Illustrated Guide To Integrated Pest Management in Rice in Tropical Asia

W. H. Reissig, E. A. Heinrichs, J. A.
Litsinger,
K. Moody, L. Fiedler, T. W. Mew, and A.T. Barrion
ILLUSTRATED
GUIDE TO
INTEGRATED
PEST
MANAGEMENT
IN RICE
IN TROPICAL
ASIA
1986
International Rice Research Institute
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960 by the
Ford and Rockfeller Foundations with the help and approval of the Government of
the Philippines. Today IRRl is one of the 13 nonprofit international research and
training centers supported by the Consultative Group for International Agri-
cultural Research (CGIAR). The CGlAR is sponsored by the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruc-
tion and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of 50 donor countries, international
and regional organizations, and private foundations.
IRRl receives support, through the CGIAR. from a number of donors including:
the Asian Development Bank, the European Economic Community, the Ford
Foundation, the International Development Research Centre, the International
Fund for Agricultural Development, the OPEC Special Fund, the Rockefeller
Foundation, the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank, and
the international aid agencies of the following governments: Australia, Canada,
China, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, India, Italy, Japan,
Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States.
The responsibility for this publication rests with the International Rice
Research Institute.
Copyright © International Rice Research Institute 1986. Corrected edition

reprinted 1986.
All rights reserved. Except for quotations of short passages for the purpose of
criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of
IRRI. This permission will not be unreasonably withheld for use for non-
commercial purposes. IRRl does not require payment for the noncommercial use
of its published works, and hopes that this copyright declaration will not diminish
the bona fide use of its research findings in agricultural research and devel-
opment.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of
IRRl concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Availability for translation and copublication

The Illustrated guide to integrated pest management in rice in tropical Asia was
designed for inexpensive copublication by national agricultural improvement
programs and publishers. Its concept is similar to that of A Farmer’s Primer on
Growing Rice, which had been published in 30 languages by mid-1986. IRRl
provides sets of the line drawings, with English text blocked off, to cooperators
who then translate, typeset, and publish translations locally. IRRl does not ask for
royalties or payment for translations of IRRl books published in developing
nations. For details, contact the Communication and Publications Department,
International Rice Research Institute, P.O. Box 933. Manila, Philippines.
1st printing, English 1985 2,000 copies
1st printing, Bahasa lndonesia 1985 3,000 copies
2d printing, English 1986 4,000 copies
3d printing, English 1988 2,000 copies
4th printing, English 1989 2,000 copies
1st printing, Tagalog 1989 2,000 copies
5th printing, English 1996 2,000 copies
2d printing, Tagalog 1996 1,000 copies
ISBN 971-104-120-0
CONTENTS
FOREWORD ix Rice stem borers (Lepidoptera) 128
PREFACE xi Striped stem borer 132
INTRODUCTION 1 Dark-headed and gold-fringed stem
Introduction 3 borers 133
Yellow stem borer 135
STRUCTURE AND GROWTH STAGES 7 White stem borer 136
Rice Plant Structure and Growth Stages 9 Pink stem borer 137
Structure of the rice plant 10 Damage 139
The tiller 10 Management 140
The rice leaf 10 Rice black bugs
The rice stem 11 (Hemiptera:Pentatomidae) 147
The panicle 11 Rice hispa (Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae) 154
Growth stages 11 Mealybug (Homoptera:Pseudococcidae) 159
Pests at the reproductive stage 165
INSECT PESTS 17 Rice greenhorned caterpillar
Insect Pests of Rice 19 (Lepidoptera:Satyridae) 165
General characteristics of insects 19 Rice skippers
General life cycle 19 (Lepidoptera:Hesperiidae) 170
Description of insect pests in this guide 22 Rice brown planthopper
Soil pests 25 (Homoptera:Delphacidae) 175
Ants (Hymenoptera:Formicidae) 25 Smaller brown planthopper
Termites (Isoptera:Termitidae and (Homoptera:Delphacidae) 187
Rhinotermitidae) 27 Rice whitebacked planthopper
White grubs (Coleoptera:Scarabaeidae) 29 (Homoptera:Delphacidae) 192
Mole cricket (Orthoptera:GryllotaIpidae) 35 Rice green leafhoppers
Rice root weevils (Homoptera:Cicadellidae) 200
(Coleoptera:Curculionidae) 40 Rice zigzag leafhopper
Root aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) 45 (Homoptera:Cicadellidae) 211
Pests at the vegetative stage 50 Rice white leafhopper
Seedling maggots (Diptera:Muscidae) 50 (Homoptera:Cicadellidae) 216
Rice whorl maggots (Diptera:Ephydridae) 57 Pests at the ripening stage 221
Rice caseworm (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae) 65 Rice seed bugs (Hemiptera:Alydidae) 221
Rice green semilooper Rice panicle mite
(Lepidoptera:Noctuidae) 73 (Acarina:Tarsonemidae) 228
Rice green hairy caterpillar
(Lepidoptera:Noctuidae) 79 DISEASES 233
Rice leaf beetle Rice Diseases 235
(Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae) 83 Rice blast 236
Rice thrips (Thysanoptera:Thripidae) 87 Sheath blight 238
Rice gall midge (Diptera:Cecidomyiidae) 92 Bakanae 240
Armyworms and cutworms Brown spot 242
(Lepidoptera:Noctuidae) 99 Sheath rot 244
Grasshoppers, katydids, and field crickets Narrow brown leaf spot 245
(Orthoptera) 110 Stem rot 246
Rice leaffolders (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae) 119 False smut 248
Bacterial blight 250 Management of weeds in different types of rice
Bacterial leaf streak 253 culture 310
Tungro virus 255 Management of weeds in transplanted
Grassy stunt virus 257 rice 311
Rice ragged stunt 259 Management of weeds in pregerminated rice
Yellow dwarf disease 261 sown on puddled soil 312
Stem nematode 265 Management of weeds in dry-seeded wetland
White tip 267 rice 314
Management of weeds in dryland rice 316
WEEDS 271
Weed Pests of Rice 273 RICELAND RATS 319
Severity of weeds in different types of rice Biology and Management of Riceland Rats in
culture 274 Southeast Asia 321
Integrated weed control 274 Biology of riceland rats 321
Types of weeds 275 General life cycle 321
Grasses 275 Relationship to damage 322
Sedges 275 Damage 322
Broadleaf weeds 276 Management in Southeast Asia 324
Identification and ecology of common weeds in Monitoring 324
rice 276 Estimating crop loss 325
Commelina benghalensis L. 276 Control 326
Cyperus difformis L. 278 Cultural control practices 326
Cyperus iria L. 280 Chemical control 328
Cyperus rotundus L. 281 Maintaining bait holders during the
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. 283 season 330
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz) Koel. 284 Pattern of bait consumption during the crop
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link 285 season 330
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. 287 Advantages of cooperative rat control 331
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 288 Summary 331
Fimbristylis miliacea (= Littoralis) (L.)
Vahl 291 CULTURAL CONTROL 333
Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl. 293 Cultural Control 335
Paspalum distichum L. 295 Practices effective at the farm level 336
Portulaca oleracea L. 296 Practices effective at the community
Scirpus maritimus L. 298 level 339
Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. 300 Advantages of cultural control practices 340
Methods of weed control 302 Disadvantages of cultural control
Weeding 302 practices 340
Hand weeding 302
Mechanical weeding 304 RESISTANT VARIETIES 341
Water management 304 Resistant Rice Varieties 343
Control of weeds by flooding 304 Definition of a resistant variety 343
Problems in controlling weeds by Varietal resistance of rice to insect pests 344
flooding 305 Rice varietal resistance to diseases 345
Herbicides 306 Immunity 345
Definition 306 Hypersensitivity 345
Timing herbicide applications 307 Tolerance 346
Methods of herbicide action 308 Disease races and insect biotypes 346
Herbicide injury to rice 309 Definition of “race” and “biotype” 346
Symptoms of herbicide injury to rice 310 Use of resistant varieties in the field 347
Factors influencing the chances and rate of
development of new biotypes and races 348
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS 349 INTEGRATION OF CONTROL MEASURES 393
Biological Control of Rice Insect Pests 351 Integration of Control Measures for All Rice
Effects of beneficials on insect pests 351 Pests 395
Characteristics of parasites 351 Cultivars 396
Characteristics of predators 352 Pesticides 396
Parasites 353 Fertilizer 397
Parasites of leafhoppers and Water management 397
planthoppers 353 Planting method 397
Parasites of stem borers 358 Planting time 397
Parasites of other rice insect pests 363 Cropping pattern 397
Predators 365 Stubble management 397
Spiders 366 Weeding 397
Microvelia 367
Cyrtorhinus 368 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT 399
Other predators 369 Implementation of Integrated Pest Management
Management and conservation of parasites Strategies 401
and predators 369 Applied research phase 401
Site selection 401
PESTICIDES 371 Team formation 402
Pesticides 373 Site description 402
Types of pesticides used in growing rice 373 Research for design of pest management
Pesticide toxicity 377 strategies 403
Problems caused by pesticide misuse 380 Testing 404
Selection of a pesticide 386 Evaluation 405
Spray equipment 387 Farmers’ classes 405
Pesticide storage and disposal 390 Extension phase 405
Pesticide calculations 390 Follow-up meetings 406
APPENDIX 408
GLOSSARY 409
FOREWORD ix
FOREWORD
In the past, farmers in tropical Asia grew traditional rice implementation of IPM strategies at the farmer level are
cultivars and either relied primarily on cultural, mechanical, described.
and physical methods of pest control or practiced no pest This volume represents the combined efforts of many
control. Pesticide application was limited because the yield persons. The style and first draft of the text were developed by
potential of traditional varieties was too low to justify W. H. Reissig of the New York Agricultural Experiment
additional investments. Although pests destroyed part of each Station, Geneva, New York, USA, during a 1979-80 sabbatic
crop, severe outbreaks or epidemics were rare. leave at IRRI. Reissig's firsthand experience in developing IPM
The widespread introduction of high-yielding rice cultivars strategies for farmers gave him the necessary background to
in Asia in the last two decades and the associated changes in organize the information in a useful form. E. A. Heinrichs, IRRl
production practices have improved conditions for insects, entomologist, reviewed the technical material and worked with
diseases, weeds, and rodents. The higher yield potential of the IRRl editors and artists after Reissig's departure.
new rices also made increased pesticide application J. A. Litsinger, IRRl cropping systems entomologist, provided
economically attractive to farmers. technical information on the biology and management of
The replacement of traditional control methods by many insect pests and composed the section on cultural
pesticides could increase hazards to nontarget organisms, control. K. Moody, IRRl agronomist, supplied technical
however, and lead to the development of pesticide resistance information and reviewed the section on biology and control
and environmental contamination. To minimize such of weeds. L. A. Fiedler, a research biologist from the Denver
problems, Asian farmers must again diversify their pest Wildlife Research Center, stationed at the National Crop
control practices — a strategy that scientists now term Protection Center, University of the Philippines at Los Baños,
integrated pest management (IPM). acted as technical consultant in the preparation of the section
Recently, scientists working in national rice production on Biology and Management of Riceland Rats in Southeast
programs and at international agricultural research centers Asia. T. W. Mew, IRRI plant pathologist, provided technical
have written extensively about IPM for tropical rice. Many of information and reviewed the section on disease
the publications are research-oriented, fragmented, and too management. A. T. Barrion, IRRl entomology department
technical for nonscientists. Furthermore, much of the highly senior research assistant, served as technical consultant and
specialized information often focuses on a single species or a worked with artists in the preparation of the section on
small group of pests. Natural Enemies of Rice Insect Pests.
This publication provides practical and comprehensive This volume can be easily translated into the various
information to IPM workers in rice fields throughout tropical languages of Southeast Asia and serve as a key source of
Asia. It briefly discusses rice plant structure and growth information for IPM training programs. We hope that it will
stages and stresses their relation to pest management. There stimulate the implementation of IPM technology by rice
are separate sections on cultural control of rice pests, farmers in tropical Asia as well as the development of similar
resistant rice varieties, natural enemies of rice insect pests, publications for other rice-growing regions.
and pesticides. The biology and management of the major
groups of rice pests — insects, diseases, weeds, and rodents
— are discussed in separate sections. Finally, integrated M. S. Swaminathan
control measures for the entire rice pest complex and the Director General
PREFACE
During the past decade, scientists have developed the concept University Press, Hawaii, 1977; Rice virus diseases, K. C. Ling,
of integrated pest management (IPM) for rice. IPM technology IRRI, 1972; The virus diseases of the rice plant, The Johns
has been generated by scientists working in national rice Hopkins Press, 1967; Rice diseases, S. H. Ou, Commonwealth
production programs and at international agricultural research Agricultural Bureaux, 1977; A farmer's primer on growing rice,
centers, but only a limited amount of this technology has been B. S. Vergara, IRRI, 1981; Principles and practices of rice
tested in pilot IPM programs in tropical Asian countries. production, S. K. de Datta, John Wiley and Sons, 1981;
The rate of adoption of IPM technology by farmers has Monograph of insect pests and the natural enemies of rice,
been slow, perhaps because of these reasons: 1) some of the Plant Protection Department, Hunan Agricultural Academy
technology developed is either ineffective, economically Institute, Changsha, China, 1978; lnsect pests of rice, M. D.
unattractive to farmers, or difficult to implement; and Pathak, IRRI, 1977; The major insect pests of the rice plant,
2) applied research scientists, extension officers, and farmers The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967; and Pests of rice, D. H. Grist
lack understanding of the principles and practices involved and R. J. W. Lever, Longmans. We acknowledge the
and the economic benefits from IPM. individuals who contributed to the production of this manual.
There have been much interest and activity in IPM training Danilo Amalin did the artwork on the insect pests, natural
from the international level to the level of farmers in tropical enemies, weeds, and diseases and Oscar Figuracion, Rebecca
Asia. This manual was developed 1) to provide a source book Brown, John Figarola, and Joseph Figarola, the illustrations.
for the training of extension officers who, in turn, will train Rowena Dagang coordinated the movement of text and
farmers and implement rice IPM programs; and 2) to illustrative materials. Ram Cabrera, Fidelito Manto, and
encourage applied research scientists to develop more Patricio Mamon are responsible for the design and layout. The
effective IPM technology. text was edited by T. R. Hargrove, head of the Communication
Among the topics are the principles of IPM and information and Publications Department, and G. S. Argosino, assistant
on rice morphology and growth stages, which are necessary editor. Individuals consulted during the writing and review of
in the development of sampling methods and timing of control the text and figures were the late K. C. Ling, and F. Nuque of
practices, and insects, weeds, diseases and rodents of major the Plant Pathology Department; V. A. Dyck of the
importance in tropical Asia. Details of the geographic Entomology Department; and R. Chavez, M. Mabbayad, and
distribution, life cycle of the pests, and damage they cause are R. Lubigan of the Agronomy Department.
described and illustrated. The integration of sampling Our efforts in producing this manual will be richly rewarded
methods, economic thresholds, pesticides, resistant varieties, if it serves as a catalyst in the implementation of IPM strategy
and natural enemies in the management of pests is explained. in the rice fields of farmers in tropical Asia.
Numerous references were consulted in the writing of this
manual. The sources of information and illustrations include
the audiotutorial modules in pest control developed at IRRl W. H. Reissig, E. A. Heinrichs,
and the following books: The world's worst weeds, distribution J. A. Litsinger, K. Moody, L. Fieldler,
and biology, L. G. Holm, D. L. Plucknett, and J. V. Pancho, T. W. Mew, and A. T. Barrion
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION 3
lntroduction
In Asia, losses from insects, diseases, weeds,
and vertebrate pests that attack rice are difficult
to quantify.
Chronic pests — weeds, most leaf-feeding

insects, stem borers, most fungal diseases —
annually reduce yields, but seldom cause
epidemics. The pests are routinely controlled
or are tolerated.
Acute pests — rats, blast, virus and bacterial
diseases, leafhoppers and planthoppers —
infrequently occur in epidemic proportions, but
they cause great economic concern to the
regions affected and their control is difficult.
Pest epidemics have been recorded ever

since rice was cultivated by man. Pests such as
rats, rice blast, armyworms, locusts, and brown
planthopper have historically challenged rice
farmers who have responded with highly
creative pest control measures such as control
of the whitebacked planthopper by plugging
the levees to raise the water level, pouring
whale oil on the water surface and dislodging
hoppers from the plants into the whale oil-
treated water.
Historically, epidemics were associated with
severe weather conditions such as extreme
temperature fluctuations, drought, typhoons, or
floods. Such weather conditions suppressed
the natural enemies of rats and insects and
allowed the entry of disease organisms into the
plant.
4 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN RICE
In recent years, the need to intensify rice

production to feed a rapidly expanding
population has brought about rapid changes in
rice production technology. Many of these
changes have created greater frequencies of
pest epidemics.
•Expansion of farmland planted to rice has
1) aided pests whose greatly lowered
populations during the dispersal phase of
their life cycles was due to failure to find a
suitable host, 2) allowed isolated pests to
spread into new areas, and 3) increased
the number of pest species, which
transferred from wild hosts to rice when
their natural habitats were destroyed.
• New irrigation systems have 1) allowed dry

season rice cropping to unleash pests
whose numbers were annually depressed
during a rice-free dry season, and 2)
favored aquatic pests because of more
stable water delivery to paddies.
• Development of new varieties has 1) led to

replacement of traditional varieties —
which had been selected by farmers for
stable resistance, particularly to diseases
— with modern varieties possessing
narrower-based and less stable resistance,
2) increased pests favored by high tillering
plant types, 3) allowed year-round
cropping by introducing photoperiod
insensitivity, and 4) increased the yield
potential, making it more economical to
attempt pest control measures that before
would have been unprofitable.
• Fertilizer usage increased with the

development of fertilizer-responsive
varieties which, in turn, have increased
pest abundance. Weeds take up fertilizer
and grow faster than rice. Insects multiply
faster with better nutrition. Fertilizer
increases the plant's susceptibility to
diseases. Dense growing plants provide
shelter for rats.
INTRODUCTION 5
• Pesticide use has expanded in response to

more pest problems and higher profits that
could be realized from proper use.
Farmers, however, often misuse pesticides
by:
1. choosing the wrong pesticide,
2. applying on a calendar-based schedule
without regard to pest numbers,
3. using rates that are too low or too high,
and
4. not using enough water to thoroughly
cover the plants.
Pesticide misuse may:

1) fail to kill the target pest and increase
either its number (resurgence) or that of a
formerly minor pest (secondary pest
outbreak), 2) cause pesticide-resistant
populations, 3) seriously harm the farmer
during application, or the nontarget
organisms in the environment either
directly or indirectly.
The pest problems brought about by the

new technology are by no means unique to
rice. All too often, however, the immediate
solution to a pest problem has meant repeated
applications of pesticides.
The concept of pest control changed with
the advent of modern synthetic pesticides
which were inexpensive and easy to apply, and
gave immediate results. During the pesticide
era, the concept of control meant eradication,
which sought total elimination of pests.
The concept of eradication has now been
replaced with the concept of management,
where the goal is to reduce pest populations to
levels that are uneconomical to control. Low
pest populations are tolerated. 2. Economic threshold: the pest population
1. Economic injury level: the pest population at which control measures should be
is large enough to cause crop losses taken to prevent pest numbers from
costing more than the control. reaching the economic injury level.
Integrated pest management is a strategy or

plan that utilizes various tactics or control
methods — cultural, plant resistance,
biological, and chemical — in a harmonious
way. Control actions are based on frequent
monitoring of pests.
Integrated pest management depends on
multidisciplinary ecological strategies to weigh
the effect of each tactic, as part of the
agroecosystem, in producing the least
disturbance and yield loss in the long run.
No pest control strategy increases potential
yield. Such strategies can only ensure that the
maximum yield physiologically obtainable in a
particular field and season will not be
significantly reduced by pests.
STRUCTURE AND GROWTH STAGES
RICE PLANT STRUCTURE AND GROWTH STAGES 9
Rice Plant Structure and Growth Stages

In a pest management
program, familiarity with the
different parts and growth
stages of the rice plant is
important.
Insects, diseases, and the

damage they cause are
found only on certain parts
of the plant.
The life cycle of many pests

is closely linked with the
development of the rice
plant.
Many crop management

practices must be applied
only at certain rice growth
stages.
STRUCTURE OF THE RICE PLANT
The tiller
The tiller is a shoot that
includes the roots, stem, and
leaves. It may or may not
have a panicle.
The rice leaf
Arrangement of leaves on a
stem
• The top leaf just below the
panicle is called the flag
leaf.
• The leaves grow alternately
on the stem.
The rice stem

The culm, or jointed stem, of
rice is made up of a series of
nodes and internodes. The
node is the solid part of the
stem. The internode is the
portion of the stem between
the nodes.
The panicle
The smallest unit of the pani-
cle is the spikelet.
At flowering, the floral parts
can be seen between the
lemma and palea.
The mature grain is covered
by the rice hull (lemma and
palea).
GROWTH STAGES
The growth cycle consists of
steps of development called
growth stages. Each stage
has been assigned a number
and a name.
Stage 0 — germination to
emergence
The first stage covers the
period from germination until
the emergence of the first
leaf.
Stage 1 — seedling stage

The seedling stage covers the
period after the emergence of
the first leaf until just before
the first tiller appears.
Stage 2 — tillering stage

The tillering stage extends
from the appearance of the
first tiller until the maximum
number of tillers is reached.
Stage 3 - stem elongation

Stem elongation begins late
in the tillering stage and ends
just before panicle initiation.
Stage 4 — panicle initiation

At the panicle initiation stage,
the panicle develops and
grows into a white feathery
cone, creating a bulge at the
base of the leaf sheath near
the bottom of the tiller.
Stage 5 — panicle
development
The panicle grows and
extends upward inside the
flag leaf sheath, and the
spikelets develop. At the end
of this stage, the panicle
causes the flag leaf sheath to
swell (booting).
Stage 6 — flowering
The flowering stage begins
when the panicles emerge
from the leaf sheath (head-
ing). It ends with pollination
and fertilization.
Stage 7 — milk grain stage

At the milk stage, the grain
contains a white liquid that
can be squeezed out with the
fingers. The panicles are
green and the flag leaves are
green and erect.
Stage 8 — dough grain stage

The milky portion of the grain
turns into a soft and then a
hard dough. The grain turns
yellow and the whole field
appears yellowish.
Stage 9 — mature grain stage

The grain is full-size, hard,
and yellow. The upper leaves
are dry and the panicles bend
toward the ground.
General rice growth stages

The nine individual growth
stages combine into three
general growth stages:
1. vegetative stage — from 2. reproductive stage — from 3. ripening stage — from
germination to panicle panicle initiation to flowering to maturity.
initiation flowering
The number of days in the

reproductive phase and that
in the ripening phase are the
same among most rice
varieties.
The number of days in the

vegetative phase varies in dif-
ferentvarieties.
INSECT PESTS
INSECT PESTS OF RICE 19
Insect Pests of Rice

Insect pests are particularly species are of major impor-
abundant on rice grown in tance in tropical Asia.
the tropics. About 30 different
General characteristics of
insects
General life cycle

