Module 1

Language Teaching
Bambang Setiyadi
IN TR O D U C TIO N

T his module is the first module of Teaching English as a Foreign

Language Two (TEFL 11). The first aim of this module is to provide a
brief history of language teaching. The second aim is to describe the concepts
of approach, method, and technique and the relationship among the three
concepts. The last aim of this chapter is to differentiate between teaching
English as a foreign language like the case of English in the Indonesian
context and teaching English as a second language in a country like
Malaysia.
This module is meant to provide you with background knowledge which
is needed to understand the other following modules in this subject. Without
understanding this module you will probably find some difficulties in
understanding the content of each other module since the contents of the
other following modules are related to some of the content of the first
module, especially the concepts of approach, method, and techniques, which
are presented in the this module.

After reading this module, you are expected to be able:

1. to describe in brief the history of language teaching;
2. to mention the pioneers in language teaching;
3. to describe the relationship of approach, method, and technique, and
develop techniques from approach;
4. to differentiate between Teaching English as a Foreign Language
(TEFL) and Teaching English as a Second Language (TESOL).

By understanding this module, you, language teachers are also expected

to be able to develop your own teaching techniques that you believe effective
in making your students learn English optimally. You may choose methods
to teach English to your students or develop your own techniques based on
theories of language and language learning that you prefer. Besides
1.2 Tefl 1 

developing your own techniques, you may also consider the factors that
determine the success of the English learning in the Indonesian context, in
which the students learn English as a foreign language, not as a second
language.
In order that you will find it easy to understand the content of this module,
you are suggested:
1. to carefully read the introduction so that you have a clear picture of the
purpose of this module;
2. to read this module at glance to find difficult words or new terms and
then consult your dictionary;
3. to understand all concepts presented in this module by reading the
concepts yourselves and then discuss what you have understood with
your peers, your teachers or your tutors.
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.3

Unit 1

The History of Language Teach ing

T he history of language teaching presented in this book has been mostly

adapted from Mackey (1975) and Richards and Rodgers (1986 and
2001). The development is presented chronologically so that the history of
language teaching can be easily traced back from the past. Some ways of
teaching foreign languages adapted from the book are not necessarily
methods; they may be simply collections of some lessons of teaching
experiences. Therefore, the presentation of the history of language teaching
in this chapter does not imply the development of teaching methods.

A. BEFORE THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

The beginning of foreign language teaching might not be separated from

the Roman Empire when the Romans studied Greek as their second language.
They studied Greek by inviting Greek tutors or having Greek-speaking
servants in the household. Finally, peoples in Europe began to learn another
foreign language and think about language teaching methods. The first
concern with language-teaching method in Europe had, to do with teaching of
Latin. The teaching of Latin began with expansion of the Roman Empire. As
the empire expanded, people began to learn Latin until that language became
the international language of the Western World, which was the language of
church and state at that time. Soon, the language was widely used and
became the only medium of instruction in the schools. This made people
learn the language as a subject and the methods were mostly limited to Latin
grammar for clerics to speak, read, and write in their second language, the
language in which nearly all academic learning was done. This could be the
first way of teaching a foreign language.
The Latin which was taught at schools was Latin which was written
several centuries older than the Latin spoken in academic Europe at that time.
Old Latin was considered very complicated and the mastery of the language
was no longer practical. The purpose of learning Latin at that time was only
the preparation of reading the Latin classics. At that time there were a
number of attempts to improve the teaching of Latin by doing away with the
learning of grammar. One prominent scholar who attempted to improve the
1.4 Tefl 1 

teaching Latin grammar was Di Marinis (1532), as well as Luther, who was
opposed to too much formal grammar and to the teaching of rules. The
improvement of teaching a foreign language was also suggested by a Czech
educator, Jan Comenius (1631), who used imitation, repetition, and plenty of
practice in both reading and speaking. He was also the one who first
attempted to teach grammar inductively and to teach language through
pictures.
The emphasis of language teaching changed by the time. Up to the last
quarter of the eighteenth century the usual practice in schools was to translate
from the second language into the first. Translation way already took the
position of teaching grammar. This method of teaching was associated with
the work of Meidenger, who in 1783 published the writing which advocated
translation into the second language through the application of rules of
grammar. With the coming of the Grammar Translation Method, the teaching
of Latin grammar had become an end itself. The teaching of Latin grammar
had become formalized into sort of intellectual exercises.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century the teaching of foreign
languages was, done by providing language learners with texts based on
simple sentences containing most of the grammatical features of the target
language. At that time a foreign language was taught by using the first
language to acquire the foreign language. The scholar who advocated this
method was Karl Plotz (1819-8 1). His method was divided into two parts: 1)
rules and paradigms, and 2) sentences for translation into and out of the
second language. This might be the introduction of the Grammar Translation
Method.

B. AFTER THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

The language teaching which emphasized grammar and translation was

soon criticized and a new method was introduced. In 1867 Claude Marcel
advocated the abolition of translation and grammar rules and the teaching of
language first through comprehension of texts. He suggested the teaching of
language through abundant listening, then through the reading of simple and
familiar material, followed later by speaking and writing. As a reaction
against the grammar translation method, in 1866 Heness had started a private
school for teaching languages by a natural method, whose assumption is that
language learners learn a foreign language in the way as same a child learn
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.5

the first language. In 1880 Francois Gouin also added a new element to
language teaching: physical activity. The idea proposed by Gouin was
relatively new at that time but it was first ignored. At the same time the
reaction to the grammar translation method also came from Vietor. He
proposed a new approach to language teaching by using the spoken language
as a starting point and providing descriptive phonetics. In his approach new
materials were taught through gestures and pictures and through the use of
words already known. The grammar was also taught but done in inductive
way through the study of texts. His approach was also known as the Phonetic
Method or Reform Method. The methods proposed by Gouin and Vietor
might have given rise to the Direct Method.
At the beginning of the twentieth the Direct Method had a definite
pattern and the term "Direct Method" was established. The method
maintained thr, principle that no use of the learners' language, the typical text
started with the spoken language, and reading and writing came later.
However, as the principles of the Direct Method spread there was
more and more compromise with them in order to meet the growing
demands for measurable standards of accuracy. The development of the
principles included vocabulary exercise and systematic drills of grammar.
Even, at a more advanced level translation was included. At all levels certain
standards of correctness were required. Finally, the Direct Method almost lost
its typical features.
The Direct Method was finally developed in different directions in
different bounties. In Germany, the modification of the Direct Method took a
form of Eclectic Method, which was the combination of the Direct Method
and the Grammar Translation Method. In England the Direct Method was
widely used but people gradually drifted back to some forms of grammar
translation approach. In Belgium the method had a compromise with the
Natural method. In the USA the Direct Method was not popular and
Americans tried out the new "reform" method, a method which was similar to
the Direct Method.
The Direct Method, whose objective was the ability in using the
language orally, was finally reevaluated in the USA. It was believed that
students only wasted their time in schools in trying to achieve something
impossible: speaking in the target language. It would be useful if they learned
something attainable: reading in the target language. This assumption gave a
way to the Reading Method. However, the Reading Method did not last very
1.6 Tefl 1 

