. (much more natural than: He
has much experience in marketing.)
Notice that the verb agrees with the noun that follows a lot of.
There was a lot of water on the floor.
There were a lot of people waiting to board the airplane.

Uses of few, a few, little, a little

A few and a little are positive in meaning. They mean "some."

 Use a few with countable nouns.

We're having a few friends over on Saturday. Would you like to join us?
 Use a little with uncountable nouns.
I know a little Spanish.

Few and little are negative in meaning. They mean "hardly any" or "not

enough." Few and little sound formal when they are used without a modifier like very.

 Use few with countable nouns.

Claire was lonely. She had few friends.
 Use little with uncountable nouns.
He has very little hope of winning the election.

Uses of both and all

Use both + plural noun and both (of) the (or both (of) my/these etc.) + plural noun in the
same way to refer to two people or things.
Katherine wrote two letters. Both letters were about the company's new advertising
campaign.
Both the letters were short. Both of my brothers are older than me.

Use all + plural or uncountable noun to refer to things in general.

All children like to play.
Not all grass is green.

Use all (of) the/my etc. for particular reference.

All the children on my street like to play soccer.
All the grass in our yard has turned brown.

All of their documents were lost in the fire.

Usually all is not used by itself as a pronoun to mean "all the people" or "all the things."
Use everyone, everybody, or everything instead.
Everyone has gone home.
I think everything is ready for the presentation.
Each compared with every

Use each/every + singular countable noun.

 Each is used for two or more things to suggest "one by one," "separately."
You must sign each copy of the form.
 Every is used for three or more things and suggests "all together."
The meal was delicious! I enjoyed every bite.
 However, each and every are often used in exactly the same way.
The company's profits have increased each/every year.
 Each (not every) can be used after a noun or at the end of a sentence.
The tickets are fifteen dollars each.
 Every (not each) can be modified by words like almost or not.
I buy a newspaper almost every day.

Other, others, and another

 Use other + plural noun to refer to additional or alternative people or things of the

type mentioned.
He shares an office with two other people.
There must be other ways of solving the problem.
 After quantity words such as some, any, no, or one, the word other can be used with
an uncountable or singular noun.
We don't have any other information about the accident.
There is one other person I could ask.
 Use the (or my/her, etc.) other with either a singular or plural countable noun to
refer to one or more of the rest of a group.
I found one glove, but I can't find the other one.
 Use the others by itself to mean "the rest."
Alicia, what do you think? Do you agree with the others?
 Use another + singular noun to refer to an additional or an alternative thing or
person.
Would you like another cup of coffee?
Thursday isn't good for me. Can we meet another day?
 Another can be used with a plural noun if few or a number comes before the noun.
I'll be staying here for another two days.

Either and neither

Either and neither refer to two people or things.

 Use either + singular noun to mean "one or the other."

A: Should we meet or just talk on the phone?
B: Either way is fine with me.
  Use neither + singular noun to mean "not one and not the other."
Neither executive would admit to being wrong.

ADJECTIVES
Overview of Adjectives

An adjective describes the person or thing that a noun refers to.

Julio is young. He's only twenty-two.
These boxes are heavy. I can't lift them.
That's a good idea. Let's go out for dinner.

Adjectives do not change their form to "agree" with nouns.

We had a long meeting to discuss the problem.
We had several long meetings to discuss the problem.

Adjectives may be:

 a word without a suffix or prefix

The basement was cold and damp.
 a word formed with a suffix such as -able, -ful, -ical, -ish, -ous, -y added to a noun.
Be careful. The roads are icy.
 a word formed with a prefix such as dis- or un- added to an adjective.
He was unhappy about moving to a smaller office.
 the -ing form of a verb
I read an interesting article about Internet-based companies.
 the -ed form of a verb
I'm interested in the effect of electronic commerce on local businesses.
 a compound
She's self-employed. She runs a small consulting company.

Position of Adjectives

Most adjectives can occur:

 before nouns
We bought a new computer.
 after linking verbs. Be, look, seem, feel, taste, smell, and become are common linking
verbs.
This computer is new. We just bought it.

Note that adjectives come after, not before, indefinite pronouns like anything, anyone,
something, somewhere, nothing, everything.
Did you notice anything unusual?
Some adjectives are used only after a verb (usually a linking verb like be), not before a
noun. These include:

 adjectives beginning with a- (e.g., afraid, alive, alone, asleep, awake)

She was alone in the house, and no one could hear her.
 some adjectives, when they describe a person's health or feelings (e.g., glad, ill,
pleased, sorry, stressed, upset, well) But: these adjectives have different meanings
when used before some nouns - an ill effect, a sorry state, etc.
I'm glad you liked the present.

Some adjectives are used only before a noun. These include:

 adjectives that either give emphasis (e.g., mere, sheer, utter) or restrict the reference
of the noun (e.g., chief, main, only, sole)
The meeting was an utter waste of time.
 adjectives referring to location (e.g., bottom, indoor, lower, outdoor, top, upper)
She bit her lower lip nervously.
 a few adjectives ending in -al or -ic (e.g., atomic, federal, medical)
We pay state and federal taxes.

A limited number of adjectives (e.g., available, eligible, imaginable) can either go before or

after a noun.
There are no rooms available/available rooms for the 23rd.

Adjectives used in measurements go after the noun.

The room is 18 feet long and 12 feet wide.

Some adjectives can take on different meanings when they are used in different positions.
He's an old friend. (= I've known him a long time.) [used only before a noun]
My aunt is very old now. (= She has lived for a long time.) [used either before or after a
noun]

He gave a very involved (= complicated) explanation. [used before a noun]

The people involved (= connected with this) no longer work for the company. [used after a
noun]

Modifying Adjectives

Many adjectives that describe a quality can be modified with very, too, or enough.

 Very and too go before the adjective.

Your directions were very clear.
Steve is only 14. He's too young to drive a car.
 Enough goes after the adjective.
Jane is 18. She's old enough to drive.
Some adjectives cannot be modified by very, too, or enough. These adjectives often describe
an extreme quality. Other modifiers may be used to emphasize them.
The weather was absolutely perfect.
What you're asking me to do is utterly impossible.
He won't hear you. He's fast asleep.

Adjective or Adverb?

Use adjectives, not adverbs, after linking verbs such as be, seem, look, taste, feel, smell, etc.
He was/felt/looked sick.
She seems happy.

Note that well can be either:

 an adjective meaning "in good health"

I'm going home now. I don't feel well.
 an adverb telling "how"
You play the piano very well

Adjectives Ending in -ed and -ing

Many past participles ending in -ed and present participles ending in -ing are used as
adjectives. Common pairs include: bored/boring, confused/confusing,
disappointed/disappointing, interested/interesting.

 Use -ing adjectives to describe the thing or person that caused a feeling.

The archeologists made an exciting discovery.
The after-dinner speaker was boring.
 Use -ed adjectives to describe how someone feels.
The archeologists were very excited about the ancient tools they discovered.
The audience was bored and restless.

The + Adjective

Usually, a noun or the pronoun one must be used after a determiner (the, a, my, your, etc.) +
adjective.
A: Which coat is yours?
B: The black one.

A: Do you like your new job?

B: I'm still at my old one.

The important thing is to be prepared.

Some adjectives can be used alone after the to refer to "the group as a whole." The meaning
is plural.
The rich want lower taxes.
The sick want better health care.
The poor want more opportunities.

Nationality Adjectives and Nouns

When talking about nationalities, adjective forms are preferable to
nouns. Remember: nationality adjectives can only be used as nouns if the adjective ends in
-an. Some nationalities can have -man or -woman added to make a noun.
Reiko is Japanese. (preferable to Reiko is a Japanese person.)
Joao is Brazilian. (preferable to Joao is a Brazilian.)
Pierre is a Frenchman.

Adjective Word Order

Adjectives used together are usually in this order: opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin,
material, use.

No more than three or four adjectives are used together to modify a noun..

 opinion
They have a beautiful horse.
 opinion + size
They have a beautiful little horse.
 opinion + size + color
They have a beautiful little black horse.
 opinion + size + color + origin
They have a beautiful little black Arabian horse.
 use
There was a conference table in the room.
 shape + use
There was a round conference table in the room.
 size + shape + use
There was a large round conference table in the room.
 size + shape + material + use
There was a large round oak conference table in the room.
 ADVERBS
Overview of Adverbs

Adverbs can add to the meaning of:

 verbs
He spoke slowly and clearly so that everyone would understand.
 adjectives
My department is very busy now.
 other adverbs
I don't know her very well.
 whole sentences
Unfortunately, sales were much lower than we expected.

Adverbs can be single words or phrases. They answer questions like:

 how
She walked quickly to keep warm.
 how long
The training session lasted all day.
 how often; when
I usually leave the house before seven.
 where
We ate lunch in the park.

Adverbs of Place (answering the question where) are usually in the form of prepositional
phrases. For more information, see, Prepositions of Direction and Position.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner tell how something happens. They are typically formed by adding -
ly or -ily to an adjective.
It was a slow train. It crept slowly through the tunnel.
She was happy. She sang happily as she worked.

Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives.

He liked fast cars. He drove fast on the highway.
We had an early flight. We left early.

Some adverbs have two forms: a form that is the same as an adjective and an -ly form. The
two forms often have different meanings.
He didn't work hard (= using effort). In fact, he hardly worked (= almost didn't work) at
all.
I worked late (= past my usual time) last night. I've had a lot of work to do lately (=
recently).
Some adverbs have two forms that have the same meaning. The form without -ly is usually
used only in informal speech or writing.
Please don't talk so loud/loudly. I'm trying to read.
Go call the police quick/quickly! There's been an accident.

Some adjectives end in -ly. Since they are adjectives, they cannot be used as adverbs.
(Incorrect: Everyone smiles very friendly.) Other adjectives like this are: cowardly, lively,
lovely, silly.
My neighborhood is a friendly place. People smile in a friendly way when you pass them on
the street.

Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time describe when something happened. They are usually points of time, such
as last week or yesterday. Other time adverbs include already, still, yet, and soon.
I presented my proposal last week.
They had a staff meeting yesterday.
They've already made their decision.
I'm still waiting to hear what they decided.
No one has told me anything yet.

Adverbs of Duration

Adverbs of duration describe how long an action continues. They are usually adverbial
phrases. Use:

 since with a point in time or event in the past to indicate when something started
He's been out of work since March/since the company closed.
 for with a period of time
He's been looking for a job for ten weeks.
 over and during with a period of time
He answered several ads over the weekend.
 by (= not later than) with a point in time
He hopes to have a job by June.
 until/till (= up to the time of) with a point in time
He won't feel relaxed until/till he's working again.

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency are words like always, usually, frequently, often, sometimes,

seldom, and never (arranged from most to least often) that answer the question How
often? They have three basic positions:

 after be when it is the only verb in the sentence

I'm always late.
  after an auxiliary, if there is one, and before the main verb when there is only one
verb
I frequently sleep through my alarm.
My business partner is usually waiting for me when I get to the office.
 after the first auxiliary when there is more than one
I would never have completed the report without you.

Intensifiers and Other Adverbs of Degree

Intensifiers are words like very that strengthen:

 adjectives
She's very excited about her promotion.
 adverbs
I feel very strongly that you should reject the offer.

Really and extremely can be used for special emphasis in place of very. Really is more

informal in use.
I'm really sorry, but I made a mistake.

Some intensifiers, like very, really, and extremely, can be used with most adjectives and

adverbs. Other intensifiers tend to combine with particular adjectives and adverbs.
The advertising campaign was highly successful in attracting new customers.
It's awfully hot in here.
The price was drastically reduced to attract buyers.

I'm terribly busy all day today.

Compare very and too:

 Very gives force to an adjective or adverb; it makes it stronger in meaning.

This job is very difficult, but I can do it.
 Too does not simply strengthen an adjective or adverb. It means "more than is
desirable" or "more than enough."
This job is too difficult for me. Sorry, I can't do it.

Use much, far, and a lot to strengthen comparisons.

She works much longer hours than I do.
The factory has had far/a lot fewer accidents with the new equipment.

Adverbs of degree change the strength of adjectives and other adverbs.

 Quite often means "very," "to a considerable degree."

This fabric feels quite different. It's much softer than the other one.
Be careful: in spoken British English, quite can also mean "not as much" - I quite like it, but
I prefer the other one.

 Pretty means "inclined to be." It is informal in use.

I'm pretty sure the store closes at six.
 Fairly suggests a lower degree.
We need to make a decision fairly quickly.

Focus Adverbs

Use focus adverbs like even and only to focus attention on a word or words. They can be
used in various positions:

 after be or an auxiliary (or the first auxiliary, if there is more than one)
I'm only going to be in Paris for two days.
 before a main verb other than be
The hotel chiefly attracts business guests.
 before the word that is the focus of attention
Even the teacher couldn't answer all the questions correctly.
We have only one printer that works.

Some focusing adverbs are used to link sentences or parts of sentences:

 Also is usually used after be or an auxiliary or before a main verb other than be. It
can also be used at the beginning of a sentence.
Diana is good at problem-solving. She's also very creative.
I play tennis and I also swim for exercise.
 Too is usually used at the end of a sentence. Use also and too to link affirmative
sentences or ideas.
Manuel seems like a natural leader. He has a lot of experience, too.
 Use either at the end to link negative sentences or ideas.
Stephanie doesn't have much experience. She didn't seem very enthusiastic about the
job, either.

Use too and either in short answers:

 Use too to agree with affirmative statements.

A: I'm hungry.
B: I am, too! (informal: Me, too!)
 Use (not) either to agree with negative statements.
A: I didn't understand the directions.
B: I didn't, either.

Viewpoint Adverbs
Viewpoint adverbs add a comment about the sentence. They express the viewpoint of the
speaker or writer.
Unfortunately, I can't stay long.
Frankly, I don't think he's qualified for the job.
The product obviously appeals more to women.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

Overview of Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives when comparing one person or thing with another, or with itself at a
different time.
The Seitan Tunnel in Japan is longer than the Channel Tunnel between England and France.
This restaurant is more expensive than it used to be.

Use superlatives to compare one person or thing with the group that it belongs to. The is
usually used before the superlative.
Are the Petronas Towers still the tallest buildings in the world?
Tokyo is the most expensive city in the world.

If it is clear what the person or thing is being compared with, this does not need to be
mentioned.
A: Should we take the bus or the train?
B: The train. It's quicker.

First class is usually the most comfortable.

To show a smaller degree of a quality, use:

 less and least
The advertising campaign was less successful than we expected.
She was the least experienced of all the candidates for the job.
 not as…as. This is probably more common than less/least in conversation.
The advertising campaign wasn't as successful as we expected.
She wasn't as experienced as the other candidates for the job.

Less/least is not used with many short adjectives and adverbs. Instead, use not as…as or a
comparative adjective or adverb of the opposite meaning.
Anna isn't as old as Kate.
Anna is younger than Kate.

Forming Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

One-syllable adjectives usually form the comparative with -er and the superlative with -est:
  In most cases, simply add -er or -est to the end of the adjective: short--shorter--
shortest; great--greater--greatest.
Did you cut your hair? It looks shorter.
Our employees are very important. In fact, they are our greatest asset.
 If the adjective ends in -e, add only -r or -st: large--larger--largest; nice--nicer--nicest.
The company has grown and is looking for larger office space.
He tried to say "no" in the nicest way possible.
 If the adjective ends in one vowel + one consonant, double the consonant before
adding -er or -est: big--bigger--biggest; hot--hotter--hottest.
It was hot outside and even hotter in the house.
Russia is the biggest country in the world.

For two-syllable adjectives that end in -y, change y to -i and add -er or -est: happy--

happier--happiest; busy--busier--busiest.
She's much happier at her new job than she was at her old one.
Atlanta has the busiest airport in the United States.

Some two-syllable adjectives can form the comparative with -er or more or the superlative
with -est or most.
Let's go to my office to talk. It's quieter/more quiet there.
At the street's narrowest/most narrow point, you can touch the houses on either side.
This conversation is depressing. Can we talk about something more pleasant/ pleasanter?
The word the is the most common/commonest word in English.

Other two-syllable adjectives and adjectives with more than two syllables generally
use more and most to form the comparative and superlative.
Sorry about the mess. I'll try to be more careful next time.
It was the most boring speech he had ever heard. He almost fell asleep.
Would you like a more comfortable chair to sit on?
Last year was the company's most successful year to date.

A few adjectives have irregular comparatives and superlatives:

good--better--best
bad--worse--worst
far--farther
further--farthest/furthest
Employees demanded better working conditions.
How can we choose the best candidates for the job and avoid the worst ones?

Forming Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Some one- and two-syllable adverbs form the comparative with -er and the superlative
with -est: fast--faster--fastest; early--earlier--earliest. These are usually words that can also
be used as adjectives. Other adverbs like this include: close, late, loud, slow.
We'll have to walk faster to get there on time.
I have to get up earlier than usual tomorrow to catch a plane.
Everyone worked hard on the project, but I think you worked (the) hardest.

Most adverbs form the comparative with more and the superlative with most.