Insects have two common
general types of development
or metamorphosis:
Gradual metamorphosis
Insects with gradual meta-

morphosis go through the
egg, nymphal, and adult
stages.
Nymphal stages may be Adults and nymphs both feed

similar to adults but lack on the plant and cause
completely developed wings similar damage.
and sexual organs.
Bugs, leafhoppers, and plant-
hoppers are examples of
insects with gradual
metamorphosis.
Complete metamorphosis
Insects with complete

metamorphosis go through
the egg, larval, pupal, and
adult stages.
In some insects with

complete metamorphosis
(stem borers, armyworms,
gall midge, whorl maggot)
larvae feed on the plant and
cause damage.
Adults do not feed upon or

injure the plant.
In other species (hispa) both

the larva and adult feed upon
and damage the plant.
Most insect pests of rice Sucking insects pierce the

can be divided into two plant tissue and remove plant
groups on the basis of their sap. Plants damaged by
mouthparts: insects with sucking mouth-
parts may wilt or lose their
Chewing insects remove green color. Sucking insects
pieces of plant tissue. They such as leafhoppers or plant-
may eat holes in the leaves or hoppers may also transmit
tunnel in the stem. virus diseases.
Rice insects can also be

classified according to the
plant parts upon which they
feed:
The biology and

management of all insect
pests attacking the various
growth stages of rice are
covered in this Guide. Insects
attacking rice grain in
storage were not included.
The insect pests are
presented and grouped in the
chronological order in which
they would attack a crop
from sowing to harvest.
Scientific names are used to

avoid confusion since
common names of insects
may vary among different
countries.
Description of insect pests in

this Guide
Each insect pest or group of
pests is described in a
common format.
Pest status
Insects are designated as

either major or minor pests
based on a combination of
three factors:
• Severity of economic loss
(high, moderate, low)
• Frequency of occurrence
and area affected within the The pest status designation of any pest may vary consi-
insects’ potential habitat. reflects only the general derably in localized areas and
• Ease of control (difficult, status of the insect species change through time.
readily controlled). throughout Asia. The status
• Environment
The preferred habitats or species were divided into
locations of insect pest three general categories:
— rainfed upland rice — rainfed wetland rice — irrigated wetland rice

fields (unpuddled, fields (puddled, flooded fields (puddled and
nonflooded) after rains) flooded)
• Distribution
The distribution of major
pest species throughout
Asia is indicated. This
distribution is only a
general classification which
may be incomplete in some
areas and change with
time.
• Development and actual

size
The actual size of the

various life stages of the
insect pests is presented
along with detailed
drawings and an indication
of the duration of each
stage under average
conditions.
• Location and behavior

The location and behavior
of various life stages of
major insect pests are
described.
• Host range
The major species of host

plants for each insect
species are listed.
Damage
The type of damage caused

by each insect pest is de-
scribed and illustrated.
Changes in rice plant color
caused by insect injury are
difficult to illustrate in line
drawings.
Management
The section on management

for each insect pest or group
of species includes the
following tactics arranged in
the order in which they
should be addressed in a
pest management program:
Economic thresholds
The economic thresholds
presented in this publication
are only general guidelines.
Threshold values differ by
location. The values may also
be affected by crop age and
simultaneous infestations of
multiple pests.
Above the economic
threshold, economic injury
occurs, while below it no
control is necessary.
SOIL PESTS
ANTS (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE)
Several species of red or

black soil-inhabiting ants —
Solenopsis, Monomorium,
Pheidole, and Pheidologeton
— remove rice seed from
newly sown fields in rainfed
areas. Ants can be
distinguished from other
insects by the presence of
the pedicel between the
thorax and abdomen.
Pest status
Although ant populations in
nonflooded rice fields are
high, the greater tillering of
the surviving plants normally
compensates for loss of
stand due to seed removal.
Ants are readily controlled by
insecticide.
Ants are most prevalent in fields in rainfed wetlands.

upland environments but They are not a problem in
also occur in dry-seeded rice puddled fields.
Ants' nests are below the

soil surface in upland fields,
but are confined to rice
levees in rainfed wetland
fields.
Whether ants forage day or

night depends on the
species. Solenopsis forages
by day near the nest and
prefers a dry habitat.
Pheidole, Pheidologeton, and
Monomorium forage long
distances by night using
chemical odor trails. These
species prefer to nest in
moist soils.
Damage
Ants store rice seed from the
field in nests below ground.
The result is loss of plant
stand.
Management
Cultural control. Increasing
the seeding rate
compensates for ant-caused
losses and may be less
expensive than insecticides.
Resistant varieties. No va-
riety is resistant to ants.
Biological control. Ants are
hosts to various parasites —
mermithid nematodes,
ascomycete fungi
(Cordyceps and
Laboulbenia), phorid flies,
strepsipterans, and
eucharitine wasps; and are
prey to a wide array of and ant-lions.
vertebrates — birds, snakes, The impact of natural
ground lizards (Dasia and enemies, however, has not
Sphenomorphus ), bull frogs, been determined.
Chemical control. Treating

seed with insecticide is the
most effective way of
controlling ants. Insecticide
in powder form readily sticks
to rice grains and makes it
unnecessary to wet seeds or
use a sticker.
There is no economic
threshold for ants.
TERMITES (ISOPTERA: TERMITIDAE AND RHINOTERMITIDAE)
Termites are known as white

ants because of the overall
similarity to ants in body
shape, wings, and the caste
system of workers, soldiers,
kings, and queens. Termites,
however, lack a pedicel.
Pest status
Even though they are
permanent residents of
nonflooded environments,
termites rarely attack rice and
are readily controlled with
insecticide.
Termites can be a problem soils in rainfed wetland areas.

in upland environments, but Sustained flooding kills them.
also occur in light-textured
Some grassland termites

make permanent nests
composed of many tunnels
deep in the soil. Other
species make nests as
mounds above the ground.
The tunnels are lined with
body waste to seal the walls
so that high humidity can be
maintained.
Distribution in Asia.
Damage
Most grassland termites lack
symbiotic protozoa to digest
cellulose. Instead they
culture fungi in underground
fungal combs. Fungal combs
are made by termite workers
of partly digested plant
material. This plant material
becomes innoculated with the
fungi and the termites later
eat the combs. Workers are
constantly constructing and
eating fungal combs in their
nests.
Termites prefer dead to

living plants but when their
preferred food is gone, they
feed on living roots. After
land preparation, the termite
workers feed on living plants.
They tunnel through plant
stems and eat roots, causing
the plants to become stunted,
then wilt. Damaged plants
can easily be pulled by hand.
Droughts, when rice is not
vigorously growing,
encourage termites to attack
a standing crop.
Management
Cultural control. To take
advantage of termites’
preference for dead plant
material, farmers can divert
the pest from the growing
crop by putting crop residue
in the field at planting.
Chemical control. Treating

the seeds with insecticide at
planting is usually effective
against termites. If higher
dosages are required,
granules are applied in the
seed furrows or hills.
Decision on insecticide
use should be based on the
history of damage in a
particular field or perhaps
portions of a field.
WHITE GRUBS (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE)
The large larvae of scarab the chafers in which only the

beetles are called white larvae feed on plant roots
grubs. Grubs are larvae that and the black beetles in
live in soil. White grubs can which only the adults are
be distinguished from other root feeders.
soil-inhabiting larvae by the
swollen end of their
abdomens, C-shaped body,
and well-developed legs.
There are many species of
white grubs, but none is
widely distributed in Asia.
White grubs as a group are
common to all countries.
White grub species can be
divided into two groups —
Pest status
White grubs attack only
portions of a field, but can
recur annually. Mature larvae
cannot be economically
controlled with insecticide.
White grubs are restricted upland rice but can occur in

to nonflooded environments. rainfed wetland areas with
They are most common in very light-textured soils.
Development and actual size

White grubs typically have a pics. In temperate regions 2-
1-year life cycle in the tro- year life cycles are common.
INSECTPESTSOFRICE 31
Adult. Beetles are grey,

tan, dark-brown, or black.
Adults develop in
underground pupal cells
where they rest as larvae in a
dormant state during the
unfavorable dry season. After
the first soaking rains that
mark the beginning of the
rainy season, the larvae
develop into pupae and
the pupae into adults which
emerge from the ground and
fly to nearby trees.
Adult beetles rest in the

trees during the day and
become active at night when
they feed on tree foliage,
mate, and fly to nearby fields
to lay eggs.
Adults are attracted to a

light trap at night. Largest
catches are during a new
moon.
Eggs are laid singly in
moist soil by the burrowing
females. Tilled fields with soft
texture are preferred sites for
egg-laying.
Chafer females may lay 50
eggs in their lifetime of se-
veral weeks. Black beetle
adults live about one year.
Egg. Eggs deposited singly Larva. White grub larvae

are ovoid and creamy white are difficult to classify into
with a leather-like shell. species without a microscope
The egg stage is highly for examining body hairs,
susceptible to dry weather mouthparts, legs, and tarsal
and must be in moist soil to claws. They have a light to
hatch. dark brown head and a white
body.
The strict soil moisture

requirements of white grub
larvae help explain their
uneven distribution. Larvae
desiccate if the soil is dry,
and they drown in heavy clay
soils after a heavy rainfall.
White grub larvae can be
found near the soil surface
during rainy periods.
Larvae burrow down se-

veral meters in the soil during
the dry season to form
compact cells in which to
pupate.
Pupa. The pupal cells

protect the dark brown pupae
from drying out.
Damage
Black beetle adults burrow
in the soil and feed on roots.
The larvae feed entirely on
organic matter and do not
attack living roots.
Chafer adults are foliage

feeders on a wide variety of
trees. Larvae feed on roots of
living plants. They dig
through the soil with their
powerful legs and feed on
their backs.
Rice is a preferred host
because of its fibrous root
system. Rice plants become
stunted and wilt as a result of
root loss. Damage to the crop
under drought stress is
higher because plants are
less able to produce new
roots.
Most of the damage from

chafers occurs from the last-
stage larva.
Damage within a field is
normally patchy because the
chafer grubs and black
beetles are not evenly
distributed.
The same fields tend to be
reinfested year after year.
Plant hosts. Chafer larvae

and black beetle adults feed
on a wide variety of plant
species but prefer plants with
fibrous root systems.
Management
Cultural control. Delaying
land preparation until most
chafer adults pass their egg-
laying phase or die reduces
the field population.
Resistant varieties. There

are no varieties resistant to
white grubs.
Biological control. Several

specialized scoliid wasps can
parasitize white grub larvae
in the soil. Their control
effect, however, is minimal.
Nematodes also parasitize
white grubs.
Chemical control.
• Insecticide application.
Granular insecticides ap-
plied in crop furrows or
hills at sowing are the only
practical chemical control
measure against white
grubs. Granules covered by
soil at planting remain
active for several weeks.
Low insecticide dosages

are effective against first- or
second-stage chafer larvae,
which are prevalent at the
beginning of the rainy
season when rice is sown.
Insecticide control of third-
stage white grubs is
impractical after the
damage is seen. Insecticide
sprays on the soil are
ineffective.
• Scouting. Because it is If early planting is not

impractical to apply practical or does not
insecticide to the soil after provide satisfactory control,
the crop is planted, insecticide should be ap-
scouting and economic plied at sowing time to
thresholds cannot be used. fields which have a history
of white grub damage.
MOLE CRICKET (ORTHOPTERA: GRYLLOTALPIDAE)
The mole cricket Gryllotalpa

orientalis (= africana)
Burmeister is a soil-
inhabiting insect. Adults and
nymphs feed on roots. The
insect is readily identifiable
by its large size, enlarged
front legs and prothorax,
rudimentary hind wings, and
anal cerci.
Pest status
Mole crickets only
occasionally become
sufficiently abundant to kill
patches of young plants.
They can be readily
controlled with insecticide
mixed with bait.
They occur in all rice and nymphs forage for seed

environments but are more which they store either in
prevalent in nonflooded permanent burrows or
upland fields with moist soil foraging-galleries in levees or
that is easily tunneled. Adults field borders.
Adult. The tan to dark brown

adults have enlarged front
legs designed for digging
tunnels in the soil. The first
segment of the thorax is
enlarged to help the insect
push its way through the soil.
During the night, adults
actively dig branched
burrows or search for food
such as seeds or other
insects aboveground. During
the day, they are
underground.
Adults are frequently seen

swimming in flooded fields
during puddling for wetland
rice. Flooding causes them to
leave their burrows.
Because mole crickets

cannot survive underwater,
they make their burrows in
rice bunds in flooded fields.
Generally, they live in
nonflooded fields.
Adults are strong fliers

despite their short wings, and
are attracted to a light trap at
night.
Egg. The white eggs are

laid in masses of 30-50 in
hardened cells beneath the
soil surface. Each female
may lay several hundred
eggs during its lifetime of
more than 6 months.
Nymph. The tan nymphs

also burrow in the soil at
night and feed on roots.
Damage
Foraging on seeds results in
loss of plant stand in upland
rice. Plants in a seedbed or
during the early tillering
period have small root
systems and can be killed by
mole crickets if the field is
not flooded. Mole crickets
cannot kill older plants
because the root systems are
large.
The pattern of damage in a

field is not uniform. Damage
is normally in patches.
Normally damage is greater
near the field borders.
Plant hosts. Mole crickets

feed on a wide range of
plants with fibrous root
systems.
Management
Cultural control. Maintaining
standing water in the field
prevents mole crickets from
tunneling in the soil and
damaging the crop.

are no varieties resistant to
the mole cricket.
Biological control. Mole

crickets are cannibalistic,
thus regulating their own
numbers. A sphecid wasp
and nematodes parasitize
nymphs and adults.
Chemical control.
• Insecticideapplication.
Poisoned bait made from
moistened rice bran and
liquid or powder insecticide
can be placed in the field or
on rice bunds to kill night-
foraging mole crickets.
Granular insecticides
applied in the soil are
effective but are costly.
• Scouting. Visit
the field
weekly from the seedbed
stage through crop tillering.
Look for dead plants
throughout the field.
Apply poisoned bait

when dead plants are
found. No economic thres-
hold has been established
for mole crickets.
RICE ROOT WEEVILS (COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE)
Weevils can be distinguished

from other beetles by their
long snouts. The most widely
known — the American rice
water weevil Lissorhoptrus
oryzophilus Kuschel —
occurs in the Americas but
recently entered Japan.
Several root weevils feed
on rice in tropical and
temperate Asia. The
discussion focuses on three
of the most widely distributed
rice root weevils in Asia:
Echinocnemus squameus
Billberg of Japan, Korea, and
China; Echinocnemus oryzae
Marshall; and Hydronomidius
molitor Faust of India.
Pest status
Root weevils are readily
controlled by insecticide.
Much of the root damage
they cause can be tolerated.
Root weevils are adapted not occur in upland

to survive underwater and do environments.

The life cycles of the three
species are similar and are
discussed as one. Dormancy
during the larval period
extends the developmental
period.
Adult. The grey black

adults emerge from
underground pupal cells after
the onset of rains. Their
behavior is similar to that of
white grub beetles; however,
they do not fly away from the
fields.
Adult weevils feed on

leaves before going
underwater to lay eggs at the
base of plants.
Egg. Oblong white eggs Larva. The larvae remain

are laid singly under the soil, submerged underground,
next to newly transplanted feeding on rice roots.
rice seedlings.
On their backs, larvae have

special paired tubercles that
take in oxygen from the
roots.
With the onset of the dry
season or winter, the larvae
tunnel deeper into the soil to
construct pupal chambers.
They remain underground
through the dry season or
winter, in dormancy.
Pupa. The larvae pupate in

the early monsoon or spring
in underground cells.
Damage
Adults feed on leaves of
newly transplanted rice, but
seldom cause economic
damage.
Larvae feeding on roots
during the wet season cause
plants to become stunted and
produce fewer tillers. Plants
at tillering stage show more
damage symptoms than
plants after tillering.
Root weevils are unevenly

distributed. When abundant,
they can kill young rice
plants.
Plant hosts. Larvae feed on

other grasses besides rice.
Management
Cultural control. Double-
cropping flooded rice kills
larvae in their pupal cells.
Crops whose planting is
delayed escape the peak
larval attack.
Resistant varieties. No re-

sistant varieties are
commercially available.
Biological control. The role
of natural enemies has not
been determined.
Chemical control.
Applying granular
insecticide effectively
controls larvae and is more
efficient than applying
foliar sprays to control the
adults.
To control larvae in
chronically infested areas,
rice seedling roots should
be soaked in insecticide for
6 hours before
transplanting.
• Scouting. Visit the field

each week during the
vegetative stage and look
for larvae or their damage
symptoms.
Pull up 20 plants at
random within a field and
record the percentage of
infested hills.
Broadcast granular
insecticide when the
economic threshold is
reached.
ROOT APHIDS (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE)
Aphids are soft-bodied

insects that live in colonies
composed of nymphs and
adults. Winged adults have
transparent wings. Several
species feed in colonies on
rice roots just below the soil
surface.
Peststatus
Root aphids seldom are
widespread, even within a
field. Control by insecticides
is difficult because the
insects are located below the
soil surface.
Root aphids occur only in

well-drained soils in rainfed
environments.

Eggs develop and remain
inside the female, which
gives birth to nymphs.
Adult. Root aphid species

are composed entirely of
females since no males
occur. The yellow or dark
orange females produce
offspring without mating — a
process called
parthenogenesis.
Two adult forms occur —
winged and nonwinged.
Winged adults fly into the
rice field from their
alternative plant hosts. They
produce young, which
become wingless adults.
Several generations occur

on rice. The winged adults
produced when the crop is
near maturity fly off to seek
new plant hosts.
Adults occur on roots just Nymph. Nymphs are

below ground level, in transported from root to root
cavities made by ants around by tending ants. Around the
the root system. roots the ants construct
Each female produces 35- spaces for nymphs to live in.
45 nymphs in a lifetime of 2-3
weeks.
Tending ants feed on the

honeydew produced by
aphids.
Damage
Adults and nymphs remove Aphid populations occur
plant fluids with their sucking unevenly from hill to hill, and
mouthparts. damage symptoms are not
Removal of plant sap by a uniform across a field.
high number of aphids Damage is greater during
causes the leaves to turn periods of drought stress.
yellow and become stunted.
Plant hosts. Rice root

aphids have many hosts in
the grass family.
Management
Cultural control. No practical
cultural control methods are
known.
sistant varieties are known.
Biological control. Tending prey on nymphs and adults

ants protect the aphids from and nematodes that
many natural enemies, for parasitize nymphs and adults.
example, lady beetles that
Chemical control.
Because aphids are found
below the soil surface,
control by foliar
insecticides is effective only
if spray nozzles are
directed at the base of the
plants and high volumes of
water are used.
Seed treatment can also
be effective.
must be placed at the base
of each hill and covered by
raking soil over the
granules.

each week beginning from
the late tillering stage to
flowering. Cross the field at
each visit and look for signs
of yellowing or stunting.
Dig at the base of plants

showing symptoms of
aphid attack and look for
signs of aphids.
Determine percentage of
infested hills.
Apply insecticide when

the economic threshold is
reached.
PESTS AT THE VEGETATIVE STAGE
SEEDLING MAGGOTS (DIPTERA: MUSCIDAE)
There are several species of

small flies in the genus
Atherigona which, as legless
larvae (maggots), feed within
developing rice tillers. The
adult flies are similar in
appearance to houseflies.
They prefer to lay eggs only
on seedling stage rice plants,
hence the name seedling
maggot.
Pest status
Seedling maggots are highly
seasonal in occurence and
can be readily controlled with
insecticide. However use of
economic thresholds in the
field to be protected is
difficult because the attack
begins at crop emergence.
They are restricted to

upland rice and do not occur
in flooded wetlands.
Adult. Adults are strong fliers

but do not migrate. They are
active only during the day.
Flies are highly attracted to
plants less than one month
old, and a female may lay 100
eggs during a lifetime of 3-7
days.
Adult occurrence is highly

seasonal. Damaging
infestation levels normally
occur during a period of 2-3
months, beginning several
months after the onset of the
rainy season.
Adults are not attracted to

a light trap.
Adult flies are highly release of "bait smell" to a

attracted to fish meal bait and wider spectrum and attracted
can be captured in an more flies. This method
inverted wire mesh cone trap increased the catch in terms
set over seedling rice and the of the number of species and
bait. Adult flies will always fly number of individuals.
upward and after they enter
the trap from below will be
captured in the glass jar. The
ground placement of the bait
provides low fly catch.
More flies were captured
with the shootfly trap made
of a 6-inch plastic funnel and
a 20-cm cylindrical polyvinyl
chloride provided with
fishmeal bait and killing
agent underneath the fiber
glass cover on top and a
plastic collecting chamber at
the bottom containing 80%
alcohol.
The higher placement of
fishmeal bait (1-2 m above
the ground) facilitated the
Egg. The white elongate

eggs are laid singly on the
leaf blades of rice seedlings,
and adhere to the plant by a
sticky substance secreted by
the female.
Larva. The maggot-like

larva emerges from the egg
and moves down the leaf
blade on a film of dew in
early morning. Each larva
enters a tiller and feeds on
internal tissue.
Pupa. The maggot passes

three larval stages before it is
ready to pupate in the soil or
stems. Pupae are brown.
Damage
Larvae feed by moving their deadhearts similar to those tissue along the margins and
hardened mouth hook back due to stem borers. Larvae are readily torn by the wind.
and forth in a rasping motion. feed on the decaying tissues. As a result the leaves become
Larval feeding in the zone of Tillers that survive exhibit ragged and exhibit symptoms
new tiller development can discolored or transparent similar to whorl maggot
kill tillers and form patches of damaged leaf damage.
During severe infestation,

the field may have to be
replanted.
Normally, the plants can
recover, but maturity is
delayed by 7-10 days.
Plant hosts. The larvae

develop equally well on rice
and many plants of the grass
family.
Management
Cultural control. The most
practical control method is to
avoid planting during peak
seedling maggot abundance.

Biological control. Natural

enemies attack all stages of
seedling maggots.
Trichogrammatid and
eulophid wasps parasitize
eggs.
Eulophid and braconid
wasps parasitize the larval
stage.
Spiders prey on adult flies.
Chemical control.
• Insecticide application. If
the crop will be planted
during the period of peak
infestation, insecticide is
most efficient as seed
treatment.
Granules are inefficient

because of the high dosage
necessary.
After the crop is planted,

foliar sprays are the only
practical control method
but several applications
may be necessary. The first
application must be within
one week after crop
emergence.
• Scouting. Sampling is
based on damaged leaves.
Because the damage
symptoms appear after the
critical control period,
sample a neighbor’s field
planted 1-2 weeks ahead.
Cross that field and count the

eggs from 20 plants or hills.
Use an insecticide if the

reached.
RICE WHORL MAGGOTS (DIPTERA: EPHYDRIDAE)
Rice whorl maggots of the

genus Hydrellia are similar to
seedling maggots, but occur
in wetland environments. The
adults are attracted to young
transplanted rice fields with
standing water. The larvae
feed within developing leaf
whorls. Three species occur
in Asia.
Hydrellia griseola is a leaf

miner, not a true whorl
maggot. Damage from it is
similar to that caused by
another fly, Pseudona-
pomyza asiatica, whose
larvae tunnel within leaves,
creating cleared trails or
mines that become bigger as
the larvae grow.
Peststatus
Whorl maggots have
increased in importance
because of irrigation systems
that 1) ensure standing water
in paddies during the
vegetative stage, 2) allow the
presence of host plants year-
round, and 3) favor the
transplanting of young protected is difficult because
seedlings. Use of economic the attack begins at
thresholds in the field to be transplanting.
Whorl maggots live in

aquatic habitats and do not
occur in upland rice.
Adult. Adults are grey with

transparent wings.
The adult flies remain in
lowland areas and do not
migrate long distances after
reaching adulthood. They are
very difficult to identify in the
field because they resemble
other flies such as Psilopa
and Paralimna whose larvae
feed on rice and Notiphila
spp. that live on
decomposing organic matter
in rice fields. Notiphila eggs
are large and are laid in
masses.
The adults are active

during the day, locating rice
fields by reflected sunlight
from the water surface. They
rest on rice leaves near the
water.
Adults no longer find rice

once the crop canopy closes.
Therefore,direct-seeded
fields or seedbeds are not
highly attractive to adults.
Eggs are only found along
the edges of flooded
seed beds.
Each female lays an

average of 100 eggs during
its lifetime of 3-7 days.
a light trap.
Egg. The female lays eggs

singly on leaves during the
first 30 days after
transplanting.Theelongate,
white eggs are readily seen
with the naked eye. A gluey
substance secreted by the
female causes the eggs to
stick to leaves.
Larva. Upon hatching, the

legless larvae are transparent
to light cream in color. They
wiggle down the leaf blade
on a film of dew to the base
of the tillers. Older larvae are
yellow.
Pupa. The dark brown

pupae are found inside older
tillers.
Damage
Larvae rasp plant tissues with
their hardened mouth hooks.
They eat the tissue of
unopened leaves. When the
leaves grow out, the damage
becomes visible.
Damaged leaves have

white or transparent patches
near the edges after they
unfold. No deadhearts are
caused by whorl maggot
feeding.
A lightly damaged leaf has
only pinhole feeding areas.
The severely damaged
leaves break from the wind.
Plants can recover from
whorl maggot damage if no
other pests are present, but
maturation may be delayed
7-10 days.
Damaged plants are

stunted and set few tillers.
Yield loss occurs if other
pests such as caseworm and
stem borer infest the plants
during the first 30 days after
transplanting, and thus re-
strict the plants' ability to
recover.
Plant hosts. Rice is the maggots can develop on a

preferred host but whorl number of grasses.
Management
Cultural control. Because
adults are attracted to
standing water, draining the
paddy at intervals during the
first 30 days after
transplanting reduces egg
laying. Drained fields,
however, allow more weeds
to grow.
Crop establishment
methods that enable the
plants to cover the water
surface most rapidly result in
low and, often, insignificant
damage from whorl maggot.
Direct seed rather than
transplant.
Transplant older seedlings.
Azolla covering the water

surface prevents an
infestation from developing.