long. The method was unsuccessful in preparing people to communicate in

the target language when the USA government needed its people to master
foreign languages for international communication in short time. This idea
was caused by the need to make the USA Army able to speak foreign
languages which were spoken in other parts of the world. This condition
triggered the government to think about a new method of teaching foreign
languages In 1942 a new method was established and named the Army
Specialized Training Program (ASTP), or often called the Army Method. This
method was the embryo of the Audio-Lingual Method.

C. THE NEW ERA

Teaching methods are the applications of theoretical findings; they may

have developed from theories and then put into practice. The second half of
the twentieth century has given new language teaching methods. One of the
new methods that has been well known and used internationally is Audio-
Lingual Method. It seems that the method is the only method that has been
developed very well. The USA government funded the project of developing
the method. Many people involved in the project. Not only language teachers
but also linguists and psychologists were involved in the project. Finally, in
1960's the method was widely adopted for teaching foreign languages in
North American colleges and universities. It provided the methodological
foundations for materials for the teaching of foreign languages at college and
university level in the USA and Canada, and its principles formed the basis of
such widely used series as the Lado English Series and English 900
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 48). These materials are still in use today.
Not long after the emergence of the Audio-lingual Method, some other
new methods have been developed. The new methods have been developed
based on theories of the language and theories of language teaching or
learning. The new methods -to mention some- are the Silent Way of
Gattegno, the Community Language Learning of Curran, the Total Physical
Response of Asher, Suggestopedia of Lozanov and Communicative Language
Teaching. It is interesting that most of the methods were developed in the
USA. One of method mentioned Suggestopedia- was developed in East
European countries and Communicative Language Teaching in England. At
glance the new methods are different one from another, or different from the
traditional methods. If we compare their underlying principles, these methods
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.7

have many things in common with the traditional other methods. Or, the new
methods may have been developed from the traditional methods. For
example, the Silent Way and the Total Physical Response, two of the new
methods, seem to share a principle that the presence of physical objects
promotes learning. Also, the activities in the Total Physical response cannot
be easily distinguished from those of the Gouin method, which used physical
activities to present language materials. The Community Language Learning,
whose language syllabus comes from the students, cannot be separated from
the Unit method, which trusted its syllabus on a vote by language learners.

A CTI V IT Y

Untuk memperdalam pemahaman Anda mengenai materi di atas,

kerjakanlah latihan berikut!
1) What was the purpose of teaching Latin and how was Latin taught at that
time?
2) Mention two of the pioneers who improved the teaching of foreign
languages for communication? And deseribe in short their ide as of
teaching a foreign language
3) How was a language teacher expected to teach another language based
on the suggestion proposed by Vietor?
4) What consideration was used by the USA government to be involved in
finding an effective way to teach another language
5) What is the difference between the traditional methods and the newly
born methods?

Key to Activity

1) The purpose of teaching Latin at that time was only the preparation of
reading the Latin classics. At that time Latin was taught by focusing on
Latin grammar and presented as one of the subjects of the school.
2) There were several pioneers who improved the teaching of foreign
languages for communication. The following are the pioneers who had
done the improvement:
a) Jan Comenius (1631), who suggested the improvement of teaching a
foreign language through imitation, :repetition and plenty of practice
1.8 Tefl 1 

in both reading and speaking; grammar was taught inductively

through pictures.
b) Meidenger (1783), who advocated translation into the second
language through the application of rules of grammar.
c) Karl Plotz (1819-81), who improved the way of teaching by
presenting rules and paradigms, and then through sentences for
translation into and out of the second language.
3) The teacher taught the target language by using the spoken language as a
starting point and providing descriptive phonetics, the teacher taught
new materials through gestures and pictures and through the use of
words already known, and the teacher taught grammar through in
inductive way by using texts.
4) The consideration was to prepare people to communicate in the target
language when the USA government needed its army to master foreign
languages for international communication in a short time.
5) The traditional methods were less based on theories of language
learning, and they were more developed based on teaching experience,
while the newly-born methods have been developed based on theories of
the language and theories of language teaching or learning.

S UM MAR Y

Teaching methods have been introduced in language teaching for a

long time and they can be traced back several centuries ago. The history
of language teaching methods began with grammar teaching of Latin and
Greek, and then the method was improved with the introduction of
translation in teaching the languages, which was popularly known as the
Grammar Translation Method (GTM). The GTM was also called the
Classical Methods since it was first used in the teaching of classical
languages, Latin and Greek. Since Latin was learned based on written
language of classical literature, The GTM ignores authentic spoken
'communication and social contexts of the language. This method was
widely used for centuries before the method was replaced by the Direct
Method, which emphasized on the mastery of the target language for
communication. Finally, the second half of the twentieth century has
given new language teaching methods, namely: Audio Lingual Method
(ALM), the Silent Way, the Community Language Learning (CLL), the
Total Physical Response (TPR), Suggestopedia, Communicative
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.9

Language Teaching (CLT), and some others. Some methods may have
been developed based on experience in teaching a foreign language in
the past without considering theories on language teaching. Some people
may disagree that such methods can be classified as methods even
though some other people call them methods. The methods may be just a
group of activities in teaching experiences or they are just single
activities in language teaching. Or, they are probably not methods but
they may be assumptions in language teaching. This kind of argument
may happen among language teachers since different teachers may have
different perceptions towards the nature of method. In order to have
similar perceptions towards the nature of method, the concepts of
approach, method and technique will be discussed in the following
section.

FOR M AT IV E TE S T 1

Choose A, B, C or D to the right answer!