Could you speak a little more softly? I'm trying to work.
We can advise your company on how to use advertising most effectively.

A few adverbs have irregular comparatives and superlatives:

well--better--best
badly--worse--worst
far--farther/further
farthest/furthest
little--less--least
much--more--most
The car runs better since I had the oil changed.
Farmers have been hit (the) worst by the recession.

Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs with than

Use than when mentioning both things or people that are being compared.

We can use comparative adjective + than followed by:

 a noun
My brother is older than your sister.
 a noun or subject pronoun + an auxiliary or verb
My brother is older than she is.
 an object pronoun. Note that this is informal and not generally used in writing.
My brother is older than her.

Use comparative adverb + than followed by:

 a noun
You work more carefully than Evan.
 a noun or subject pronoun + an auxiliary or verb
You work more carefully than he does/works.
 an object pronoun. Note that this is informal and not generally used in writing.
You work more carefully than him.

The with Superlatives

Use the or a possessive with a superlative adjective when a noun follows the adjective.
The teacher chose the best work for the exhibition.
The teacher chose my best work for the exhibition.
The is also usually used with superlative adverbs.
Who works the best under pressure?

In an informal style, the is sometimes omitted:

 when a superlative adjective follows the verb

Which company is (the) most profitable?
 with superlative adverbs
The assembly line in Kyoto runs (the) fastest.

The cannot be omitted when the superlative is followed by a phrase describing the group
with which the person or thing is being compared.
Which company is the most profitable in the industry?
Comparative Nouns

To show a greater number or amount, use more with both uncountable and countable

nouns.
We have more time than money.
More employees have quit than have been hired.

To show a smaller number, use fewer with countable nouns.

Fewer managers are needed since the downsizing.

To show a smaller amount, use less with uncountable nouns.

The United States produces less oil than it imports.

Making Comparatives Stronger

Use much, far, or a lot with comparative adjectives and adverbs to make a comparison

stronger.
Is Shanghai much bigger than San Francisco?
We need to work much more quickly than we're working.
The land is a lot more valuable now than when we bought it.
My job is far less secure than it was.

Use many, far, or a lot with countable comparative nouns to make a comparison stronger.

We used to have many more employees than we do now.
In my new job, I have a lot more responsibilities.
Far more people invest in the stock market today.

Use much, far, or a lot with uncountable comparative nouns to make a comparison

stronger.
We need much more time to do the project well.
We need a lot more information before we can make a decision.
They wanted far more help than we could give them.
Comparatives with As

Use as …as with adjectives and adverbs to say that two people or things are equal in some
way.
I was as surprised as anyone when they offered me the job.
The noise ended as abruptly as it started.

Not as…as can be used instead of a comparative to show that two people or things are not
equal in some way.
Our apartment isn't as big as theirs. (= Our apartment is smaller than theirs.)
She doesn't work as hard as he does. (= He works harder than she does.)

As…as can be used to compare quantity:

 Use as many as with countable nouns.

Our company has had as many problems as theirs.
 Use as much as with uncountable nouns.
We didn't make as much profit as we had projected.

Use as + adjective/adverb + as followed by:

 a noun
He's as talented as Beth.
I can't run as fast as Mario.
 a noun or subject pronoun + an auxiliary or main verb
He's as talented as she is.
I can't run as fast as he can.
 an object pronoun. Note that this is informal and not generally used in writing.
He's as talented as her.
I can't run as fast as him.

PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERB PARTICLES

Overview of Prepositions and Adverb Particles

Small words such as up, down, and by are often prepositions. A preposition always has an
object (a noun or pronoun), which usually comes right after the preposition. A preposition
can be:

 a single word (in, across, at, from, to, into, etc.)

Please don't leave your car in the driveway.
  two or more words (in back of, according to, etc.)
There's a parking lot in back of the restaurant.

If the object is a pronoun, it is an object pronoun.

The attendant may need to move your car. Leave the keys for him.

The object usually follows the preposition. It can come earlier in some types of sentences:

 question-word questions (wh-questions)

What are you working on?
 indirect speech
I don't know what you're afraid of.
 sentences with relative clauses
This is the book (that) I was telling you about.
 passive sentences
The room hasn't been paid for.
 infinitive clauses
The factory's safety record is something to be proud of.

Prepositions express relationships such as:

 position
We're opening a branch office in Toronto.
 direction
There's a flight from New York to London at 7:30.
 time
Are you free on Friday afternoon?

Many prepositions can be used as adverb particles. A particle doesn't need an object. It
adds to the meaning of the verb.
I think I'll drive over and see them.
What will they think if you show up without calling first?

For more information, see, Overview of Phrasal Verbs.

Prepositions of Direction and Position

Use to/from and into/out of to show movement.

He went to Brazil for work.
She comes from Brazil.
He jumped into the water with all his clothes on.
When he came out of the water, he was dripping wet.

We use at, in, and on to show position:

  At shows a point in space, such as a meeting place.
I'll meet you at the bank.
 In shows a position inside a building or area.
I'll meet you in the bank.
 At often refers to a place where an activity happens.
We had dinner at a Thai restaurant.
 At can show a position directly next to.
He was sitting at the table.
 On shows a position on a surface.
There was a pitcher of water on the table.
 On can show a position along a line.
The town is on the river.

Use to to show movement and at to show position with:

 places: to/at work, the bank, the doctor's

 places attended: to/at school, college
 events: to/at a concert, a dance, a meeting
I'm going to a meeting. It starts in ten minutes.
He can't come to the phone right now. He's at a meeting.

Use to to show movement and in to show position with:

 large areas, cities, and towns: to/in Asia, Mexico, Seattle

They went to Mexico for a Spanish course.
They were in Mexico during the earthquake.
 outdoor areas: to/in the park, the backyard
 to/in bed, prison, the hospital, the kitchen (or other room)

Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

Use at with points in time:

 exact times: at noon, at the moment (= now)

He leaves for work at 7:30.
 meal times
I'm never hungry at lunchtime.
 some times of the day or year: at night, dawn, dusk, Christmas time
Nurses often have to work at night.
 ages
I got my first job at the age of 16.
 weekend (in British English)
Maybe we can get together at the weekend.

Use on with particular days:

  days of the week
My last interview is on Tuesday.
 parts of a particular day
My flight is on Wednesday night.
 dates
I'll be back on the 7th of July.
 birthdays, anniversaries, and holidays (New Year's Day, Mother's Day)
I'm sorry I won't be here on your birthday.
 weekend (in American English)
Maybe we can get together on the weekend.

Use in for:

 parts of the day

We're leaving in the morning.
 months
They're getting married in August.
 seasons
They usually go to Europe in the summer.
 years
She was born in 1972.
 decades and centuries
The house was built in the 19th century, probably in the 1870s.

Other Prepositions of Movement, Place, and Time

Some prepositions indicate movement when they follow certain verbs.

The dog ran after the rabbit but didn't catch it.
We walked along the path together.
Drive behind me until we go under the bridge.
The balloon drifted above the house.
He swam across the pool.

The same prepositions indicate position when they follow other verbs.
The bank isn't far. It's right after the library.
There are beautiful trees along the river.
We sat under the tree behind the house.
My bedroom is above the kitchen.
They're building a garage across the street.

These prepositions are used with a point in time or event:

 after or before (= later or earlier than the stated time or event)

Can you stop by my office after lunch?
  by (= at or before the stated time)
This report has to be done by tomorrow.
 until/till (= continuing up to the stated time)
I usually stay until 5.
 from…to/until/till (= beginning and ending at the stated times)
We're open from 9 to 6.
 since (= starting at the stated time)
Inflation has gone up three percent since the beginning of the year.

These prepositions are used with periods of time. Use:

 for to say how long something continues

I'll be out of the office for a couple of days.
 during or over to talk about a time within which something happens
The company recorded a big loss during its first year.

During and over answer the question "when;" for answers the question "how long."

Adjective + Preposition
Some adjectives are always or usually followed by a particular preposition when the
adjective comes after a verb.
As director of human resources, you will be responsible for training and recruitment.
Our lawyers were pleased with the judge's decision.

VERBS
Overview of Verbs

A verb can be:

 one word
Firefighters work hard.
 or a phrase
They put out fires.

Verbs can express:

 actions (dynamic verbs)

Grace and I work for the same company.
 or states (stative verbs)
She is my supervisor.

Verbs show distinctions in time (past, present, future) through the use of different tenses.
An auxiliary (have, will, etc.) often needs to be added to form a tense.
Our company produces computer chips. (present)
Last year we produced 15 million chips. (past)
Next year we will produce over 30 million. (future)

Subject-Verb Agreement

Different subjects can have different verb forms. The verb must agree with the subject.
Jane lives in Boston. (3rd person singular)
Her parents live in Chicago. (3rd person plural)

Indefinite pronouns like everyone, no one, and anyone use the 3rd person singular form:

Everyone knows who did it, but no one is willing to tell the police.

Collective nouns such as the team, the crowd, or the government take 3rd person singular
verbs.
Our family needs a new car.
The union is going on strike.

In British English, collective nouns can also take the 3rd person plural verb, although this is
more formal.
General Motors have not published their annual report yet.

When using there + be to say that something exists, the verb be agrees with the noun that
follows.
There's a formal dinner tonight at the university.
There are some changes to our menu tonight.

Verb Tenses: Simple and Progressive [Continuous] Forms

All tenses have two forms: simple and progressive (or continuous). Both give a general idea

of when something takes (or took) place. The progressive adds the idea that an action is or
was in progress, or continuing, at that time.

 present
They eat dinner at six every night. (simple)
They're eating dinner right now. (progressive/continuous)
 past
She worked on the program all day yesterday. (simple)
She was working on the program when I called. (progressive/continuous)
 present perfect
I've read several books about astronomy. (simple)
I've been reading a new book about astronomy. (progressive/continuous)
 past perfect
We had talked about the problem many times before. (simple)
We had been talking about the problem for over a month. (progressive/continuous)
  future
The head office will move next year. (simple)
The head office will be moving at the same time as the
merger. (progressive/continuous)

Dynamic [Action] and Stative [Non-action] Verbs

Verbs that express actions are called dynamic verbs.

 Dynamic verbs usually describe deliberate actions or changing situations.

I'm writing a note.
It's getting late.
 They can be used with or without an -ing ending.
I often listen to music while I work.
I'm listening to a CD right now.

Verbs that express states are called stative verbs. They are not generally used in
progressive (-ing) forms. Stative verbs usually describe:

 states of being, seeming, having, or owning

The factory is twelve years old, but it still looks (= appears) new.
Does this belong to you?
 feelings
I like your new car.
 mental states, such as thinking or believing
I think I know the answer.
 the senses and perception
He heard someone screaming.
 wants and preferences
She prefers to work by herself.

Some verbs have both dynamic and stative uses.

I'm tasting the soup. (deliberate action: dynamic)
It tastes salty. (perception: stative)
They have a small company. (have = own: stative)
Their company is having problems. (have = experience: dynamic)

The Present Tense

Form of the Simple Present: Statements

To form affirmative statements:

 Use the base form of the verb with I, you, we, they.
I work in a commercial bank.
 You own a business.
We make loans to businesses.
Businesses often need money.
 Add -s or -es to the base form of the verb with he, she, it
Edward designs clothes.
Martha sells clothes.
Her store opens at 10.

To form negative statements, use subject + do not/does not (= don't/doesn't) + base form of
the verb.

 Use do not (= don't) + base form of the verb with I, you, we, they.
I don't speak French.
 Use does not (= doesn't) + base form of the verb with he, she, it.
He doesn't speak English.

Form of the Simple Present: Questions

To form Yes/No questions:

 Use do + subject + base form of the verb with I, you, we, they:
Do you need a ride home?
 Use does + subject + base form of the verb with he, she, it.
Does it ever snow in Florida?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + do/does.

A: Do I need a visa to enter the country?
B: Yes, you do.

A: Does the train stop in Birmingham?

B: Yes, it does.
 No + subject pronoun + don't/doesn't
A: Do you have any questions?
B: No, I don't.

A: Does this light work?

B: No, it doesn't.

To form questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + do/does +

subject + base form of the verb.
How do you spell your last name?
Where does the company market its products?
 Uses of the Simple Present

Use the simple present for:

 permanent truths
The sun rises in the east.
Gases expand when heated.
 conditions and situations that exist at the present time
My mother wears glasses.
I work at Ace Electronics.
 habitual actions
John travels to Spain every year.
I usually get up at 6:30.
 comments and declarations
I hope everything will be all right.
I hear Sara has been promoted.
I don't agree with you.
 future reference in describing scheduled events (assumed to be facts)
The plane leaves at 7:45 and arrives at 10:20.
 future reference after some subordinating conjunctions (For more information,
see Subordinating Conjunctions.)
I'll call you when I get to San Francisco.

Form of the Present Progressive [Continuous]: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use subject + present of be + verb + -ing

 Use am + verb + -ing with I

I'm working on a big project right now.
 Use is + verb + -ing with he, she, it
Mark is helping me.
 Use are + verb + -ing with you, we, they
We're trying to finish by Tuesday.

For more information on the present of be, see Simple Present Form of  be.

To form negative statements, use subject + am/is/are + not + verb + -ing. Short forms are
normally used in conversation.
I'm not driving to work today.
The headlights on the car aren't working.
It isn't raining, so maybe I'll walk.

Form of the Present Progressive [Continuous]: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use am/is/are + subject + verb + -ing.

Am I waiting in the right place?
Is Mr. Jackson interviewing the candidates?
Are you applying for a position?
Are they making a decision today?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + am/is/are (no short form)

A: Are you enjoying your visit?
B: Yes, I am.
 No + subject pronoun + am/is/are + not (using a short form in the negative):
A: Are you staying long?
B: No, I'm not.

A: Is it still raining?
B: No, it isn't. OR No, it's not.

A: Are they going to the meeting?

B: No, they aren't. OR No, they're not.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + am/is/are + subject + verb + -ing.
What are you doing after work?
How is your mother feeling?
Why are they staring at us?

Uses of the Present Progressive [Continuous]

Use the present progressive for:

 actions in progress at the moment of speaking

Shh. The baby is sleeping.
 actions in progress around the present
I'm very nervous. I'm taking exams this week.
We're changing our accounting system at work.
 temporary situations
He's visiting his aunt in Miami.
She's studying Chinese.
I'm working at a law firm for the summer. (= it's a temporary job)
Compare: She works at a law firm. (= it's her regular job)
 planned future actions
We're leaving for Hong Kong tomorrow.
He's coming home next week.
 repeated actions (with always, constantly, etc.)
You're always complaining. You're never satisfied.
The Past Tense
Form of the Simple Past: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use a simple past tense verb after the subject. The form is
the same for all subjects.

 Regular verbs add -ed or -d to form the simple past tense.
I visited Maggie yesterday.
She moved to a new apartment last week.
 Some verbs are irregular. Their past forms cannot be predicted. You must learn
them.
We ate dinner out.
Then we went to a movie.

To form negative statements, use subject + did not (= didn't) + base form of the verb.
I looked for her, but I didn't see her in the crowd.
She didn't stay long, because she had a headache.

Form of the Simple Past: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use did + subject + base form of the verb.

Did you have any trouble finding us?
Did anyone call while I was out?

A yes/no question is often answered with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + did

A: Did you get my message?
B: Yes, I did.
 No + subject pronoun + didn't
A: Did Rosa say where she was going?
B: No, she didn't.

To form a question-word question (wh-question), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + did + subject + base form of the verb.
Where did they go?
Why did he leave?
How long did you stay there?

Uses of the Simple Past

Use the simple past for:

 actions or events that began and ended in the past. A time reference is usually given
or understood from the context.
 I spoke to the contractor this morning.
We introduced two new products in January.
I played a lot of tennis when I was younger.
I never met my grandfather. (he is dead)
Who left the door open? (a moment ago-it is still open)
 past habitual actions. A specific time period is usually given or understood.
My family rented a house at the beach every summer when I was a child.
He smoked a pack of cigarettes a day until he quit.

The past tense does not always refer to past time. It can also be used in present unreal
conditionals, expressing wishes, and in making polite requests. (For more information,
see Present Unreal Conditionals and Expressing Wishes.)
I wondered if you could give me a ride. (more tentative or polite than I wonder if you could
give me a ride.)

Form of the Past Progressive [Continuous]: Statements

To form an affirmative statement, use subject + past of be + verb + -ing.

 Use was + verb + -ing with I, he, she, it.

A: Can I come in?
B: Of course. I was expecting you.

She was sleeping when I called.

 Use were + verb + -ing with you, we, they
They were both working for the same company when they met.

To form negative statements, use subject + was not/were not (=wasn't/weren't) + verb +

-ing
Could you repeat that, please? I wasn't listening.
We weren't enjoying the play, so we left at the intermission

Form of the Past Progressive [Continuous]: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use was/were + subject + verb + -ing.

Was it raining when you were out?
Were you planning to work late today?