High tillering varieties can

tolerate greater whorl maggot
numbers than low tillering
varieties can.
Biological control.
Trichogrammatid wasps
parasitize and dolicopodid
flies prey upon the exposed
eggs on leaves; eulophid and
braconid wasps parasitize the
larvae.
Whorl maggot adults are

preyed upon by ephydrid
flies and spiders.
Chemical control.
• Insecticide control. There
are four methods of
insecticide application for
whorl maggot control:
1. Soil incorporation of
systemic granules during
last harrowing before
transplanting,
2. Soaking seedlings
overnight in systemic
insecticide solution,
3. Coating the roots for 1
second in a runny
mixture of paddy mud
and insecticide, then
drying overnight before
transplanting. ZnO 2
powder can be added to
the slurry in zinc
deficient areas,
4. Paddy water broadcast
of nonsystemic granules
on standing water in
field, or
5. Foliar sprays — normally
the least effective
method — one and two
weeks after
transplanting.
based on number of eggs.
Leaf damage symptoms are
too delayed to be used as a
timely unit of measurement.
Scout a low-lying
neighboring field planted 1-
2 weeks earlier or the field
itself up to 1 week after
transplanting. There is no
need to scout a densely
planted seedbed. Direct
seeded rice should be
scouted within the first
week.
While crossing the paddy,

randomly select 20 hills and
record the number of eggs
per hill. Select fields with
standing water.
Insecticide application
must be carried out no later
than the first week after
transplanting. Apply when
reached. If there is no
standing water in the field, do
not apply insecticide.
RICE CASEWORM (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE)
The caseworm Nymphula

depunctalis (Guengée) is an
aquatic insect. The damaging
stage is the larvae that live in
sections of leaves cut from
young rice plants and rolled
into tubes called cases.
A number of related
species occur in Asia, but N.
depunctalis is the most
widely distributed. N. vittalis
and N. fengwhanalis occur in
China.
Not all feed on rice.
Paraponyx diminutalis and P.
fluctuosalis feed on aquatic
weed Hydrilla found in canals
and rice fields.
Peststatus
In a field, damaged plants
occur in patches. They
normally recover from the
effects of leaf removal in the
early growth stages.
Irrigation, which ensures
prolonged standing water in
the vegetative stage, abundance. The larvae are
increases the pest’s very sensitive to insecticide.
The Caseworm occurs only and rainfed wetland envi-

in rice fields with standing ronments and is more preva-
water. It is found in irrigated lent in the rainy season.
Adult. The adult moth is

bright white with light brown
and black spots. It can be
distinguished from related
species by its wing markings.
The caseworm moth hides

in rice fields during the day
and lays eggs at night.
Moths normally do not
migrate further than one
kilometer after becoming
adults. Each female lays
about 50 eggs during its
lifetime of less than one
week.
Moths are highly attracted

to a light trap. Catches are
highest during a new moon.
Egg. Eggs are pale yellow,

disc-like, and irregular in
shape. They are laid in
batches of about 20 on the
undersides of leaves floating
on water. The eggs turn dark
yellow as they mature.
Larva. Newly hatched lar-

vae remove the surface of
young leaves. Older, pale
green larvae have branched,
thread-like gills along the
sides of their bodies and can
only take in oxygen from
water.
Larvae make their cases

from leaf sections cut at right
angles from leaf tips.
The larvae roll the leaf
sections around their bodies
and secure them with silk.
Water is trapped inside the

leaf cases, which are open
only at the head end. During
the day, the larvae hide in
their cases while floating on
the water surface. At night
they crawl up rice plants to
feed, still within their cases.
Cases are replaced with each
molt.
Pupa. When the larva is

ready to pupate, it crawls on
a plant and it attaches its
case on a tiller above the
water.
The larva spins a silk
cocoon around its body
inside the larval case where it
pupates.
Damage
Damage can begin in a
flooded seedbed, but does
not occur after maximum till-
ering. The larvae feed by
scraping patches of green
tissue from young leaves,
causing only the white
epidermis to remain.
Caseworm damage can be
distinguished from that of
other pests in two ways:
• The ladder-like appearance
of the removed leaf tissue,
resulting from the back and
forth motion of the head • Leaves cut at right angles
during feeding. as with a pair of scissors.
The pattern of damage is

not uniform because the
larvae floating in their
cases are often carried to
one side of the paddy by
wind or water currents.
Along a slope, larvae in

cases will be carried in
runoff water to the lower-
lying fields where damage
will be more concentrated.
Damaged plants can

recover if no other
defoliating pests are
present, but maturation
may be delayed 7-10 days.
Yield loss occurs if other

nondefoliating pests such
as whorl maggot and stem
borer infest the plants
during the first 30 days
after transplanting. Such
pests restrict the plants’
ability to recover. Damaged
plants become stunted and
produce fewer tillers.
Plant hosts. Larvae prefer

actively growing leaves and
although they can survive on
several grassy weed species,
rice is their main host.
Management
Cultural control. A
nonflooded seedbed is
protected from caseworm
attack.
Transplanting older seed-

lings limits the period of
larval attack.
Draining the paddy for

several days kills caseworm
larvae, but weeds become a
potential problem.

Biological control. Snails

— Pila and Radix =
(Lymnaea) — foraging for
algae inadvertently dislodge
eggs from rice leaves. A
braconid wasp parasitizes the
larval stage. The larvae of
hydrophilid and dytiscid
water beetles prey on the
caseworm larvae. Spiders
prey on adult moths.
Water beetle predators are

prevalent in more permanent
water sources. They are late
colonizers of rainfed lowland
rice fields, a fact which may
explain why the rice
caseworm is often abundant
in these more temporary
aquatic habitats.
Caseworm eggs and larvae

are protected from the attack
of many parasites because
eggs are laid in water and the
larval stage remains in cases
floating on water.
Chemical control.
• lnsecticide application.
Caseworm larvae are highly
susceptible to insecticides
and are readily controlled
with foliar sprays or
granules in the paddy
water.
based on plant damage.
Scout seedbeds weekly for
signs of larval feeding.
Direct-seeded and
transplanted fields should be
scouted weekly until
maximum tillering. Damage
symptoms appear at once on
the crop; therefore, fields
should be scouted even
during rains.
Look at the number of

insect-damaged and
undamaged leaves on 5
leaves from each of 20 hills
chosen at random.
Combine the damage
caused by other leaf-
feeding pests with that
caused by caseworm.
Seeing caseworm moths
while crossing the field is a
warning to scout more
frequently.
Determine the
percentage of leaves
showing signs of feeding
from caseworm (cut leaves
or leaves with tissue scraped
away) and from other leaf-
feeding pests.
The economic threshold is
based on the percentage of
leaves damaged by leaf-
feeding insects. The rice
plants’ tolerance for
defoliation decreases with
age. Seedbed damage is
readily compensated for by
the plant.
Apply insecticides only to
fields with standing water
and only when live larvae are
present.
RICE GREEN SEMILOOPER (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE)
Naranga aenescens Moore is

a moth whose green larvae
feed on leaves. The larvae
move by arching their backs
in the shape of a loop.
Semilooper means “half-
looper” as the larva does not
arch its back as completely
as true loopers.
Pest status
Populations are normally
held in check by parasites
and pathogens but high
numbers occasionally occur.
Larvae are readily controlled
by insecticide.
The green semilooper is

found only in wetland envi-
ronments and is abundant in
the rainy season.
Distribution in Asia
Adult. Moths are yellow-

orange with two diagonal,
dark-red bands on each fore
wing.
Adults hide in rice fields or

in grassy areas at the base of
plants during the day and
become active at night.
Each female lays 50-100

3 to 5 days.
Moths are highly attracted
to a light trap and catches
are high during a new moon
phase.
Egg. The spherical eggs

are yellow when newly laid
and develop purple markings
when mature. They are laid
on leaves in clusters up to 15
each.
Larva. The head of the

larva is yellow-green. Narrow
white lines run along the light
green body.
The larvae draw their hind
legs forward, arching their
backs when they move.
Pupa. When ready to

pupate, the larva forms a
pupal chamber by folding a
rice leaf over and securing it
with silk.
The pupa is light brown

and smooth bodied. In
temperate regions, it may lie
dormant during periods of
low temperature.
Damage
Larvae feed on leaf blades
and prefer actively growing
plants, from the seedbed
through the tillering stage.
Young larvae scrape the
leaf tissue from leaf blades.
Older larvae eat large
areas on the edges of leaves
to form notches.
Young plants can normally

recover from defoliation
caused by the semilooper,
but yield loss occurs if other
nondefoliating pests such as
whorl maggot and stem borer
feed at the same time.

also feed on grassy weeds.
Management
Cultural control. Heavily
fertilized crops result in high
semilooper numbers.
Use only an optimal
amount of fertilizer and split
the applications.

sistant varieties have been
developed for rice
semilooper.
Biological control. Small

trichogrammatid wasps para-
sitize eggs. Ichneumonid,
braconid, elasmid, eulophid,
and chalcid wasps parasitize
the larvae and pupae.
Fungi also attack the
larvae.
Spiders feed on adult
moths in the crop canopy.
Chemical control.
• Insecticide application. The
green semilooper is readily
Foliar sprays or systemic
granules are effective.

weekly during early crop
growth. A wet seedbed
should be scouted.
Select 5 leaves from

each of 20 randomly
selected hills across the
field. Record the number of
leaves damaged by all leaf-
feeding insects combined.
It is impractical to record
early vegetative stage
damage from each leaf-
feeding pest separately.
Seeing semilooper moths
while crossing the field is a
frequently.

reached. Rice at seedling
stage can compensate
more from leaf damage
than older plants.
Apply insecticide only if
live larvae are seen.
RICE GREEN HAIRY CATERPILLAR (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE)
The Rivula atimeta (Swinhoe)

moth, whose green caterpillar
feeds on the leaves of rice at
the vegetative stage, pro-
duces damage similar to that
from the rice green
semilooper.
Pest status
Damage potential is
moderate because the plants
can, to a large extent, recover
from defoliation at the vegeta-
tive stage.
Green hairy caterpillar
incidence is normally low
and can be readily controlled
with insecticide.
The pest causes more
damage to the rice crop
when it occurs with other
pest species that are not
themselves defoliators.
The green hairy caterpillar

occurs in wetland
environments where the
fields have standing water.
Adult. The adult moth of

either sex is white grey or
light brown. Each female can
lay 100-150 eggs in a lifetime
of 6 days.
The adults are active at

night and hide under the
cover of vegetation during
the day with their heads
pointed down.

light trap. Greatest numbers
appear during a new moon.
Egg. The spherical, pale-

green eggs are laid singly on
leaf blades.
Larva. The pale-green

larvae can be distinguished
from similar species by the
presence of the long thread-
like hairs on their bodies,
hence the name green hairy
caterpillar.
Pupa. When ready to

pupate, the larvae spin a
cocoon of silk on a leaf
blade.
Damage
Damage produced by the
green hairy caterpillar is
similar to that caused by the
green semilooper.

also feed on grassy weeds.
Management
Cultural control. Heavily
fertilized crops result in high
numbers of this pest.
Use only an optimal
amount of fertilizer.

are no commercially available
resistant varieties.
Biological control. Eggs

are parasitized by
trichogrammatid wasps.
lchneumonid wasps para-
sitize the larval stage.
Larvae are attacked by
fungi.
Adult moths are captured
by spiders.
Chemical control.
Chemical control measures
for the green hairy caterpillar
are similar to those used for
the green semilooper.
RICE LEAF BEETLE (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE)
Oulema (= Lema) oryzae

(Kuwayama) is a defoliator
that is restricted to temperate
rice growing regions of East
Asia.
Pest status
The rice leaf beetle causes
only moderate damage and
can readily be controlled with
insecticide.
It is found in upland and
wetland environments.

The rice leaf beetle has only
one generation in a year.
Adult. The adult beetle has

shiny, dull black wing covers
and a reddish-brown thorax.
It feeds on leaves over a

period of about 3 months and
then hibernates in winter
under plant litter and
vegetation.
In spring, the previous
year’s adults emerge from
overwintering sites to lay
eggs.

a light trap.
Egg. The oval black eggs

are laid in masses on the leaf
blades.
Larva. The brown larvae

are globular in shape and are
covered with their own
excreta as camouflage.
Pupa. The larvae spin a

white cocoon for pupation.
They pupate on the plant in
wetland areas and in the soil
in dryland areas. The naked
pupa is yellow.
Damage
Both the larva and the adult
beetle feed on leaves. The
larvae skeletonize leaf blades
in a linear fashion.
Heavy feeding causes the

rice plant to become stunted
and reduces tillering.
Plant hosts. The rice leaf

beetle has many alternative
hosts in the grass family.
Management
Cultural control. No practical
known.
Resistant varieties. No
resistant varieties are
available commercially.
Biological control. A
pteromalid wasp parasitizes
the larva and a pentatomid
bug preys on both adults and
larvae.
Chemical control.
Foliar sprays are the most
practical chemical control
method.
Granules are not
effective.
• Scouting. Fields should be

monitored during the
vegetative stage. Each
week look for adults in the
field.
Randomly choose 20
hills to record the number
of beetles.

reached.
RICE THRIPS (THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE)
Stenchaetothrips (= Balio-
thrips = Thrips ) biformis (=
oryzae) (Bagnall) is a small
insect barely visible to the
naked eye. Feeding by adults
and nymphs causes leaves to
roll along the longitudinal
axis to form a protected
chamber. Adults are found
inside rolled leaves on the
upper parts of the plant.
Pest status
Thrips outbreaks are
normally small in scale and
plants can recover from
much of the damage. Thrips
are controlled with
insecticide.
Thrips are present in all periods of dry weather.

rice environments, but they Heavy rainfall washes them
are most abundant during off the plants.

Thrips have a short life cycle
and can multiply rapidly.
Adult. The dark brown

adults have narrow, light
brown fringed wings that lie
along the insects’ backs
when they are at rest.
Adults are day-flying

insects and are not attracted
to a light trap.
Despite their small size

and fragile appearance,
thrips can travel long dis-
tances. They migrate during
the day and seek out newly
planted rice fields or other
grassy hosts.
Egg. Females sometimes
produce fertile eggs without
mating. A female lays about
25 eggs in a lifetime of 2
weeks.
Eggs are laid on the

youngest rice leaves on the
surface facing the stem. The
female cuts the leaf blade
tissue with her ovipositor and
lays cream-colored eggs
singly into the leaf tissue.
The upper half of the egg is
exposed on the leaf surface.
Larva. The yellow larvae

feed on leaf tissue on the
upper part of the plant.
They remain on the same
plant in which they hatched.
Pupa. When the larva
matures, it stops feeding and
is transformed into a dark
brown prepupa protected in a
rolled leaf blade.
The prepupa is then
transformed into a pupa,
which has long wing pads.
Damage
Larvae and adults have
rasping mouthparts. They
have only one mandible,
which is used to puncture
leaf tissue. The maxillae and
mouth cone, which form a
tube, are used to suck leaf
sap.
Larvae and adults feed on

plant sap from wounds.
Adults and nymphs feed
extensively on leaf blades.
Damaged leaves have silvery
streaks; the extensive re-
moval of green leaf tissue
causes only a translucent
epidermis to remain.
Damaged leaves curl
inward longitudinally from
the edges, forming a
protective chamber for adults
and nymphs.
Leaf tips then dry up,
particularly when the crop is
under drought stress.
Plant hosts.
Management
Cultural control. Flooding the
field to submerge plants for 2
days effectively controls
thrips.
Resistant varieties. No re- Biological control. The

sistant varieties are effectiveness of parasites,
commercially available. predators, and pathogens
against thrips has not been
determined.
Chemical control.
Thrips are readily
controlled with insecticide
Apply insecticide sprays,
dusts, or systemic granules
based on the percentage of
leaves showing thrips
damage.
Visit the field weekly,
from the seedbed to
panicle initiation.
Pick 5 leaves from each

of 20 randomly selected
hills across the field and
record the number of
damaged leaves.

reached.
RICE GALL MIDGE (DIPTERA: CECIDOMYIIDAE)
Orseolia (= Pachydiplosis)
oryzae (Wood-Mason) is a
small fly similar in
appearance and size to a
gnat or mosquito. The
maggot-like larva feeds
inside developing tillers,
causing their base to swell as
galls.
Pest status
The gall midge causes high
economc loss almost every
year in areas where it occurs.
Resistant varieties are
available, but they are highly
location specific because of
the many gall midge
biotypes.
Gall midge becomes rainfed wetland

highly abundant during the environments. It is not a pest
rainy season in irrigated or in upland rice areas.
It may also occur in

relatively low numbers in the
dry season in irrigated areas
when fields are continuously
flooded.
Gall midge abundance is

favored by cloudy or rainy
weather.
Adult. The male has a yellow-

brown body and is smaller
than the female which has a
bright-red abdomen.
Adults are weak fliers and
do not migrate, a fact which
explains their localized
distribution.
Gall midge adults emerge

at the start of the monsoonal
rains from wild rice and grass
alternative hosts where they
complete one to two
generations until the rice
crop is planted.
Adults are highly attracted

to a light trap. Numbers are
highest during a full moon.
Females lay eggs singly or
in groups of three to four on
the undersurface near the
base of leaf blades.
Each female lays several
hundred eggs in its lifetime of
4 days.
Egg. Newly laid eggs vary

in color from white to pink,
red, or yellow, but all become
shiny amber before hatching.
Eggs require high relative
humidity (80-90%) for
development and hatching.
Larva. The maggot-like

larvae are grey-white after
hatching. It takes them about
6 hours to move down the
leaf blade on a film of dew.
Larvae die if humidity is low
for more than 24 hours.
They move between the The tubular gall is capped

leaf sheath and the stem until by a solid plug of plant tissue
they reach the growing point at the base of the point where
of the apical or side buds at a the leaf forms.
node. The larvae pupate at the
The larvae feed inside the base of the gall.
developing buds, the zone of They remain dormant
differentiation of new tillers. during the dry season in
A hollow chamber, called a dormant buds of alternative
gall, forms around the hosts.
developing larva. The tubular
gall enlarges at the base as
the larva feeds. It elongates
and emerges as an abnormal
tiller which is light green.
Pupa. The pupa is light extends its body halfway

pink and becomes red before through it, and the adult
emergence of the adult emerges.
midge. Adult emergence usually
The pupa has abdominal takes place at night.
spines which it uses to brace
itself while wiggling to the
top of the gall in preparation
for emergence as an adult.
The pupa makes a hole at
the top of the gall and
Damage
The gall midge turns the
tillers into tubular galls that
do not bear panicles.
By the time galls are
observed (larger than 3 mm),
the larvae have developed
and pupated, and adults have
emerged.
The galls continue to grow
after adults have emerged.
A completely developed
gall is a silvery-white hollow
tube 1 cm wide and 10-30 cm
long. The tubular galls are
called onion leaves or
silvershoots.
Early infestation causes

excessive compensatory till-
ering, but these new tillers
often become infested and
few bear panicles.
Information on the
mechanism of gall
development is lacking.
Either the direct feeding or a
chemical secretion by the
larva stimulates the leaf
sheath to grow around the
insect into an oval chamber
which then develops into the
gall.
Galls appear within a week
after the larvae enter the Young larvae cannot
growing point. survive past the vegetative
The gall midge damages stage because there are no
rice from the seedbed to the actively growing buds for
end of the tillering stage. them to attack.
Plant hosts. Some grassy are less suitable than rice or

weeds can serve as hosts but wild rices.
Management
Cultural control. Control or
remove grassy weeds or wild
rice alternative hosts from
surrounding areas and rice
fields.
Plow fields after harvest.
Keep fallow land free of off-
season plant hosts.
Plants at the vegetative vegetative stage before gall

stage are more susceptible to midge populations transfer
gall midge attack. Delay the from alternative hosts.
wet season planting of
photoperiod-sensitive
varieties as long as possible
after the monsoon begins to
reduce the length of the
vegetative period.
Plant photoperiod-
insensitive varieties as early
as possible at the beginning
of the wet season to allow the
crop to complete the
Avoid staggered ages of

fields by planting
neighboring fields within 3
weeks in an area.
Use only moderate

amounts of nitrogen fertilizer
and split applications over
three growth stages.
Resistant varieties.
Planting a resistant variety is
the most effective means of
preventing gall midge
damage.
The gall midge has several
biotypes or local populations
that damage certain resistant
varieties. Therefore, a variety
resistant in one country may
not be resistant in another.
Even within a country, such
as India, a variety may be re-
sistant in some areas but
susceptible in others.
Biological control. A
predatory phytoseiid mite
attacks gall midge eggs.
Several platygasterid,
eupelmid, and pteromalid
wasps parasitize the larvae.
Spiders feed on the adult

midges.
Chemical control.
• Insecticide application. It is
difficult to control the gall
midge with insecticide
because the larvae are
protected inside the plant
or gall.
Granules are usually

more effective than sprays
for gall midge control, but
only if the fields have
standing water.
• Scouting. Adult activity

should be monitored from
the seedbed to panicle
initiation.
Apply insecticide after

the peak periods of adult
flight.
In areas of chronic and

severe infestation,
preventive applications of
systemic granular
insecticide in the seedbed
or soaking seedlings before
transplanting may be
warranted.
ARMYWORMS AND CUTWORMS (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE)
Many species of armyworms

and cutworms attack rice.
Their life cycles, damage,
and management are similar.
Armyworm larvae can

become highly abundant and
move in large groups, like an
“army” from field to field.
Armyworms and cutworms

cut off seedlings at ground
level. This behavior gives the
cutworms their name.
Discussion focuses on
three of the most common
species: rice ear-cutting
caterpillar Mythimna (=
Pseudaletia = Leucania =
Cirphis) separata (=
unipuncta) (Walker), rice
swarming caterpillar
Spodoptera mauritia
(Boisduval), and common
cutworm Spodoptera (=
Prodenia) litura (Fabricius).
Pest status
Armyworm and cutworm
populations are highly
localized and normally are
held below threshold levels
by parasites.
They occur in all rice in the rainy season because

environments, but are less of the increased availability of
prevalent in irrigated wetland their alternative hosts, the
rice. They are more abundant grassy weeds.