1) The main purpose of learning a foreign language was originally…

A. knowing the rules of the foreign language
B. understanding the literature of the native speakers
C. being able to communicate in the foreign language
D. reading the newspapers written in the foreign language

2) What language is believed to be the first language that was learned as a

second language?
A. Roman
B. Greek
C. English
D. Latin

3) What element did Francois Gouin add to the traditional language

teaching?
A. Rules and paradigms
B. Sentences for translation
C. Physical activity
D. Gestures and picture

4) The language teaching methodology was believed to have been firstly

developed related to the teaching of ….
A. Roman
1.10 Tefl 1 

B. Greek
C. English
D. Latin

5) Eclectic Method is a combination between …

A. Grammar Method and Translation Method
B. Direct Method and Grammar Translation Method
C. Grammar Method and Direct Method
D. Direct Method and Translation Method

6) What method was the embryo of the Audio-Lingual Method?

A. The Army Method
B. The Grammar Translation Method
C. The eclectic Method
D. The Direct Method

7) What language was believed to be the first international language?

A. English
B. Spanish
C. Greek
D. Latin

8) What objective would language teacher reach in teaching a foreign

language through the Direct Method?
A. The mastery if grammatical rules
B. The skill of translating from one language to another
C. The understanding of cultural elements
D. The ability in using the language orally

9) Who improved the traditional way of teaching by adding translation

activities into and out of the second language?
A. Jan Comenius
B. Meidenger
C. Karl Plotz
D. Francois Gouin

10) What did Meidenger suggest to improve the teaching methodology?

A. He suggested translation into the second language through the
application of rules of grammar.
B. He suggested the improvement of teaching a foreign language
through imitation, repetition and plenty of practice in both reading
and speaking; grammar was taught inductively through pictures.
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.11

C. He improved the way of teaching by presenting rules and paradigms,

and then through sentences for translation into and out of the second
language.
D. He suggested that the teacher taught the target language by using the
spoken language as a starting point and providing descriptive
phonetics.

Check your answers with the Key which is provided at the end of this
module, and score your right answers. Then use the formula below to know
your achievement level of the lesson in this module.

Score of the right answers

Level of achievement =  100%
Total score

Meaning of level of achievement: 90 - 100% = very good

80 - 89% = good
70 - 79% = average
< 70% = bad

If your level of achievement reaches 80% or more, you can on to the

next Unit. Good! But if your level of mastery is less than 80%, you have to
study again this unit, especially parts which you haven’t mastered.
1.12 Tefl 1 

Unit 2

Approach, Method, and Technique

A pproach, method and technique are the three terms which are often
overlapped in language teaching. People often mention one of them but
they refer to another. Even, people tend to use the term method for all of the
three. Some people think that they refer to the same concept: a procedure of
teaching a language. Are the three terms the same or different? Anthony
(cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 19) attempted to clarify this difference.
According to Anthony, the three have hierarchical arrangement. Approach is
the level of theories, method is the plan of language teaching which is
consistent with the theories, and techniques carry out a method. In other
words, the arrangement of the three is that- approach is axiomatic, method is
procedural and technique is implementation.
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature
of language and the nature of language learning, and teaching. Approach is
the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language, language learning,
and language teaching. Different people may agree with different beliefs and
assumptions’ dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching.
Assumptions or beliefs may be taken for granted. People do not have to come
to an agreement about the assumptions. Therefore, in language teaching there
are different assumptions about language and language teaching. Richards
and Rodgers (2001: 20-21) states that at least there are three different views
of the nature of language, namely: the structural view, the functional view (or
notional view) and the interaction view. The structural view sees language as
a system of structurally related elements. The functional view regards
language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. This view
emphasizes not only elements of grammar as the structural view das but also
topics or concepts that language learners need to communicate about. The
third view is the interaction view, it views that language is a vehicle for the
realization of interpersonal relations and social interactions between
individuals. The three different views of the nature of language will lead
people to have different assumptions about what language is and finally will
produce different methods in language teaching. For example, teaching
methods that have been developed based on the structural view suggest
language teachers to select their teaching materials based on grammatical
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.13

considerations. They will select the elements of grammar and then put them
in gradation for the whole plan of their teaching. The evaluation of the
teaching and learning process will also be based on grammatical point of
view. In consequence, the items of the test in the evaluation will be
grammatically oriented. This is also the case with other methods that have
been developed based on the other two views of the nature of language.
As mentioned earlier approach also includes assumptions about language
learning and language teaching. Assumptions about the nature of language in
themselves are not complete and need to be supported by theories about
learning or teaching. There are many theories of learning and teaching.
Richards and Rodgers (2001: 22) suggest that a learning theory underlying an
approach or method’ responds to two questions: 1) what are the
psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning, 2)
what are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning
processes to be activated. In general an approach has the answers to the two
questions but certain methods may only emphasize one of the two
dimensions. From assumptions about language and language learning, a
method will be developed. There can be many methods within one approach.
Different methods derive from different theories or assumptions about
the nature of language. The assumptions about the nature of language can be
different because different people may agree with certain assumptions while
some other people may agree with other assumptions. They do not have to
argue why some of people agree with the assumptions that they may
disagree. The assumptions below may be the common assumptions about the
nature of language.
1. Language is a group of sounds with specific meanings and organized by
grammatical rules (The Silent Way).
2. Language is the everyday spoken utterance of the average person at
normal speed (Audio Lingual Method).
3. Language is a system for the expression of meaning (Communicative
Language Teaching).
4. Language is a set of grammatical rules and language consists of language
chunks (Total Physical Response).

As stated earlier, principles in teaching a foreign language are developed

from an axiom about language. The following principles have been
1.14 Tefl 1 

developed from an axiom that language is a group of sounds with specific

meanings and organized by grammatical rules.
1. The syllabus is composed of linguistic structures.
2. Language is first learned as sounds and then associated with meanings.
3. The repetition of the teaching materials is based on linguistic structures.

The three principles mentioned imply that the language teaching should
be presented through a syllabus that is arranged based on grammatical point
of view. The presentation of materials in teaching a language is not always
arranged in this way. In arranging teaching materials, there are some other
ways, which are called types of syllabus. There are some types of syllabus,
which have been developed from different assumptions about the nature of
language, and each type of syllabus will characterize a method. The
difference among them will be discussed later in this module.
Theories of learning and teaching also suggest the principles of a
method. Richards and Rodgers (2001) state that the theories of learning and
teaching may respond two questions, namely a) what are the psycholinguistic
and cognitive processes involved in language learning and b) what are the
conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be
activated. The following assumptions relate to theories of learning and
teaching.
1. Learning is facilitated if language learners discover rather than repeat
and remember without understanding what is to be learned (Silent Way).
2. Learning involves the unconscious functions, as well as the conscious
functions (Suggestopedia).
3. The norms of the society often block the process of learning
(Suggestopedia).
4. Language learning will take place if language learners maintain their
feeling of security (Community Language Learning).
5. Language learning is a process of habit formation (Audio Lingual
Method).