A Yes/No question is often used with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + was/were

A: Were all the men at the meeting wearing ties?
B: Yes, they were.
  No + subject pronoun + wasn't/weren't
A: Were you expecting this many people?
B: No, I wasn't.

To form a question-word question (wh-question), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + was/were + subject + verb + -ing.
What were you doing at nine o'clock last night?
Who was Eva talking to when I came in?
Why were the children crying?

Uses of the Past Progressive [Continuous]

Use the past progressive for:

 actions or situations in progress at a point in the past

The picnic was canceled yesterday because it was raining.

A: What were you doing between 8:00 and 10:00 that night?

B: I was watching television.
 two past actions in progress at the same time
While I was looking at the sales figures, my assistant was answering some e-
mails.
At the time I was working in the bank, I was also studying engineering.
 repeated actions
When he worked here, Patrick was always making mistakes.
 polite requests
I was wondering if you could give me a ride.
 events planned in the past to take place at a later time ("future in the past")
We were just going to leave when I fell and twisted my ankle.
(answering the phone) Hi, Annie. I was going to call you today.

Use the past progressive (continuous) together with the simple past for past actions or
situations interrupted by a shorter action or event.

 The action in progress is often introduced by when, as, just as, or while.

Just as I was leaving the house, the phone rang.
He learned how to ski when he was living in Switzerland.
 When can also introduce the shorter action.
We were having dinner when he walked through the door.
I was waiting for the bus when a blue car pulled up.

The Present Perfect

 Form of the Simple Present Perfect: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use subject + present of have + past participle.

 Use have (= 've) + past participle with I, you, we, they

We're old friends. We've known each other since we were children.
 Use has (= 's) + past participle with he, she, it
The weather has been great all week.
 For regular verbs, the past participle has the same form as the simple past tense
Andrew has worked for us for two years. Before that, he worked (= simple past) for
an advertising agency.
 For irregular verbs, the past participle and simple past are often different
Interest rates rose (= simple past) again today. In the past six months, they have
risen almost 5 percent.

To form negative statements, use subject + have not/has not (= haven't/hasn't) + past

participle
I've tried calling several times, but I haven't been able to reach her.
The company has not made a profit for three years.

Form of the Simple Present Perfect: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use have/has + subject + past participle.

Have you ever eaten Thai food?
Has Rebecca finished law school yet?

A Yes/No question is often used with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + have/has:

A: Have you ever bought anything online?
B: Yes, I have.

A: Has Brian been to Greece before?

B: Yes, he has.
 No + subject pronoun + haven't/hasn't
A: Have you met Linda Chan?
B: No, I haven't.

A: Has the rain stopped?

B: No, it hasn't

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + have/has + subject + past participle.
Where has Victor been all morning?
How long have they known each other?
 Uses of the Simple Present Perfect

Use the simple present perfect for actions occurring in a period of time up to the present.

 with already, before (now), ever, never, so far, yet

This is the most interesting book I've ever read.
A: Have you finished the report yet?
B: Yes, I've already sent it out.
 with just or recently for recent actions (in American English, the simple past tense
can also be used)
They've just left for the airport.
 with often, several times, etc., for repeated or habitual actions
He has been to Japan twice in the past year.
I've often wondered what happened to Tom.
 without an adverb of time or duration
We've had a lot of problems with the new software.
I can't find my keys. I've looked everywhere.

Use the simple present perfect for situations beginning in the past and continuing up to
now (and possibly into the future).

 with since + point in time

Mr. Ito has been with the company since 1998.
 with for + period of time
I've lived here for five years. (and I still live here)
Compare: I lived here for five years. (but I don't live here now)
 with adverbs of duration
I've always loved to swim.

Notice that the present perfect is not usually used with adverbs referring to a period of
time that has ended. Use the simple past instead.
I haven't seen Ahmed today, but I saw him yesterday.

Form of the Present Perfect Progressive [Continuous]: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use subject + present of have + been + verb + -ing.

 Use have (= 've) + been + verb + -ing with I, you, we, they.

We've been waiting to see Ruth Goodman for almost an hour.
 Use has (= 's) + been + verb + -ing with he, she, it.
She's been talking on the phone to another client.

To form negative statements, use subject + have not/has not (= haven't/hasn't) + been +

verb + -ing:
  Use have not (= haven't) + been + verb + -ing with I, you, we, they.
I haven't been sleeping well lately.
 Use has not (= hasn't) + been + verb + -ing with he, she, it.
He hasn't been teaching for very long. He just started teaching in September.

Form of the Present Perfect Progressive [Continuous]: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use have/has + subject + been + verb + -ing.

Have you been waiting long?
Has your department been working on any new projects?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + have/has

A: Has it been raining all day?
B: Yes, it has.
 No + subject pronoun + haven't/hasn't
A: Has Toshio been coming to class?
B: No, he hasn't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + have/has + subject + been + verb + -ing.
How long has Lili been studying English?
What have you been doing all morning?
Why hasn't Steve been coming to the weekly meetings?

Use of the Present Perfect Progressive [Continuous]

Use the present perfect progressive for:

 actions that began in the past and are still in progress

He has been looking for a job for over two months, but he hasn't found anything yet.
I've been painting this room for two days and I'm still not done. (= unfinished action)
Compare: I've painted this room three times and I still don't like it. (= completed
action)
 actions that have recently stopped and have effects now
Let's go for a walk. I've been sitting most of the day.
 repeated actions
The phone has been ringing all morning.
 temporary actions or situations
I've been staying at my cousin's house, but I'm moving to my own house next week.

The Past Perfect

 Form of the Simple Past Perfect: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use subject + had (= 'd) + past participle.

My father had been with the company for ten years before the merger.
We'd just bought a new house when he lost his job.

To form negative statements, use subject + had not (= hadn't) + past participle.

He hadn't looked for a job for a long time.

Form of the Simple Past Perfect: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use had + subject + past participle.

Had you heard of the company before they offered you the job?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + had.

A: Had he lived there his whole life up until that time?
B: Yes, he had.
 No + subject pronoun + hadn't:
A: Had they met before then?
B: No, they hadn't.

A: When you got to the office, had she already left?

B: No, she hadn't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + had + subject + past participle.
Where had you worked before your last job?
Who had they interviewed before Cara?
How long had he worked there before his retirement?

Uses of the Simple Past Perfect

Use the simple past perfect:

 to show which of two past events happened first

I had never eaten sushi before I moved to Japan. Now I love it.
When we arrived, Tom had already left.
 to show that something happened before a time in the past:
Juliet was excited because she had never sailed a boat before.
I began collecting stamps in February and by November I had collected more than
500.
He had changed so much that I almost didn't recognize him.
  to describe things one hoped or wished to do but didn't (e.g., with expect, hope,
mean, suppose, think, want)
She had hoped to reach him before he left, but she was too late.

When, after, as soon as, or by the time that are often used with the past perfect.
We went to bed as soon as our guests had gone home.

Notice that the past perfect is not always needed to show which event came first.
Sometimes either the past perfect or simple past can be used.
After I (had) checked my schedule for the day, I returned some phone calls.

Form of the Past Perfect Progressive [Continuous]

To form affirmative statements, use subject + had (= 'd) + been + verb + ing

When I first met Joel, he'd been working at Global for five years.
We had been hiking all day and we were very hungry.

To form negative statements, use subject + had not (= hadn't) + been + verb + -ing
I had almost finished the work when I was told that I hadn't been doing it correctly.

To form Yes/No questions, use had + subject + been + verb + -ing.

Had you been getting enough sleep before you got sick?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + had

A: Had she been working for the company long when she retired?
B: Yes, she had. Fifteen years.
 No + subject pronoun + hadn't
A: Had they been living in Paris for long at that time?
B: No, they hadn't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + had + subject + been + verb + -ing
Where had you been living before you moved to Chicago?
How long had you been studying English when you got the job?

Use of the Past Perfect Progressive [Continuous]

Use the past perfect progressive for:

 actions that began at an earlier time and were still in progress at a time in the past
We'd been waiting for three hours when we got the phone call. (= we were still
waiting)
 Compare: We'd waited for three hours, so we decided to go home.(= we stopped
waiting and went home)
 actions that had recently ended and had an effect at a time in the past
He was very tired. He had been walking for hours.

The Future

Form of the Simple Future with will

To form affirmative statements, use subject + will + base form of the verb. The short
form 'll is usually used in conversation, especially after pronouns. I'll, you'll, he'll, she'll, it'll,
we'll, they'll.
I'll see you tomorrow.
The lawyers will review the contract next week.

To form negative statements, use subject + will not (= won't) + base form of the verb. The
short form is usually used in conversation.
Don't worry. I won't tell anyone.
They won't sign the contract until their lawyers see it.
You won't believe it, but I won the lottery!

To form Yes/No questions, use will + subject + base form of the verb.

Will the furniture be ready for delivery by the 15th?

A yes/no question is often answered with a short answer:

 Yes + subject pronoun + will

A: Will patients have access to their medical records?
B: Yes, they will.
 No + subject pronoun + won't
A: Will I be responsible for phone sales?
B: No, you won't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + will + subject + base form of the verb.
When will you find out if you got the job?
What time will the meeting end?
How will we get to our hotel from the airport?

Uses of the Simple Future with will

Use the simple future with will for:

 making predictions
There's a lot to discuss. It will be a long meeting.
  announcing decisions made at the moment of speaking
A: It's hot in here.
B: I'll open a window.
 announcing scheduled events, especially in a formal style
The wedding will take place on June 27th.
 making promises
I won't leave without you.
 expressing hopes, expectations, and beliefs (e.g., after assume, believe, doubt, expect,
hope, suppose, think)
I hope she'll get the job.

A: Do you think he'll like the present?

B: I'm sure he will.

For other uses of will, see Future Factual Conditionals, Offers, Requests, and

Invitations and Willingness or Readiness.

Form of the Future Progressive [Continuous] with will

To form affirmative statements, use subject + will (= 'll) + be + verb + -ing.

In ten years, robots will be doing many of our household chores.
We'll be waiting for you at home after the game.

To form negative statements, use subject + will not (= won't) + be + verb + -ing. The short
form won't is often used in conversation.
Jorge won't be coming with us. He had to take care of a family emergency.

To form yes/no questions, use will + subject + be + verb + -ing

Will you be stopping in London on this trip?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + will

A: Will you be staying at the Madison Hotel?
B: Yes, I will.
 No + subject pronoun + won't
A: Will Dr. Leon be giving tomorrow's lecture?
B: No, she won't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + will + subject + be + verb + -ing.
When will you be taking the test?
Where will you be staying in Boston?
 Uses of the Future Progressive [Continuous] with will

Use the future progressive for:

 actions that will be in progress at a time in the future

We'd better hurry. The guests will be arriving at any minute.
By this time tomorrow, I'll be lying on the beach.
 making a question about plans sound more polite
Will you be working late tonight?
When will you be seeing Dr. Weiss? (e.g., assistant to supervisor)
Compare: When will you finish these letters? (e.g., supervisor to assistant)
 talking about planned events
The bus won't be leaving until six.
We'll be spending the summer in California.

Form of the going to Future

To form affirmative statements, use subject + am/is/are + going to + base form of the verb.
I'm going to meet with the software developer tomorrow.
He's going to submit a revised proposal by the end of the week.
They're going to install the new system in two weeks.

To form negative statements, use subject + am/is/are + not + going to + base form of the
verb. Short forms are normally used in conversation. (For more information, see Simple
Present Form of  be.)
I'm not going to cook tonight. We're eating out.
We aren't going to walk into town. It's too hot.
It isn't going to cool off until the weekend.

To form Yes/No questions, use am/is/are + subject + going to + base form of the verb:

Is she going to accept the job?
Are you going to tell him the truth about what happened?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

 Yes + subject pronoun + am/is/are

A: Are they going to replace the damaged goods?
B: Yes, they are.
 No + subject pronoun + am/is/are + not (using a short form in the negative)
A: Are you going to be around this weekend?
B: No, I'm not.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + am/is/are + subject + going to + base form of the verb.
Which shoes are you going to wear to the party?
When is Helen going to be back at work?

Uses of the going to Future

Use the going to future for:

 making predictions based on present evidence

Look at those black clouds! It's going to rain.
Tom's always late for work. He's going to get fired.
My wife is going to have a baby.
 plans and firm intentions
I'm going to be away for a couple of weeks.
I've made my decision. I'm going to take that job.

The Future Perfect

Form of the Simple Future Perfect

To form affirmative statements, use subject + will (= 'll) + have + past participle.

By next year, we will have saved enough money to buy a house.

To form negative statements, use subject + will not (= won't) + have + past participle.
Payment is due tomorrow, but I'm afraid that they won't have received the money yet.

To form Yes/No questions, use will + subject + have + past participle. To form a short

answer:

 Use Yes + subject pronoun + will (have)

A: Will the meeting have started by the time we get there?
B: Yes, it will.
 No + subject pronoun + won't (have)
A: Will you have finished the report by then?
B: No, I won't have.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + will + subject + have + past participle.
When will you have finished paying off your loan?

Use of the Simple Future Perfect

Use the simple future perfect for:

 actions that will be completed by a time in the future

Fumiko will have retired by the year 2030.
  states that continue up to the time mentioned (and may continue into the future)
We will have been married for a year on June 25th.

Form of the Future Perfect Progressive [Continuous]

To form affirmative statements, use subject + will (= 'll) + have been + verb + -ing.
We'll have been living here for ten years by the end of the year.

To form negative statements, use subject + will not (= won't) + have been + verb + -ing.
She won't be ready to take the exam next week. She won't even have been studying English
for six months at that point.

To form Yes/No questions, use will + subject + have been + verb + -ing. To form a short

answer, use Yes + subject pronoun + will (have) or No + subject pronoun + won't (have).
A: Will you have been working there long enough by the end of the year to qualify for a
bonus?
B: Yes, I will (have).
C: No, I won't (have).

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where,

how, etc.) + will + subject + have been + verb + -ing.
How long will you have been working there at the end of next year?

Use of the Future Perfect Progressive [Continuous]

Use the future perfect progressive for actions that will be in progress at a time in the future.
By this time next week, I will have been working for this company for twelve years.

Other Ways of Expressing the Future

Use the present progressive (continuous) and the simple present for firm future events.

 Use be + to + verb in formal English for future plans or instructions.

He is to give us the signed contract on Monday.
All visitors are to leave the building by 8:00 p.m.
The instructions said, "two tablets to be taken three times a day." (passive)
We're meeting him at the airport.
His plane gets in at 9:30.
 Use be + due to + verb in connection with schedules.
Flight 1561 is not due to arrive until 10:15.
The work is due to finish by the middle of September.
 Use be + about to + verb for something ready to start in the immediate future
Let's find our seats. The play is about to start.
 Do not use these forms for predictions (e.g., not It's raining tomorrow.)
The Imperative [Commands]

Form of the Imperative

Use the base form of the verb.

Wait for me!
Close the door, please.
Be quiet.

Form the negative with Do not (= Don't) + base form of the verb.

Don't forget to bring the new manual.
Don't be late!

A subject is not usually mentioned in an imperative; you is implied. Sometimes a subject is

added to get the person's attention.
You sit here, Jim, and Madelyn, you sit over there.

Uses of the Imperative

Use the imperative for:

 orders or requests
Follow me.
Please pass the salt.
 directions and instructions
Take the second turn on the right.
Use a pen with black ink.
 advice
Don't eat too much.
Always signal before you turn.
 warnings
Look out! There's a car coming.
Be careful. That dish is very hot.
 prohibitions
Keep off the grass.
Don't feed the animals.
 offers and invitations
Help yourself to coffee.
Come and visit us soon.

PHRASAL VERBS
Overview of Phrasal Verbs

Verbs are often combined with prepositions or adverb particles to form phrasal verbs (also
called multi-word verbs or two-word verbs). Phrasal verbs are very common in conversation
and informal writing.

 Sometimes the meaning is non-idiomatic; the meaning of the phrasal verb is similar
to the meaning the words have when they are used separately.
Let me look at my notes from the last meeting.
 Often the meaning is idiomatic, and the words used together have a completely
different meaning from when they are used separately.
The police are looking into (= trying to find out more about) the cause of the fire.

Phrasal Verbs Type 1: verb + (object +) preposition + object

In Type 1 phrasal verbs, the verb is followed by a preposition and then an object. The
object always follows the preposition; it cannot come before it. Since the preposition
cannot be separated from the verb, phrasal verbs like this are sometimes referred to
as inseparable. The meanings can be:

 non-idiomatic
I never listen to the news.
Do you believe in astrology?
I'll take care of the problem later. I don't want to deal with it now.
 idiomatic
I came across (= discovered by chance) this ad for a sales manager, and I thought
you might be interested.
There's no need to make a decision now. Why don't you go home and sleep on it (=
delay a decision).
You'll never guess who I ran into (= met by chance) at the post office.

Some Type 1 phrasal verbs must have an object directly after the verb: verb + object +
preposition + object. The meanings can be:

 non-idiomatic
They accused Mike of lying.
 idiomatic
The acting company turned (= changed) the old barn into a theater.
If the economy worsens, voters are likely to hold it against (= blame) him in the next
election.