The life cycles of armyworms
and cutworms are similar.
Adult. Rice ear-cutting

caterpillar moths are pale red
brown. The front wings have
two pale round spots, and
the hind wings are dark on
top and white underneath.
Rice-swarming caterpillar
moths are dark brown. The
front wings are brown or
grey, with dark brown and
dark yellow spots and one
grey wavy line near the apical
margin. The hind wings are
white.
Moths of the common Adults are strong flyers

cutworm are dark purple and can migrate tens and
brown. The front wings are a even hundreds of kilometers.
mixture of black spots and They hide during the day at
white and yellow wavy the base of rice plants and
stripes. The hind wings are grassy weeds.
white. At night they fly, mate, or
lay eggs.
Each female lays 800-1,000

about one week.
Armyworm and cutworm
moths are highly attracted to
light traps. Numbers are
highest during a new moon.
Egg. Eggs of armyworms

and cutworms are laid in
masses of about 100. They
are spherical.
Rice ear-cutting caterpillar
eggs are cemented between
the base of the leaf sheath
and stem and are not
covered with hair. Eggs turn
from green white to yellow as
they mature.
Rice swarming caterpillar
and common cutworm eggs from the female moth. Eggs
are laid on leaf blades and change from white to yellow
are covered by body hairs as they mature.
Larva. The head of the rice

earcutting larva is orange or
brown. Four longitudinal light
grey to black stripes run
along the green to pink body.
The head of the rice

swarming caterpillar is a
mottled light brown. Three
longitudinal pale brown or
red stripes and black
crescent-shaped spots lie
along the dark green body.
The common cutworm’s The body is grey to

head is black to dull brown, blackish green.
with a yellow V-shaped The larvae hatch during
marking. the early morning and feed
A bright yellow stripe together on the tips of leaves.
running down the back has
pale yellow stripes on each
side. Black crescent spots lie
next to the stripes.
During the day the larvae

hide on the ground under
leaf litter in dryland fields and
on plants above the water in
wetland fields. The bodies of
resting larvae assume the
shape of the letter C.
Larvae feed in the upper

parts of the rice plant on
cloudy days and during the
night.
Pupa. Armyworms and

cutworms prefer to pupate in
the soil.
Larvae pupate at the base
of the rice plants in dryland
fields.
Larvae pupate on the

plants in wetland fields or in
grassy areas along field
borders.
Damage
The larval stages of
armyworm and cutworm
moths feed mainly on leaves.
Larvae feeding on leaf blades
remove large areas either
from leaf tips or along the
margins.
Older larvae can consume

much more than younger
larvae.
Armyworms and cutworms

become active with the
coming of monsoonal rains.
They produce several
generations on grassy weeds
and then move to rice
seedbeds and fields.
Larvae cut off young seed-

lings at the base. Rice
panicles may be cut by larval
feeding.
Outbreaks occur after

periods of prolonged drought
followed by heavy rain. The
drought kills natural enemies
and floods concentrate the
armyworms and cutworms
on rice plants.
Weeds and rice grow
luxuriantly after a prolonged
drought because of the
nitrogen mineralization in the
soil. Armyworms and
cutworms feeding on the
naturally fertilized plants
produced more offspring.
Most of the offspring survives
because of the absence of
natural enemies.
Plant hosts. Armyworms grasses and no preference is

and cutworms have many shown for rice.
alternative hosts. Not all are
Management
Cultural control. Establish
seedbeds in sites far from
large areas of weeds and
grasses so that armyworms
and cutworms cannot mi-
grate from alternative hosts.
Remove weeds from areas

outside of fields.
Plow all fallow land.


enemies play a key role in
keeping armyworm and
cutworm numbers below
economic injury levels.
Eggs are parasitized by
scelionid and
Larvae are parasitized by
braconid, eulophid, and
chalcid wasps as well as by
tachinid flies.
Ants and wasps also prey
on eggs and larvae, and
spiders prey on moths.
A polyhedrosis virus
attacks the larval stage.
Dead virus-infected larvae
are black and hang limp from
the plants.
Chemical control. larvae leave their resting

• Insecticide application. places to climb up the
Sprays are more effective plants.
than granules. Spray only areas where
High dosages are damage occurs. Normally,
required to kill large damage is concentrated in
armyworm and cutworm certain areas of the field.
larvae because insecticide
toxicity is positively related
to insect body weight.
Since insecticide breaks
down rapidly in direct
sunlight and high
temperature, spray late in
the afternoon before the
• Scouting. Scout the fields

weekly from the seedbed to
crop maturity.
Field sampling is based

on plant damage as a
percentage of either
damaged leaves or cut
panicles. Randomly select 5
leaves or panicles in each
of 20 hills across the field.
Seeing armyworm or
cutworm moths while
crossing the field is a
frequently.
Determine percentage of
damaged leaves or cut
panicles from armyworm or
cutworm feeding. Apply
reached.
GRASSHOPPERS, KATYDIDS, AND FIELD CRICKETS (ORTHOPTERA)
Grasshoppers are adapted to

grasslands because they feed
on a wide array of grasses.
Their hind legs are enlarged,
giving the insects the ability
to hop away for a quick
escape.
Some grasshopper species

migrate in swarms and are
called locusts.
Meadow grasshoppers
(katydids) can be
distinguished from other
grasshoppers by the long
thread-like antennae,
elongated ovipositor of the
female, and 4-segmented
tarsi.
Acridid grasshoppers have

antennae shorter than their
body length.
Rice fields are habitats for
many grasshopper species
whose nymphs and adults
defoliate plants.
Pest status
Grasshoppers are localized in
dry regions and can be
readily controlled with
insecticide. Locust outbreaks
occur less frequently than in
the past decades because
more of their natural habitats
have been cultivated.
Most grasshopper species

that occur in rice fields are
nonswarming, and
consequently cause minimal
damage. When they become
abundant, locusts can de-
stroy a rice crop.
Locusts normally are in low

numbers in favored grassland
breeding areas typical of
regions of low rainfall.
Occasionally the breeding
sites experience periods of
high rainfall, and the
resulting vigorous growth of
host plants favors a rapid
increase in locust numbers.
Crowding causes the

succeeding generations of
locusts to change into
migratory forms, which are
more robust and have well-
developed wings. These
migratory forms fly in
swarms to infest new areas.
Grasshoppers and locusts rainfed areas. Grasshoppers

are found in all rice occur in irrigated rice
environments, but are surrounded by grassland
generally more prevalent in breeding grounds.
Adult. The body of Oxya The body of Hieroglyphus

japonica japonica is bright banian is dull green or
green with a yellow-green yellow-brown and has no
stripe running from the head stripes. The antennae are
along the back. A black stripe brown with yellow rings. The
runs along each side of the enlarged pair of legs is green.
body.
The body of Locusta

migratoria manilensis is
brown with no stripes. The
hind wings are dark yellow at
the bases. The enlarged legs
are brown.
Adults feed on rice foliage

with their chewing
mouthparts. They are active
at night; during the day they
remain hidden at the base of
plants.

eggs in a lifetime of several
months.
Egg. Eggs are laid in
compact masses (or pods) of
35-100 eggs. They are
covered with a frothy
secretion to protect them
from desiccation. Depending
on the species, eggs are
either white or yellow and the
froth bubbles are either white
or brown.
Egg pods are deposited in
the soil in grasslands or
dryland rice fields, or behind
the leaf sheaths in wetland
rice fields.
Nymph. The body of the

Oxya japonica japonica
nymph is green. Two narrow
red-brown bands run down
its back from the compound
eyes to the bases of the
wings.
The body of the nymph of The body of the nymph of

Hieroglyphus banian is red- Locusta migratoria
brown, later becoming green. manilensis is brown-green to
It has two broad stripes along brown-orange. Two narrow
the back. black stripes lie behind the
compound eyes and a much
broader stripe is along the
shoulders of the pronotum
and wing buds.
Like the adults, the

nymphs hide from birds at
the base of plants during the
day and feed on rice foliage
at the night.
Damage
Grasshoppers can damage
rice at all stages of crop
growth. The damage caused
by meadow grasshoppers to
rice grains is partially
outweighed by their role as
predators. Conocephalus is
an important stem borer egg
predator.
Field crickets (gryllids)

normally feed on seeds,
roots, or leaves of young
seedlings.
Some species of field

crickets defoliate rice plants
by removing the central
portions of leaves. In
contrast, grasshoppers feed
on the leaf margins.
Field crickets have long
antennae as do katydids but
have 3-segmented tarsi. They
resemble mole crickets but
lack enlarged front legs.
Adults and nymphs feed

on rice leaves from the
margins of leaf blades,
creating cutout areas. Grass-
hoppers are large enough to
feed even on the midrib.
They also can cut rice
panicles as armyworms do.
Swarming locusts can
remove most of the foliage in
a rice field leaving only the
bases of tillers
Plant hosts. Grasshoppers

have an extremely wide host
range and show no distinct
preference for rice.
Management
Cultural control. No effective
known.
Resistant varieties. No vari-
ety is resistant to grass-
hoppers or locusts.
Biological control.
Different scelionid parasitic
wasps can locate
grasshopper eggs in the soil
or on plants. Those adapted
to locating eggs in the soil
have elongated abdomens.
Nymphs and adults are
killed by parasitic flies,
nematodes, and fungal
pathogens.
Birds, frogs, and web-
spinning spiders, and
sphecid wasps are the major
predators.
Chemical control.
Poisoned baits are used to
control locusts in their
grassland breeding
grounds.
Locusts are attracted to
salty rice bran. Bait is made
by moistening rice bran
with salt water.
Insecticide is then added
and the dried poisoned bait
is spread on the ground
among swarms of nymphs.
Grasshoppers in rice
fields are controlled by fo-
liar sprays.
Granules are not
effective against
grasshoppers.
• Scouting. Locust breeding

areas are well-known and
are continually monitored
for the development of
migratory forms. Once
migratory forms are
sighted, a campaign to
control them is initiated
before swarms develop and
leave the area.
Grasshoppers can
damage rice fields
throughout rice growth.
Visit the field each week,

picking 5 leaves from each
of 20 randomly selected
hills, across the field.
Determine the
percentage of damaged
leaves or panicles. Leaf
damage from grasshoppers
and other defoliating insect
pests should be combined
to form the threshold value.
Spray insecticide when

reached.
RICE LEAFFOLDERS (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE)
Four species of leaffolders

occur in Asia.
Cnaphalocrocis medinalis,
Marasmia (= Susumia)
exigua, and Marasmia
patnalis are more common
than Marasmia ruralis.
The four are closely

related moths and can be
distinguished by wing
markings.
To form a protective
feeding chamber, the larva
folds a leaf blade together by
attaching to the leaf margins
silk strands that shrink upon
drying.
Pest status
Rice leaffolders are wide-
spread and often cause
significant yield loss. They
have increased in importance
in areas where rice is heavily
fertilized and is cropped in
both the wet and dry after prolonged drought or
seasons. Outbreaks occur heavy use of insecticide.
Leaffolders occur in all

environments and are more
abundant in the rainy season.

Because Cnaphalocrocis is
more commonly known than
Marasmia, its biology,
damage, and management
will be described.
Adult. The adult moth is

yellow brown. When at rest, it
is in the shape of an equal-
sided triangle. As in most
species, the male is slightly
smaller than the female. It
has a tuft of thick black hairs
in the mid-costa.
Moths may migrate up to

several kilometers after
reaching adulthood.
The female attracts its
mate by giving off a chemical
called a pheromone. Mating
and egg laying occur at
night. Cnaphalocrocis
females lay more eggs (300)
than Marasmia spp. (120)
during their lifetime of 3-10
days.
Adults hide on rice and
grassy weeds during the day
to escape predation by birds
and only take short flights
when disturbed.
Adults are attracted to light

at night but are seldom
caught in light traps.
Egg. The disc-shaped,

ovoid eggs are laid singly in
batches of 10-1 2 in
Cnaphalocrocis and 2-9 in
Marasmia spp. in a line
parallel to the midrib. More
eggs are laid on the upper
than the lower leaf surfaces.
The eggs are visible to the
naked eye. Eggs turn from
transparent to a cream color
as they mature.
Larva. After hatching, the

young larvae crawl to the
base of the youngest
unopened leaves and begin
to feed.
They migrate to older
leaves from the second larval
stage onward.
Only one larva feeds within
a tubular feeding chamber in
C. medinalis and usually two
larvae in Marasmia spp.
Some feeding chambers are
made from leaves bent tip
down.
The larva remains within
the folded leaf, feeding by
scraping the leaf surface
tissue. Each larva may feed in
three to four leaves during its
lifetime.
Mature larvae are yellowish
green with dark-brown
heads. They jump or wiggle
rapidly when touched.
Prepupa. A resting stage of

1-2 days occurs in Marasmia
but not in Cnaphalocrocis.
Pupa. The larvae pupate in

loosely woven strands of silk
threads on leaf blades and
rice stubble.
The pupa turns from bright
yellow to brown as it
develops.
Damage
The removal of leaf tissue by
a larva within a feeding
chamber causes longitudinal
white and transparent streaks
on the leaf blade.
Each leaf blade may
contain several feeding
streaks.
When infestation is high,

each plant may contain many
folded leaves. Heavily
damaged leaves become dry
and highly infested fields
appear scorched.
Yield loss is high when the
flag leaf is damaged.
Plant hosts. The larvae Maize, sorghum, and

feed on rice, weeds, and sugarcane are minor hosts.
crops within the grass family.
Management
Cultural control. High
infestation occurs from high
use of nitrogenous fertilizer.
Split fertilizer application
during the growing season
and reduce the amount.
Higher infestation occurs

in areas where the rice crop
is shaded by trees.
Remove grassy weeds
from rice fields and sur-
rounding borders to prevent
the buildup of rice leaffolders
on alternative hosts.

Biological control. High

natural mortality occurs from
the activity of beneficial
arthropods, which attack leaf-
folders at every growth stage.
Tiny trichogrammatid
wasps develop, one each
inside an egg, killing the
leaffolder larva before it
hatches.
Many species of wasps —
braconids, ichneumonids,
chalcids, elasmids, and
encyrtids — parasitize the
larval and pupal stages. Dead
larvae infected with fungi are
flattened and stick to the
leaves while those killed by
viruses turn black and hang
from leaves.
Crickets prey on eggs and
damselflies, ants and beetles
prey on the larvae.
Spiders capture adult
moths.
Chemical control.
broadcast into paddy water
are not effective against the
leaffolder. Spray
formulations are preferred.
• Scouting. Populations can

be monitored with a
pheromone-baited water
trap. This method uses a
synthetic female sex
attractant held in a slow-
release dispenser over a
pan of soapy water to lure
and trap males. Economic
threshold values for moth
catches need to be
developed locally.
Field sampling is based

on plant damage. Begin
scouting the fields weekly
for damage 2 weeks after
transplanting until the flag
leaf appears.
Randomly pick 5 leaves from

each of 2 hills across the
field. Take note of leaffolder
moths while walking across
the field.
Increase sampling
frequency to twice a week
when moths are found while
walking in the field or in
pheromone traps.
reached. The economic
threshold is lower when the
flag leaves are present.
RICE STEM BORERS (LEPIDOPTERA)
Six stem borer species are

important pests of rice in
Asia. They are rice striped
borer Chilo suppressalis (=
simplex), dark-headed stem
borer Chilo (= Chilotraea )
polychrysus (=polychrysa),
gold-fringed stem borer
Chilo auricilius (= auricilia ),
rice yellow stem borer
Scirpophaga (= Tryporyza =
Schoenobius ) incertulas
(= incertellus =bipunctifer ),
rice white stem borer
Scirpophaga = (Tryporyza
=Schoenobius ) innotata, and
pink stem borer Sesamia
inferens.
The life cycle, habits, and
management of the different
species and the crop injury
they cause are similar and
are described together.
Identification, distribution,
host range, and
distinguishing characteristics
of each species are described
separately.
Pest status
Stem borers are widespread
in occurrence. They cause
significant damage by
reducing tiller number even
on resistant varieties and are
difficult to control with
insecticide.
Stem borers occur in all

rice environments and are
generally most abundant
toward the end of the rainy
season. Species with wide
host ranges are prevalent in
upland rice.

All six species have a similar life cycle.
Adult. Adults are quiet

during the day, hiding among
the rice plants or weeds near
the field. When disturbed
they fly only a few meters.
The moths are active at night
and fly to rice fields to lay
eggs.
Stem borer moths are
strong fliers, but normally
range within 2 km from their
origin.
eggs during a lifetime of 4
days.

light trap. The greatest
numbers are caught during a
new moon.
Egg. Eggs are laid in

masses of 5-200 on rice
leaves or leaf sheaths. Egg
shape, appearance of the egg
mass, and location on the
plant are specific
characteristics that vary
among species.
Larva. Newly hatched

larvae often suspend
themselves from leaves by a
silken thread and are blown
to other plants. Others make
a tube from cut leaves, fall on
the water, and swim or drift
to nearby plants. Young
larvae feed on leaves and leaf
sheaths.
Medium-aged larvae
penetrate the leaf sheath and
feed between the sheath and
tiller for several days before
entering the stem. Older
larvae feed inside the stem
near the base of the plant.
Mature larvae inside the stem
may move below the soil
surface and hibernate when
conditions are unfavorable.
Pupa. Larvae pupate inside

the stems near the ground or
several centimeters below the
soil surface.
Adults emerge from the
pupal case and crawl out of
the rice stem through the exit
hole cut previously by the
mature larvae.
Striped stem borer
The striped stem borer moth The larva has a yellow-

is straw to light brown with brown head. It gets its name
silvery scales and a row of from three dorsal and two
black dots at the tip of the lateral brown stripes along its
fore wing; the hind wing is body.
yellow-white. In temperate regions the
The eggs are disc-like, larvae overwinter in rice
pale yellow, and overlap in straw or rice stubble.
The pupa is dark brown.
the egg mass.
Plant hosts. The larvae can

develop on maize or grassy
weeds, but prefer rice.
Distinguishing characteristics • The striped stemborer is

• Egg masses are deposited most abundant in
temperate regions and in
near the base of leaves or
leaf sheaths and are not areas that do not flood.
covered with hair.
• Larval body with five
longitudinal rows of
purplish brown stripes.
• Many larvae may be found
in one rice stem.
• Second generation larvae:
about 3-16 aggregate
inside the leaf sheath of the
flag leaf and feed on the
panicles.
Dark-headed and gold-

fringed stem borers
The range of dark-headed

stem borer C. polychrysus
overlaps that of the gold-
fringed stem borer
C. auricilius. Their moths and
immature stages viz. eggs,
larvae, and pupae are
morphologically similar and
in many instances externally
indistinguishable. The adult
moth is straw to light brown
with silver scales at the
center of the fore wing in
C. polychrysus, silver lines
near the apical one-fifth in C.
auricilius, and several black wings. The hind wings are
dots at the tip of their fore yellow-white.
The scale-like pale-yellow

eggs overlap in the egg mass.
The larva has a black head
and black connecting
thoracic plate.
On the abdomen, three
dorsal and two lateral brown
stripes are distinct.
The pupa is yellow-brown
with two distinct bumps at
the front of the head.
Plant hosts. Rice is not the

only preferred host.
Distinguishing Malaysia. The gold-fringed

characteristics stem borer is common in
• Eggs are laid in rows near
the base of the leaves and
upland rice in the
Philippines.
on leaf sheaths, and are not
covered with hair.
• The heads of the dark-
headed and gold-fringed
stem borer larvae are
darker than the head of the
striped stem borer larva.
• Second generation larvae,
about 8-16, aggregate
inside the leaf sheath of the
flag leaf and feed on the
panicles.
• The dark-headed stem
borer is normally not
abundant in rice, except in
Yellow stem borer
The male and female

yellow stem borer moths
differ in appearance. The
male is small sized and is
light brown with numerous
small brownish dots, five
along the subterminal area
and eight or nine near the
tip of the fore wing. The
female is medium-sized
and straw-colored,
becoming darker toward
the tip, and has a very
distinct black spot in the
center of each fore wing.
The hind wings are pale
and strawcolored.
The disc-like eggs are laid stage in temperate regions.

in oval batches and are The pupae are elongated
covered with a mat of tan and yellow-white
anal hairs from the female
moth.
The larvae have small
orange heads. This stem
borer gets its name from its
pale, hairless yellow body.
The larva is the overwintering
Plant host. The larva feeds

only on rice and related wild
rices.
Distinguishing
characteristics
• Egg masses are laid near
leaf tips and are covered
with hair.
• Only one larva occurs in a
stem.
• The pupae are found at the
extreme base of the plant,
often below the soil.
• The yellow stem borer is
most abundant in aquatic
habitats where flooding
occurs and in places where
multiple rice crops are
grown annually. Larvae seal
entrance holes with silk to
make stems watertight.
White stem borer
The adult white stem borer

is similar to the yellow stem
borer in appearance. The
male is smaller than the
female. Moths of white
stem borer have longer
hairs on the prothorax.
The egg masses are

identical to those of the
yellow stem borer.
The larvae appear like

those of the yellow stem
borer. The white stem borer
pupae tend to be more white-
colored than those of the
yellow stem borer. These two
stem borers can only be
clearly differentiated as black spot on each front wing
female adults. The yellow whereas the white stem borer
stem borer female has a female has no spot.
Plant hosts. Larvae are

reported to have a wide host
range.
Distinguishing
characteristics. The egg
mass, larva, and pupa of the
white stem borer are similar
to those of the yellow stem
borer.
• The white stem borer
occurs predominantly in
areas where there is only
one wet season rice crop a
year and the stubble is left
undisturbed during the dry
season.
• The larvae remain dormant

at the base of the plants
during the dry season.
Pink stem borer
The pink stem borer belongs

to a family different from that
of the other stem borers. It is
related to cutworms and
armyworms.
The adult is robust and tan
with dark brown markings.
From a central point in the
fore wing, a typical radiation
of grey-black lines spreads
toward the wing tips, ending
in a thin terminal line of dark
spots. The hind wings are
white.
The bead-like eggs are laid

in rows between the leaf
sheath and stem and are not
covered with hair.
The larva has an orange-
red head. Its body is purple-
pink on top and white below.
The pupa is dark brown
and robust.