Assumptions about learning and teaching, which have been developed

from theories in psychology, seem to develop faster than those about the
nature of language. The assumptions about learning mentioned above are not
the only assumptions about learning. There are still some other assumptions
that may be different from one another; even one may be contradictory to
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.15

another. Together with the assumptions about the nature of language, the
assumptions about learning will differentiate one method from another. Some
methods may have similar assumptions, while some other methods have
different assumptions.
How an assumption about language learning will be developed into the
principles of a method will be presented as follows. For example, people who
believe with an assumption that learning is facilitated if language learners
discover rather than repeat and remember without understanding what is to
he Jearned may develop the following principles.
1. Language is taught with physical objects.
2. Language is presented by problem solving involving the material to be
learned,
3. Meaning is made clear by providing contexts, not through translation.
4. The students are provided with a lot of practice without emphasizing
repetition.

The assumption about language learning that has been developed into the
four principles may be developed into other principles depending on the
teacher's creativity and experience. The principles mentioned above are
examples of how an approach is developed into principles that finally
characterize a method in teaching a foreign language. Since there are many
assumptions in language teaching, there are also many methods that people
may agree or disagree.
As stated before, approach is the level of theories and method is the plan
of language teaching which that is consistent with the theories. Method
should come after approach because the plan of language teaching should be
developed from theories on the nature of language and language learning.
Then, what does the term "method" mean? "Method" may mean different
things to different people (Mackey, 1975: 155). For some, it means a set of
teaching procedures; for others, the avoidance of teaching procedures.. For
some, it is the primary of a language skill; for others, it is the type and
amount of vocabulary and structure. Different meanings of "method" can be
inferred from the names of the methods. The term "method" in the Direct
Method may refer to a single aspect of language teaching: presentation of
material. "Method" in the Reading Method refers to the emphasis of a single
language skill: reading, while in the Grammar Translation Method, "method"
refers to the emphasis of the teaching materials.
1.16 Tefl 1 

According to Mackey (1975: 157), all teaching, whether good or bad,

must include some sort of selection, some sort of gradation, some sort of
presentation, and some sort of repetition. It includes selection because we
cannot teach the whole aspects of language; we have to select the part that we
wish to teach. It includes gradation because we cannot teach all of what we
have selected at once; we have to put something one after another. It also
includes presentation because we cannot teach the language without
communicating it to other people; we have to present what we have selected
to others. Finally it includes repetition because we cannot make other people
learn the language without repeating the materials they are learning; we have
to teach language skills with practice; all skills depend on practice.
Therefore, all methods should include the four steps of teaching a language
selection, gradation, presentation and repetition. Some "methods" may
include only one or two of the four steps. Sided as method. They may refer
only to teaching techniques. They may refer to techniques of selecting
language materials, such as the Grammar Method or the Reading Method.
Those "methods" do not include selection, gradation, presentation, and
repetition of language materials. These kinds of "methods" may not be
considered as methods, in the sense that they do not include all of the four
steps mentioned above. Following the discussion above, many traditional
methods may be considered techniques; they may be techniques of selecting
materials, techniques of presenting materials, or techniques of evaluating the
materials that have been learned.
A method, which is developed based on some assumptions, of an
approach, includes the whole plan for the presentation of language materials.
Since the plan is developed based on the same assumptions, no part of the
plan contradicts and all parts make a unity. The unity of a method makes the
method distinctive. Even though some assumptions of two different methods
may derive from the same theories, some other assumptions may be
developed from different theories. How little the difference is will make the
unity of a method different from others. To mention some, the methods that
have the whole plan for the presentation of language materials are Audio
Lingual Method, Direct Method, Silent Way, Total Physical Response,
Community Language Learning, and Suggestopedia. Another way of looking
at method in language teaching has also been suggested by Richards and
Rodgers (2001). They state that at the level of design the objectives of
language teaching, language syllabus, content are determined. At the level of
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.17

design the roles of language teachers, instructional materials are also

specified. A method is theoretically related to an approach, organized by the
design, and practically realized in procedure. Using Richards and Rodgers'
terms, method includes approach, design and procedure. Even though their
description of method is different from Anthony's, basically the two are
similar, in the sense that a method should include assumptions about
language and language learning, and it will be realized in a set of techniques
of presenting materials to language learners, which is often called procedure.
The difference between methods can be easily observed from their.
techniques. What is a technique then? The following discussion will describe
what is meant by technique.
As mentioned earlier, a technique is implementation, meaning that a
technique is something that actually takes place in language teaching or
learning in the classroom. All activities that take place in a language class are
techniques. The following are some examples of techniques in error
correction.
1. The teacher does not praise or criticize so that language learners learn to
rely on themselves (Silent Way).
2. The teacher often praises when a student has made a good thing in
learning (Audio Lingual Method).
3. When a student has produced a wrong expression, the teacher just
repeats the right one (Total Physical Response). .
4. The teacher does not care when a student makes an error as long as it
does not hinder communication (Natural Method).

Techniques are not exclusive to certain methods. To some extend,

different methods may have some similar techniques even though they must
have other different techniques. Language teachers may develop their own
techniques as long as the techniques are still consistent with the assumptions
or theories of the methods from which the techniques derive. Techniques not
only include the presentation of language material but also the repetition of
the material. Therefore, the position of a technique is at the implementation
phase and it is often called procedure while approach and method are at the
level of design (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 20). Since techniques are also
developed from an assumption (s) about the nature of language, they will also
deal with how the teaching materials are selected, which is often called
syllabus: Language syllabus will guide language teachers to decide what to
1.18 Tefl 1 

teach (selection), the order in which it is taught (gradation), how meaning or

forms are conveyed (presentation), and what to be done to• master a language
(repetition). Since language syllabus is essential in understanding teaching
methods, which will be presented in the next modules, types of language
syllabus are discussed in this module.
There are at least six types of language syllabus (Reily, 1988). The
difference is shown basically based on the criteria for grading and sequencing
the units of second language classroom activity. There are options in the units
to be adopted. Units can be based on an analysis of the language to be
learned, in terms of grammatical structures or of lexical items. Units may also
be based on an analysis of the components of skilled behavior in the second
language. Following are the six types that are commonly implemented in
language learning.