Phrasal Verbs Type 2: verb + particle + object

Type 2 phrasal verbs are probably the most common type. They are sometimes
called separable phrasal verbs, because the particle can be separated from the verb.
  A noun object can go either after the particle or before the particle.
He took off his hat.
He took his hat off.
 If the object is a pronoun, it must go before the particle (that is, between the verb
and the particle).
He took it off.
 Notice that if there is a long noun object, it usually goes after the particle.
When will we find out the answer to the question?

In Type 2 phrasal verbs, the particle strengthens or extends the meaning of the verb. The
meanings can be:

 non-idiomatic
She cut the article out of the newspaper.
I want to write your idea down so I won't forget it.
 idiomatic
He called off (= canceled) the meeting.
Did you call your mother up (= telephone her)?
They offered her the job, but she turned it down (= refused it) because the salary was
too low.
I can drop you off at (= give you a ride to) the station on my way to the bank.

Phrasal Verbs Type 3: verb + particle (no object)

Type 3 phrasal verbs are intransitive (have no object). The meaning can be:

 non-idiomatic
Hurry up! The train is leaving.
Please stand up when Dr. King is introduced.
 idiomatic
The worker passed out (= fainted) in the heat.
Things are certainly looking up (= getting better) around here.

Phrasal Verbs Type 4: verb + particle + preposition + object

Type 4 phrasal verbs consist of three words, verb + particle + preposition, followed by an
object. The meaning can be:

 non-idiomatic
I'm sorry you couldn't come. You missed out on a good party.
 idiomatic
We've run out (= used all we had) of ink cartridges. Could you order some more?
I don't know how you put up with (= tolerate) their rudeness.
A few three-word phrasal verbs also have an object after the verb: verb + object + particle +
preposition + object.
Can I let you in on (= tell you) a little secret?
We tried to talk him out of quitting (= persuade him not to quit) his job.

BE, HAVE, DO

Be
Simple Present Form of be

Notice: Short forms, shown in parentheses, are used in conversation and when writing in a
conversational style.

 To form affirmative statements:

Use am with I.
I am from Brazil. (I am = I'm)
 Use are with you, we, they.
You are a good friend. (you are = you're)
We are ready to leave now. (we are = we're)
Computers are expensive. (they are = they're)
 Use is with he, she, it.
Ken is a computer programmer. (Ken is = Ken's; he is = he's)
Sara is very young. (Sara is = Sara's; she is = she's)
ILA is a big company, with over 5000 employees.(ILA is = ILA's; it is = it's)

To form negative statements:

 Use am + not after I.
I am not in my office today. (I am not = I'm not)
 Use are + not after you, we, they. Notice that there are two short
forms: you're/we're/they're + not and you/we/they aren't.
Don't worry. You are not late. (you are not = you're not = you aren't)
 Use is + not after he, she, it. Notice that there are two short
forms: he's/she's/it's + not and he/she/it isn't.
He is not a very good manager. (he is not = he's not = he isn't)

To form a Yes/No question, put am/are/is before the subject.

Am I late?
Are you Janice Robinson?
Is Mr. Rogers here yet?

A Yes/No question with Yes + subject pronoun + am/are/is (no short form) or No + subject

pronoun + am/are/is + not (using a short form in the negative).
A: Are you ready?
B: Yes, I am.
A: Am I late?
B: No, you aren't.

A: Is it cold out?
B: No, it's not.

To form a question-word question (wh-question), use question-word + am/are/is +

subject.
When is the next flight?
How are you?
Where are the keys?

Simple Past Form of be

To form affirmative statements:

 Use was with I, he, she, it.

I was at work until six o'clock.
Marta was there until seven.
 Use were with you, we, they.
You were right about the date.
We were interested in your proposal.
The tickets were on the table.

To form negative statements, use subject + was/were + not.

The project was not done on time. (was not = wasn't)
The customers were not happy. (were not = weren't)

To form a Yes/No question, put was/were before the subject.

A Yes/No question can be answered with Yes + subject pronoun + was/were or No + subject

pronoun + wasn't/weren't.
A: Was she surprised to see you?
B: Yes, she was.

A: Were you the project manager?

B: No, I wasn't.

To form a question-word question (wh-question), use question-word + was/were + subject.

How long was the flight?
Why were you late?

Present Perfect Form of be

To form affirmative statements:

  Use have + been with I, you, we, they.
I have been to Korea several times. (I have been = I've been)
 Use has + been with he, she, it.
She has been the head of my department for three years. (she has been = she's been)

To form negative statements:

 Use have + not + been with I, you, we, they.

We have not been able to reach her at that phone number. (have not
been = haven't been)
 Use has + not + been with he, she, it.
He has not been with the company very long. (has not been = hasn't been)

To form Yes/No questions, use Have/Has + subject + been.

Yes/no questions can be answered with Yes + subject + have/has or No + subject

+ haven't/hasn't.
A: Has it been quiet here tonight?
B: Yes, it has.

A: Have you been here long?
B: Yes, I have. or No, I haven't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use question-word + have/has + subject

+ been.
Where have you been?

Common Uses of be as a Main Verb

 before nouns
They are employees of Netcom.
 before adjectives
I'm happy to be here.
 before prepositional phrases
I wasn't at work yesterday.
 in imperatives
Be here at six o'clock.
Don't be late.
 with -ing to refer to temporary behavior
The children were being good.
 after there, used to say that a person or thing exists, as when mentioning something
for the first time or reporting an event. It is more idiomatic to say "There's a car in
the driveway" than "A car is in the driveway." Notice that the does not usually
follow there + be.
There's a package for you.
 There weren't any tickets left.
There has been an accident.

Uses of be as an Auxiliary

Be combines with other verbs to form tenses, such as:

 the present progressive [continuous]

She is sleeping.
 the past progressive [continuous]
You weren't listening.

For more information, see, Verb Tenses: Simple and Progressive Forms.

Be combines with past participles to form the passive voice:

 the present passive

This chair is made of plastic.
 the past passive
It was designed by a well-known artist.

For more information, see The Passive.

Have
Present and Past Forms of have

Notice: Short forms are not used in American English for have as a main verb.

To form affirmative statements in the simple present:

 Use have with I, you, we, they.

I have two sisters, Mary and Eliza.
Mary and I have brown hair.
 Use has with he, she, it
Eliza has red hair.

To form negative statements in the simple present:

 Use do not (= don't) + have with I, you, we, they.

I don't have a car.
We don't have enough chairs for everyone.
 Use does not (= doesn't) + have with he, she, it.
My husband doesn't have any brothers.
To form affirmative statements in the simple past, use had with all subjects.
Our office had a party yesterday.

To form negative statements in the simple past, use did not (= didn't) + have with all
subjects.
I didn't have breakfast this morning.

To form Yes/No questions:

 use Do/Does + subject + have in the simple present

Do you have any questions?
Does he have his own office?
 Use Did + subject + have in the simple past.
Did they have enough money?

A Yes/No question can be answered with:

 Yes + subject pronoun + do/does or No + subject pronoun + don't/doesn't in the

simple present
A: Does she have an appointment?
B: No, she doesn't.
 Yes + subject pronoun + did or No + subject pronoun + didn't in the simple past.
A: Did you have a good time in Boston?
B: Yes, I did.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions):

 Use question-word + do/does + subject + have in the simple present.

When do you have lunch?
Why doesn't this door have a lock?
 Use question-word + did + subject + have in the simple past.
Where did you have the party?

Common Uses of have as a Main Verb

Have can be used a main verb in the following ways:

 as a stative verb to show possession, relationships, arrangements, or illness. There

are no progressive (continuous) (-ing) forms for these meanings.
Our company has several branch offices in Asia.
They have two daughters.
She has a job interview tomorrow.
I left early because I had a headache.
 as a dynamic verb to mean eat, drink, enjoy, experience, take, etc. Have can be used in
progressive (continuous) (-ing) forms with these meanings.
Have a seat. This chair is empty.
 Do you have lunch here often?
We're having a meeting on Friday to discuss the schedule.
We had a long talk last night.
Could you have a look at this report?
 as a dynamic verb meaning "to cause something to be done."
We are having the house painted next week.

For more information, see The Causative.

Uses of have as an Auxiliary

Notice: Short forms are commonly used for have as an auxiliary.

Have combines with past participles to form perfect tenses, such as:

 the present perfect

We've been very busy lately. (we have = we've)
He has lived here since 1996. (he has = he's)
 the past perfect
The movie wasn't as good as I had expected. (I had = I'd)

For more information, see The Present Perfect and The Past Perfect.

Have + been combines with past participles to form passives.

She has been promoted to director of marketing. (she has = she's)
Some changes have been made in the design.

For more information, see The Passive.

Have got

Have got is often used in place of have in casual conversation (particularly in British
English) to show:

 possession - I've got an idea. (I have got = I've got)

 relationships - I've got a friend who looks just like you.
 arrangements - We've got a meeting with the contractor scheduled for tomorrow at
ten.
 illnesses - He's got a bad cold. (he has got = he's got)

Short forms of have are normally used with got (I've got, she's got, we've got, etc.).

Have got is generally used only in the present tense.

I've got a new car. I've had it for a month.
To form negative statements, use subject + haven't/hasn't + got.
I haven't got time to talk now.

To form a Yes/No question, use Have/Has + subject + got.

Have you got our address?

Do

Simple Present and Past Forms of do

Notice: Short forms are not used for do as a main verb.

To form affirmative statements in the simple present:

 Use do with I, you, we, they.

All you ever do is talk.
 Use does with he, she, it.
Simon does his homework at the library.

To form negative statements in the simple present:

 Use do not (= don't) + do with I, you, we, they.

We don't do business with that bank anymore.
 Use does not (= doesn't) + do with he, she, it.
It doesn't do any good to complain.

To form affirmative statements in the simple past, use did with all subjects.

The doctors did everything they could to save him.

To form negative statements in the simple past, use did not (= didn't) + do with all subjects.
She did not do anything to help.

To form yes/no questions:

 Use Do/Does + subject + do in the simple present.

Does this button do anything special?
 Use Did + subject + do in the simple past.
Did they do the job well?

A Yes/No question can be answered with:

 Yes + subject pronoun + do or No + subject pronoun + don't in the simple present
A: Do you do your shopping on Saturdays?
B: No, I don't.
  Yes + subject pronoun + did or No + subject pronoun + didn't in the simple past.
A: Did he do the shopping yesterday?
B: Yes, he did.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions):

 Use question-word + do/does + subject + do in the simple present.

What do you usually do on the weekend?
Where does she do her homework?
 Use question-word + did + subject + do in the simple past.
What did he do to the car?

Common Uses of do as a Main Verb

 for action in general

Don't just sit there--do something!
 to avoid repeating a previous verb
You work so hard. I don't know how you do it.
 for work
A: What do you do?
B: I'm a flight attendant.
 for household tasks
If I do the shopping, can you do the cleaning?
 to mean "perform" (successfully or unsuccessfully)
How did you do on the test?
I couldn't do the puzzle.

Uses of do as an Auxiliary

Notice: Short forms are commonly used for the negative forms of auxiliary do.

 to form yes/no questions with full verbs

Do you drive to work?
Does the bus stop here?
 to form question-word question with full verbs
Where did you park the car?
Why didn't you tell me? (did not = didn't)
 to form negative statements with full verbs
I don't like that color. (do not = don't)
He doesn't work here any more. (does not = doesn't)
 for emphasis
A: Why didn't you call?
B: I did call.
 to avoid repeating a previous verb
She speaks Spanish, and so do I.
  in negative imperatives
Please don't take the last one.

Do and make

Use do to talk about activities involving:

 work - I'm not sure I can finish it by then, but I'll do my best.

 household tasks - I do the cleaning every weekend.
 obligations - Can you do something for me?
 speed - He got a ticket because he was doing 90 on the highway.
 subjects and school work - I'm not going to take physics, because I can't do calculus.
 action in general - What are you doing after work?

Use make when you produce or create something.

Our company made an agreement to sell the property.
Please don't make long distance phone calls.
They're making their decision today.
I need to make a reservation for tonight.
He made a lot of money on the stock market.

MODALS AND RELATED VERBS

Overview and Form of Modals

There are ten modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should,
must, and ought to. The verbs used to, have (got) to, had better, and be supposed to have
meanings similar to modals; these expressions are also dealt with here.

 Use the base form of the verb (infinitive without to) after a modal.
Bill drives fast, so they might arrive early.
 Modals each have only one form. There is no -s/-es for the 3rd person singular (he,
she, it).
She is very physically fit. She can run very fast.

Form negative statements with modal + not + base form of the verb.
You must not smoke near oil. It's dangerous.

 Short forms of these negative modals are common in conversation and informal
writing: cannot = can't, could not = couldn't, will not = won't, would not = wouldn't,
should not = shouldn't, must not = mustn't (less common than the others). Note: there
is no short form for may not.
I'd love to go, but I can't. I have to work late.

Form a yes/no question with modal + subject + base form of the verb.

A Yes/No question can be answered with Yes + subject + modal or No + subject + modal
+ not (using a short form in the negative).
A: Should we leave now?
B: Yes, we should. It's getting late.

A: Can you see the sign?
B: No, I can't.

Form a question-word question (wh-question) with question-word + modal + subject +

base form of the verb.
He's two hours late. Where could he be?

Expressing Ability: can/could/be able to

Can

 Use can to describe natural or learned ability.

Mr. Forester can speak Japanese.
 The negative form is cannot, usually written as one word. The short form can't is
more common in conversation.
He can't read it.
 Can can refer to the present or the future.
You can sell the stock today or you can sell it tomorrow.

Could

Could refers to general ability in the past.

When I was young, I could swim two miles.

Be able to

 To describe a particular ability that someone will have in the future, use be able to.
When you finish this course, you'll be able to design your own web site.
 Use was/were able to (not could) to refer to the successful completion of an action in
the past.
In fact, I was able to get a scholarship.
 Use either wasn't/weren't able to or couldn't for negative sentences referring to
ability in the past.
Unfortunately, my father died and I wasn't able to/couldn't finish college.

Asking for Permission: can/could/may

There are various ways to ask for permission:

Can is the least formal.
(one student to another) Can I use your phone?

Could is more polite than can.

(one stranger to another) Could you tell me the time, please?

May is formal. Some people think it sounds more respectful than could.

(waiter to a customer in a restaurant) May I take this chair?

Requests for permission can also be made more polite by adding phrases like I wonder
if or Do you think or Do you mind if.
I wonder if I could look at your notes.
Do you think I could sit here?

Giving and Refusing Permission: can/may/be allowed to

Give permission with can and may and refuse permission with their negative forms. May is

more formal than can.
You can bring a guest to work with your supervisor's permission.
Guests cannot enter the building without a pass.
They may eat in the employee cafeteria.
They may not use the staff parking.

Be allowed to (or its negative form) can be used for more emphasis.
Students are not allowed to bring books into the exam room.

Was/were allowed to is usually used for past reference.

The children  were allowed to  stay up late to watch the fireworks.

Possibility and Certainty: should/could/may/might

Degrees of certainty can be expressed on a scale:

 Use should for something that is probable, expected to be true.

Their plane landed at 6. It's 8 now. They should be home by now.
 Use could for something that is possible.
No one's answering the phone. They could be at dinner.
 Use may to allow a possibility.
They may be on their way home.
 Might is less certain than may.
There might be a lot of traffic tonight.

Could, may, and might are very similar in this meaning.

Degrees of certainty in the negative can be expressed on a scale:

  Use can't for something that is nearly certain.
Ben's only a teenager. He can't be the manager.
 Couldn't is less certain than can't.
Ben couldn't have enough seniority to be the manager.
 Use may not to allow a possibility.
We may not be right about his age.
 Might not is less certain than may.
He might not be as young as he looks.

In American English, the short form of might not is not usually used. Remember, there is no
short form for may not.

Express degrees of certainty about the past:

 Use may/might/could have for something possible

The fire may/might/could have started in the restaurant next door.
 Use could/might have for something possible that did not happen.
It could/might have destroyed both buildings, if the firefighters hadn't arrived when
they did.
 Use may/might have for something possible (negative).
It may/might not have caused as much damage as we thought.
 Use could not have for something impossible.
The owner couldn't have known about it. He was away when it happened.

Deduction: must/must not/cannot/have (got) to

These modals are used to express deduction when the conclusion seems likely to be true:

 must
Tom's back at work. He must be feeling better.
The phone's ringing. It must be Will--he said he would call.
 must (not) have + past participle (used to express deduction in the past)
Sophie isn't in her office. She must have gone to the meeting.
He didn't respond when you said that. He must not have heard you.
 have to/have got to (used in affirmative sentences) Have got to is used mostly in
conversational speech and writing.
It has to be here somewhere. I was just using it.
You've got to be joking! That can't be true.

These modals are used to express deduction when the conclusion seems to be impossible
or unlikely to be true.

 must not
Kayla's not here. She must not be feeling well.
  can't (= cannot)
The phone's ringing. It can't be Rachel--she just called.
 can't have (to express impossibility in the past)
She can't have gone home. Her jacket is still in her office.