have a wide host range.
Distinguishing
characteristics
• The eggs are laid between
the leaf sheath and the
stem and are not covered
with hair.
• Larvae may pupate
between the leaf sheath
and the stem, instead of
inside the stem.
Damage
The larvae that have
penetrated a tiller feed on the
inner surface of the stem
walls and thus interrupt the
movement of water and
nutrients.
Tunneling by the larvae
weakens rice stems, which
then break easily.
Damage depends on the

age of the plant when it is
attacked.
If damage occurs when the

plants are young, the central
leaves of the damaged tillers
turn brown. This damage is
called deadhearts.
If the damage occurs after
the spikelets form, panicles
turn white and no grain filling
occurs. The damaged
panicles are called
whiteheads.
Tiller damage from
diseases such as kresek
resembles deadhearts.
Drought and neck blast can
also cause whiteheads.
Panicles damaged by stem Stem borer damaged tillers

borers can easily be pulled are filled with frass (waste
out by hand and may show from the digestive tract) and
insect feeding near the base. have larval entrance and exit
holes.
Management
Cultural control.
• Plant an early-maturing rice
variety.
The stem borer
completes fewer
generations in an early-
maturing variety.
Populations on such a
variety are lower and
damage is reduced.
•Plant fields in an area
within 3 to 4 weeks, which
is less than the time for one
stem borer generation.
Stem borers complete
fewer generations when
fields are planted
synchronously.
Fields planted later may

be severely damaged by
stem borers that have built
up in fields planted earlier.
Stem borers in late
planted crops may be
carried over to attack a
second rice crop.
Stem borers on the first
crop will not be carried
over to the second crop if
the stubble is plowed under
after the first crop is har-
vested, and the ground is
left fallow for at least 3 to 4
weeks between crops.
• Remove rice stubble and

straw.
Plow stubble immediate-
ly after harvest to destroy
yellow and white stem
borer larvae and pupae.
Cut stubble close to the

ground so that many of the
remaining striped, dark-
headed, and pink stem
borer larvae are removed
with the straw.
Burn or sun-dry straw
after threshing to destroy
stem borer larvae.
• Avoid excessive nitrogen

fertilizer by splitting fer-
tilizer applications.
• Remove seedlings with

stem borer egg masses
before transplanting.
• Flooding a field will not
control all stem borers.
The yellow stem borer is in
fact a major pest of
deepwater rice and the
larvae can complete their
development.
Resistant varieties. Many

improved varieties have
moderate resistance to stem
borers.
Because some chemicals

in the rice plant affect the
moth, the plant becomes less
attractive for egg laying and
larvae that emerge have a
lower rate of survival, are
small, and take a longer time
to mature.
High tillering varieties can
compensate more for
deadhearts during the
tillering stage than low
tillering varieties can.
Biological control. Stem wasps. The parasite

borer eggs are parasitized by preferences for stem borer
small trichogrammatid, species differ. Parasitization
scelionid, and eulophid rates are normally very high.
Eulophid wasps have

elongated ovipositors and
can lay their eggs in stem
borer eggs, even if the latter
are covered with a mat of
hair. Scelionid wasps,
however, parasitize stem
borer eggs while the moth is
in the act of oviposition —
before the eggs are covered
with hair. The wasp locates
the female moths, possibly
by the windborne chemical
sex pheromone given off by
the female moth to attract a
mate. The wasp attaches
itself to the tuft of anal hair
near the female moth’s ovi-
positor and waits for the
moth to lay eggs.
Egg masses are also the

food of several predators.
Tettigoniid and gryllid
predators prefer yellow and
white stem borer egg masses
and consume the hair mat
covering the eggs as well as
the underlying eggs.
The larval and pupal but parasitization rates are

stages are attacked by a often very low.
large number of parasites,
Carabid ground beetles

prey on larvae, and spiders
prey on adult moths.
Several species of fungi

can infect the larval stage
and consume the stem borer
at the base of stems when it
is about to pupate. The
Cordyceps fungus grows
long, noodle-like arms from
the stem borer’s body.
Chemical control.
Because stem borer larvae
enter tillers, controlling
them with insecticide is
often difficult.
1. Tillering stage. If fields
are flooded during the
tillering stage, sprays and
granules are equally
effective.
If the paddy water depth
is less than 5 cm, sprays
can be used.
2. Panicle initiation to
flowering. After the crop
reaches maximum tillering,
granules are not effective
and only spray
formulations should be
used.
• Scouting. The key to the

establishment of stem
borers in a crop is the
survival of eggs – mostly
the net result of parasite
activity – and the ability of
the first-instar larvae to
quickly bore into tillers,
seeking shelter from
predators and insecticide.
Most first-instar larvae
succumb to predators
because the tillers of
seedling rice are too thin to
be entered. But small-
mandibled first instars can
readily enter wider
diametered, older tillers
which are actively
elongating, particularly hardened, prohibiting entry elongating panicles. scouted during the two most
under heavy fertilization. to most first-instar larvae. Successful entry during vulnerable growth stages:
After the elongation phase, Larval penetration again panicle exsertion leads to tiller elongation and panicle
tissues become more becomes easier into the whiteheads. exsertion.
densely packed and soft tissues of the bases of Fields should only be
Record the number of egg

masses from 20 randomly
chosen hills across each
field. Results are better if
more hills are sampled;
therefore, adjacent fields can
be combined.
Insecticides should not be

applied when the threshold is
reached because the eggs
may be highly parasitized.
When the threshold is

reached, collect egg masses
and hold them in sealed jars
until the larvae and parasites
emerge. If more larvae than
parasites emerge, then apply
insecticide right away before
those in the field enter the
plants. If more parasites
emerge, there is no need to
apply insecticide.
RICE BLACK BUGS (HEMIPTERA: PENTATOMIDAE)
Two species of rice black

bugs are important in Asia:
the Malayan rice black bug
Scotinophara (= Podops )
coarctata (Fabricius) and the
Japanese rice black bug
Scotinophara (= Podops )
lurida (Burmeister).
There are many other

species of similar-looking
bugs in rice fields, but they
are rarely abundant.
Pest status
The Malayan and Japanese
black bugs often are abun-
dant in their preferred
habitats. Because chemical
control is difficult, yield
losses are often high.
Both species occur in

wetland environments but
S. coarctata prefers swampy
areas.
Adult. The shiny dark brown

or black adults aggregate at
the base of rice plants
immediately above the water
level during the day. They
move up the rice plants at
night and use their sucking
mouthparts to remove plant
sap from tillers.
The long-living adults pass

the winter or dry season in a
dormant state in cracks in the
soil in grassy areas. With
favorable weather they fly to
the rice crop and reproduce
over several generations.
They return to their resting
sites after rice harvest.
Adults are capable of
migrating long distances.

to a high intensity light trap,
and catches are highest
during a full moon.
Kerosene light traps are
not bright enough to attract
black bugs.
Adults give off an offensive

odor when disturbed.
A female lays about 200
eggs during her lifetime.
Egg. The greenish pink
eggs are laid in masses of up
to 15 in several parallel rows
on lower leaves near the
water level.
Nymph. The nymphs are

brown and yellow with black
spots.
Like the adults, they

remain at the base of the
plants or in cracks in the soil
during the day and feed at
night.
Damage
Sap removal by adults and
nymphs causes plants to turn
reddish brown or yellow.
Stem nodes are preferred
feeding sites because large
sap reservoirs occur there
which meet the high feeding
requirements of these
relatively large insects.
During the tillering stage,
black bug feeding causes
stunted growth and reduced
tiller number.
After the booting stage,
attacked plants have stunted
panicles, incomplete panicle
exsertion, and panicles with
empty grains (whiteheads).
Plants can wilt and die
from the feeding of high
numbers of black bugs or
suffer bugburn much like
that caused by planthoppers.
Plant hosts. Nymphs and

adults have a wide range of
alternative hosts.
Management
Cultural control. Remove
weeds from the field to allow
more sunlight to reach the
base of rice plants.
Plant an early-maturing
variety to reduce population
buildup of black bugs.


enemies attack all life stages
of black bugs.
Small scelionid wasps para-
sitize eggs.
Frogs and ground lizards
prey on nymphs and adults.
A fungal disease affects
both nymphs and adults.
White fungal growth emerges
from the dead bodies. Larvae
and adults of carabid ground
beetles feed on black bug
eggs, nymphs, and adults.
Nabid bugs prey on eggs and
nymphs.
Chemical control.
Foliar sprays are more
effective than granules.
Direct spray to the base
of plants where the black
bugs stay.
• Scouting.Visit the field

weekly during the entire
rice crop period to record
black bug numbers.
Randomly select 20 hills

across the field and count
the number of adults and
nymphs.
Use insecticide when the

black bug population
reaches the economic
threshold.
RICE HISPA (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE)
Hispa means spiny. Dicla-

dispa (= Hispa) armigera
(Olivier) is a beetle covered
with many short spines. Both
the larva and adult damage
rice leaves.
A related hispa species,
Leptispa pygmoea Baly,
causes the same type of
damage as the rice hispa.
Pest status
Although hispa reaches
outbreak proportions from
time to time, the areas
affected are limited and the
insect can readily be
Hispa is prevalent in where rice grows throughout

wetland rice environments, the year. It is more abundant
particularly irrigated areas in the rainy season.
Adult. The adult is blue-black

and shiny. Its wing covers
have many spines.
a light trap.
They are active during the

day when they feed and
disperse.
Each female lays about 50 Larva. After hatching, the

eggs during its lifetime of 1-2 flat white larvae tunnel inside
months. During the dry the leaves as leafminers.
season, adult numbers in The larvae eat the center
rainfed areas decline when leaf tissue, leaving only a
the area of host plants is transparent skin on the top
reduced. and bottom of the leaves.
Egg. The white, oval eggs A larva completes its
are laid singly near the tips of development inside a leaf.
young leaves. They are
partially inserted into the
lower leaf surfaces, and are
partially covered with a dark
secretion from the female.
Pupa. The brown pupa

develops inside the leaf mine.
Damage
Both the adults and larvae
feed on rice leaves, preferring
plants at the vegetative stage.
Adults scrape the upper leaf
surface tissue and leave
white streaks of uneaten
lower epidermis between the
parallel leaf veins.
Larval mines are irregular,
semitransparent patches that
run parallel to the leaf veins.
In severe infestations, the

leaves dry and turn brown so
that the damaged field has a
burned appearance.
Plant hosts. The rice hispa

feeds mainly on rice, but also
survives on grassy weeds.
Management
Cultural control. Close
spacing results in greater leaf
densities that can tolerate
higher hispa numbers.
Removing grassy weeds in
and near rice fields removes
alternative hosts.
Planting early at the

beginning of the monsoon
rains is a method that allows
a field to escape hispa build-
up on alternative hosts or
other rice fields.
Hand picking damaged

leaves removes larvae from
the field and prevents hispa
buildup. Damaged leaves can
be removed until booting.
A piece of rope soaked in
a mixture of 1 part kerosene
and 1 part water can be
pulled through the leaf
canopy.
Resistant varieties. No re- Biological control. The role

sistant varieties are of natural enemies has not
commercially available. been fully assessed.
However, several braconid
wasps parasitize the larvae.
Chemical control.
Chemicals play an
important role in rice hispa
control.
Adults are more exposed
and susceptible to insecti-
cide than are the larvae,
which are protected in leaf
mines.
Sprays and dusts are
usually more effective than
granular formulations.
Systemic insecticides
give longer residual
protection and are more
effective against larvae than
are nonsystemic chemicals.
• Scouting. Starting with the

seedbed, check for the
presence of adults.
Weekly from trans-

planting to panicle
initiation, count the number
of adults and larval mines
on 5 leaves in each of 20
randomly chosen hills
across the paddy.
Apply insecticide when the

reached for either adults or
larval mines.
MEALYBUG (HOMOPTERA: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)
Mealybugs are plant-sucking,

relatively immobile insects
related to scales. They
secrete white filaments of
wax to cover themselves.
Brevennia ( = Heterococcus,
= Ripersia ) rehi (= oryzae)
(Lindinger) is the main
mealybug pest of rice in Asia.
Peststatus
Mealybugs are abundant
during droughts when rice
plants can least tolerate
removal of plant sap. But
large populations are
infrequent. Control by
insecticide is difficult protected behind leaf sheaths
because mealybugs are and their waxy coating.
The mealybug is found in and is not prevalent in

rainfed rice environments irrigated rice.
Distrubtion in Asia.
Adult. The males and female:

do not look alike.
The females are wingless,
soft-bodied, pink, and
covered with waxy threads.
The males which are
smaller have wings and are
pale yellow.
The females remain

stationary on the stems
behind leaf sheaths at the
base of plants.
Each female lays about
100 eggs during her 2-week
lifetime.
Egg. The yellow-white

eggs are laid in chains on
waxy threads.
The eggs hatch within 6
hours.
Nymph. The young

nymphs are white and
become pale yellow and later
pale pink. At first they take
shelter under the body of the
female; later they move from
plant to plant by crawling
(crawler stage), or may be
dispersed in the wind.
After the dispersal period,
the nymphs settle down on a
rice tiller behind a leaf sheath
and feed. They tend to feed
in groups.
Damage
Nymphs and adults remove
plant sap. Under conditions
that favor high populations,
mealybug feeding causes the
leaves to turn yellow. The
plants become stunted.
The pattern of damaged
plants is not uniform because
mealybug numbers vary
greatly between hills.
Dry spells result in a large

population buildup of mealy-
bugs and damage to
drought-stressed plants can
be high.
Plant hosts. The mealybug

can develop on grassy
weeds. It shows no distinct
preference for rice.
Management
Cultural control. Remove and
destroy infested plants at the
first sign of mealybug
damage.

Biological control. Mealy-

bugs give off honeydew and
are tended by ants which
protect them from most
predators and parasites.
Lady beetles are the main

natural enemies of mealybug.
Chemical control.
• Insecticide application. The
waxy secretions covering
the mealybugs and their
habit of living behind leaf
sheaths protect them from
insecticide.
As damaged fields have

no standing water,
broadcasting of granules is
impractical.
Foliar sprays are effective if
the nozzle is directed to the
base of plants.
• Scouting. Mealybugs can

infest the rice crop from till-
ering to harvest.
Mealybug abundance is
recorded as percentage of
plants infested with
colonies.
Visit the field each week

and look at the base of 20
hills across the field.

reached.
PESTS AT THE REPRODUCTIVE STAGE
RICE GREENHORNED CATERPILLAR (LEPIDOPTERA: SATYRIDAE)
Melanitis leda ismene

(Cramer) and Mycalesis sp.
are large butterflies. Their
greenhorned caterpillars
have two prominent horns
(tubercles) on the head and
two at the end of the
abdomen.
Pest status
Due to the low reproductive
potential of the pest and the
activity of its natural enemies,
greenhorned caterpillar
numbers are usually too low
to cause economic loss.
The pest occurs in all rice

environments, but is more
prevalent in rainfed areas.
Adult. The dull, dark brown

butterfly has a pair of large,
spherical, white and brown
spots on each fore wing and
target-like spots on the
underwings. The wings are
folded above the body when
the insect is at rest. It flies at
dusk, making darting
movements among the rice
plants.
eggs in its lifetime of about 2
weeks.

a light trap.
Egg. The pearl-like eggs

are laid singly or in rows on
rice leaves, and are difficult
to see.
Larva. The yellow-green

larva blends into the rice
foliage and, in spite of its
large size, may be
overlooked.
The body is covered with
small, yellow, bead-like hairs.
The head is flat and
square.
Pupa. The chrysalis

containing the pupa is green
and smooth. It is suspended
from the leaves
Damage
The large larvae feed on the
margins and tips of leaf
blades and remove leaf tissue
and veins.
Damage symptoms are
similar to those from other
large defoliating insects, such
as armyworms and grass-
hoppers that feed on rice.
Yield loss occurs because
of removal of leaf tissue.

feed on the leaves of rice and
wild grasses.
Management
cultural control practices
have been developed.
sistant varieties have been
developed
Biological control. Eggs

are parasitized by
trichogramrnatid wasps. The
larvae are parasitized by
chalcid wasps and tachinid
flies, and are preyed upon by
vespid wasps.
Adult butterflies are prey
to spiders.
Chemical control.
• lnsecticide application. The Granules are not highly
larvae of the greenhorned effective when applied to
caterpillar can readily be older plants because of the
controlled by sprayable greater plant mass.
insecticides.
based on plant damage.
Scout the fields weekly
for damage, from 30 days
after seeding until
flowering.
Randomly pick 5 leaves

from each of 20 hills across
the paddy.
Yield loss is related to
the degree of defoliation;
therefore, there is no need
to distinguish leaves
damaged by the
greenhorned caterpillar
from leaves damaged by
other pests such as
armyworms, cutworms,
grasshoppers, and rice
skippers.
The economic threshold

is based on percentage of
damaged leaves due to all
pests that remove leaf
tissue.
reached.
RICE SKIPPERS (LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE)
Pelopidas mathias (Fabricius)

and Parnara guttata (Bremer
and Grey) are the most
widespread rice field species
of these day-flying skipper
butterflies. Skippers are so
named because of their fast
and erratic flight behavior —
they skip from plant to plant.
The two species can be
separated in the adult stage
by the pattern of spots on the
wings and spines on the
second pair of legs. The
distinguishing larval
characteristic is banding on
the head.
Pest status
The larvae rarely abound in
rice fields and occasions of
yield loss from skippers are
rare.
Skippers occur in all rice

environments, but are more
prevalent in rainfed rice.
Adult. Adults are light brown

with orange markings and
white spots.
Skipper butterfies are

active during the day and rest
at night.
Egg. The white spherical

eggs are laid singly. They are
glued on leaf blades by the
female.
Larva. Skipper larvae are

similar in size and coloration
to those of the greenhorned
caterpillar, but have no
horns.
Skipper larvae rest at the
base of plants during the day
and feed on leaf blades at
night.
Pupa. The larva ties a leaf

Young larvae roll portions
of the leaf blade to make a or leaves together with silken
protected chamber where threads to form a tube where
they rest during the day. it will pupate. The light brown
or light green pupa rests in a
bed of silk and has a pointed
end which is attached to the
folded leaf.
Damage
Rice skippers produce
damage similar to that
caused by the greenhorned
caterpillar.
The larvae feed on rice
foliage.
Plant hosts. Skipper larvae

feed on many plants of the
grass family.
Management
cultural control methods
have been developed.
are no commercially available
resistant varieties.
Biological control. Rice

skipper populations are
regulated by a wide variety of
natural enemies.
Many species of
ichneurnonid, braconid,
chalcid, and eulophid wasps
and tachinid flies parasitize
the larvae.
Larvae are preyed upon

by earwigs and reduviid bugs.
Large orb-web spinning

spiders capture skipper
adults in flight.
Chemical control.
Chemical control, scouting, skipper are similar to those
sampling, and economic for the greenhorned
threshold level for the rice caterpillar.
RICE BROWN PLANTHOPPER (HOMOPTERA: DELPHACIDAE)
Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (=

Delphax oryzae) is probably
the most serious insect pest
of rice in Asia. Its feeding
causes plants to wilt and
causes a symptom called
hopperburn. It also transmits
grassy stunt and ragged
stunt virus diseases.
Peststatus
The rice brown planthopper
has a high capacity to
reproduce. Frequently,
farmers’ misuse of insecticide
causes outbreaks of
hopperburn and/or virus
diseases over large areas.
The development of biotypes insecticide is lessened an umbrella to protect the
often reduces the life-span of because the hoppers are insects from the spray
resistant rice varieties. The found at the base of plants droplets.
effectiveness of control by and the crop canopy acts as
The brown planthopper is become abundant in rainfed

mainly a pest of irrigated wetland environments. It is
wetland rice, but it can also rare in upland rice.
Adult. Short-winged
(brachypterous) and long-
winged (macropterous)
adults occur in both sexes.
Short-winged forms cannot
fly but remain in the field to
feed and reproduce. Long-
winged form disperse.
Macropterous females lay

about 100 eggs and
brachypterous females 300
eggs during a lifetime of
about 2 weeks. Openings for
eggs are made in the tillers
by the saw-like ovipositor.
Adults suck the plant sap

from the base of plants where
they stay day and night.
Long-winged adults are
highly attracted to a light
trap. Highest catches occur
during a full moon.
A related species, Nilapar- hopper, is found in light trap

vata bakeri (Muir), often con- collections but is not a pest
fused with the brown plant- of rice.

inserted into the midrib or
leaf sheath in masses of 8-16.
Eggs are covered by a

dome-shaped egg plug
secreted by the female. Red
eye spots develop at the head
end before the eggs hatch.
Nymph. Nymphs are found

near the base of tillers where
it is shady and humidity is
high. Young nymphs are
white, turning brown as they
mature.
As with all leafhoppers and

planthoppers, nymphs and
adults move laterally like
crabs to the opposite side of
tillers when disturbed.
Nymphs feed on the same
tillers in which they hatched
and, unlike those of other
hopper species, can become
highly aggregated.
The wing pads of mature
nymphs are light brown and
opaque; short-winged adults
have transparent wings.
Damage
Nymphs and adults insert
their sucking mouthparts into
the plant tissue and remove
plant sap from phloem cells.
The brown planthopper
removes more plant sap than
it can digest. The excess
plant sap, which is high in
sugars, is expelled from the
body as honeydew. The
honeydew drops fall on the
base of plants and in time
turn black from infection by a
sooty mold fungus.
During the act of feeding,

the brown planthoppers
secrete solid feeding sheaths
into the plant tissue to form a
feeding tube. The feeding
sheaths block the flow of
plant sap.

may remove enough sap or
block its flow to cause the
tillers to dry and turn brown,
producing hopperburn
during later growth stages.
Hopperburn occurs more
rapidly during cloudy
weather. Photosynthesis
during sunny days allows the
plant to recover from sap
removal by hoppers.

also transmits ragged stunt
and grassy stunt viruses.
Brown planthopper
outbreaks are associated with
development of irrigation
systems to allow year-round
rice cropping (thus
continuous planthopper
buildup), excessive fertilizer
usage that results in higher
planthopper populations, and
the use of insecticides that
kill natural enemies.
Plant hosts. The brown

planthopper is restricted to
rice and wild rices, but
reproduction can occur on
Leersia hexandra.
Management
Cultural control. Grow no
more than two rice crops per
year. Create a rice-free
period during the year with
early-maturing varieties, plant
weeks of each other, and
plow down volunteer ratoon
after harvest.
Use fertilizer judiciously.

Split nitrogen applications
three times during crop
growth.
To reduce brown plant-

hopper populations, drain the
field for 3 or 4 days during
infestations.
Eliminate virus sources in

rice and weeds by plowing
down rice stubble and
ratoon.
Plant seedbed in areas as

far as possible from lights
and sources of virus
infection. Lights attract virus-
infected hoppers, and weeds
are alternative hosts of virus
and virus-carrying hoppers.
Resistant varieties.
Planting a resistant variety is
an effective way of
controlling brown
planthopper.
Brown planthopper
numbers decrease on resis-
tant varieties because of the
presence of toxic chemicals
produced by the plants.
If varieties with the same

genes for high levels of re-
sistance are widely planted,
however, new biotypes or
field populations capable of
attacking the resistant
varieties can develop through
natural selection.
Early-maturing varieties
act to reduce brown plant-
hopper population
development.
Higher planthopper popula-

tions per area occur on high
tillering varieties because of
the increased plant surface
on which to feed.
Biological control. Many

parasites, predators, and
pathogens attack all stages of
the brown planthopper and
effectively control this pest
under most situations.
improper use of insecticide,
however, can kill the natural
enemies and thus lead to
dramatic brown planthopper
outbreaks.
mymarid, trichogrammatid,
and eulophid wasps.
Mirid bugs and phytoseiid
mites prey on eggs.
Elenchid strepsipterans,
dryinid wasps, and
nematodes parasitize
nymphs and adults.
Aquatic predators under

the water surface (hydrophid
and dytiscid beetles and
damselfly and dragonfly
immatures) and those that
swim on the surface (nepid,
microveliid, and mesoveliid
bugs) prey on hoppers that
feed near the water or fall
into the water.
Beetles and spiders
actively search the foliage for
brown planthopper nymphs
and adults. Dragonflies and
damselflies prey on moving
adults and nymphs.
Fungal pathogens infect
brown planthopper nymphs
and adults. After the death of
the hoppers, the fungi grow
out of the corpses.
Chemical control. Granules are less effec-

• Insecticide application. tive than sprays or dusts,
particularly when applied to
Insecticide to control
brown planthopper usually older plants with a greater
is not necessary in fields biomass.
planted to a resistant
variety.
Apply an effective insecti-
cide on susceptible
varieties whenever the
brown planthopper
population reaches the
economic threshold.
Applying insecticide
when long-winged adults
are numerous will kill
natural enemies and not
the eggs. When the eggs
hatch, most nymphs will
survive.
Applying insecticide
when the population is
mostly young nymphs is
wasteful. Predators
normally will lower their
numbers and young
nymphs cannot damage
the crop.
Insecticide applied to the

tops of plants will not reach
the brown planthopper
below.
Applying insecticide to
fields of rice varieties
susceptible to the brown
planthopper may cause the
number of brown
planthoppers to be higher
than when no insecticide is
applied. This dramatic
contradiction of the
expected outcome is called
resurgence.
Do not apply an
insecticide that causes
resurgence.
• Scouting.Visit the fields

dough grain stage.
Pick 20 hills at random

across the paddy. Hit each
hill several times with the
hand and count the
number of mature nymphs
that fall on the water.
Mature nymphs are brown
and immature nymphs are
white.
Determine the average

number of tillers per hill.
No action is required
until the number of mature
nymphs reaches one per
tiller. When that occurs,
visit the field every 3 to 4
days thereafter. If the
population of mature
nymphs increases beyond
one per tiller, spray the
base of the plants.
SMALLER BROWN PLANTHOPPER (HOMOPTERA: DELPHACIDAE)
Laodelphax striatelius
(Fallen) ( Delphax = Liburnia
= Delphacodes striatella )
appears like the brown
planthopper but is smaller.
Pest status
The smaller brown
planthopper transmits black-
streaked dwarf and stripe
virus diseases and remains as
a vector throughout its life
after feeding on one virus-
infected plant. However, it
can be readily controlled with
insecticide.
It is found in all rice envi-

ronments but is restricted to
temperate climates.