1. A structural syllabus. The content of the language teaching is a

collection of the forms and structures of the language being taught.
Examples include nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions,
subordinate clauses, and so on.
2. A notional/functional syllabus. The content of the language teaching is a
collection of the functions or the notions that are performed when the
language is used. A notional syllabus may cover functions of the
language such as greeting, apologizing, requesting and informing, and it
may include the notions of language such as age, color, comparison and
time.
3. A situational syllabus. The content of the language teaching is a
collection of imaginary situations where the language is used. A
situational syllabus may include at a restaurant, at school, meeting a new
neighbor and seeing a doctor.
4. A skill-based syllabus. The content of the language teaching is a
collection of specific skills in using the target language. Examples of
skills in using the target language may include reading for the main
idea, writing good paragraphs, and listening for the main idea.
5. A task-based syllabus. The content of the language teaching includes a
series of purposeful tasks that language learners need to perform; tasks
are defined as activities that are needed when using the target language.
Examples of a task-based syllabus may include applying for a job,
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.19

ordering food via the telephone, and getting housing information over
the telephone.
6. A content-based syllabus. A content-based syllabus in language teaching
is actually not a language syllabus. The primary purpose of instruction is
to teach some subjects or information using the target language. The
subject is primary and language learning occurs automatically while
language learners are studying the subject. An example of a content-
based syllabus is a science class that is taught in the target language.

The choice of a syllabus is a major decision. Even though there are six
types language syllabus, in practice, there are combinations of two or more of
the types discussed above. The choice really depends on the method that has
been developed based on an assumption about the nature of language.
Besides determining the type of language syllabus, assumptions both about
language and language learning in approach also determine the roles of
language teachers and language learners. The Roles of language teachers The
roles of language teacher are also regarded as techniques, which have been
developed based on assumptions introduced in approach. As discussed
earlier, the assumptions about the nature of language and the assumptions
about language learning will determine all plans of the language teaching,
which is called a method. How an approach views the nature of language will
determine how a language teacher should perform his or her roles. And, how
an approach believes about the conditions that promote language learning
will also determine the roles of language teachers. Principally, language
teachers have two functions: the instructional function and the managerial
function (Wright, 1987: 52). The two functions complement each other; the
former would be more or less impossible without the latter. In practice, it is
difficult to separate the two and language teachers can perform both
functions simultaneously. Some methods may suggest the language teachers
to perform the instructional function more than the managerial one, while
some other methods may encourage the language teachers to function as the
manager of the classroom more. In some methods the role of a language
teacher is very dominant while in some other methods the teacher role is less
dominant in instructional strategies. As stated in Richards and Rodgers,
2001: 28, some methods are totally dependent on the teacher as a source of
knowledge and direction; others see the teacher's role as catalyst, consultant,
guide, and model for learning. Understanding the roles of language teachers
1.20 Tefl 1 

will be important for understanding the methods, which will be discussed in

most of the next modules. Following are the most common roles of language
teachers, which are implemented in different methods.
1. Language teacher functions as an organizer in the classroom. The teacher
maintains discipline to the extent that an effective learning atmosphere is
established. It can be done by involving the learners more actively in the
classroom activities that demand inter-student communication and co-
operative efforts.
2. Language teacher functions as a counselor. The teacher role is to respond
the learners' problems non-judgmentally and help the learners to reach
what they want to learn.
3. Language teacher functions as a motivator; the language teacher gives
praise and encouragement for positive efforts by the learners. It can be
done by giving positive feedback on returned assignments.
4. Language teacher functions as an observer. The teacher shows the errors
that the learners have produced and let the learners work on the
correction.
5. Language teacher functions as a model for producing correct expressions
and judges whether the learners' contributions to the learning process and
their efforts are relevant and correct.
6. Language teacher functions as a resource of knowledge and direction.
The teacher establishes a position of dominance over the learners in
selecting the materials to learn and also how to acquire them.

The teacher role will determine the role of language learners

automatically. When a language teacher is very dominant, language learners
will be less dominant in learning teaching interaction. Some methods have
been criticized for making language learners stimulus-response mechanisms
whose learning is a result of repetition. Language learners will be more active
in learning when a language teacher can be less silent in the classroom. The
role relationship of language learner and teacher are many and varied from
one method to another. Some methods suggest that they should be in an equal
position but in some other methods the role of the language teacher is
regarded as the primary source of skills and knowledge in language learning.
Johnson and Paulston (cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 28) suggest five
possible learner roles that can make language learners more autonomous.
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.21

Following are the roles of language learners which are suggested by

advocates of different methods.
1. Learners plan their own learning program and thus ultimately assume
responsibility for what they do in the classroom.
2. Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress.
3. Learners are members of a group and learn by interacting with others.
4. Learners tutor other learners.
5. Learners learn from the teacher, from other students, and from other
teaching sources.

A CTI V IT Y

Untuk memperdalam pemahaman Anda mengenai materi di atas,

kerjakanlah latihan berikut!
1) What is the difference between approach and method?
2) It is assumed that you agree with the assumption that language is the
everyday spoken utterance of the average person at normal speed, what
techniques may you develop from the assumption?
3) What assumption about language has inspired a content-based syllabus?
4) Develop three techniques that may have been developed from the
assumption that language is learned logically, expanding upon what
language learners already know?
5) What should the teacher do if he/she agrees that the role of the language
teacher functions as a counselor?

Key to Activity

1) An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature

of language and the nature of language learning and teaching and
method is the whole plan of language teaching which is consistent
with the theories
2) The possible techniques are
a) The language materials are developed based on situational syllabus.
b) The selection of the language materials, is based on what native
speakers say, not what they have to say.
1.22 Tefl 1 

c) The culture of the native speakers is discussed in order to

understand the contexts in which the language is spoken.

3) The underlying assumption of the syllabus is that language occurs

automatically while language learners are studying a subject at school.
4) There are many possible techniques that can be developed from the
assumption above, e.g.:
a) Language learners are led to use their previous knowledge to come
to conclusions
b) Teaching starts from what the learners already know in order to
encourage association processes.
c) The teacher only intervenes when necessary to avoid confusion.
Teacher manipulates the situation in the class so that the process of
association easily takes place, for example by asking questions
which are related to the topic.

5) If the teacher functions as a counselor, the language learners must be

his/her clients. This assumption belongs to a method that is called the
Total Physical Response. The techniques that may derive from this
assumption can be as follows:
a) The language learners may choose topics of their own interests.
b) The language teacher corrects learners' errors in non-judgmental
manner.
c) The language teacher considers learners' feeling and keep them
secure in learning-teaching interaction

S UM MAR Y

A number of ways of conceptualizing approaches, methods and

techniques may have been proposed. Different people may have different
ways of conceptualizing them. Understanding how people conceptualize
the terms will provide language teachers with a clearer picture of
language teaching methods. This understanding may avoid the teachers
from misunderstanding the concepts among themselves. Following
certain methods, language teachers may be expected to develop their
own techniques by considering the underlying principles of the methods.
Approaches and methods are relatively permanent but techniques may be
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.23

adapted to the environment of the language learners and language

teachers. The procedure of a method, which comprises a set of
techniques, may not be fixed even though the assumptions of an
approach and the basic principles of a method are relatively fixed.