Offers, Requests, and Invitations: would/can/could/may/will

Modals are used for various social functions:

To offer things:

 Would you like… is common as a polite way to offer something.

A: Would you like a cup of coffee?
B: Yes, thank you.
 Wouldn't you like… is polite, but more emphatic or persuasive.
A: Wouldn't you like a more comfortable chair?
B: No, this is fine, thanks.
 Will you… is polite but informal.
Will you have some more cake?

To request things:

 Can is the least formal.

Can I borrow a pen?
 Could generally sounds more polite than can.
Could I have some typing paper, please?
 May is more formal than can or could.
May I have some paper clips, please?

To offer to do something for someone else:

 Can I/we… is often used to offer help.

Can I take you to the airport?
 May I… is very formal.
(salesclerk to a customer in a store) May I help you?

To request someone else to do something for you:

 Would and could are more polite than can or will.

Notice that could is not used to answer a request for permission.
Can you help me with this suitcase?
Would you make a copy of this contract for me?

A: Could you write that down for me, please?

B: Yes, of course I can.
  Will is informal and sounds less polite or more abrupt than the others.
Will you drop this in the mail for me?

To offer an invitation:

 Would you like… is very common as a polite way to offer an invitation.

Would you like to come with us?
 Won't you… is formal.
Won't you come in?

Advisability and Warning: should/ought to/had better

When talking about advisability or warning in the present or future:

 Use should or should not (= shouldn't) to say that something is or is not advisable.

I should get more exercise. I'm really out of shape.
You shouldn't leave without telling your supervisor.
 Use ought to in the same situations as should. The negative ought not to means the
same as should not but is not common.
We ought to get the photocopier fixed. These copies aren't clear at all.
 Use had better (not) to suggest a stronger warning. Note that it refers to the present
or future, not the past. It is usually impolite to use had better (not) to someone in
authority (e.g. a student to a teacher, an employee to a supervisor).
We'd better leave now, or we'll miss our flight. (we had better = we'd better)
We'd better not stop at the office. We don't have enough time.

When talking about advisability or warning in the past:

 Use should have to say that something was advisable.

I did badly on the test. I should have studied harder.
 Use should not have to say that something was inadvisable or unwise.
I shouldn't have gone out the night before the exam.

Obligation and Prohibition: must/have to/be supposed to

Use must and have (got) to to express absolute or unavoidable obligation:

 Must is often used by officials or other people in authority.

Visitors must have a visa to enter the country.
 Have to is more common in conversation.
We have to return these forms before the end of the month.
 Have got to is used in conversational speech and writing.
I've got to get up early tomorrow. My plane leaves at seven.
 Must and have got to are not common in questions. Have to is usually used.
Do I have to sign both copies?
  Use had to to refer to absolute or unavoidable obligation in the past.
I had to return the books to the library yesterday.

The negative forms of these words have different meanings:

 Use must not to express absolute prohibition.

You must not tell anyone your secret password.
 Use don't/doesn't have to to say that something is not necessary.
You don't have to answer all of the questions. You can leave some answers blank.
You don't have to accept their offer (= You can accept their offer, but it isn't
necessary.)
Compare: You must not accept their offer (= Don't accept their offer).
 Be supposed to suggests a duty or responsibility to do something or an expectation
that something will happen.
I'm supposed to be at work by 8:30.
The meeting is supposed to start in fifteen minutes.
 It can be used in the negative to express prohibition.
We're not supposed to eat in the computer room.
 When used in the past, it suggests that an intended result was not achieved.
The letter was supposed to arrive two weeks ago, but it's still not here.

Willingness or Readiness: will/would

 Use will to refer to willingness or readiness to do something.

They can't find anyone who will take the job.
The doctor will see you now.
 The negative form, will not/won't, can suggest refusal to do something.
He won't tell me what happened.
The window won't open.

Used to and would for the Past

 Use used to + base form of the verb for affirmative statements with all subjects.
My brother used to live in Chicago, but now he lives in San Francisco.
 Use did not (= didn't) + use to + base form for negative statements.
I didn't use to see him very often, but now I do.
 Use did + subject + use to + base form for Yes/No and question-word questions (wh-
questions).
A: Did you use to call him on the phone?
B: Yes. I talked to him every week.

 Use used to for something that happened regularly or was true in the past but does
not happen or is not true now.
When I was young, I used to work in a bank.
I used to make a lot of mistakes.
  Use did not (= didn't) use to for something that didn't happen or wasn't true in the
past but does happen or is true now.
Bank tellers didn't use to use computers.
 Do not use used to for single events. Use the simple past.
Once I lost a customer's money.

 Would can also be used for something that happened regularly in the past but does
not happen now. Would is not used in the negative with this meaning.
When I was a child, I would sit and watch the trains go by for hours.
Sometimes Vera would come over and have dinner with us.
 Use used to, not would, for states that were true in the past.
I used to like that kind of music, but I don't any more.

THE PASSIVE AND THE CAUSATIVE

The Passive

 In the active voice, the subject does the action.

General Auto closed two plants this year.
 In the passive voice, the subject receives the action; something happens or is done to
the subject.
Two plants were closed by General Auto this year.

Form the passive with be + past participle. The passive can be used in any tense, for
example:

 simple present
Is that seat taken?
 present progressive [continuous]
The houses are being built by Ace Construction.
 simple past
Shakespeare's plays were written four hundred years ago.
 simple present perfect
The farms have been destroyed by floods.
 simple future
You will be met at the airport by a representative from the company.

Use the passive:

 when it is not possible to say who is responsible for the action

The problem will be solved as soon as possible.
 to focus on the action rather than the person or people doing the action
The street is going to be repaired next week.
 to avoid vague subjects like one or someone
The bank was robbed over the weekend.
  when you don't want to say who the person is, or it is prohibited to reveal their
identity

I'm not sure, but I have been told that we won't get a bonus this year.

 Use by + agent only when necessary.

The letter is official. It was signed by the CEO.

The Causative

Form the causative with have + object + infinitive without to. Use the causative to stress
causing someone to do something, usually by asking or telling the person.
Could you have him call me when he gets in?
I had Diane cut my hair very short this time.

Get can also be used to form the causative: get + object + infinitive with to. With get, there is
often the idea that the person did not want to do the action.
I got him to help with the shopping.

Form the passive causative with have + object + past participle. The passive causative is
often used with verbs like build, clean, decorate, fix, print, repair, and service to talk about
arranging for someone to do a job for us.
I'm having the new chair delivered. It won't fit in my car.
We had our house painted this year. The painters did a great job.

Have in the passive causative is often replaced with get in informal conversation. The form
and meaning are the same.
I finally got my computer replaced.
We get our car washed every week.

QUESTIONS, ANSWERS, AND NEGATIVES

Overview of Questions

There are two basic types of questions:

 Yes/no questions are questions that can be answered with either Yes or No.

A: Are you ready?
B: No, not yet.

A: Did anyone call while I was out?

B: Yes. Margo called.
 Question-word questions begin with a word like what or where and are used to ask
for information. They are sometimes called information questions or wh-questions.
A: What are you working on?
 B: I've been running some new training seminars.

A: When does your flight leave?

B: At 6:45.

Other types of questions include:

 tag questions
It's a beautiful day, isn't it?
 embedded questions
Could you tell me what time it is?
 questions about alternatives (offering a limited choice)
Would you like a single or a double room?
Which would you prefer, tea or coffee?

Yes/No Questions and Short Answers

Forming Yes/No Questions

If a statement has be (as a main verb or auxiliary), the auxiliary have, or a modal (such

as can), form a Yes/No question by putting be, have, or the modal before the subject:
auxiliary + subject.

 using the main verb be

statement: Sam is in his office.
question: Is Sam in his office?
 using the auxiliary be
statement: Mike and Susan are leaving now.
question: Are Mike and Susan leaving now?
 using the auxiliary have
statement: We have met before.
question: Have we met before?
 using a modal
statement: I should call her.
question: Should I call her?
 If there is more than one auxiliary, we put the first one before the subject.
statement: He has been working hard.
question: Has he been working hard?

statement: We could have helped.

question: Could we have helped?

With all other verb forms, Yes/No questions with do/does in the simple present and did in
the simple past: do/does/did + subject + base form of the verb.
  in the simple present
statement: We turn right here.
question: Do we turn right here?

statement: She has a car.

question: Does she have a car?
 in the simple past
statement: They signed the contract.
question: Did they sign the contract.

Yes/No Short Answers

When answering Yes/No questions, the first part of the question is sometimes repeated in a

short answer: Yes + subject pronoun + auxiliary or No + subject pronoun + auxiliary + not. A
short form is normally used in the negative.

Are you her supervisor?

Yes, I am.
No, I'm not.

Can she speak Spanish?

Yes, she can.
No, she can't.

Has she been to Spain before?

Yes, she has.
No, she hasn't.

Does she need a translator?

Yes, she does.
No, she doesn't.

Question-word Questions [Wh-questions]

What, where, when, why, which, how, whose, who, and whom are question-words

(sometimes called wh-words). The word order of question-word questions is: question-
word + auxiliary + subject.

 with the main verb be

When is your appointment?
  with the auxiliary be:
Whose phone is ringing?
 with the auxiliary have:
Where has he been all morning?
 with a modal:
What should I do?
 with more than one auxiliary:
Why have the children been crying?
 with other verbs:
Where does she live?
How did you get here?

Subject Questions

A subject question asks for the identity of the subject. Subject questions have the same
word order as statements. The question-word takes the place of the subject. The word
order is: question-word + verb.
statement: Nothing happened at the meeting.
question: What happened at the meeting?

statement: Alex makes the decisions.

question: Who makes the decisions?

What, which, and whose can combine with other subject words.

Which bus goes to the airport?
What newspaper has the largest circulation?
Which one is the least expensive?
Whose phone just rang?

What as a Question-word

Use what to ask about:

 the subject of a sentence (using a subject question)

A: What happened to everyone?
B: They went home early.
 the object of a verb or a preposition
A: What are you writing?
B: A list of the supplies we need.

A: What are they talking about?

B: The new schedule.
 activities
A: What are you doing?
B: Looking for my keys.
What on its own usually refers to an unlimited choice.
What would you like to drink?
Compare: Which would you like, juice or soda?

What is often used in combination with a noun.

What time is the party?
What kind of music do you like?
What languages do you speak?

Use what . . . like? with a linking verb (be, look, taste, etc.) to ask someone to describe a
person or thing.
A: What is your house like?
B: It's small, but it has a nice view.

A: What's it like out?/What's the weather like?
B: It's really hot.

A: I tried alligator meat when I was in Florida.

B: What did it taste like?

When and Where  as Question-words

When asks about time. It is usually answered with:

 an adverb of time
A: When is the meeting?
B: Tomorrow morning.
 a prepositional phrase
A: When did he leave?
B: At six.

Where asks about place. It can be answered with:

 a whole sentence
A: Where is the meeting?
B: It's in the conference room.
 a phrase
A: Where did they go?
B: To a convention.
 a single word
A: Where are you from?
B: Algeria.
Who and Whom as Question-words

Who asks about people. It can ask about the subject of a sentence, using a subject question.
Who lives upstairs?
Who gave you the information?
Who is responsible for technical support?

Who or whom can ask about the object of a sentence or a preposition. Whom is used in

writing and formal speech. In everyday speech, who is generally used.
Who/Whom did you ask?
Who/Whom should I address the letter to?

 If the preposition comes right before the question-word, whom is preferred, but is

very formal.
To whom should I address the letter?

Which and Whose as Question-words

Use which when asking about a limited choice.

A: Which computer can I use?
B: The one on the left.

A: Which way did they go?

B: That way.

A: Which of these suitcases is yours?

B: The black one.

A: Which would be quicker, the bus or a taxi?

B: A taxi.

Which + noun can ask about:

 people
Which man gave you the information?
 things
Which office is he in?

Whose asks about possession. The possessor is always a person. The answer is expected to
be a name + 's (Kate's) or a possessive pronoun (mine, yours, etc.).
A: Whose (office) is this?
B: Kate's.
A: Whose (files) are those?
B: Mine.

Whose and the noun can be separated, or the noun can be omitted, if it is a thing.
A: Whose is this (desk)?
B: Sandy's.

Why as a Question-word

Why asks for a reason. It is often answered with:

 a sentence beginning with because…

A: Why did you come in early?
B: Because I have a lot of work to do.
 an infinitive
A: Why is he going to Tokyo?
B: To meet with our supplier.
 a sentence that implies because in the response, but omits the word
A: Why didn't you tell me?
B: You were busy, and I didn't want to interrupt.

Why + don't/doesn't + subject is used in spoken English to make suggestions (rather than to

ask for a reason).
A: Laura and I are going out to dinner. Why don't you join us?
B: Thanks. I'd love to.

A: I think we're all tired. Why don't we take a break now?

B: Good idea.

Why not + the base form of the verb can be used in the same way.
Why not wait until winter clothes go on sale before buying a new coat?
Why not ask him yourself?

How as a Question-word

How can be used to ask about manner or process. It is often answered with:

 by + noun (usually a type of transportation)

A: How do you get to work?
B: By bus.
 by + verb + -ing
A: How did you finish the project so quickly?
B: By working late every day.
  with + noun (usually an instrument)
A: How did you open that?
B: With a knife.

Some How questions need at least a sentence in reply.

How do you make that sauce?
How did you manage to find us?

How is also used to ask about:

 health
How have you been?
 personal reactions
How was your trip?
How's your new job?
How did you like the book?

Use How much with uncountable nouns to ask about amount.

How much bread is there?

How much can also be used to ask about price.

How much are the peaches?
How much did it cost to fix the window?

Use How many with plural countable nouns to ask about quantity.

How many chairs do we need?

How can be used in combination with various adjectives and adverbs, for example: big,
deep, far, fast, hard, long, old, often, quickly, sharp, soon, tall, well, wide.
How old are your children?
How far is it to the airport?
How well do you know him?
How long have you been waiting? (= time)
How long is this pool? (= size)

How about or What about can be used:

 to make offers and suggestions

How about a drink?

A: I'll be in meetings all day on the 16th.

B: Then how about the 17th?
 in general reference
A: I answered all the e-mails.
B: How about the one from Karen Chin?
Tag Questions

A tag question is a short question (e.g., . . . aren't you, . . . isn't it) that follows a statement
and adds a meaning like isn't that right?

 Affirmative statements take negative tags. Short forms are normally used for the
negative.
It's easy, isn't it?
 Negative statements take affirmative tags.
You don't believe me, do you?
You've never been to Paris, have you?

To form a tag question:

 If the statement has be as the main verb, use be + a subject pronoun.

I'm not too late, am I?
 If the statement has an auxiliary (be, have, or a modal), use the same auxiliary (or
the first auxiliary) + a subject pronoun.
You're going to talk to them, aren't you?
Rick hasn't left, has he?
There won't be a strike tomorrow, will there?
They haven't been waiting long, have they?
 If the statement has a main verb other than be, use a form of do + a subject pronoun.
David Sanchez works in your department, doesn't he?
You sent the fax, didn't you?
Cats don't like water, do they?
Julia didn't leave, did she?

Notice how tags are formed with these pronouns:

 After a statement that includes I am/I'm, the tag is aren't I. Am I not? is very formal.
I'm right, aren't I?
 This and that as subjects are replaced by it in the tag.
This is the right address, isn't it?
 Pronouns like everyone, somebody, and nobody are usually replaced by they in the
tag.
Everyone's here, aren't they?
 Everything, something, and nothing are replaced by it in the tag.
Everything is packed, isn't it?

Tag questions can be said with either rising or falling pitch at the end.

 If the voice rises in pitch as the tag is said, the speaker is asking a real question and
expects a Yes/No answer.
 I locked the door, didn't I?
You can swim, can't you?
 If the voice goes down in pitch on the tag, the speaker is asking for agreement with
something that he or she assumes is true.
You were annoyed, weren't you? (I assume you were.)
It's a beautiful day, isn't it?

Embedded Questions

An embedded question is a question included as a noun clause within a longer sentence.

(For more information, see Complex Sentences with Noun Clauses.)

 An embedded question can be a question-word question or a Yes/No question.

Notice that embedded questions have the same word order as statements. Do not
use the auxiliary do/does/did.
I wonder when we will find out the results.
I don't know if I can come on Saturday.
 An embedded Yes/No question can be introduced with if or whether.
I can't remember if I locked the door.
Do you know whether (or not) the bus runs on Sunday?
I wonder whether or not to tell them.
 Embedded questions can be used within a statement (ending with a period) or a
question (ending with a question mark).
I'm not sure what he was talking about.
Do you know what he was talking about. (not: Do you know what was he talking
about?)
 Embedded questions are often a less direct and more polite way to make a request
or ask for information.
I wonder if you could check my mail while I'm away.
Could you tell me where the nearest bus stop is? (not: Could you tell me where is the
nearest bus stop?)