The life cycle of the smaller
brown planthopper is longer
than that of other plant-
hoppers because of the
cooler climates in which it
lives.
Adult. The adults are

smaller than those of the
brown or whitebacked plant-
hoppers. The head is pale
yellow. The thorax at the
juncture of the wings of the
male is black, and that of the
female is pale yellow medially
and black along the lateral
margins. There are black
dots between the wings at
the end of the body.
Long- and short-winged
forms occur. Long-winged
adults fly to rice nurseries
and newly transplanted fields
in the spring from winter
wheat, barley, or grasses.
The adults suck plant sap

from the base of the plants.

to a light trap. Highest
catches are during full moon.
To deposit eggs, the
female cuts openings in the
tillers with its saw-like
ovipositor.
about 3 weeks.

laid in masses in the leaf
midrib or leaf sheath near the
base of the plant. Each egg is
capped with a small egg
plug.
Nymph. The nymphs are

light to dark brown and feed
at the base of the plant by
removing plant sap. In winter,
the fourth-stage nymph lies
dormant on alternative hosts.
Damage
The smaller brown plant-
hopper does not usually
damage rice by direct
feeding; however, it is an
important transmitter of two
virus diseases: black-streaked
dwarf and stripe.
Plant hosts. The smaller

brown planthopper utilizes a
number of alternative hosts
especially in winter.
Management
Cultural control. Keep fallow
fields free of weeds during
winter to remove
overwintering sites.
In the early spring, protect

seedling nurseries from
migrating adults by covering
them with netting.
Resistant varieties. Some

varieties are resistant to
black-streaked dwarf and
stripe virus disease and to the
smaller brown planthopper
itself.

the smaller brown plant-
hopper. In temperate
climates, however, natural
enemy populations are lower
than in the tropics.
The eggs are parasitized
by small trichogrammatid
wasps and preyed upon by
mirid bugs.

parasitized by dryinid wasps
and fungal diseases.
Predators of nymphs and

adults include aquatic
underwater beetles and
immature dragonfies, as well
as water surface-dwelling
microveliid and mesoveliid
bugs, and spiders.
Chemical control. prevent virus infection.

• insecticide application. Repeated foliar sprays
Calendar-based are necessary to protect the
applications of insecticide crop.
to the smaller brown
planthopper during the
early growth stages of rice
• Scouting. Nationwide
forecasting systems on
virus diseases transmitted
by the smaller brown
planthopper make control
efforts more efficient.
There is no economic
threshold for the smaller
brown planthopper.
RICE WHITEBACKED PLANTHOPPER (HOMOPTERA: DELPHACIDAE)

Despite its common name,
Sogatella (= Sogata) furcifera
cannot be distinguished from
other planthoppers in the
adult stage by the white band
along the back (thorax)
between the wing bases.
Several related species

occur in rice fields although
rice is not their principal host.
Each can be distinguished by
wing, head, and male
genitalia characters except
for females of S. panicicola
and S. longifurcifera.
Pest status
Even though it does not
transmit virus diseases, the
whitebacked planthopper
occurs widely and can
become sufficiently
numerous to kill plants by
hopperburn. If detected in The whitebacked plant-
time, it can be readily hopper occurs in all rice
controlled with insecticide. environments.

Adult. The adults are brown
to black with a yellow body
and a conspicuous dorsal
white band between the
junctures of the wings.
Both long- and short-

winged forms occur only in
the female. Males are all
long-winged.
The whitebacked plant-

hoppers feed at the base of
the rice plant.
Long-winged adults enter

the field during the first 30
days after seeding.
Generations that are
completed on the rice crop
are fewer than those of the
brown planthopper. The
prefers a younger crop and
produces long-winged
migratory forms before the
plants flower.

highest during full moon.

eggs during a lifetime of
about 2 weeks.
Egg. The eggs are similar
in size and shape to those of
the brown planthopper, but
the egg plug is longer.
Nymph. Young nymphs of

all planthoppers appear white
and cannot be differentiated
by species in the field.
Older nymphs of the
have distinctive black and
white spots on the top of
their abdomen.
Damage Hopperburned plants

Nymphs and adults suck sap initially occur in small
from the base of the tillers. patches in the field. The
Honeydew production is less patches coalesce if the
than in the brown plant- population continues to
hopper; consequently, sooty- increase. Damage is most
mold on plants is less of a common during the early
symptom of damage. reproductive stage.
High populations remove The whitebacked plant-
enough sap to cause the hopper does not transmit
plants to turn orange-yellow. virus diseases.
Later, the leaves dry and turn
brown.
Plant hosts. The

whitebacked planthopper has
a wide host range.
Management
Cultural control. The cultural
control methods effective
against the brown
planthopper also control the
whitebacked planthopper.

commercially available for
whitebacked planthopper.
Because the whitebacked

planthopper disperses from
the crop between booting
and flowering, early-maturing
varieties can reduce the
number of whitebacked
planthopper generations.
High-tillering varieties
allow higher numbers of
adults and nymphs on a per-
area basis than low-tillering
varieties.

the whitebacked planthopper
and generally maintain its
population at low levels.
Indiscriminate insecticide
usage may kill
proportionately more natural
enemies than whitebacked
planthopper and lead to
population outbreaks.
Whitebacked planthopper
eggs are parasitized by small
parasitic wasps or are preyed
upon by mirid bugs or
phytoseiid mites.
parasitized by dryinid wasps
or fungi.
Predators of nymphs and
adults include underwater
hydrophilid and dytiscid
beetles as well as immature
forms of coenagrionid
damselflies and libellulid
dragonflies. Water-surface
dwelling veliid and
mesoveliid bugs are also
important predators. These
aquatic predators prey
mainly on planthoppers that
fall on the water surface, but
can also capture hoppers
from foliage near the water
level.
Staphylinid and carabid

beetles and lygaeid bugs as
well as spiders search rice
foliage for planthopper
nymphs and adults.
Coenagrionid damselfly
adults prey on hoppers
resting on the foliage, but
libellulid dragonfly adults
capture only hoppers in
flight.
Chemical control.
Insecticide application
methods for whitebacked
planthopper are the same
as those described for the
brown planthopper.
Sprays or dust are more
effective than granules.
Do not apply an
insecticide which causes
resurgence.
• Scouting. Visit the fields

weekly from 30 days after
seeding to flowering. Slap
the plants to remove
hoppers from 20 randomly

selected hills or points
across the field.

number of hoppers per
tiller. When the population
reaches one whitebacked
planthopper per tiller, scout
twice a week.
Apply insecticide to the
base of the plant when the
population of mature
nymphs exceeds one per
tiller.
RICE GREEN LEAFHOPPERS (HOMOPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)
Four species of rice green

leafhoppers in the genus
Nephotettix are commonly
found in Asia. They are N.
virescens (= bipunctata (tus)
=impicticeps), N.
nigropictus (= apicalis =
nigromaculatus = nigropicta
= bipunctatus apicalis =
apicalis apicalis ), N.
malayanus, and N. cincticeps
(=bipunctatus cincticeps
=apicalis cincticeps ).
Pest status
Adults and nymphs transmit
several serious virus
diseases. When their
populations are high, they
directly damage rice plants.
Green leafhopper
populations can be readily prevention of virus infection
controlled with resistant is difficult when insect
varieties or insecticides, but numbers are high.
By allowing year-round upland rice.

rice cropping, irrigation has Green leafhoppers are
increased the importance of more abundant in the rainy
these pests. They are season and on vigorously
generally not prevalent in growing rice crops.
Distribution in Asia. N. N. virescens, N. nigropictus,

cincticeps is confined to and N. malayanus are
temperate regions whereas tropical species.

Development time for all
species is the same under
similar temperature regimes.
The duration of the life
cycles for the tropics is given
here. It is longer for
temperate climates.
Adult. Adults are pale

green and may have black
markings on the head or
wings. They are highly
mobile and fly when
disturbed in the field.

highest during full moon.
Adults can fly long dis-

tances, but movement is
normally confined to several
kilometers.
The leafhoppers migrate
into the field soon after the
seedlings emerge and are
most numerous during the
vegetative stage. Adults feed
and rest on the upper
portions of the rice plant.
There are no short-winged

forms in leafhoppers. Each
female lays several hundred
eggs in an average life-span
of 3 weeks. Females make
openings in the tillers with
their saw-like ovipositors.
Egg. Freshly laid eggs are

white or pale yellow, but later
turn brown and develop red
eyespots.
Young plants are preferred

for egg laying. Eggs are
deposited in leaf sheaths or
midribs near the base of the
plant in batches of 8-16.
Nymph. The yellow or pale

green nymphs are most
numerous during the tillering
stage.
They are usually in the

upper parts of the plant in the
morning and move to the
lower parts in the afternoon.
Damage
Green leafhopper adults and
nymphs disperse in response
to crowding and rarely reach
the high densities necessary
to cause hopperburn.
Nymphs and adults suck
the sap from the leaves and
tillers with their sucking
mouthparts. Their feeding
can stunt plant growth.
More serious than direct
feeding injury are the virus
diseases transmitted by both
the adults and nymphs.
N. nicropictus is less
effective than the three other
species in virus disease
transmission.
Plant hosts. N. cincticeps

and N. virescens are more
specific to rice than N.
nigropictus or N. malayanus.
Management
Cultural control. Grow no
more than two rice crops per
year. Create rice-free periods
by synchronous planting,
using early-maturing
varieties, and plowing down
stubble after harvest to
minimize green leafhopper
populations and remove virus
sources from the field.
Covering a seedbed with

mesh cloth prevents hoppers
from transmitting viruses at a
time when the crop can be
most severely infected.
Place seedbeds away from

lights so as not to attract
virus-infected hoppers.
Virus-infected hoppers
also breed in weedy areas:
therefore, set seedbeds away
from weeds.
Resistant varieties. Many The decision to select a

varieties resistant to green tungro-resistant variety can
leafhoppers are commercially be made after scouting the
available. ratoon of the previous crop in
Few varieties are resistant the vicinity of the field.
to the virus diseases, but Tungro readily shows up in a
widespread planting of green ratoon. If tungro is prevalent
leafhopper-resistant varieties in the ratoon, use of a
is normally effective in resistant variety is
minimizing virus incidence. recommended.
Early-maturing varieties
reduce the period for green
leafhopper population
increase, but will not directly
prevent virus infection.
Biological control. Green

leafhoppers are normally
held in check by the activities
of parasites, predators, and
pathogens.
trichogrammatid and
mymarid wasps and preyed
upon by mirid bugs.

parasitized by pipunculid
flies, dryinid wasps,
halictophagid strepsipterans,
and nematodes.
An array of predators also

attack nymphs and adults:
aquatic veliid bugs, nabid
bugs, empid flies, damsel-
flies, dragonflies, and spiders.
Nematodes and fungal

pathogens also infect
nymphs and adults. A white
fungal mat grows from the
inside and covers the body of
dead leafhoppers.
Chemical control.
• Insecticide application. If
virus diseases transmitted
by green leafhoppers are
prevalent in an area and a
susceptible variety is used,
the rice crop must be
protected with insecticide
from the seedbed unless
the seedbed is covered. A
systemic insecticide is
preferred. Systemic
granules should be
incorporated into the soil
before sowing the seedbed.
Soil-incorporated granules
are more efficient than
broadcast granules or
sprays in the seedbed.
A similar choice of
protection should be
sought immediately before
transplanting. Soaking
seedlings in insecticide
solution for 6-12 hours
before transplanting gives
protection for 20 days,
whereas soil incorporation
or broadcasting of systemic
granules protects the crop
for 40 days.
• Scouting. If a susceptible
variety is used and
preventive insecticide
applications are not carried
out, the crop should be
monitored for green
leafhopper activity.
Green leafhoppers
should be monitored in the
crop from the seedbed to
panicle initiation.
Individual seedbeds and The bottom of the net

fields can be sampled with should penetrate the rice
a sweep net to determine if canopy during a sweep.
chemical control is Make 10 sweeps (a sweep
necessary. Sampling is one pass of the net across
should be done in the the plants, either to or fro)
morning. while following a diagonal
A sweep net is parti- line across the paddy.
cularly effective in catching Take sweep net samples
green leafhoppers because twice a week, from the seed-
they feed on the upper ling stage to panicle
portions of the rice plant. initiation.
Swing the net in a “brush Count both nymphs and
stroke” (following the arc of adults.
a pendulum) for each
sweep.
If a sweep net is not

available, plant tapping can
be used. Each week
randomly pick 20 hills
across the paddy. Slap the
plants with force several
times with the palm of the
hand. Count both adults
and nymphs that fall on the
water.
Calculate the average
green leafhopper number
per hill.
Spray a systemic
reached.
RICE ZIGZAG LEAFHOPPER (HOMOPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)
Recilia (= Inazuma) dorsalis

(Motschulsky) (=
Deltocephalusdorsalis) is a
pest mainly because it
transmits virus diseases. The
adult has dark zigzag
markings on the wings. Other
leafhoppers having zigzag
wing patterns such as
Scaphoideus, Deltocephalus,
and Eutettix are found in light
trap collections but do not
feed on rice. The zigzag
patterns are more obvious on
these species when they are
wet.
Peststatus
Zigzag leafhopper can
transmit tungro, dwarf, and
orange leaf virus diseases. It
plays a minor role as a pest
because its population is
generally low.
It occurs in all rice envi- The zigzag leafhopper is

ronments but transmits the particularly abundant in the
virus diseases only to early rainy season.
wetland rice.
Adult. The adult is readily

recognized by the
characteristic zigzag white
and brown pattern on the
front wings.
The adults are highly

mobile and enter rice fields in
the early growth stages.
The zigzag leafhopper is
highly attracted to a light trap
and catches are high during
a full moon.
Each female may deposit
100-200 eggs in its lifetime of
10-14 days. To lay eggs, she
cuts openings in tillers with
her saw-like ovipositor.

laid individually in the leaf
sheaths.
Nymph. The yellowish

brown nymphs are found
both on leaves in the upper
parts of the plant and on
tillers near the base of the
plant.
Nymphs are usually more
numerous during the
vegetative stage of rice.
Damage
Nymphs and adults damage
the plant by sucking sap from
the leaves and leaf sheaths.
Damaged plants have
dried leaf tips and leaf
margins show orange
discoloration.
Later, the whole leaf
becomes orange and the leaf
margins curl.
Damage symptoms appear
first on older leaves.
Young seedlings wilt and
die when the hopper attacks
in large numbers.
The zigzag leafhopper

transmits rice tungro, dwarf,
and orange leaf viruses.
Plant hosts. Alternative

hosts are in the grass family.
Management
Cultural control. Grassy
weeds and volunteer rice in
fallow fields allow the zigzag
leafhopper and the viruses
they transmit to exist
between rice crops.
Keep fallow fields free of

vegetation between rice
crops.

commercially available for
either the zigzag leafhopper
or orange leaf or dwarf
viruses.
Biological control. Para-

sites and predators normally
regulate zigzag leafhopper
numbers.
Mymarid parasites and the
mirid bug attack the egg
stage.
Dryinid wasps and
pipunculid flies parasitize
nymphs and adults.
Spiders that inhabit the

leaf canopy prey on adults.
Chemical control.
Foliar sprays are more
effective than granular
insecticides.

panicle initiation.
Record the number of

zigzag leafhoppers from 20
randomly selected hills
across the field.
Calculate the number of
zigzag leafhoppers per
tiller.
Spray insecticide when

reached.
RICE WHITE LEAFHOPPER (HOMOPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)
Cofana (= Tettigella =
Cicadella ) spectra (Distant) is
the largest of the rice
leafhoppers and is entirely
white. Other leafhoppers of
minor importance include the
rice orange leafhopper Thaia
oryzivora Ghauri and the rice
blue leafhopper Zygina
maculifrons (Motschulsky).
Nisia atrovenosa, which

resembles white leafhopper
in appearance, also occurs in
rice fields. It is neither a
delphacid planthopper nor a
cicadellid leafhopper and
feeds on grasses and sedges.
Leafhoppers have tibial
spines and planthoppers
have a tarsal spur. Nisia
atrovenosa has neither of
these characters and belongs
to the family Meenoplidae.
The biology, damage, and
management of only the rice
white leafhopper will be
discussed.
Pent status
The rice white leafhopper
rarely occurs at population
levels that cause yield loss
and does not transmit any
virus diseases.
The white leafhopper rainfed wetland rice and is

occurs in all rice more abundant at the end of
environments, but is the rainy season.
particularly associated with
Adult. The large adults are

grey-white with prominent
wing veins.
Adults rest on the lower

surfaces of leaf blades or on
tillers near the base of plants.
They are agile insects and
hop away when disturbed.
to a light trap at night.
Catches are abundant during
a full moon.
Each female may lay 100-

200 eggs during its lifetime of
3 weeks.
The female cuts into rice
tillers with her saw-like ovi-
positor to create an opening
in which to lay eggs.
Egg. The elongate white
eggs are laid in leaf sheaths
in rows of 10-15 at the base
of plants above the paddy
water.
The female covers the egg
masses with a chalky
substance.
Nymph. The pale orange

nymphs feed on tillers just
above the water line.
Damage
Adults and nymphs suck sap
from the plants, causing the
tips of leaves to dry up. Later
the whole leaf turns orange
and curls. Plant growth
becomes stunted.
The white leafhopper does
not transmit any plant
viruses.
Nymph populations
usually build up during late
tillering and reproductive
stages of rice growth.
Plant hosts. The white

leafhoppper breeds on an
array of plants in the grass
family.
Management
Cultural control. Practice
clean culture by removing
weeds from fields during the
rice crop and from rice fields
during fallow periods.

Biological control. The

action of a wide array of na-
tural enemies attacking all
growth stages normally
keeps the white leafhopper
populations below economic
threshold levels.
tiny mymarid wasps and are
preyed upon by mirid bugs.
Young nymphs fall prey to
aquatic veliid and mesoveliid
bugs. Strepsiptera are
commonly found as internal
parasites of older nymphs or
adults. Web-building and
hunting spiders capture
many flying adults.
Chemical control.
Insecticide spray or dust
formulations are preferred.
Granules are not
effective because the white
leafhopper is abundant
when the plants are fully
grown and are too large.
• Scouting. Begin scouting

weekly from the
midvegetative period until
after flowering.

leafhoppers on 20
randomly selected hills
across the field.

number of white
leafhoppers per hill.
reached.
PESTS AT THE RIPENING STAGE
Rice pollen is a nutritious

food source. It attracts many
insects to rice panicles
during flowering.
Insects, however, do not
cause sterility or unfilled
grains when they feed on
pollen. Generally, the rice
plant produces more pollen
than is needed for
fertilization.
Many insects that feed on
pollen are beneficial species.
One example is the lady
beetle which is not a pest.
RICE SEED BUGS (HEMIPTERA: ALYDIDAE)
Several species of true bugs

of the genus Leptocorisa are
commonly called rice bugs.
These species are discussed
together because their
appearance, biology, and the
damage they cause are
similar.
A number of other true

bugs that damage rice seed
are not discussed.
Pest status
Yield loss from rice bugs that
feed on grains normally is
minimal because their
populations are highly
variable, and damage occurs
only during a short segment
of crop growth. Rice bugs are
found in all rice prevalent in rainfed wetland
environments, but are more or upland rice.
Factors that cause high

rice bug populations are
nearby woodlands, extensive
weedy areas near rice fields,
and staggered rice planting.
Adult. Adults are slender,

have long legs and antennae,
and brown-green bodies.
Rice bugs become active generations on alternative

when the monsoonal rains grassy weed hosts before
begin. migrating to rice fields during
They complete 1-2 the flowering stage.
When disturbed, adults fly

and give off an offensive odor
from scent glands on their
abdomens.
Adults are active in the late
afternoon and early morning.
They rest in grassy areas
during periods of bright
sunshine.
During the dry season,
adults move to wooded areas
where they remain dormant.
They are not readily

collected in a light trap at
night.
Each female may lay se-

veral hundred eggs during a
lifetime of 2-3 months.
Egg. The dark red-brown,

disc-shaped eggs are laid in
batches of 10-20 in 2 or 3
straight rows along the
midrib on the upper surface
of a leaf.
During hatching, the upper
half of the egg breaks away,
leaving a distinct hole.
Nymph. The brown-green

nymphs aggregate on rice
plants. They blend with the
foliage and often are
undetected.
Damage
Nymphs and adults prefer to
feed on the endosperm of
rice grains but also suck
plant sap.
They have sucking mouth-
parts. To feed, they secrete a
liquid to form a stylet sheath
that hardens around the
point of feeding and holds
the mouthparts in place.
Stylet sheaths are white and
can be seen with the naked
eye.
Rice bugs do not bore a

hole through rice hulls as do
other rice seed bugs. They
enter the rice grain through
the space between the
lemma and the palea.
Stylet sheaths left after
feeding can be found in that
section of rice grains.
Both nymphs and adults the carbohydrate. In the

feed on rice grams. They process they contaminate the
prefer rice at milk stage but grain with microorganisms
will also feed on soft and that cause grain discoloration
hard dough rice grains. or pecky rice.
Growing nymphs are more Damage from feeding at
active feeders than adults, this stage impairs grain
but adults cause more total quality rather than reduces
damage because they feed grain weight.
over a longer period of time. Pecky rice grains are more
Removal of the liquid milky liable to break during milling
white endosperm results in a and form broken rice.
smaller grain. Farmers in most countries
Rice bugs do not directly do not realize monetary loss
cause unfilled grains because from pecky rice as this
they cannot remove all the aspect of grain quality is
liquid endosperm from a usually not checked when
developing grain. the crop is sold.
When rice bugs feed on
soft or hard dough endo-
sperm in a solid state, they
inject enzymes to predigest
Plant hosts. Many grasses

act as alternative hosts, but
rice and Echinochloa are the
most important.
Management
Cultural control. Eliminate
grassy weeds from the rice
field, levees, and surrounding
areas.
Avoid staggered planting

of fields in an area.

Awned varieties are not
resistant to rice bugs.
Biological control. Small

scelionid wasps parasitize the
eggs.
A parasitized egg shows a
distinct hole where the wasp
has emerged.
The meadow grasshopper
preys on rice bug eggs.
Spiders prey on nymphs
and adults.
Fungi infect both nymphs
and adults.
Chemical control.
• Insecticide application.The
rice bug is readily
controlled with spray or
dust formulations.
Granular insecticides are
ineffective.
• Scouting. Scout the fields

beginning a week before
the milk stage and continue
twice weekly until hard
dough stage.
Sample early in the

morning or late in the
afternoon from 20
randomly chosen hills
across the field.

rice bugs per hill and apply
reached.
RICE PANICLE MITE (ACARINA: TARSONEMIDAE)
Steneotarsonemus spinki the cause of sterile panicles.

Smiley is a mite that is more Other tarsonemid mites such
closely related to ticks and as Caloglyphus and
spiders than to insects. It has Tarsonernus are also found
four pairs of legs and an in rice.
unsegmented body. Mites are
extremely small and only
someone with a trained eye
can recognize them in the
field. Because of their size,
they are often overlooked as
The most commonly

known mite pests on rice are
the red spider mite
Oligonychus oryzae. As their
name implies, these mites are
red and spin silk webs. They
are most commonly
encountered in greenhouse
cultures of rice, but are rarely
pests in the field.
Pest status
The panicle mite causes
unfilled grains and carries
sheath rot fungus. Its
population is normally held in
check by natural enemies.
Control by chemicals is
difficult. In fact, the mite’s The mite is most abundant
emergence as a pest has on the second crop of rice or
been associated with heavy on a ratoon. As a pest, it is
usage of insecticide. associated with irrigated rice.
Distribution in Asia. The

panicle mite is probably more
widespread than the records
indicate.