FOR M AT IV E TE S T 2

Choose one A, B, C or D to the right answer!

1) The teaching material "expressing happiness" may be found in a book

which has been developed based on …
A. structural syllabus
B. notional syllabus
C. situational syllabus
C student task syllabus

2) Which technique may have been derived from the assumption that the
skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing reinforce one another?
A. Language teacher is supposed to deal with all four skills when
working on each linguistic objective.
B. Writing should be presented after the students master a reading text.
C. Oral mastery of language competence should be the first priority.
D. Language is what native speakers say.

3) Assumptions about language and language learning are discussed at the

level….
A. approach
B. technique
C. method
D. design

4) The overall plan of language teaching is called….

A. approach
B. technique
C. method
D. procedure

5) Preparation of teaching materials can be seen from….

A. assumptions
B. methods
1.24 Tefl 1 

C. techniques
D. activities

6) Which of the following assumption may inspire the technique that the
teacher often praises when a student has made a good thing in learning?
A. Positive Reinforcement is needed in language learning
B. Students learn a foreign language naturally
C. Making errors is a part of language learning
D. Punishment will discourage students' learning process

7) Selection of materials in language teaching is discussed in the level….

A. approach
B. technique
C. method
D. procedure

8) The assumption that language learning will take place if language

learners maintain their feeling of security can be seen from the following
technique…
A. The teacher always maintains learners' creativity during the learning
process.
B. No oral correction is given when errors are made.
C. The teacher never gives criticisms to the students.
D. Evaluation is given every meeting.

9) Learning may take place when language learners observe actions and
perform the actions themselves….
A. Language teaching begins by giving commands to the students and
they perform the commands.
B. Teaching materials are arranged based on situational syllabus.
C. The evaluation is given by asking the students to perform actions.
D. Language learners may develop their own learning activities.

10) Which of the following syllabus may come from the assumption that
language is seen as groups of sound arbitrarily associated with specific
meanings and organized into sentences or strings of meaningful units by
grammar rules?
A. task-based syllabus
B. notional syllabus
C. structural syllabus
D. content-based syllabus
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.25

Check your answers with the Key which is provided at the end of this
module, and score your right answers. Then use the formula below to know
your achievement level of the lesson in this module.

Score of the right answers

Level of achievement =  100%
Total score

Meaning of level of achievement: 90 - 100% = very good

80 - 89% = good
70 - 79% = average
< 70% = bad

If your level of achievement reaches 80% or more, you can on to the

next Unit. Good! But if your level of mastery is less than 80%, you have to
study again this unit, especially parts which you haven’t mastered.
1.26 Tefl 1 

Unit 3

English as a Foreign Language and English

as a Second Language

L anguage teaching is influenced by ideas on the nature of language

(language theories) and the learning conditions that make learners to
acquire the language (learning theories).
Differences in language theories may affect the selection of the teaching
materials and differences in learning theories may affect the teaching
methods. A method that is based on the assumption that we learn another
language as a child learns his native language (L1) will differ from one based
on the assumption that learning a foreign language is not the same as learning
a mother tongue. It may be argued that the actual teaching of English in
Indonesia may differ from the English teaching in Malaysia or teaching
English in the United States of America, in-which people should learn
English in the conditions where the language is used for communication in
their daily lives. Some people prefer to call the former learning English as a
foreign language and the latter learning English as a second language.
Not all people agree with the distinction between second language and
foreign language. Dulay, Burt, Krashen (1982) states that second language
acquisition includes learning a new language in a foreign language context
(e.g. English in Mexico or German in the United States) as well as learning a
new language in a host language environment (e.g. German in German).
They use the term second language (L2) to refer to both foreign and host
languages and the teaching methods apply to the acquisition of both (1982:
11). It implies that the way to teach English as a second language is not
necessarily different from the way to teach English as a foreign language, and
whether English is learned in Indonesia or in Malaysia, English is called the
target language
Even though they seem not to agree to the distinction between second
language and foreign language, Krashen (1985: 8) differentiates the two
different ways of gaining a target language. He states that there are two ways
of developing ability in a target language: "acquisition" and "learning".
Acquisition is defined as a subconscious process that is identical to the
process used in first language acquisition in all important ways, while
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.27

learning is defined as conscious knowing about a target language. While

acquisition is taking place, language learners are not always aware of the
results; they are not very concerned with grammatical rules and error
correction. They are gaining a target language by living in the society where
the language is used in their daily lives. When language learners talk about
the rules of a target language, they correct errors, and people in the society do
not speak the target language, they are learning the target language.
English is learned in Indonesia by talking about the grammatical rules of
English and errors are always corrected. For language learners in Indonesia,
where English is not spoken in the society, accuracy is really the focus in
learning English. It is not the case when people learn English in countries
where English is spoken in the society, such as in the Singapore, United
States, or Malaysia. People in those countries emphasize on the ability and
fluency in communications of daily lives; they acquire English because they
are exposed to the language in the society. They are not always aware of the
process of gaining the language. Referring to the theory of gaining a target
language mentioned above, the process of gaining English in Indonesia is
regarded more as learning while in Malaysia more as acquisition. Even
though some people may disagree with the distinction between the term
second language and foreign language, it is not denied that the status of
English in Indonesia is different from that in Malaysia. In Malaysia English
is gained in the society where the people speak the language; in Malaysia
English is a second language. In Indonesia English is learned only at schools
and people do not speak the language in the society. English is really a
foreign language for language learners in Indonesia. The discussion on the
differences between learning a target language in L1 environment and in L2
environment is also proposed by Els et al (1984: 36), as shown below.

I.2 learning in L.1 environment I.2 learning in I.2 environment

guided learning unguided learning
tutored learning untutored learning
formal learning spontaneous/naturalistic learning
foreign language learning second language learning
learning acquisition
1.28 Tefl 1 

Whether people learn English as a second language or a foreign language,

they are learning a target language. The learning of the target language can
take on a variety of patterns. Dozens of factors are involved and it is doubtful
whether we can make it possible to propose a complete analysis of all the
factors. Nevertheless, there are sorts of opinions and beliefs on what
influence language learning. Mackey (1975: 108-124) suggests that there are
three main influences that determine the learning, namely linguistic, social
and psychological influences. The three influences may make the teaching of
English as a second language or as a foreign language different. In the
following section, the three influences will be discussed and the ideas
presented here are adapted from Mackey (1975).