Negatives

Negative Statements

Notice: Short forms, shown here in parentheses, are normally used in conversation and
when writing in a conversational style.

To form a negative statement:

 Put not after be (the main verb or auxiliary), the auxiliary have, or a modal (such

as can or should).
She isn't happy with her job. (she is not = she isn't = she's not)
I wasn't listening. What did he say? (was not = wasn't)
 I haven't seen Maria all week. Is she at home? (have not = haven't)
He can't come to the phone right now. He's at a meeting. (cannot = can't)
 If there is more than one auxiliary, put not after the first one.
You shouldn't have told her. It was supposed to be a secret.

With all other verbs, use a form of do + not after the subject. The verb that follows is always
a base form: subject + do/does/did + not + base form of the verb.

 Use subject + do + not (= don't) or does + not (= doesn't) + base form of the verb in

the simple present.
We don't have the latest sales figures. (do not = don't)
Ellen doesn't eat meat. She's a vegetarian. (does not = doesn't)
 Use subject + did + not (= didn't) + base form of the verb in the simple past.
I didn't get the job. I'm really disappointed. (did not = didn't)

Normally do not use another negative word (for example, no, nobody, never) in combination
with a negative verb.
I don't need any help, but thanks for offering. (not: I don't need no help.)
She doesn't know anyone in the neighborhood. (not: She doesn't know no one in the
neighborhood.)
I didn't know anything about spreadsheets before I got this job. (not: I didn't know nothing
about spreadsheet before I got this job.)

Negative Statements with never and Other Negative Words

Negative or near-negative statements can be made with negative adverbs like never, hardly
(ever), rarely, seldom, scarcely, and barely.

 Never is stronger than not.

I never drink coffee. (Compare: I don't drink coffee.)
 Do not use another negative word or the auxiliary do with these adverbs.
I'll never forget the day we met.
I'm so tired. I can hardly/barely keep my eyes open.
She hardly ever leaves work before five.
The company is doing well, considering that it is barely a year old.
 Use the word any and its compounds, as in other negative sentences.
You hardly ate anything. Are you feeling OK? (Compare: You didn't eat anything.)
We rarely go anywhere in the evening. (Compare: We don't go anywhere in the
evening.)

Negatives can also be formed with no and its compounds. Negatives with no have the same
meaning as negatives with any, though no is generally more emphatic than not . . . any.
I have no time to talk now. (= I don't have any time to talk now.)
She talked to no one/nobody. (= She didn't talk to anyone.)
They did nothing about the problem. (= They didn't do anything about the problem.)
 Negative Yes/No Questions

Short forms are normally used to ask negative questions.

Isn't tomorrow a holiday?
Didn't anyone hear me?
Shouldn't we make copies of the report for everyone?

In conversation, aren't is generally used as the short form with I.

Aren't I invited?
Am I not invited? (formal)

Negative Yes/No questions are used:

 when expecting or hoping for the answer Yes

Aren't you Ian Wilson?
Don't you agree?
 to express surprise
Don't you know her?
 to persuade
Won't you help me?
 to express annoyance
Can't you stop talking?
 to make exclamations
Isn't it a beautiful day!

Negative Imperatives [Commands]

Form negative imperatives with do not (= don't) + the base form of the verb.
Don't worry. I'll be fine.
Don't be silly. No one will care if we're five minutes late.

Never can be used at the beginning of an imperative to form a more emphatic negative.

Never let a stranger carry your luggage.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Overview of Conditionals

Conditional sentences have two parts: an if clause and a main clause. The if clause can come
either first or second. When the if clause is first, the two clauses are separated by a
comma. If normally means "on the condition that." It is sometimes followed by then.
If I see him, I'll give him the message.
I'll give him the message if I see him.
If the rain stops, (then) we'll go for a walk.
There are two types of conditionals:

 Factual conditionals (sometimes called "real conditionals") suggest that something

is probably true or will happen.
If I'm free on Thursday, I'll call you.
 Unreal conditionals suggest that something is imaginary or untrue. They often use
verb tenses in a special way.
If I were rich, I would travel around the world.

Present and Past Factual Conditionals

Present and past factual conditionals describe what happens whenever the condition in
the if clause occurs. Use the same present or past tense or the same modal in both
the if clause and the main clause. Present and past factual conditionals are used to express:

 permanent truths
If you put oil in water, it floats.
 habitual situations
If I stay up too late, I wake up with a headache.
If the weather was good, we walked. If it wasn't, we took the bus.
 logical deduction
If you can boil water, you can cook pasta.

Use a modal in the main clause to show degrees of certainty or advisability.

You can have another piece if you want one.
If you don't believe me, you should check the figures yourself
If Jason was at the meeting, he must know about the change in plans.

An imperative can be used in the main clause for:

 requests or commands
If the phone rings, please answer it.
 suggestions or advice
If you like Chinese food, don't miss the Mei Long restaurant.
 invitations
Stay for lunch if you have time.

Future Factual Conditionals

Future factual conditionals are often used to talk about plans or predictions. Future factual
conditionals describe what (probably) will or won't happen. Use a present tense verb in
the if clause and will + infinitive without to in the main clause.
If she finishes work early, she'll go home.
If she hasn't finished her work by six, she will take it home.
If you look at the lower right-hand corner of the screen, you'll see a yellow circle.
There are three common variations on the basic form:

 Be going to can be used instead of will in the main clause.

If I save enough money, I'm going to buy a camera.
 Modals other than will (e.g., may, might, should) can be used in the main clause to
show degrees of certainty or advisability.
If it's hot tomorrow, we might go to the beach.
 An imperative can be used in place of the if clause, followed by and/or and the main
clause for offers, threats, and warnings.
Place your order before June 30, and we'll give you a 5 percent discount.
(= If you place your order before June 30, we'll give you a 5 percent discount.)

Make another mistake like that and you'll lose your job.

(= If you make another mistake like that, you'll lose your job.)

Present Unreal Conditionals

Present unreal conditionals describe the likely result of an imaginary situation. They use
past tense forms but refer to the present. Use a past tense form in the if clause and would +
infinitive without to in the main clause. Present unreal conditionals can be used for:

 something that is totally impossible in the present

If I knew the answer, I would tell you. (I don't know the answer.)
My mother died in 1994. If she were still alive, she'd be 67.
 something that is possible, but perhaps not very likely
A: Could I look over the sales report?
B: It would be better if you waited until tomorrow. We'll have the final figures then.

If you really wanted to exercise, you would find the time.

Use were rather than was in all persons in the if clause, especially in writing and formal

speech.
If Francesca were here, she would agree with me.

 If I were you… is often used in giving advice.

If I were you, I'd ask for more money.
 In informal speech, was is often used (with I, he, she, it) instead of were. Some people
think that this is incorrect.
I'd go for a walk if it wasn't raining.

Could can be used in the if clause rather than a past tense verb.

If dogs could talk, what would they say?

Modals other than would (e.g., might, could) can be used in the main clause to show
different degrees of certainty.
If you tried it, you might like it.
If you signed the contract today, we could start construction on Monday.

Past Unreal Conditionals

Past unreal conditionals describe the result of something that might have happened in the
past but did not. They are often used to express regret or relief. Past unreal conditionals are
formed by using a past perfect verb in the if clause and would have + past participle in the
main clause.
If we had left at 9:00, we would have been home before the storm started.
I would have left the job if I hadn't needed the money.
I don't know what would have happened if you hadn't walked in just then.

Could have can be used in the if clause rather than a past perfect form.

If you could have seen me trying to stuff all those boxes into the car, you would have
laughed.

Modals other than would (e.g., might, could) can be used in the main clause to show
different degrees of certainty.
If we had known the truth, we might have done things differently.

If not and unless

Unless can be used instead of if . . . not when except if is meant.

If you don't study, you won't pass the course.
You won't pass the course unless you study.

We will ship your order by the postal service if you don't request another method.
We will ship your order by the postal service unless you request another method.

 Unless may sound a little stronger than if not. It is sometimes used in threats.

If you don't leave immediately, I'm calling the police.
Unless you leave immediately, I'm calling the police.
 Unless is rarely used for imaginary or unreal events.
I'd go for a walk if I weren't so tired (=an imaginary situation, because I am tired).

Expressing Wishes

Wish and if only express a desire for things to be different than they are.

 Wish can be used for something that is impossible.

I wish I were twenty years younger.
 Wish can also be used for something that is unlikely, but could happen.
I wish that it would stop raining.
  If only is more emphatic. It often expresses longing or regret.
If only we could be together all the time!
If only I had stayed home, the accident would never have happened.
 The words if and only can be separated.
If I had only known!

After wish and if only go one tense back. Use:

 the past tense to refer to present time

I wish/If only I had a pen with me (now) so I could write that down.
I wish/If only I didn't have to go to work now.
 the past perfect to refer to past time
I wish/If only I had finished college when I was younger.
I wish/If only I had told her the truth yesterday
 would (not will) to refer to willingness or the future
I wish/If only you would let me help you.
 could (not can) to refer to ability
I wish/If only I could remember the name of that restaurant.

After wish and if only use were rather than was for all persons (I, you, he,

she, etc.), especially in writing and formal speech.
I wish/If only Louisa was here now. (informal)
I wish/If only Louisa were here now. (more formal)

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct Speech

Direct speech refers to representing someone's exact words in writing. Direct speech is put
inside quotation marks.

When a statement is quoted in writing, use a comma between the statement and the
reporting phrase.
"The meeting starts at 4:00," John said.
John said, "The meeting starts at 4:00."

With questions and exclamations, use a question mark or an exclamation point after the,
rather than a comma.
"Who is going to be there?" asked Ann.
"Not me!" Steve shouted.

Use a comma after the reporting phrase when it comes before the question or exclamation.
Ann asked, "Who is going to be there?"
Steve shouted, "Not me!"
Reporting Verbs: say, tell, and ask

Direct and indirect speech is introduced with "reporting verbs." The most common
reporting verbs are say, tell, and ask.

 The listener is almost always mentioned after tell, using a personal indirect object

without to.
She told me that she was tired. (not told to me).
 The listener is usually not mentioned after say.
She said that she was tired.
 To mention the listener after say, use to + personal object
"We'd better leave," she said to me. (not she said me)
 The listener can be mentioned after ask. To do this, use a personal indirect object
without to.
She asked if I could help.
She asked me if I could help. (not asked to me)

In writing, different reporting verbs may be used to show the way that something was said
or the function of what was said.
The CD player still doesn't work," Angela complained.(direct speech)
Angela complained that the CD player still didn't work.(indirect speech)
"We'll send a replacement tomorrow," he promised. (direct speech)
He promised that they would send a replacement the next day. (indirect speech)

Indirect Speech: Tense Changes

Use indirect speech (also called "reported speech") when telling someone what another
person said. Don't use quotation marks in indirect speech. When the words have just been
spoken or are still true, the verb tense is often the same as the original.
"The company needs everyone's best efforts right now."

Jack: What did he say?

Anna: He said that the company needs everyone's best efforts right now.

Past tenses are generally used in indirect speech. When the past is being reported, the
reported clauses are moved one tense back:

 simple present becomes simple past

"I need a vacation," Paolo said. (direct speech)
Paolo said (that) he needed a break. (indirect speech)
 present progressive/continuous becomes past progressive/continuous
"I'm not wasting my time," Sue said. (direct speech)
Sue said (that) she wasn't wasting her time. (indirect speech)
 present perfect progressive/continuous becomes past perfect
progressive/continuous
 "Rob's been working all day," Tom said. (direct speech)
Tom said (that) Rob had been working all day.(indirect speech)
 past tense becomes past perfect
"I came by car," Tina said. (direct speech)
Tina said that she had come by car. (indirect speech)

Some modals also move one tense

back: can becomes could; will becomes would; may becomes might; must usually
becomes had to.
"We can leave on Tuesday," Frank said. (direct speech)
Frank said that we could leave on Tuesday. (indirect speech)

"The taxi will come at noon," Kate said. (direct speech)

Kate said that the taxi would come at noon. (indirect speech)

Indirect Questions

 Yes/no questions can be reported with if or whether.

"Are you ready for your trip?" Amy asked. (direct speech)
Amy asked if I was ready for my trip. (indirect speech)
 Whether or not can also be used, either as a phrase or separated.
Amy asked whether or not I was ready for my trip. (direct speech)
Amy asked whether I was ready for my trip or not. (indirect speech)

Use statement word order when reporting Yes/No questions. Do not use the

auxiliary do/does/did.
"Do you have your tickets?" Lucas asked. (direct speech)
Lucas asked if I had my tickets. (indirect speech)

When reporting question-word questions (wh-questions), use statement word order after
the question word.
"Who did he meet at the conference?" Leslie asked. (direct speech)
Leslie asked who he had met at the conference. (indirect speech)

Subject questions do not change their word order.

"Who met them at the airport?" Brian asked. (direct speech)
Brian asked who had met them at the airport. (indirect speech)

Reporting Commands, Requests, Offers, and Invitations

 Report affirmative commands (imperatives) with an infinitive.

"Sign both copies of the contract," she told me. (direct speech)
She told me to sign both copies of the contract. (indirect speech)
 Report negative commands with not + infinitive.
"Don't wait," he said. (direct speech)
 He said not to wait. (indirect speech)
He told me not to wait. (indirect speech)
 A verb that matches the function of the command can be used. Examples
include: advise, ask, order, remind, tell, warn.
"Remember to mail the package," she said. (direct speech)
She reminded me to mail the package. (indirect speech)

An infinitive can be used to report requests to do something.

"Could you help me with these suitcases?" he said. (direct speech)
He asked me to help him with the suitcases. (indirect speech)
"Would you mind waiting outside for a minute?" she said. (direct speech)
She asked me to wait outside for a minute. (indirect speech)

We can also use an infinitive to report offers and invitations.

"Can I get you some more coffee?" she asked. (direct speech)
She offered to get me some more coffee. (indirect speech)
"Would you like to join us for lunch?" they asked. (direct speech)
They invited me to join them for lunch. (indirect speech)

Reporting Requests for Advice

Report Yes/No requests for advice with if or whether.

"Should I take the job?" he asked me. (direct speech)
He wanted to know if he should take the job. (indirect speech)
He wanted to know whether he should take the job. (indirect speech)

Question-word requests for advice can be reported as an indirect question-word question

or with an infinitive.
"How should I pack it?" he asked. (direct speech)
He wanted to know how he should pack it. (indirect speech)
He wanted to know how to pack it. (indirect speech)

 An infinitive can be used after all question words except why.

"Why should I use different tape?" he asked. (direct speech)
He wanted to know why he should use different tape. (indirect speech)

THE INFINITIVE AND THE -ING FORM

Overview of the Infinitive and the -ing Form

The base form (go), the infinitive (to go), and the -ing form (going) are used after many
verbs and adjectives. Sometimes only one of these forms is grammatically correct:

 let + base form

Let me finish this e-mail, and then we can go.
  fail + infinitive
Her secretary failed to give her the message.
 consider + -ing form
We considered moving, but we couldn't find a better apartment.
 Sometimes more than one form is possible: continue + -ing form or infinitive.
I tried to get his attention, but he continued talking on the phone.
I tried to get his attention, but he continued to talk on the phone.

Base Form

Use the base form after:

 modals (For more information, see Overview and Form of Modals.)

I can't see the sign from here.
 let's (suggestions)
Let's have lunch in the office.
 let (= allow) + object
Her parents didn't let her wear makeup.
 make (= force or cause) + object
The smoke from the fire made me cough.
 have (= cause) + object
Could you have him call me when he gets back?
 would rather
I'd rather be told the truth.
 had better
I'd better write the number down, so I don't forget it.
 After help + object, use the base form or the infinitive.
They helped us (to) get started.

Base Form or the -ing Form?

Use an object + the base form or an object + the -ing form after verbs of perception such
as see, feel, hear, listen to, look at, smell, watch.

 The base form can be used to suggest that the whole action was observed from
beginning to end.
I saw him back out of the garage and drive away.
(= I saw the whole action from start to finish.)

She heard him sing Silent Night at the Christmas performance.

(= She heard the whole song.)
 The -ing form can be used to suggest that only part of the action was observed.to
suggest that we observed only part of the action.
As I drove by, I saw him backing out of the garage.
(= I saw part of the action.)
 She's sure he was at home. She heard him singing when she rang the doorbell.
(= She heard part of what he was singing.)

The Infinitive of Purpose

 To and in order to can express purpose.

She called the doctor's office to make an appointment

A: Why did you quit your job?

B: To go back to college.

I stood on a chair in order to reach the top shelf.

 Not to can be used for alternatives.
I'm going to the mall to return a shirt, not to buy anything new.

Verb + Infinitive

These verbs are followed only by an infinitive: can('t) afford, fail, hurry, manage, offer,
refuse.
We can't afford to lose our best customers.
He offered to drive me to the airport.

Some verbs can have a noun or pronoun object before the infinitive: ask, beg, choose,
expect, hate, help, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish.
I want to speak to the manager. (= I will speak to the manager.)
I want you to speak to the manager. (= You will speak to the manager.)
We expect to win. (= We think we will win.)
We expect the other team to win. (= We think the other team will win.)