The life cycle is longer in
temperate environments.
Adult. The tarsonemid

mites are transparent and
slightly brownish. The male
and female distinctly differ in
body shape, but each has
four pairs of legs. The hind
pair in the male are used as
pinchers for defense; those in
the female are reduced in
size.
Adults are most common

in the air spaces within the
upper parts of leaf sheaths.
Only when their numbers are
high do they go to the
panicles.
A female will lay about 50
eggs in its lifetime of 5 days.
Nonfertilized eggs become
male mites.
Egg. The ovoid eggs are

white or opaque and are
deposited singly in the air
spaces of leaf sheaths, within
a colony of mites.
Nymph. Unlike the adult

female, the elongate nymph
has only three pairs of legs.
Nymphs are transported
by male adults.
The nymph enters a one-
day resting period before
becoming an adult.
Damage
With their needlelike
mouthparts, the mites
remove plant sap from within
leaf sheaths. The result is
elongated dark necrotic
streaks that can be seen on
the outer surface.
When their numbers are

high, the mites crawl up to
the panicle and feed on
developing rice spikelets,
thus causing empty grains.
Panicles with many
unfilled grains remain erect
in the field while undamaged
panicles bend because of
their weight.
Feeding causes distortion,

shrinkage, and discoloration
of filled grains.
The panicle mite carries

the resting stage (conidia) of
the sheath rot fungus.
Management
Cultural control. Create a
rice-free period by plowing
down rice stubble between
crops and planting
weeks of each other.

Biological control. Several

species of predatory mites
normally maintain the panicle
mite at subeconomic
numbers.
An internal parasitic
protozoan also reduces
panicle mite numbers.
Chemical control.
• Acaricide application.
Foliar spraying is the only
proven method of applying
acaricides (pesticides that
kill mites).
Minimize acaricide usage
to conserve the number of
beneficial predatory mites.
• Scouting. No economic
thresholds have been devel-
oped for the panicle mite,
but monitoring leaf sheath
damage may indicate
whether a problem is
developing on the second
crop or ratoon.
DISEASES
RICE DISEASES 235
Rice Diseases
A disease is an abnormal 3. Necrosis or death of the over time in a crop ease are extremely variable;
condition that injures the tissues (leaf spot, streak, population. thus, they can shift rapidly
plant or causes it to function scald, etc.), Cultural conditions and and shorten the effective life
improperly. Diseases are 4. Wilting due to interference cultural practices may influ- of a resistant cultivar.
readily recognized by their in water movement within ence disease incidence and Varietal resistance is essen-
symptoms — associated vis- the plant, severity. Blast disease is tial as the base of effective
ible changes in the plant. 5. Unusual development or more severe in upland than in disease control, but other
Various agents, acting transformation of organs lowland growing conditions. control measures such as
either singly or in combina- (false smut, kernel smut, Nitrogen fertilizer affects chemicals are sometimes
tion, cause diseases. The etc.). blast development. The necessary. Varietal resistance
agents can be biotic (living) A disease is the result of greater the rate of nitrogen to bacterial blight and grassy
or abiotic (nonliving). Living, the interactions between a application, the more severe stunt lasts longer than resist-
disease-inciting organisms pathogen and a host in a the disease. ance to blast.
are called pathogens. favorable environment. A dis- The biotic environment A high level of resistance
The pathogens of rice disease generally occurs may influence disease. to certain rice diseases such
eases are bacteria, fungi, because the host cultivar is Tungro incidence and spread as sheath blight and stem rot
nematodes, viruses, and susceptible, the pathogen increase with an increase in has not been identified in
mycoplasma-like organisms. strain is virulent, and the number of its vector, the viru- modern rice cultivars. Cultu-
These pathogens cause environment is favorable. An liferous green leafhopper. As ral practices and chemicals
visible disease symptoms on understanding of the disease vectors, the adult insects are are presently the most impor-
the entire plant, or on indivi- "triangular relationship" helps three times more efficient tant methods for controlling
dual plant parts such as control the disease. than nymphs. The incidence those diseases.
leaves, stems, leaf sheaths, and spread of rice virus dis- Diseases that progress
panicles, or grains. eases in the tropics are slowly are generally man-
Rice disease symptoms determined by the dispersal, aged more easily than those
can be categorized in several movement, and migration of that progress rapidly. The
groups: viruliferous vector insects. management of rapid-
1. Overall dwarfing or stunt- Host-plant resistance can spreading diseases is difficult.
ing of the plant, An epidemic or serious out- control plant diseases. But
2. Changes in color, such as break of a disease occurs certain pathogens such as
yellowing or chlorosis, when a disease increases those that cause blast dis-
RICE BLAST
Rice blast is caused by the

fungus Pyricularia oryzae.
It is one of the most de-
structive diseases of rice,
causing as much as 50% crop
loss in areas where severe
outbreaks occur.
Symptoms
• The fungus produces spots

or lesions on leaves, nodes,
and parts of the panicles
and grains. The spots are
elongated and pointed at
each end
• Severely infected leaves are
killed.
• The size and shape of the

spots vary on different rice
varieties.
• Infected nodes turn black-

ish and break easily.
• Any part of the panicle may
also be infected.
• When the base of the pani-
cle is attacked, it turns
brown and the stem usually
breaks just below the
panicle.
RICE DISEASES 237
Disease cycle
Factors favoring the development and severity of rice blast
• A high amount of quick- • A relative humidity of 90%

acting fertilizer, such as and higher. Long periods
ammonium sulfate. when leaves are covered
• Cloudy skies, frequent rain, with dew.
and drizzles.
• Blast spores are present in

the air throughout the year
in the tropics, and the dis-
ease develops continuously.
• Seedlings in the tropics are
often severely damaged, but
severe infection after trans-
planting is rare.
• Blast damages dryland rice
more severely than it does
wetland rice.
Control
Resistant varieties Chemical control
• Planting resistant varieties • Several fungicides will con-
is the most practical and trol rice blast on leaves and
economical way of control- panicles. For technical and
ling rice blast. economic reasons, chemi-
cals are not widely used for
blast control in the tropics.
Cultural control
•Raise seedlings in wetland
conditions.
• Avoid excess nitrogen
fertilizer.
•Split fertilizer applications.
SHEATH BLIGHT
Sheath blight is caused by

the aerial form of the fungus
Rhizoctonia solani. It occurs
both in the tropics and in the
temperate areas. Severity of
the disease depends on culti-
vation, land preparation, var-
ieties, crop management, etc.
Symptoms
• Sheath blight causes spots

mostly on the leaf sheath,
but spots may also occur
on the leaf blades if condi-
tions are favorable.
• are
Many of the plant’s leaves
• rotia
Infection bodies called scle-
form on the spots.
killed during severe
infections and yields may
be reduced 20-25% if the
disease develops at booting
stage.
RICE DISEASES 239
Disease cycle
Factors increasing the severity of sheath blight in the field
• High temperature and

humidity
• High levels of nitrogen
fertilizer
• Growing of high yielding
improved varieties
• The disease is usually first

observed in the field after
plants reach the maximum
tillering stage. Disease inci-
dence increases as the
plants grow older.
Control
Resistant varieties
• No variety has a high level
of resistance to the disease,
but some moderately resist-
ant varieties have been
selected.
Chemicals
• There are fungicides effica-
cious in controlling the
disease.
• Sprays should be applied
on the leaf sheath when
infection is at the maximum
tillering stage, and again at
the booting stage.
BAKANAE
Bakanae is caused by the

fungus Gibberella fujikuroi.
Severe damage from the dis-
ease is rare, but crop losses
up to 20% may occur in out-
break areas.
RICE DISEASES 241
Symptoms
• The disease causes an plant, in the seedbed or

abnormal elongation of the later in the season.
Disease cycle
• The development of baka-

nae is favored by high
temperatures and high lev-
els of nitrogenous fertilizer.
Control
Resistant varieties
•Some varieties are more
susceptible to bakanae than
others. Do not plant a sus-
ceptible variety in areas
where the disease is severe
and do not use seeds from
infected fields.
Chemical control
•The disease can be effec-
tively controlled by treating
the seeds with fungicides
before planting.
BROWN SPOT
The brown spot disease of

rice is caused by the fungus
Helminthosporium oryzae.
The disease is common in
soils that are poorly drained
or deficient in nutrients. It is
often difficult to separate the
losses caused by brown spot
from those caused by soil
deficiencies.
The disease is rare in rice
crops grown on fertile soil.
Symptoms
• The most common symp-

toms are spots on the leaf
and glumes or grains in the
panicle. A fully developed
spot has the size and shape
of a sesame seed.
• Seedling blight may occur
in seedlings grown from
heavily infected seeds.
RICE DISEASES 243
Disease cycle
• The condition of the soil is • Plants grown in poorly ganese, or magnesium are
important in regulating the drained soils lacking silica. easily attacked by the
severity of brown spot. potassium, nitrogen, man- fungus.
Type of damage
• Brown spot may kill up to
50% of seedlings.
• It lowers grain quality and
weight.
Control
Resistant variety
•Planting a resistant variety
is the most practical way of
controlling brown spot in
areas where the disease is
common and serious.
Cultural control
• The most effective way of
controlling brown spot is to
grow plants in good soil
and provide adequate
fertilizer.
Chemical control
• Treating the seeds with
fungicides or hot water will
also help control the
disease.
SHEATH ROT
Sheath rot is caused by the

fungus Acrocylindrium
oryzae.
Little is known about crop
losses caused by sheath rot,
but it is not uncommon for
10-30% of the tillers to be
infected in fields where the
disease occurs.
Symptoms
• Spots develop on the • The young panicles remain

uppermost leaf sheaths in the leaf sheath or emerge
enclosing the panicles. only partially. Grains remain
unfilled or are discolored.
• A whitish, powdery fungal
growth occurs on the pani-
cle inside the sheath.
• Eventually, the panicle may
rot.
Disease cycle
• Little is known about the life insects or diseases, particu- • Hot humid weather favors
cycle of the fungus. larly stem borer and viruses. sheath rot development.
• The disease is usually
found in plants injured by
RICE DISEASES 245
Control
•Little is known about con-
trol of the disease, but some
varieties are more suscepti-
ble than others.
NARROW BROWN LEAF SPOT
The narrow brown leaf spot

disease is caused by the fun-
gus Cercospora oryzae.
The disease causes serious
losses only on very suscepti-
ble varieties.
Symptoms
•The disease produces linear
spots, mostly on the leaf
blades. Spots may also
occur on the leaf sheath
and rice hulls.
• Symptoms usually appear
first on the flag leaf during
later growth stages.
Disease cycle
Control
Chemical control
Resistant varieties • Apply fungicides.
• Plant a variety that is less
susceptible to the disease.
No resistant varieties are
currently available.
STEM ROT
Stem rot, which is caused by

the fungus Helminthosporium
sigmoideum, occurs in almost
every field where rice has
been grown for many years.
RICE DISEASES 247
Symptoms
Disease cycle
• The sclerotia float to the

surface of flooded fields
during plowing and other
field operations. They land
on rice leaf sheaths and
cause infection.
• The disease survives

between crops in the sclero-
tia, which are on the straw
or in the upper 5-8 cm of
soil.
Factors causing high levels of

stem rot
• The percentage of infection

is low on normal plants and
high on plants with wounds
from lodging or insect
attack.
• High levels of nitrogen and
phosphorus in the soil also
increase the severity of
stem rot.
• Yields of susceptible varie-
ties are reduced. Usually,
damage from stem rot
reaches its peak at harvest.
Control
• Burn straw and stubble • Chemical control can be

after harvest or let straw be efficacious but spray on the
decomposed. stem at or before maximum
tillering.
• Drain the field after harvest

and allow the soil to dry
and crack before irrigating
again.
• Avoid excessive nitrogen

and phosphorus fertilizer.
• Add potash and sodium sil-
icate to the soil to decrease
the severity of the disease.
• Plant resistant varieties with

sturdy stem that does not
lodge and break.
FALSE SMUT
False smut is caused by the

fungus Ustilaginoidea virens.
The occurrence of the dis-
ease is believed to indicate a
good year because weather
favorable to the development
of false smut also favors good
crop production.
The disease usually causes
severe damage only in small
areas.
Symptoms
• The fungus changes single • Usually, only a few grains in

grains of the panicle into a panicle are infected and
velvety balls, which may the rest are normal.
grow to a diameter of 1 cm
or more.
RICE DISEASES 249
Disease cycle
Timing of disease development
Control
Usually, no special control measures are necessary.
Resistant varieties Chemical control

•Rice varieties that are less • In areas where the disease fungicide just before flower-
susceptible to the disease may cause economic loss, ing will provide some
can be planted. spraying or dusting with a control.
BACTERIAL BLIGHT
Bacterial blight is reported to

have reduced Asia's annual
rice production by as much
as 60%.
Bacterial blight is caused
by Xanthomonas campestris
pv. oryzae, an organism
closely related to the bacteria
causing bacterial leaf streak.
The bacterium has races
that differ in their ability to
infect different resistant rice
varieties.
Symptoms
The disease has several forms of symptoms.
Leaf blight symptoms

RICE DISEASES 251
Kresek symptoms
• Kresek symptoms usually • Kresek symptoms some-
occur 2-6 weeks after the times resemble rice stem
seedling stage. borer damage.
Separating kresek damage from stem borer injury
To distinguish kresek symp-

toms from rice stem borer
damage, cut off the lower part
of the plant and squeeze it
between the fingers. A yellow-
ish bacterial ooze will appear
at the cut ends if kresek is
present.
Pale yellow symptoms

•Pale yellow occurs in the
tropics, but is not common.
•Older leaves of infected
plants are a normal green,
but the youngest leaves are
yellow or have a yellow
stripe.
Disease cycle
Hosts
The disease can survive in

several species of weeds if
rice is not available.
RICE DISEASES 253
Control
In the tropics, planting of re-

sistant varieties is currently
the only practical way of con-
trolling bacterial blight.
BACTERIAL LEAF STREAK
The bacteria causing the dis-

ease Xanthomonas campes-
tris pv. oryzicola is closely
related to the bacteria caus-
ing bacterial blight, but it
infects different species of
plants and attacks the rice
plant in a different way.
Under favorable weather
conditions, losses from bacte-
rial leaf streak may be as
serious as those from bacte-
rial blight.
Symptoms
• The first symptoms are • Later, the lesions turn • The whole leaves of sus-
transparent, linear lesions brown, become longer, and ceptible varieties may turn
between the veins. Many cover the larger veins. brown and die during the
tiny oozes can be observed later stages of disease
on the lesions. development. At this point
the disease symptoms look
the same as those of bacte-
rial blight.
Disease cycle
• Bacteria are probably pres- the tropics on cultivated and

ent throughout the year in wild rice or weeds.
RICE DISEASES 255
Control
The only practical method for
controlling bacterial leaf
streak in the tropics is plant-
ing of resistant varieties.
TUNGRO VIRUS
Tungro is one of the most

damaging virus diseases of
rice in Southeast Asia.
Periodic outbreaks have
affected thousands of hec-
tares in many countries.
Symptoms
• Tungro stunts rice plants • Yellowing begins at the leaf
and turns the leaves to dif- tip and may extend down
ferent shades of yellow or the blade.
orange. • Infected leaves may also be
mottled or striped.
• Plants infected during the
early stages of growth are
more severely damaged
than those that are attacked
later.
Stunting of rice plants

infected at different growth
stages with tungro virus.
Yield reduction in rice plants infected at different growth stages with tungro virus.
Vectors and transmission
• Tungro virus is transmitted

by several leafhopper
species.
• Adults and nymphs are
about equally effective in
transmitting the disease.
• N. virescens is the most
effective transmitter of the
virus (see page 204).
• The insects can pick up the

virus by feeding on the
plant for only a short time
(about 30 minutes) and can
transmit the virus almost
immediately after feeding.
• The virus does not persist in
the insect's body. After
each feeding the insect can
• Nymphs lose their infectiv-

ity after each molt.
RICE DISEASES 257
Disease cycle
• The availability of infected Sources of tungro virus

host plants determines the
severity of tungro because
the insects must feed
repeatedly on diseased
plants to be continuously
infective.
• Wild rice, ratooning stubble,
and grassy weeds may all
serve as sources of virus
between rice crops.
GRASSY STUNT VIRUS
The grassy stunt virus has

caused serious damage in
sporadic outbreaks in limited
areas, but is generally not a
widespread problem.
Symptoms
• Diseased plants are • Leaves are short, narrow,

severely stunted. They stiff, yellowish green, and
develop excessive tillers covered with rusty spots or
and have a very upright patches.
growth habit.
• Infected plants usually sur- • Yield losses are greater

vive until harvest, but yields when plants are infected
may be reduced. early in the season.
• Relationship between yield

loss and time of infection.
• The disease is transmitted • Insects can pick up the

virus by feeding on dis-
by brown planthopper
nymphs and adults. About eased plants for 5-10 min-
20-40% of insects are able utes. A higher percentage
to transmit the virus. become infected during
longer feeding periods up
to 24 hours.
• elapse
An average of 10 days must
after the insects feed
on an infected plant before
they can transmit the
disease.
• Infected insects can trans-
mit the disease until they
die.
RICE DISEASES 259
• Nymphs do not lose their • The disease is not transmit-

infectivity after molting. ted through planthopper
eggs or by the rice seed.
Hosts of the virus
Disease cycle
• The development of grassy • Long-winged adults are

stunt virus depends upon more important in spread-
both the presence of the ing the disease than the
brown planthopper and the short-winged forms that
availability of infected host cannot fly.
plants.
• Under favorable conditions,
the brown planthopper mul-
tiplies rapidly and the dis-
ease may increase rapidly.
RICE RAGGED STUNT
Ragged stunt is a recently

discovered virus disease that
may greatly reduce yields in
rice varieties susceptible to
the virus and its vector, the
brown planthopper.
Symptoms
• Ragged stunt is transmitted • In areas where the virus

by brown planthopper occurs, about 40% of the
nymphs and adults. brown planthoppers can
transmit the disease.
RICE DISEASES 261
• Brown planthopper nymphs

can still transmit the disease
after they molt.
• The virus is not transmitted

through brown planthopper
eggs, the soil, or rice seed.
• The brown planthopper

cannot transmit the disease
until about 9 days after the
insect has fed on an
infected plant (average la-
tent period).
• After the insects acquire the
disease, they can retain the
virus for 3-35 days. The
average retention time is
about 2 weeks.
Hosts of the virus
YELLOW DWARF DISEASE
The yellow dwarf disease is

widely distributed in Asia, but
occurs only occasionally. The
disease is most serious in
Japan and Taiwan. It causes
little yield loss in the tropics
because the plants are
infected during the later
growth stages.
Yellow dwarf is caused by a
virus-like disease agent called
a mycoplasma.
Symptoms
• Plants are stunted and yel- • Infected plants usually pro-

lowish, and have an duce either no panicles or
increased number of tillers. unfilled grains.
• Stunting is more severe • Plants affected during the
when plants are infected at later growth stages may not
the early growth stage. develop symptoms before
harvest.
Differences between symptoms of yellow dwarf and grassy stunt.
Yellow dwarf Grassy stunt

• Leaves are light yellow, •Leaves are narrower and
soft, and slightly droopy. their green color is darker.
They may have many rusty
spots.
• A high percentage (70-95%)

of these leafhoppers are
able to transmit the virus.
• Leafhoppers transmit
yellow dwarf
• Leafhoppers can become • The insects cannot transmit (latent period). They remain
infected after feeding on a the disease until 20 days infected until they die.
diseased plant. after becoming infected
• Nymphs remain infective

after molts, but the disease
is not transmitted through
leafhopper eggs.
• The virus is not transmitted
through rice seed.
RICE DISEASES 263
Disease cycle
• The disease overwinters in is very slow because of the the slow development of the
leafhoppers and in several long latent period, i.e. from disease in the plant.
species of wild grasses. acquisition to transmission,
• The buildup of yellow dwarf in the leafhopper vector and
Development of the yellow dwarf disease in the rice plant.
• Under conditions of high

temperature disease
symptoms appear about 30
days after infection.
• Under low temperature
disease symptoms appear
up to 90 days after
infection.
• In the tropics, ratoon plants
growing from stubbles may
be diseased and act as virus
sources for later infections.
Control of virus diseases
The development and spread of virus depends upon several factors:

• Virus control programs

should concentrate on pre-
venting disease during the
early stages of plant
growth. Infection at that
stage causes the most
damage.
Control methods
Resistant varieties A variety may be

• Planting resistant rice varie- • resistant to the feeding and
ties is the simplest, cheap- development of the insect
est, and most effective way transmitter or
of controlling both virus
diseases and vector insects.
• resistant to the infection

and development of a virus
disease.
Control of vectors
• It is very difficult to control
virus vectors (leafhoppers
and planthoppers) with
insecticides.
tive insecticide treatments

should be applied during
the early growth stages
instead of waiting until
insect transmitters reach
the economic threshold.
• High populations of leaf-

hoppers and planthoppers
must build up to directly
damage the crop and cause
hopperburn.
• Low insect populations can

cause high rates of virus
infection.
• Only one insect is enough • It is sometimes difficult to

to infect a plant. High kill insects quickly enough
populations are not to prevent them from feed-
necessary to cause high ing on plants and transmit-
tungro infection rates. ting the virus. In areas
where virus outbreaks have
recently occurred, protec-
RICE DISEASES 265
Controlling vectors in areas

where virus outbreaks have
occurred.
• Protective insecticide
applications
• Eliminating sources of virus diseases by eliminating infected plants that serve assources of disease.
STEM NEMATODE
Damage from the stem nema-

tode Ditylenchus angustus is
restricted to certain areas
where the climate and cultu-
ral conditions are suitable for
the pest's development.
Rice crops in infected areas
may suffer yield losses rang-
ing from 20 to 90%.
Symptoms
• The most noticeable symp-
toms are stunting, twisted
stems, and damaged
panicles.
Disease cycle
RICE DISEASES 267
Factors causing serious infestations of the stem nematodes
WHITE TIP
White tip is caused by a nema-

tode or a small eelworm
called Aphelenchoides
besseyi.
Crop losses from white tip
are variable, ranging from 10
to 50%. The disease is usually
more serious in temperate
regions than in the tropics.
Symptoms
Disease cycle
RICE DISEASES 269
Control
Resistant varieties
• Some varieties are more
susceptible to white tip than
others.
Cultural control
• Treating seeds with hot
water will reduce infection.
• Planting earlier than usual

may reduce infection in
areas commonly affected
by the nematode.
WEEDS
WEED PESTS OF RICE 273
Weed Pests of Rice

Weeds reduce rice yields by
competing with the rice
plants for sunlight, moisture,
and soil nutrients.
Fertilizer application may not

increase yields in weedy
fields because weeds absorb
nitrogen more effectively than
the rice plants.
Weeds are also harmful

because they may be alter-
nate hosts for insect and dis-
ease pests of rice, and pro-
vide shelter for rats.
SEVERITY OF WEEDS IN
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RICE
CULTURE
• Weeds are usually most

serious in dryland and dry-
seeded rainfed rice and
may destroy the entire crop
if they are not adequately
controlled.
• Weeds are usually least

serious in irrigated trans-
planted fields but may still
reduce yields, particularly
when large amounts of fer-
tilizer are applied to modern
cultivars.
INTEGRATED WEED
CONTROL
• Weeds are most effectively

controlled over a long
period of time by an inte-
grated program combining
different control methods.
• If a single control method is method will build up, and

used for a long time, weed eventually the control mea-
species resistant to that sure will fail.
TYPES OF WEEDS
Weeds can be divided into

three general types, based on
their appearance.
• long narrow leaves
Grasses
• parallel veins
General characteristics of
grasses
• round hollow stem
• leaves are aligned up and

down the stem in 2 rows.
Sedges
Sedges are similar to grasses
but:
• leaves are aligned up and
down the stem in 3 rows;
•stems are usually solid and
triangular.
Broadleaf weeds
Leaves may have various
shapes and arrangements of
veins.
The leaves are usually wider
than those of grasses and
sedges.
Weeds are also sometimes

grouped according to the
length of their life cycle:
• Perennials require more
than 1 year to complete
their life cycle.
• Annuals complete their life
cycle in 1 year or less.
IDENTIFICATION AND ECOLOGY OF COMMON WEEDS IN RICE
COMMELINA BENGHALENSIS L.
Countries in which C. benghalensis is most serious Type
Identification
Distinguishing characteristics
Reproduction and
dissemination
This weed reproduces mainly
by seed.
Creeping stems, if cut during
cultivation, root and grow.
Habitat: dryland rice fields;

along dikes; field borders;
roadsides; banks of irrigation
ditches
• The plants root in water-
saturated soils, but can
survive after the soil dries.
• C. benghalensis grows best
when soils are moist and
fertile, but can persist in
sandy or rocky soils.
Ecology
• The plants may be injured
by cultivation, but stem
cuttings survive on the soil
surface and root again.
• The plants form dense pure
stands, smothering low-
growing crops.
CYPERUS DlFFORMlS L.
Countries in which C. difformis is most serious Type
Found in:
• Wetland rice
Identification
Distinguishing characteristic
Flowers yellowish, very
numerous, and crowded in
ovoid masses.
Reproduction and
dissemination
• C. difiormis reproduces
from seeds.
Habitat: grassy swamps,

wetland rice fields, along
rivers or streams, open wet
areas
• C. difformis grows best in
rich, fertile soils that are
flooded or very moist.
Ecology
• The plant may rapidly cover
the ground because of its
short life cycle and abun-
dant seed production.
• C. difformis may become

the dominant weed in rice
fields when the herbicides
used are effective against
grasses but do not kill
sedges.
• The weeds do not shade

rice plants, but may
compete for water and
nutrients.
• This weed cannot tolerate

deep flooding, and may be
controlled by water
management.
CYPERUS IRIA L.
Countries in which C. iria is most serious. Type
Identification
Reproduction and Habitat: C. iria is found in wet

dissemination open areas and in wetland,
• C. iria reproduces from dryland, and dry-seeded rice
seeds. Each plant may fields.
produce up to 5,000 seeds.
CYPERUS ROTUNDUS L.
Countries in which C. rotundus is most serious.
Identification
Reproduction and
dissemination
• The plant occasionally
produces seeds.
• The plant usually
reproduces from
underground stems and
tubers.
Habitat: fields, roadsides,

edges of woods, banks of
irrigation canals, streams
• The distribution of C.
rotundus is limited mainly
by cool temperatures.
• The weed grows well in
almost every soil type,
elevation, humidity, soil
moisture, and pH. It is
tolerant of high
temperature.
Ecology
• C. rotundus is most serious
in dryland fields where
annual weeds are
controlled efficiently, thus
leaving C. rotundus
uncontrolled.
• This weed is highly

competitive with rice for
both moisture and soil
nutrients.
• Tubers have a deep root
system and can survive
long periods of drought or
flooding.
DACTYLOCTENIUM AEGYPTIUM (L.) WILLD.