A. LINGUISTIC

Process and progress in learning a target language may depend on (1)

how the target language differs from the mother tongue and (2) how much
the mother tongue interferes with the target language.

1. Differences
Each language is unique and each has its own system. A language is
always different from others even though the language may be similar to
some languages. The differences between the target language and the mother
tongue may be in the realm of grammar, phonology, vocabulary, stylistics
and graphics. Differences in each realm may cause different problems in
learning another language. The more different the target language is from the
mother tongue, the more problems language learners may face in learning the
target language.
Because of differences in grammar language learners may find it
difficult to understand the systems of the target language. Language learners
whose mother tongue has no tenses tend to have more difficulties in learning
a target language which has tenses. For most Indonesians, English tends to be
very difficult because the Indonesian language has no tenses that are similar
to the tenses of English.
Differences in phonology may cause difficulties in producing sounds in
the target language and in combining the sounds. For example, some
Indonesian learners find it difficult to pronounce the word "she"; they tend to
produce the pronunciation for the word "sea" or "see".
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.29

In the realm of vocabulary, the difficulty of a target language, depends

on the number of words which are similar to the words in their mother
tongue. If the mother tongue of the language learners has a large number of
words which are similar or the same as the words found in the target
language, the language learners may find it easier to learn the target
language.
A language learner whose culture is similar to the culture of the target
language may find it less difficult to understand the contexts in which the
target language is used. Learning another language cannot be separated from
learning its culture. Difficulties in understanding another culture may also
cause difficulties in learning the language in which the culture lives.
In the field of graphics some language learners are more handicapped
than other learners because their language has a different way of how the
language is written. There are many ways of how languages are written;
some languages are more alphabetical, for example Indonesian, and some
other languages are not alphabetical, for example Chinese. In learning
English, Indonesian learners may find it easier to understand English words
than Chinese learners.

2. Interference
When people learn another language, their mother tongue sometimes
interferes with the target language. This phenomenon is often called
interference. Interference is often caused by the similarities between their
mother tongue and the target language. How their mother tongue interferes
with a new language depends on whether they are learning to speak the new
language or simply they are learning to understand the language by listening
and reading. The possibility of transfer from Ll can be negative or positive
interference.
If they are learning to speak the target language, the similarities between
the two languages may cause much difficulty. They will use their knowledge
of their mother tongue and based on the knowledge they may produce
utterances which do not exist in the target language (Dickerson, 1975: 405).
The negative interference may result in errors but learners' errors are not
necessarily caused by the interference of their mother tongue. Different
people may have proposed different classifications of errors (Corder, 1974
and Dulay, Burt and Krashen, 1982); the following types of errors and their
examples are taken from Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982:154-162).
1.30 Tefl 1 

a. Omission : the absence of an item(s) that must appear in a

well-formed utterance
Example : Mary president new company*

b. Double markings : the failure to delete certain items which are

required in some linguistic construction
Example : He doesn't know my name*

c. Regularization : applying the rules used to produce the regular ones

to those that are irregular.
Example : He eaten ten apples yesterday*

d. Simple addition : the presence of an item which should not appear in

a well-formed utterance.
Example : The fish doesn’t live in the water*

e. Misformation : the use of the wrong form of the morpheme or

structure.
Example : hisself* (himself)

f. Archi-form : the selection of one member of a class of forms to

represent others in the class.
Example : this dogs*

Misordering : the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of

morphemes in an utterance.
Example : He is all the time late*

Note: Can you fix those sentences?

On the other hand, if they are learning to understand the new language by
listening or reading, the similarities between the two languages will make
them easier to understand the new language. The similarities can be an
advantage for language learners.
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.31

B. SOCIAL

Since language is essentially social phenomenon, the social influences

on language learning are numerous and interrelated in complex ways. There
are some contacts that are classified under social factors that influence the
process of language learning; they are home, community, occupation, school,
religious meeting, radio/television, and reading matters. These contacts make
differences between English learned as a foreign language and learned as a
second language, and community seems to be the contact that most
differentiates the target language as a second language and the target
language as a foreign language.
The people with whom we continually use a target language have some
effect on the manner and skill with which we use the language. Language
learners can meet with the people and community. The community is very
important for the learning and maintenance of a language. A learner of a
target language who has no contact with a community in which the language
is spoken will have more possible failure to learn or maintain his/her target
language. Learning a target language only inside the classroom is quite
different from the natural ways of learning. The process of learning a target
language in the classroom is dominated by the teacher. The teacher becomes
the only member of the community of the target language. Language learners
almost find it impossible to be involved in social activities where the target
language is used. Language teaching classrooms spend more time to deal
with the knowledge of the target language: grammatical rules and grammar
correction. It is different from the conditions in which the target language is
learned as a second language; language learners really make use of the target
language in natural situations. The naturalness of using the language is one of
the important factors that play an important role in the success of learning the
target language, and the naturalness is likely to be found in the community in
which the target language is used in daily communications.
There is a general assumption that the learning which takes place in
natural and educational settings is very different in nature and natural settings
lead to higher levels of L2 proficiency than educational settings (Ellis, 1996;
214-215). In natural settings informal learning occurs while formal learning
occurs through conscious attention to rules and principles and greater
emphasis is placed on the mastery of the language as a subject matter.
1.32 Tefl 1 

Consequently, second language acquisition results in native-like use of the

target language, while foreign language learning does not.

C. PSYCHOLOGICAL

Second (foreign) language learners can differ in many ways. Skehan

(1989: 4) states some of the psychological differences of learners include age,
intelligence, aptitude, motivation, attitude, personality, and cognitive styles.
We will limit ourselves to a discussion of motivation and attitude since the
two differences of language learners belong to affective characteristics of
language learners (Els et al, 1984: 115). The two affective characteristics are
often considered non-innate differences, which can be learned by language
learners or conditioned by language teachers so that language teachers can
provide language learners with conditions that are needed for effective
language learning.