Other verbs must have an object before the infinitive: advise, allow, forbid, invite, order,
remind, teach, tell, warn.
The loan officer advised me not to borrow the money.
Our parents taught us to tell the truth.

These verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a that-clause: agree, decide, expect, hope,

promise.
I agreed to accept their offer.
I agreed that I would accept their offer.
He promised not to return without a signed contract.
He promised that he wouldn't return without a signed contract.

Adjective + Infinitive

Many adjectives can be followed by infinitives.

  Use a personal subject (I, he, she, etc.) or an empty subject (it) with adjectives
like nice, foolish, good, polite, silly.
She was foolish to believe them.
It was foolish (of her) to believe them.
 Use only a personal subject with adjectives like afraid, anxious, ashamed, eager, glad,
happy, sorry that describe a person's feelings.
John is ashamed to tell you his grade.
 Too can be added before the adjective to mean "more than is necessary or good."
I'm too old to go on that ride.
It's too cold (for us) to go swimming.
 Enough and not enough can be added after the adjective to mean "to the necessary
degree" or "not to the necessary degree."
He's not old enough to vote.
Is there enough time (for me) to stop at the post office?

The -ing Form

The -ing form is used in three ways:

 as a verb, when it is called a "present participle"

He is listening to music.
Listening to her yesterday, I fell asleep.
 as an adjective (For more information, see Adjectives Ending in  -ed  and  -ing.)
Soak the dried mushrooms in boiling water.
 as a noun, called a gerund
He enjoys running in the morning.

Gerunds

Gerunds can be used in a number of ways:

 as an uncountable noun in general statements

Walking is a good form of exercise.
 as an uncountable noun with some, a lot of, etc.
I stopped on the way home to do some shopping.
 as an uncountable noun after prepositions
I disapprove of lying to get a job.
 after No in prohibitions
No Parking

Verb + -ing

These verbs are followed only by the -ing form: appreciate, avoid, delay, deny, enjoy, finish,
imagine, keep, mention, mind, miss, prevent, risk, suggest.
I enjoy traveling and meeting new people.
He delayed making the decision until the deadline.
Would you mind closing the door?

 When needed, a possessive + -ing form can be used after many of these verbs.
I don't mind his singing, but I do mind his playing the drums late at night.
 In less formal English, an object + -ing form can be used.
I don't mind him singing, but I do mind him playing the drums late at night.

Some verbs can be followed by an object + the -ing form (and not by a possessive +
-ing form). These are usually verbs of perception, such as see, hear, smell, or verbs
like catch, discover, find.
She heard someone knocking.
I caught him reading my mail.

An -ing form is used after go to refer mostly to leisure or outdoor activities like camping,

fishing, jogging, shopping, skating, skiing, swimming.
We go camping every summer in the mountains.
I went shopping on Saturday.

Preposition + -ing

Use -ing forms, not an infinitive, after prepositions.

He quit without giving any notice.
You'll succeed by working hard.

The -ing form can be used after:

 an adjective that is followed by a preposition

This organizer is good for keeping track of appointments.
I'm tired of waiting around.
 a verb that is followed by a preposition
I look forward to seeing you on the twenty-first.

Adjective + -ing or Infinitive

 The -ing form can be used after many adjectives.

I was busy working and didn't notice the time.
It was good talking to you.
It's expensive living in San Francisco.
 Usually, the infinitive can also be used after these adjectives. There is generally no
difference in meaning.
It was good to talk to you.
It's expensive to live in San Francisco.
Verb + -ing or Infinitive

 After some verbs, such as begin, cease, continue, and start, either an infinitive or -

ing form can be used without any change in meaning.
I ceased respecting/to respect him after that speech.
 After hate, like, love, and prefer, there may be a slight change in meaning. Sometimes
-ing refers to a situation in general and to refers to a future event.
I hate interrupting meetings. (= a general statement)
I hate to interrupt the meeting, Mr. James, but this call is important. (= I am about to
interrupt.)

With a few verbs (remember, forget, stop, regret, go on, try), the same verb can have
different meanings when it is followed by -ing or an infinitive.

 With remember + infinitive, the remembering comes before the action.

Remember to fax the contract. (= Don't forget to fax the contract.)
 Remember + -ing refers to a past action; the action came before the remembering.
I remember faxing the contract. (= I faxed the contract and can bring this event to
mind.)
 Stop + infinitive refers to purpose. The person interrupts something else to do the
activity.
He stopped to get coffee before the meeting. (= He paused in order to get coffee.)
 With stop + -ing, the verb + -ing is the object of stop. The person no longer does the
activity.
He stopped smoking before he was 30. (= He used to smoke but he doesn't anymore.)
 Regret + infinitive is typically used when bad news will follow.
I regret to say that I don't agree. (= I am sorry about what I am going to say.)
 With regret + -ing, the action came before the feeling of regret.
I regret saying that I didn't agree. (= I feel sorry that I said this.)

THE SENTENCE
Overview of the Sentence

A written sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (.), a question mark
(?), or an exclamation point (!). A sentence is a complete unit of meaning. It normally
contains:

 a subject
She left.
The old building across the street was torn down.
 a finite verb--a verb that has a subject and shows a particular tense
She left.
The old building across the street was torn down.
 The subject can be hidden.
Open the door. (= You open the door.)
A sentence can take the form of

 a statement
The store opens at 9:30.
 a question
What time does the store close?
 a command
Don't be late.
 An exclamation
What a good idea!

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb.

 A simple sentence contains one clause.

He made a mistake.
 A compound sentence has two or more main clauses that can each stand alone.
He made a mistake and he corrected it.
 A complex sentence also has two or more clauses, but only the main clause can
stand alone.
When he made a mistake, he corrected it.
Having made a mistake, he corrected it.

Abbreviated Sentences

In everyday conversation, abbreviated sentences are often used.

 Sometimes abbreviated sentences consist of only one word.

Great!
Really?
Sugar?(= Would you like sugar?)

A: Ready? (= Are you ready?)

B: Almost.
 Abbreviated sentences may be complete units of meaning, but they are not complete
sentences, because they do not contain a finite verb. Do not use abbreviated
sentences in formal writing.

Many kinds of abbreviated sentences occur in everyday conversation.

 Unstressed words (words that are not emphasized) are sometimes left out at the
beginning of a sentence, if these words are clear from the context.
Nice to meet you. (= It is/was nice to meet you.)
Good to see you. (= It was good to see you.)
See you later. (= I'll see you later.)
Careful! (= Be careful!)
  Yes/No questions are commonly abbreviated by leaving out the auxiliary and
sometimes the subject (especially you).
Leaving already? (= Are you leaving already?)
Having a good time? (= Are you having a good time?)
Want to come? (= Do you want to come?)
Remember me? (= Do you remember me?)
Enjoy the party? (= Did you enjoy the party?)
Something the matter? (= Is something the matter?)
 Short questions consisting of single question-words or limited combinations are
common in asking for repetition, clarification, or brief information.
A: This guy came up to me and said…
B: Said what?

A: I finished the book.

B: Which book?

A: We're off to Chicago.

B: When?
 Answers to questions are normally abbreviated to avoid repeating words.
A: What time will you be back?
B: Around six.

A: How long are they staying?

B: A week.

A: Do you know where the envelopes are?

B: On the bottom shelf.

Basic Word Order

In English, the meaning of what is said depends on the order words have in a sentence. A
change in word order can cause a big change in meaning. Compare:
The car hit the boy.
The boy hit the car.

The basic word order in a statement is usually:

subject + verb (+ object) (+ manner) (+ place) (+ time)

 subject + verb + object + manner

The little boy + looked at + the doctor + suspiciously.
 subject + verb + place
Nicole + has gone + home.
 subject + verb + object + time
I + bought + a new printer + last week.
  subject + verb + object + place
She + tossed + her coat + over a chair.

Normally, a subject is not separated from its verb or a verb from its object. But there are
some common variations on the basic subject + verb (+ object) (+ adverb) word order. For
example:

 questions
Did you check your email?
 time references, which can often come at the beginning of a sentence
Last night I saw a good movie.
 adverbs of frequency (For more information, see Adverbs of Frequency.)
I always check my email in the morning.
 -ly adverbs of manner
The whole building suddenly began to shake.
Suddenly, the whole building began to shake.
 some conditional sentences
Should you happen to see her, please give her my regards.

The Simple Sentence: Patterns

There are five basic simple sentence patterns:

Pattern 1: subject + verb

My head + aches.

 Verbs used in this pattern are intransitive, meaning that they do not have an object.
 Some verbs are always intransitive; they are never followed by an object. Verbs like
this include: ache, arrive, come in, disappear, fall, run away, sit down.
He came in and sat down.
The train arrived early.
 Some verbs can be used either intransitively (without an object) or transitively
(with an object). Verbs like this include: answer, break, burn, drop, grow, hurt, move,
open, ring, shut, understand.
I kept ringing the bell. (with an object: the bell)
The phone was ringing. (without an object)

Pattern 2: subject + be + complement

Terry + is + tall/an architect.

 The verb in this pattern is always be or another linking verb (e.g., appear, become,
look, seem, sound).
 The complement (usually an adjective or noun) tells us something about the subject.
The dream seemed real.
Pattern 3: subject + verb + direct object
My assistant + answered + the phone.

 The verb is followed by a direct object, which names the person or thing affected by
the action of the verb. Verbs that are followed by an object are called transitive
verbs.
 Most verbs can be used in this pattern. Verbs that are always transitive
include: allow, blame, bring, contain, examine, excuse, fix, get, have, hit, inform, let,
like, love, make, mean, name, need, owe, prefer, put, remind, rent, use.
The restaurant does not allow smoking.
I put the newspaper down/on the table. (put requires a place adverb)
 subject + verb + direct object + to + noun/pronoun
With some verbs, the direct object can be followed by to + noun or pronoun. Notice
that this noun or pronoun cannot go directly after the verb (not: She explained me
the situation) as it can in Pattern 4. Verbs like this include: announce, describe,
explain, introduce, mention, report.
He + introduced + me + to + the new director.
She + explained + the situation + to + me.

The Simple Sentence: More Patterns

Pattern 4: subject + verb + indirect object + direct object

The company + gave + Sam + a bonus.
I + bought + Judith + a present.

 Verbs like bring, buy, and give can have two objects--a direct object and an indirect
object. The indirect object usually names the person who benefits from the action
(e.g., someone you give something to or buy something for).
 The same thing can usually be said by putting the direct object first. When this is
done, to or for is placed before the indirect object.
The company gave a bonus to Sam.
I bought a present for Judith.
 The direct object normally comes first if it is a pronoun.
The company gave it to Sam. (not The company gave Sam it.)
I bought it for Judith. (not I bought Judith it.)
 Other verbs like give that combine with to include: bring, hand, lend, offer, pass, pay,
promise, read, sell, send, show, take, teach, tell, write.
He showed the picture to everyone. = He showed everyone the picture.
 Other verbs like buy that combine with for include: bring, build, choose, cook, do,
draw, find, get, keep, make, order, save, sing.
I made a cup of coffee for myself. = I made myself a cup of coffee.

Pattern 5: subject + verb + direct object + complement

They + made + Mark + the manager.
  Other verbs that can be used in this pattern are appoint, call, consider, declare, elect,
label, name, vote.

The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences joined with:

 a semicolon
We've tested the program; it doesn't suit our needs.
 a semicolon followed by a linking adverb (For more information, see Using Linking
Adverbs and Types of Linking Adverbs.)
We've tested the program; however, it doesn't suit our needs.
 coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, so, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, yet (For
information, see Coordinating Conjunctions.)
We've tested the program, but it doesn't suit our needs.

All the clauses in a compound sentence can stand alone.

Let's meet here at five and I'll walk to the restaurant with you. (Let's meet here at five. I'll
walk to the restaurant with you.)

I didn't like the concert, but my friend loved it. (I didn't like the concert. My friend loved it.)

When the subject is the same in all parts of the sentence, it usually does not need to be
repeated.
We worked all day and (we) went home at eight.
He tried calling London but (he) didn't get an answer.
I not only signed the contract, but (I) mailed it as well.

 Sometimes other words are left out that are the same for both clauses.
You can either do the job, or you can't (do the job).
He was holding the wheel with one hand and (he was) waving with the other.
They are hardworking but (they are) not very competent.
 The subject after so is repeated.
I couldn't find my pen, so I wrote in pencil.

Overview of the Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains a main clause and one or more subordinate (or dependent)
clauses. A main clause can stand on its own. A subordinate clause cannot. Complex
sentences are formed:

 by joining subordinate clauses to the main clause with subordinating conjunctions

(For more information, see Subordinating Conjunctions.)
As soon as the strike was over (subordinate clause), the employees returned to work
(main clause).
  by using an infinitive or an -ing form
To get an agreement (subordinate clause), management made a lot of concessions
(main clause).
Believing they were right (subordinate clause), the union members stood firm.

There are three main types of subordinate clauses:

 noun clauses
She told me that the meeting had been postponed.
 relative clauses
The person who got the job is an old friend of mine.
 adverbial clauses
When I was in school, I played football.

Complex Sentences with Noun Clauses

A noun clause does the same work as a noun.

 Like any noun, it can be the subject of a verb.

Why he did it is a mystery.
Compare: The reason is a mystery.
 More commonly, a noun clause is the object of a verb.
I guessed that she was sixteen.
Compare: I guessed her age.

Noun clauses derived from statements often begin with that. That-clauses are common
after verbs of thinking or saying. The word that can often be omitted when the noun clause
is the object of a verb. (For more information, see Reporting Verbs:  say, tell,  and  ask.)
I know (that) you're busy, but could I talk to you for a minute?

 Many adjectives describing feelings or certainty (afraid, certain, glad, happy, pleased,
sorry, sure) can be followed by a that-clause.
I'm afraid (that) the orders have already been processed.
 That-clauses can be used as the subject of a sentence, but this is not common.
Normally structures with It . . . or The fact/idea that… are used instead:
That money doesn't grow on trees should be obvious. (less common)
It should be obvious that money doesn't grow on trees.
The fact that money doesn't grow on trees should be obvious.
 A that-clause cannot follow a preposition.
He boasted about his success. = He boasted that he was successful.

Noun clauses derived from Yes/No questions (e.g., Has he signed the contract?) and

question-word questions (e.g., When did he do it?) can be used as:
  a subject
Whether he has signed the contract (or not) doesn't matter.
When he did it is a mystery.
 a complement after be
The question is whether he has signed the contract.
The question is when he did it.
 an object after a verb (For more information, see Embedded Questions and Indirect
Questions.)
I want to know if/whether he has signed the contract.
I wonder when he did it.
 the object of a preposition
I'm concerned about whether he has signed the contract (or not).
I'm interested in when he did it.

Complex Sentences with Relative Clauses [Adjective Clauses]

Relative clauses, like adjectives, can describe people, things, and events. There are two
kinds of relative clauses:

 Restrictive (also called identifying or defining) relative clauses provide essential

information about the subject or object. They are used in writing.
The men who came to help stayed for dinner.
 Nonrestrictive (also called nonidentifying or nondefining) relative clauses give
additional information, which could be omitted. Nonrestrictive relative clauses are
set off by commas.
Ken and Roger, who came to help, stayed for dinner.

Relative clauses are often introduced using relative pronouns.

 The same pronouns are used whether they refer to singular, plural, masculine, or
feminine nouns.
He is the man who/that lives next door.
She is the woman who/that lives next door.
They are the people who/that live next door.
 The pronoun can be a subject or object of the verb in the clause:
That's the woman who hired me. (subject)
That's the woman who I hired. (object)
 Notice relative pronouns are not used together with subject pronouns or object
pronouns.
(not: That's the woman who she hired me or That's the woman who I hired her).

Restrictive relative clauses are introduced using these relative pronouns:

 Who or that is used as a subject to refer to people.

That's the woman who/that interviewed me for the job.
  That or which is used as a subject to refer to things or animals.
Here is a photo that/which shows the damage caused by the fire.
 Whom (formal), who, or that is used as an object to refer to people; alternatively, a
relative pronoun can be omitted.
She is the woman whom/who/that I interviewed.
She is the woman I interviewed.
 That or which is used as an object to refer to things or animals; alternatively, a
relative pronoun can be omitted.
The scanner that/which we bought last week isn't working.
The scanner we bought last week isn't working.
 Whose is used before a noun for possession.
I know the family whose car was stolen.
 Whom (formal), who, or that is used as the object of a preposition to refer to people.
Only whom is used directly after a preposition. The pronoun is often omitted in
everyday speech.
He is the man to whom I gave the money. (formal)
He is the man who/whom/that I gave the money to.
He is the man I gave the money to.
 That or which is used as the object of a preposition to refer to things or animals.
Only which is used directly after a preposition. The pronoun is often omitted in
everyday speech.
The travel agency from which we bought our tickets is closed.
The travel agency that/which we bought our tickets from is closed.
The travel agency we bought our tickets from is closed.

More Complex Sentences with Relative Clauses [Adjective Clauses]

Nonrestrictive relative clauses use the same pronouns as restrictive clauses, except that the
relative pronoun that is rarely used. The relative pronoun can never be omitted in
nonrestrictive clauses.

 Who is used as a subject to refer to people.

My boss, who comes from Japan, speaks excellent English.
 Which is used as a subject to refer to things or animals.
The store, which just opened last year, will close in 30 days
 Whom (formal) or who is used as an object to refer to people.
The author of the book, whom/who I interviewed for the paper, was a former rock
musician.
 Which is used as an object to refer to things or animals.
Football, which I used to love, doesn't interest me at all now.
 Whose is used for possession.
Dennis, whose father is a millionaire, will never have to work.
 Which can refer to a whole clause.
She married Brendan, which surprised everyone.
When and where can be used to introduce relative clauses.
That was the year when my son was born.
I went back to see the house where I grew up.

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses, like adverbs, answer questions like When? Where? and How?

 Adverbial clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. (For more

information, see Subordinating Conjunctions.)
I'm looking for a new place to live because my landlord is raising the rent.
Even if we hurry, we won't get there on time.
 Most types of adverbial clauses can come either before or after the main clause. A
comma is generally used when the adverbial clause comes first.
You looked worried when you came in this morning.
When you came in this morning, you looked worried.

There are several kinds of adverbial clauses:

 Adverbial clauses of time answer the question When? Notice that a present tense

(e.g., simple present or present perfect) is normally used to refer to the future in
time clauses. Do not use a future tense with will or going to.
I felt relieved when we finished the project.
After she got married, Marlena changed completely.
I'll call you when I get to the airport.
Once you have made the changes in the system, we'll be able to start testing.
 Adverbial clauses of place answer the question Where? They normally come after
the main clause.
She visited the town where she was born.
You can sit anywhere you like.
 Adverbial clauses of manner answer the question How? They normally come after
the main clause.
I feel as if I'm floating on air.
She's behaving the same way her sister does.
 Adverbial clauses of reason answer the question Why? Generally, the clause that the
speaker wants to emphasize (either the reason or the main clause) comes at the end.
We decided to leave because it was getting late.
Since you know the way, why don't you go first?
 Adverbial clauses of condition are used in conditional sentences. (For more
information, see, Overview of Conditionals.)
If you have any questions, I'll be happy to answer them.
 Adverbial clauses of concession introduce a contrast.
Although sales increased during this period, net profits declined.
No matter where you go, you can't escape from yourself.
  Adverbial clauses of purpose answer the question What for? or For what purpose?
I arrived early so that I could read over my notes.
 Adverbial clauses of result describe consequences.
He was so nervous (that) he couldn't eat.
 Adverbial clauses of comparison answer How . . . compared with? (For more
information, see Forming Comparative and Superlative Adverbs.)
When I spoke to him this morning, he was less enthusiastic than he was last night.
You've made almost as many mistakes as I have.

Complex Sentences with Present Participle Constructions

Present participle constructions can be used:

 to join simple sentences

I made sure to dial correctly. I tried again. =
Making sure to dial correctly, I tried again.
 in place of compound sentences
She lay awake and recalled the events of the day. =
She lay awake, recalling the events of the day.
 in place of relative clauses
The train that is arriving on Platform 7 is from Toronto. =
The train arriving on Platform 7 is from Toronto.
 in place of adverbial clauses
When I found the door open, I became suspicious. =
Finding the door open, I became suspicious.
 in place of subject + be (not common in everyday speech)
I'm so excited, I'll never be able to sleep. =
Being so excited, I'll never be able to sleep.

A present participle usually refers to the subject of both verbs.

Watching TV, I fell asleep. =
I was watching TV and I fell asleep.

Looking out the window, he noticed a strange man in a blue car. =

He was looking out the window and he noticed a strange man.

Sentences cannot be combined if the present participle does not refer to the subject of both
verbs. Do not say:
Watching TV, the phone rang.
Looking out the window, there was a strange man in a blue car.
Complex Sentences with Perfect Participle and Past Participle
Constructions

Use having + past participle to refer to something that happened before the action
described in the main clause.
Having made up my mind, I felt better.
Having lived in luxury for so long, he couldn't stand being poor.

Subordinate clauses can also be formed with the past participle of a verb. These are used
mostly in writing:

 with or without a conjunction, in place of a passive

When it is seen from a distance, the earth looks very small. =
When seen from a distance, the earth looks very small. =
Seen from a distance, the earth looks very small.
 in place of a relative clause
The bonus system that is used in our company is very fair. =
The bonus system used in our company is very fair.
 in place of an adverbial clause
Although it was delayed in the mail, the agreement finally arrived. =
Although delayed in the mail, the agreement finally arrived.

CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTING WORDS

Conjunctions

Overview of Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that join ideas by linking words, phrases, or clauses. Coordinating
conjunctions link equal elements, for example:

 two or more nouns or pronouns

My husband and I just got back from our trip to Europe.
We went to Italy, but not Rome.
 two or more verbs
I can't sing or dance very well.
He sat on the step and waited.
 two or more adjectives
The basement was cold and damp.
 two or more simple sentences (For more information, see The Compound Sentence.)
We worked on the project all day, but we didn't finish.
 If there are more than two items, a conjunction is generally used only before the last
item. Commas are used after the earlier items.
 I sat down, put my feet up on the table, and closed my eyes.
Your meal comes with coffee, tea, or soda.

Subordinating conjunctions link elements that are not equal. They join a subordinate (or
dependent) clause to a main clause. For more information, see Overview of the Complex
Sentence.
I read the newspaper while I was waiting.
However hard I try, I can never remember people's names.

When two clauses are joined, a conjunction is normally used in only one of the clauses.
Though he has lived in New York for ten years, he doesn't speak much English.
He has lived in New York for ten years, but he doesn't speak much English.
(not: Though he has lived in New York for ten years, but he doesn't speak much English.)

When the subject is the same in both clauses, the subject in the second clause:

 can often be deleted after a coordinating conjunction

I applied for the job, but (I) didn't get it.
The racing car went out of control and (it) hit the barrier.
 cannot normally be deleted after a subordinating conjunction
She got the job, because she had the most experience.
The racing car went out of control before it hit the barrier.

Coordinating Conjunctions

The most common coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, and so.

 And typically shows addition or sequence.

The sun was setting and a gentle breeze was blowing.
She woke up at 5:30 and tiptoed downstairs.
 And can also show a result.
I fell on the ice and broke my wrist.
 And can show a condition.
Finish this before Friday and I'll pay you an extra $50.
 And can also show contrast.
We've tested the program and it doesn't suit our needs.
 But shows contrast.
I'll be busy all morning, but any time in the afternoon would be fine.
 Or links alternatives (choices) or possibilities.
I can pick you up at the airport or arrange for a driver to meet you.
 After a negative verb, or means "and not" (not one thing and not the other)
She doesn't eat meat or fish.(= She doesn't eat meat and she doesn't eat fish.)
 So shows a result or consequence.
Tomorrow is a holiday, so the banks will be closed.

Coordinating conjunctions can show:

  addition or sequence with and, and then, both . . . and, not only . . . but (also). . ., not
only . . . but . . . (too)
She has short brown hair and wears glasses.
Add the sugar and then beat in the egg.
The department will handle both phone sales and Internet orders.
The new cooling system was not only more effective, but also used less electricity.
He not only washed the car, but polished it, too.
 contrast with but or yet
These changes will cost a lot, but they will save us money in the long run.
She sold the house, yet (she) can't help regretting it.
 alternatives with or, either . . . or, neither . . . nor
Should we drive or take the train?
He either speaks French or understands it. (= I'm not sure which.)
He neither speaks French nor understands it. (= He doesn't speak French and he
doesn't understand it.)
 result with so (note that the subject is usually repeated after so)
I got hungry, so I stopped for a snack.
 cause with for (= because). This use of for is rare in spoken English. Note that the
subject is repeated.
They no longer went out much, for they had grown old and frail.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions can be identified by the types of clauses they introduce. (For
more information, see Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses.)

Conjunctions used in time clauses include after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, by the time
(that), during the time (that), just as, the moment (that), now (that), once, since, until/till,
when, whenever, and while.

 Use after, as soon as, once, or when to introduce an event that happens earlier.

Once we receive payment, we can arrange for delivery of the items.
 Use before or by the time (that) to introduce an event that happens later.
By the time we got there, everyone had left.
 When can be used for an event that interrupts or occurs at the same time as another
event.
I was at a meeting when you called.
He lived on a farm when he was a child.
 While is used for an event that is interrupted by or occurs at the same time as
another event.
I bought a magazine while I was waiting for my flight.
I'll make some phone calls while you finish your report.
 Since is used to mean "from that time."
I haven't seen her since we were children.
 Until/till is used to mean "up to that time."
We can't make a decision until we have all the information.
Conjunctions used in place clauses include where, wherever, anywhere, and everywhere.

 Where generally refers to a definite but unspecified place.

The office building stood where there was once a vacant lot.
 Wherever, anywhere, and everywhere suggest "any place."
Everywhere/wherever I went, people were helpful and friendly.
We can go anywhere/wherever you'd like.

Conjunctions used in manner clauses include as, as if, as though, the way

(that), and like (informal).
Leave things as/the way they are until the police come.
He looked as if/as though (= in a way that suggests) he had seen a ghost.

Conjunctions used in reason clauses include as, because, seeing that, and since (note

that since is also used for time).

 As, since, and seeing that (informal) often introduce a reason that may be known to

the listener.
Since you won't be able to finish it yourself, please ask Susan to do it.
 Because generally follows the main clause to introduce a reason that may not be
known to the listener.
We don't generally stock those ink cartridges because there's very little demand for
them.

More Subordinating Conjunctions

Conjunctions used in concession or contrast clauses include although, considering (that),

even if, even though, however + adjective/adverb, much as . . . , no matter + question-
word, though, whereas, and while.

 Although, though, and even though introduce a contrast, often something that makes

the main clause surprising. Even though is more common in speech.
Even though he speaks English well, he prefers to use a translator.
 Even if adds the idea of a condition that will not change the result in the main clause.
We plan to go to Europe this summer even if airfares go up.
 However + adjective/adverb and no matter + question-word are used to emphasize
that something will not change the situation in the main clause.
We'll have to finish, however long it takes.
No matter what I say, they won't believe me.

Conjunctions that express purpose include so (that), in order that, and in case.

 If the verb in the main clause is in a present or future tense, so (that) and in order
that can be followed by can, may, or will.
I'm putting the tickets in the top drawer so they won't get lost.
  If the verb in the main clause is in a past tense, so (that) and in order that are
followed by should, could, might, or would.
I put the tickets in the top drawer so they wouldn't get lost.

Other Connecting Words and Phrases

Using Linking Adverbs 

There are many adverbs that introduce additions to, modifications in, or summaries of
what has already been said. For example:

 What is more can be used to add information.

The police found his fingerprints everywhere. What is more, he had been seen in the
area by several people.
 On the contrary can be used to say that the opposite is true.
A: Your job sounds fascinating.
B: On the contrary, it's very dull.
 As a result can be used to draw attention to results.
Unskilled jobs are hard to find. As a result, more young people are staying in school
longer.

Linking adverbs typically come at the beginning of a clause, followed by a comma in

writing.
He said he had retired. In reality, he had been dismissed from his job.

 Some linking adverbs can also come in mid-position or final position, separated
from the rest of the sentence by commas.
I love classical music. I don't, however, enjoy opera.
I love classical music. I don't enjoy opera, however.

Types of Linking Adverbs 1

Linking adverbs are used to emphasize, reinforce, or state alternative ideas.

Conjunctions that list or emphasize items include above all, finally,

first/second (or firstly/secondly), etc., in conclusion, in the first place,
last (or lastly), more/most important(ly), then, to begin with.

First, I'd like to thank all of you for your hard work on the project. Second, let's have a brief
report from each department on what remains to be done. And finally, we'll discuss some of
the company's plans for the future.

I don't think that the exhibit should include photographs. To begin with, I don't even
consider photography an art form.
Conjunctions that add to or reinforce what has been said include additionally, again, also,
aside from this, as well, besides, for that matter, furthermore, in addition, indeed, moreover,
too, what is more. (For more information on also and too, see Focus Adverbs.)

 Furthermore and moreover are formal and used chiefly in writing.

Our line of office chairs is very comfortable. Furthermore, all of our furniture meets
or exceeds safety requirements.
A complete change in the design is not necessary and would, moreover, delay the
project even further.
 Besides is used mostly when speaking.
I took the job because it sounded interesting. Besides, I needed the money.
 Indeed gives extra information that strengthens what has just been said.
Most people at that time were illiterate. Indeed, less than ten percent of the
population could read.

Conjunctions that state an alternative or exception include alternatively, apart from, aside

from, except for, excepting, instead.

 Alternatively (formal) and instead present an alternative to the thing just mentioned.

We can provide delivery and setup of all equipment. Alternatively, purchasers can
make their own arrangements for delivery.
I'm not free on Monday. Can we meet on Tuesday instead?
 Apart from, aside from, except for, and excepting (formal) introduce exceptions.
Apart from some minor problems, the screens look fine.

Types of Linking Adverbs 2 

Linking adverbs are used to give examples, indicate similarity, and make comparisons, and
make concessions.

Conjunctions that give an example include for example, for instance, e.g., namely, such as.

 For example, for instance, and such as (used mostly in writing) introduce an example.

Diseases such as cholera can be transmitted through contaminated water.
 The abbreviation e.g. is used in writing to mean "for example."
We are currently hiring support staff (e.g., data processors, secretaries, and clerical
workers).
 Namely gives more specific information about what you have said.
There is one more question to discuss, namely your starting salary.

Conjunctions that indicate similarity include by the same token, equally, in the same way,
likewise, similarly.

We must consider productivity; equally, we need to consider the needs of the staff. Teaching
assistants perform vital functions in the classroom. By the same token, they gain valuable
experience.
Conjunctions that make a comparison or contrast include as compared to, by/in
comparison, conversely, in contrast, in reality, instead, on the contrary, on the other hand.

My last job was so boring that this one seems great by comparison.
I don't think that Mary would be able to lead a large team. On the other hand, she's very
good at problem-solving.

The newspaper story could damage their reputation; conversely (= considering the situation
from the opposite point of view), it will give them a lot of free publicity.

Conjunctions that make a concession include admittedly, after all, all the same, anyhow,
anyway, at all events, at any rate, at least, at the same time, despite this, even so, however, in
spite of this, nevertheless, none the less, still, though.

 Use admittedly when admitting that something is true.

The results of our survey were quite different from theirs. Admittedly, we used a
smaller sample.
 Anyhow, anyway, and at any rate are used, especially in conversation, to offer a
correction to what you have just said.
He's planning to come with us. At any rate, I think that's what he said.
 However, nevertheless (formal), and though add an idea that is surprising or seems
to contradict what you have just said.
The company's profits have fallen slightly. However, this is not a serious problem.
This year's decline in sales was not unexpected. Nevertheless, it is disappointing.
He seems honest. I don't trust him, though.

Types of Linking Adverbs 3

Linking adverbs are used to make something clear, refer to time, show cause and effect,
summarize, and change a topic.

Conjunctions that make something clear include I mean (informal), in other words, put
another way, to put it differently, that is, that is to say.
We use wood from sustainable sources - in other words, wood from trees that are replaced
as quickly as they are cut down.
I'll see you at six - that is, if the train is on time.

Conjunctions that refer to time include afterwards, at the same time, concurrently, in the
meantime, meanwhile, subsequently.
The plane will be at the terminal in a few minutes. Meanwhile/In the meantime, all
passengers are asked to remain in their seats.
The leading actor had still not arrived. Meanwhile, the audience was getting impatient.

Conjunctions that show cause and effect include accordingly, as a result, because of this, by
this means, consequently, for this reason, hence, in this way, on account of this, owing to this,
so, therefore, thus.
  Consequently, hence, therefore, and thus are used chiefly in writing to introduce a
result or consequence of what you have just said.
Traffic will become heavier. Therefore, pollution will also increase.
The drug company was unable to secure funding. Consequently, it has discontinued
research on the drug.

Conjunctions that summarize all in all, all told, and so forth, and so on, essentially, in brief, in
conclusion, in effect, in short, to conclude, to sum up, to summarize, ultimately
All told (= in total), 3,000 airline workers have lost their jobs.
We had a few minor problems, but all in all (= considering everything), the trip was a
success.

Conjunctions that announce or change a topic include anyhow, anyway, as far as . . . is

concerned, as for, as regards, as to that, by the way, incidentally, in passing, so, to return to,
well . . . , with reference to.

 Expressions like by the way and so are often used in conversation to announce a

change in topic.
We've been incredibly busy lately. By the way, I heard that you're moving to new
offices.
So I'll look forward to seeing you on the twelfth.
 Anyway and anyhow are used in conversation to change the topic or return to an
earlier topic.
Anyway, where do you want to go for lunch?