1. Motivation
The role of motivation in learning a foreign language is not question;
many studies of the relationship between motivation and language
achievement, for example, Lukmani (1972) and Olshtain et al. (1990) have
shown evidence of the relationship between them. Nevertheless, different
results have been provided about the role of motivation in language learning
and different studies have also proposed different types of motivation.
Studies on the role of attitudes and motivation in foreign language learning
have been dominantly inspired by Gardner and Lambert (1972). Gardner and
Lambert classify motivation in learning a foreign language under two types.
The first is integrative motivation, motivation to integrate to another culture,
and the second is instrumental motivation, motivation to acquire a language
as a means for attaining instrumental goals: furthering career, getting a job,
and so forth. Both may exist before the learners decide to learn another
language. The studies on motivation; however, have arrived at different
presentation of findings in relation to language learning. Some studies (Wen
and Johnson, 1997 and Olshtain, Shohamy, Kemp and Chatow (1990) have
shown that motivation, with other L2 learner variables, has a direct effect on
English proficiency. They have uncovered that the correlation between
motivation and achievement in English is strong and shows that motivation
affects achievement on an English test.
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.33

2. Attitude
Many studies on attitude have referred to the findings of Thurstone's
study conducted in 1946. In his study, he defines attitude as the intensity of
positive or negative affect for or against a psychological object. Attitude is a
relatively constant system of evaluative processes towards an object(s) based
on what individuals have learned in previous settings. The affective
evaluation towards an object may range along a continuum from positive
values to negative values. Baker (1992, p. 29) states that language attitude is
an umbrella term, under which resides .a variety of specific terms, such as
attitude to language groups, to language lesson, and to the uses of specific
language. Related to teaching English as a second/foreign language, there
may be three types of attitude: 1) attitudes to English, 2) attitudes to English
as a subject to be learned, and 3) attitudes to native speakers of English
(Setiyadi, 1999). Each of them can be separated and measured differently.
Attitude in learning a target language may affect motivation in learning, the
language; motivation can mediate any relation between language attitudes
and language achievement.

A CTI V IT Y

Untuk memperdalam pemahaman Anda mengenai materi di atas,

kerjakanlah latihan berikut!

1) What is the difference between acquisition and learning in language?

2) What is the target language?
3) How does the mother tongue interfere with the target language?
4) Give a reason why social factors play an important role in learning
another language?
5) Explain how psychological factors determine the success in learning the
target language?

Key to Activity

1) Acquisition refers to the process of learning another language in which

language learners are not always aware of the results; they are not very
concerned with grammatical rules and error correction. Learning refers
1.34 Tefl 1 

to the process in which language learners talk about the rules of another
language, and they correct errors.
2) The target language refers to the language being learned or taught.
3) The mother interferes with the target language positively or negatively.
Positively, if they are learning to understand the new language by
listening or reading, similarities between the mother tongue and the
target language will make them easier to understand the target language.
Negatively, if language learners use their knowledge of their mother
tongue and based on the knowledge they may produce utterances which
do not exist in the target language, which are called errors.
4) Social factors, particularly community, seem to be the most factor that
determines the success in learning the target language. If language
learners can live in a community where the target language is spoken,
they are likely to be more successful than those who have no contact
with the community. The latter will have more possible to learn or
maintain their target language.
5) At least there are two important psychological factors that determine the
success in learning the target language, namely: motivation and attitude.
The relationship between motivation and language achievement is high.
If language learners have high motivation: instrumental or integrative
motivation, they tend to be more successful than those with low
motivation.
The relationship between attitude and language achievement is also high.
The positive attitude to the target language: the language itself, the
teaching of the target language and the native speakers of the target
language will affect the learning achievement, even though sometimes
their attitude affects their achievement through their motivation.

S UM MAR Y

It seems reasonable to argue that learning English as a second

language is different from learning English as a foreign language, even
though both refer to the target language. Learning English as a second
language is often regarded as an unconscious process of acquiring the
language (acquisition) while learning English as a foreign language
refers to a conscious process of acquiring the language (learning). Two
different types of process of acquiring the target language may produce
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.35

different problems and finally provide different opportunities for

learning success. The problems and the progress in learning the language
may depend on the factors that language learners have. The three factors:
linguistic, social, and psychological factors may be the ones that play
important roles in determining the success in learning English, either as a
second language or foreign language.

FOR M AT IV E TE S T 3

Choose one A, B, C, or D to the right answer!

1) Learning is sometimes contrasted to acquisition and acquiring to

knowing. Which is a conscious process in language learning?
A. Acquisition
B. Learning
C. Acquiring
D. studying

2) Similarities between two languages may play an important role in

language learning. These can be classified under…
A. social factor
B. psychological factor
C. linguistic factor
D. psycholinguistic factor

3) The reason that learning a language as a means for attaining instrumental

goals can be classified as…
A. instrumental motivation
B. integrative motivation
C. instrumental attitude
D. instrumental attitude

4) When a student makes a phrase "this men", this error is classified

under…
A. regularization
B. simple addition
C. misformation
D. archi-form
1.36 Tefl 1 

5) When a student makes a sentence "I did not putted the book on the
table", this error is classified under…
A. regularization
B. archi-form
C. misformation
D. misordering

6) How much the mother tongue interferes with the target language is
called...
A. linguistic difference
B. linguistic interference
C. linguistic transfer
D. linguistic utterance

7) Contacts in religious meetings can be classified …

A. social factor
B. psychological factor
C. linguistic factor
D. psycholinguistic factor

8) When a student makes a sentence "My brother a teacher and I a student",

this error is classified under…
A. regularization
B. omission
C. misformation
D. simple addition

9) Which is not the characteristic of learning English as a foreign language?

A. Guided learning
B. Tutored learning
C. Formal learning
D. Spontaneous learning

10) The process under which language learners are not always aware of the
results and they are not very concerned with grammatical rules and error
correction is called…
A. learning
B. acquisition
C. studying
D. ignoring
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.37

Check your answers with the Key which is provided at the end of this
module, and score your right answers. Then use the formula below to know
your achievement level of the lesson in this module.

Score of theright answers

Level of achievement =  100%
Total score

Meaning of level of achievement: 90 - 100% = very good

80 - 89% = good
70 - 79% = average
< 70% = bad

If your level of achievement reaches 80% or more, you can on to the

next Unit. Good! But if your level of mastery is less than 80%, you have to
study again this unit, especially parts which you haven’t mastered.
1.38 Tefl 1 

Key Answer Test Formative

Test Formative 1 Test Formative 2 Test Formative 3

1) A 1) B 1) B
2) B 2) A 2) C
3) C 3) A 3) A
4) B 4) C 4) D
5) B 5) B 5) A
6) A 6) A 6) B
7) D 7) C 7) A
8) D 8) C 8) B
9) C 9) A 9) D
10) A 10) C 10) B
 PBIS4402/MODUL 1 1.39

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1.40 Tefl 1 

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