Countries in which D. aegyptium is most serious.
Type
Identification
Reproduction and
dissemination
• Each plant may produce
up to 60,000 seeds.
• Creeping stems root at
lower nodes.
Habitat
The weed is common in both
cultivated land and waste
areas. It grows well in sandy
soils with low moisture.
Ecology
D. aegyptium flowers all year
in the tropics.
DlGlTARlA ClLlARlS (RETZ) KOEL.

Countries in which D. ciliaris is most serious. Type
Identification
Seed head has 3-13 narrow
finger-like projections.
Reproduction and
dissemination
thousands of seeds.
• The weed sometimes
spreads by rooting of the
nodes of stems on the
ground.
Ecology
• D. ciliaris is tolerant of high
temperatures and may
show maximum growth
when other plants are under
stress due to hot, dry
weather.
• The weed is very
competitive because it can
root and spread along the
ground surface. A single
plant may cover 2-3 m2.
ECHINOCHLOA COLONA (L.) LINK

Countries in which E. colona is most serious.
Type
Identification
• Slightly spreading growth
habit. Less than 1 m high.
Reproduction and
dissemination
thousands of seeds.
• Seeds are transported from
field to field by irrigation
water and farm machinery.
Ecology
• Young seedlings resemble
rice plants. By the time they
can be recognized and
removed, the crop has
already been damaged.
• E. colona grows rapidly
during the rainy season or
when irrigation water is
abundant.
• This weed is an excellent

competitor and may
completely crowd out a rice
crop if fields are poorly
managed. Its effects on
yields are similar to those
described for E. crus-gall;.
ECHlNOCHLOA CRUS-GALLI (L.) BEAUV.

Countries in which E. crus-galli is most serious. Type
Identification
Reproduction and Habitat

dissemination • E. crus-galli prefers wet
• E.crus-galli reproduces by soils and will grow when
seeds. partially submerged.
• It grows best in heavy
soils with a high nitrogen
content.
Ecology
• E.crus-galli grows well
under conditions favorable
to the growth of rice.
• The young weed looks like
a rice seedling and is often
transplanted by mistake.
• Rice yield reductions are
most serious when the
weed grows during the first
60 days after rice
germinates.
ELEUSlNE lNDlCA (L.) GAERTN.

Countries in which E. indica is most serious. Type
Identification
• windmill-shaped seed head
Reproduction and
dissemination
• E. indica reproduces from
seed. Each plant may
produce as many as 50,000
seeds.
Habitat — along irrigation

canals, cultivated fields and
damp, marshy areas.
Ecology
• E. indica does not grow well
in the tropics during the dry
season or when the soil is
not moist.
• The weed flowers at day

lengths between 6 and 16
hours.
• In the tropics, E. indica

completes a reproductive
cycle in about 5 weeks.
FIMBRISTYLIS MILIACEA (= LITTORALIS) (L.) VAHL

Countries in which F. miliacea is most serious.
Type
Identification
Reproduction and
dissemination
• F. miliacea reproduces from
seed. Each plant may
produce as many as 10,000
seeds.
Habitat: fields uncultivated

during the dry season;
submerged rice field; damp,
open waste areas.
• F. miliacea grows well in
damp soil, but may not
become established in
submerged areas.
Ecology
• F. miliacea is becoming
increasingly serious in
wetland rice throughout
Asia.
• Many seeds germinate
during the early stages of
rice growth, but some
germination continues
throughout crop
development. This
continuous seed
germination makes it
difficult to control the weed
with a single herbicide
application because
seedlings from later
germinating seeds may
escape.
• F. miliacea is very
competitive for soil
nutrients because its roots
spread more rapidly than
rice roots do.
MONOCHORIA VAGINALIS (BURM. F.) PRESL.

Countries in which M. vaginalis is most serious. Type
Identification
Reproduction and
dissemination
• M. vaginalis reproduces
from seeds.
Habitat — freshwater pools,

mud flats in rivers, flooded
rice fields, along canals and
ditches
• The plant roots in mud and
its upper portion grows
above the water.
Ecology
• M. vaginalis often produces
higher fresh-weight yields
in rice fields than any other
weed species.
•However, it is relatively
short and shallow rooted,
and may not compete as
successfully for sunlight
and soil nutrients as some
other weeds.
PASPALUM DISTICHUM L.
Countries in which P. distichum is most serious. Type
Identification
Reproduction and
dissemination
• P. distichurn reproduces
from pieces of creeping
underground stems,
Habitat
• Flooded fields
• Open fields
• Along irrigation ditches
Ecology • The plants produce a thick

• P. distichum can survive in mat of roots just below the
flooded fields, poorly surface, which may limit the
drained soils, and even in flow of irrigation water
well-drained fields. when the weeds grow
beside irrigation canals.
PORTULACA OLERACEA L.
Countries in which P. oleracea is most serious. Type
Identification
Reproduction and
dissemination
• Seeds are spread by water.
• Pieces of the stem may be
spread by tools or
cultivation. These stem
pieces root on contacting
the soil.
Habitat — cultivated fields,

eroded slopes and cliffs
• P. oleracea grows well in
open areas and prefers rich,
moist soil.
Ecology
• A reproductive cycle is
completed every month in
the tropics.
• The weed grows well in a
wide temperature range.
SCIRPUS MARlTlMUS L.
Countries in which S. maritimus is most serious
Type
Identification
Reproduction and
dissemination
• S. maritimus reproduces
mainly from tubers and
rhizomes (underground
stems).
•Tubers in the soil produce
new stems when the top
growth is killed or pulled by
hand.
Habitat — along riverbanks,

swamps
Ecology
• S. maritimus grows over a
wide range of temperatures
and photoperiods.
• The weed’s stems grow
rapidly (several centimeters
a day) during early rice
growth, and may severely
shade semidwarf rice
cultivars during the first 40
days after seeding or
transplanting.
• The weed also competes
effectively with rice for
nitrogen up to 60 days after
seeding.
• Most herbicides effective

against annuals do not
control S. maritimus.
SPHENOCLEA ZEYLANlCA GAERTN.

Countries in which S. zeylanica is most serious Type
Identification
Reproduction and
dissemination
•S. zeylanica reproduces
from seeds.
Habitat — Prolonged flooded

wetland rice fields and
swamps.
•S. zeylanica grows in
almost any kind of wet
ground at low altitudes.
• It is most common and
serious in wetland rice
fields, and may occasional-
ly be a problem in other
crops such as taro.
Methods of weed control

WEEDING
Hand weeding
Hand weeding is the oldest,
simplest, and most direct way
of controlling weeds in rice
fields.
• Weeds growing within hills

and between rows of rice
can be removed without
damaging the rice plants.
Disadvantages of hand weeding
• It is laborious and • Young weed seedlings

cannot be distinguished
time-consuming
from rice plants early in the
season, when hand
weeding is most effective.
Timing hand weeding

• Hand weeding should be
done early in crop growth.
The exact time depends on
the rice culture.
Techniques
• Perennial weeds, which
regrow from underground
structures and are difficult
to control by a single hand
weeding, can be controlled
by repeated hand weedings.
• Young weeds are difficult to

grasp and can be uprooted
by stirring the soil with the
fingers held apart.
• Larger weeds should be

pulled and removed from
the field, or buried in the
mud in wetland rice, or left
between rows of dryland
rice to dry.
• Hand tools increase the

efficiency of hand weeding
in drier upland soil.
Mechanical weeding
The push-type rotary weeder
is the most effective mechani-
cal weeder for wetland rice.
Using the mechanical weeder

• The rice must be planted in
straight rows in not closer
than 20- × 20-cm spacing.
• The soil must be soft and
saturated.
• If soil is too dry, the weeder

rolls over the soil surface
and the weeds.
• A rotary weeder cannot

• The weeder cannot work pass close enough to the
rice plants to remove all
weeds into the soil in
flooded fields. Weeds float weeds, so some additional
to the water surface and hand weeding may be
may grow again. necessary.
WATER MANAGEMENT • A major benefit from

standing water is better
Control of weeds by flooding weed control.
• Flooding is an important
management practice in
controlling weeds.
• Rice grows and yields just
as well in saturated soil as
in standing water.
Problems in controlling
weeds by flooding
Flooding will not control
weeds if:
•The water level drops too
low.
• The field is not level and
some areas dry out.
• The field occasionally dries

out, allowing weed seeds to
germinate.
Effect of water depth on

weeds
•With 1-2 cm water, grasses
are reduced, but some
broadleaf weeds and
sedges remain.
•With 5-10 cm water, grasses
are almost eliminated but a
few broadleaf weeds and
sedges may remain.
Time of flooding
• Transplanted rice should be
flooded 3-4 days after
transplanting. As the plants
grow the water level can be
raised up to 5-10 cm.
• Direct-seeded rice can be

flooded after the seeds
germinate and the crop
becomes established.
Flooding is not completely
effective with this planting
system because some
weeds become established
with the young rice plants.
HERBICIDES
Definition
A herbicide is a chemical
(pesticide) used to kill or
prevent the growth of weeds.
Herbicides are most effective
when used in combination
with other control methods.
Advantages of herbicides
• Applying herbicides saves

labor.
• Herbicides can be used in

all rice environments.
Disadvantage of herbicides
• The continued use of the

same herbicide leads to a
buildup of weeds,
particularly perennials,
which are difficult to control
with herbicides.
Use several control methods

together.
The best way of preventing

the buildup of weeds tolerant
of herbicides isd to periodically
remove them by hand or by
mechanical weeding.
Timing herbicide applications
• Preplanting (before the • Preemergence (before • Postemergence (after

crop is planted) weeds and rice emerge weeds and rice emerge
from the soil) from the soil)
Methods of herbicide action
Contact herbicides Effectiveness of contact

herbicides
• Contact herbicides are gen-

erally most effective against
broadleaf weeds and seed-
lings of perennials.
• Contact herbicides kill only • They will not kill established
the plant parts that are perennial weeds.
sprayed.
• Systemic herbicides move • Systemic herbicides can be

within the plant to kill por- sprayed on the foliage or
tions that were not treated. applied to the soil and
absorbed by the plant’s
roots.
• Selective herbicides kill • Nonselective herbicides will

some plant species, but do kill all plants.
not damage others.
Herbicide injury to rice
Improper herbicide use will

injure rice plants:
• Using the wrong herbicide • Applying too much herbi-

(nonselective herbicide) cide — high rate
• Applying herbicide at the

wrong time —
postemergence herbicide
Symptoms of herbicide injury

to rice
Herbicide damage to rice may
be confused with injury
caused by insects or
diseases.
• Leaf spots caused by herbi- • Herbicide may cause rice to

cides are more circular than produce onion-like leaves.
those caused by diseases.
• Herbicides may also cause
MANAGEMENT OF WEEDS
IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF
RICE CULTURE
Preventive weed control

Preventive weed control mea-
sures should be used on all
types of rice culture to pre-
vent the introduction and
spread of weeds.
This will increase the effec-
tiveness of all direct control
methods
• Use weed-free rice seed. • Keep levees and irrigation
canals free of weeds.
• Keep animals out of fields

as much as possible.
• Keep tools and machinery

clean.
• Do not allow weeds to pro-

duce seed or reproduce
vegetatively.
MANAGEMENT OF WEEDS
IN TRANSPLANTED RICE
Weed control is less difficult

in transplanted rice because
the normal cropping practices
reduce the number of weeds.
Land preparation
Transplanting
Cultivar selection
• A taller cultivar producing a
large number of tillers will
compete better with weeds
than a shorter (semidwarf)
cultivar with fewer tillers.
Plant spacing
• Closer spaced plants
compete more effectively
against weeds. Spacing
transplanted rice hills 15 ×
15 cm apart should
minimize weed competition,
Flooding
• Flood the fields 2-3 days
after transplanting.
• Maintain 5-10 cm of
standing water
continuously throughout
the season.
In areas where weed

problems are severe or land • Weed the crop once by
preparation and the water hand or with a mechanical
supply are inadequate, weeder about 21 days after
additional weed control may transplanting or
be necessary.
• If labor is scarce or
expensive, apply a
herbicide before weeds
emerge.
Fertilizer application
• In transplanted rice, control
weeds before topdressing
fertilizer so that the fertilizer
will benefit the crop, and
not stimulate weed growth.
MANAGEMENT OF WEEDS • Leveling of the field is very

IN PREGERMINATED RICE important for direct-seeded
SOWN ON PUDDLED SOIL rice because the developing
seedlings can be killed or
Land preparation their growth can be slowed
•Operations for land prepa- when water accumulates in
ration are almost the same low areas.
as those described for
transplanted rice (see
page 31 1).
Planting
• Sowing pregerminated seed
allows rice to become
established before weed
seeds germinate.
• Increased seed rates also
reduce weed competition.
• Planting seed in rows rather

than broadcasting makes
weeding easier during crop
growth.
Flooding
• Direct-seeded rice cannot
be flooded until the seed-
lings are established.
• Some weed seeds will
germinate and the weeds
will become established
along with the rice before
they can be controlled by
standing water.
Weeding
• Broadcast direct-seeded
rice cannot easily be
weeded by hand because
young plants are damaged
in the weeding operations.
Weeding rice sown in rows

• If rice is sown in rows, 1-2
weedings should be
adequate.
Application of fertilizer and herbicide
• Do not incorporate nitrogen • apply

It is often necessary to • Topdressing with nitrogen
after weeds are controlled
into the soil before planting a herbicide before
unless a herbicide is used weed seeds germinate will improve fertilizer effi-
to control early germinating because of the difficulty of ciency and minimize weed
weed seeds so that they are weeding in fields in which growth.
not favored by the fertilizer. the seed is broadcast.
MANAGEMENT OF WEEDS
IN DRY-SEEDED WETLAND planted in dry soil than on
RICE puddled soil.
• Weeds and rice germinate
Weeds are a more serious at about the same time;
problem in dry-seeded rice therefore, competition
than in wetland rice between them increases.
culture.
• More weeds and different
species occur when rice is
Land preparation
• plowed
If possible land should be
immediately after
the previous crop is har-
vested and the fallow land
kept weed-free by tillage
during the dry season.
• Clods should be broken • The seedbed should not be

too fine because a smooth
down by harrowing so that
they do not interfere with surface is favorable for
seeding or the emergence weed growth.
of the crop.
Planting
• Broadcasting is the most
common method of plant-
ing dry-seeded rice.
• Planting in rows makes the
crop easier to weed.
Flooding
• Often not enough water is
available to control weeds
in dry-seeded rice by flood-
ing early in the season.
• The weeds become estab-
lished and compete with the
crop for the limited amount
of water when rice, is most
susceptible to yield
reductions.
Weeding
• 2-3 weedings may be
needed during the first 8
weeks of growth.
Herbicides
•Herbicides are very impor-
tant in controlling weeds in
dry-seeded rice because
weeds are usually abundant
and other control methods
are not very effective or are
very laborious.
Timing herbicide application

in dry-seeded rice
•Do not apply the herbicide
to dry soil immediately after
seeding because the mate-
rial may break down before
it is activated and moved
into the soil by subsequent
rains.
• Apply the herbicide after
rains have moistened the
soil and before weed seeds
germinate.
• The rice stand may be

reduced if heavy rains
cause water ponding on the
field for several days right
after the herbicides are
applied.
MANAGEMENT OF WEEDS
IN DRYLAND RICE
Weed control is one of the
most serious problems limit-
ing dryland rice production.
In severe cases the entire

crop may be destroyed by
weeds.
Land preparation • A rough seedbed is desira-

• Land preparation is similar ble to reduce weed seed
to that described for dry- germination and prevent
seeded wetland rice (see soil erosion from heavy
page 314). rainfall
• The seedbed does not need
to be leveled because the
fields are not flooded.
Planting
• The traditional rice cultivars
usually planted in upland
fields are taller and more
competitive against weeds
than many improved
cultivars.
• The rice should be planted
in rows to make weeding
easier.
• The rows should be spaced
so that interrow cultivation
can be carried out.
Flooding
• Standing water to control
weeds is not available in
dryland fields.
Weeding
•Up to 3 weedings may be
necessary in dryland rice.
•Weeds between rows can
be removed mechanically,
but to obtain maximum
yields, weeds within rows
must be removed by hand.
Herbicides • If it is culturally and eco-

• Herbicides cannot be used nomically feasible to use
herbicides, they should be
profitably to control weeds
in dryland rice unless labor applied as previously de-
and cultivation costs are scribed for dry-seeded
high. wetland rice (see page 314).
RICELAND RATS
RICELAND RATS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 321
Biology and Management of Riceland Rats in Southeast Asia

Rats occur in almost all rice Other species of rats
fields in Southeast Asia and present in South Asia and
frequently cause estimated parts of Southeast Asia are
yield losses ranging from 5 Bandicota bengalensis and
to 60%. B. indica.
The most common and These species differ from
serious species in Southeast riceland rats in biology,
Asia are Rattus argen- habits, and the crop damage
tiventer, Rattus r. they cause. Management
mindanensis, and Rattus techniques for control of
exulans. these two species are still
These three rat species are being developed.
called “riceland rats.” The The following sections on
habits, damage, and control biology and control apply
techniques are similar and so only to riceland rat species.
it is not necessary to
separately identify them.
BIOLOGY OF RICELAND
RATS
General life cycle

• Rats can live for one year
or longer.
• Females may reproduce up
to 4 times a year, averaging
6 rats/litter.
Reproductive potential
•The potential number of
offspring produced and
weaned by one female rat
in one year is 24.
• The potential number of
rats produced by one pair
and their offspring in one
year is more than 500.
•Disease, predation,
competition, and
availability of food and
water limit the actual
number of offspring that
reach maturity. The net
reproductive potential is
therefore much less.
Relationship to damage
• The reproductive cycle of
riceland rats and the
relative amount of damage
are closely associated with
crop growth and
development.
Both rat reproduction
and crop damage:
1. Occur at all stages of
rice growth but reach
their peak while grain is
maturing.
2. Are greater during the
wet season than during
the dry.
More food, water, and
shelter provide optimal
breeding conditions.
Damage
Damage in the seedbed can
be due to rats consuming
seeds directly or pulling up
germinating seeds later on.
• Rats cut or pull up recently

transplanted seedlings. The
result is missing hills.
• The rats cut or bend older
tillers to reach the
developing panicles. The
eaten or chewed area on
the stem may resemble
insect damage.
• As the crop matures, rats

cut or bend tillers to eat the
ripening grain.
• Damaged tillers are cut
near the base at a 45°
angle.
• The rate or number of

tillers cut per rat per night
is dependent on the season
and crop stage. Generally it
is high in the wet season
and the vegetative stage,
lower in the dry season and
ripening stage.
• Damage is usually low

during the vegetative stage,
increasing rapidly after the
flowering stage. The
increased damage results
from the greater number of
rats due to increased cover
(rice plants, weeds, etc.)
and food (rice).
•A low or moderate
population of rats will cut
tillers randomly throughout
a field. Damage will not be
visible from a distance until
more than 15% of the tillers
are cut.
• When high rat populations

occur, damage may be
concentrated near the
center of the paddy. From
a distance the damage will
be visible. Retillering of cut
stems will produce a
younger stage area that is
surrounded by more
mature rice.
MANAGEMENT IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
It is not always helpful to low will not change the additional information in
monitor rat populations or following recommended special situations such as for
activity when crop protection management techniques. research or for a
is the primary objective. However, monitoring may be demonstration of
Whether rat activity is high or desirable to provide management techniques.
Monitoring
• Riceland rats spend the seen; only their runways activity in a rice field can
daytime in vegetation, and footprints in muddy be observed by inspecting
weeds, or maturing rice areas are visible. the area for signs of
fields. They are not readily • The general level of rat activity.
• Active burrow • Footprints in mud. • Runways in grassy areas
Using tracking tiles linoleum or vinyl, one-half available, the paddy mud
• A more exact way of coated with printers ink. can be raised immediately
measuring rat activity is the • During the dry season a adjacent to the dikes to
use of tracking tiles to small amount of vegetable form platforms with
record footprints. oil is added to the ink to smooth tops capable of
• Tracking tiles are 15- X 15- prevent drying. recording footprints.
cm square of white • If a tracking tile is not
Arrangement of tracking tiles in the field
• Tiles may be placed on or • Tiles along the edges of • In a dry field, space tiles
against the edge of levees levees can be placed on evenly at the rate of 50/ha.
in flooded paddies and top of a pile of mud to raise
spaced 15 m apart. them above the water level.
• Examine the tiles each recoat the inked side with

Rat activity = % positive tiles =
total tiles marked
× 100
morning and record the fresh ink before the tiles total tiles set
number of those with rat are returned to the field.
footprints. Clean the non- • Set the tiles out for 3 10% or less = low rat activity
inked half with acetone and consecutive nights. 30% or more = high rat activity
• Other visible signs such

as runways, burrows, or
damaged tillers will
usually confirm tracking
tile results.
Estimating crop loss

The sampling period for
estimating damage should
be within 2 weeks of harvest.
Sampling may be done
earlier, but additional
damage would occur and the
results would not reflect
damage at harvest.
Sampling method. The

percentage of cut tillers in a
paddy can give an estimate
of crop damage due to rats.
This information can be used
to determine if rat control
was adequate during crop
growth.
For transplanted rice that
is grown in rows the
following method can be
used.
Examine every tiller in
each of the 100 selected hills
and record the number of
cut tillers and the number of
uncut tillers.
Calculate:
total cut tillers

% cut tillers = × 100
total tillers examined
Control
The effectiveness of a rat
control program is judged by
the amount of crop damage
caused by rats as observed
at harvest.
• The number of dead rats
observed is not important.
• Reinvasion or immigration • When rats are gradually

of rats can occur quickly; controlled over the entire
therefore, a continuous or cropping season, large
sustained baiting program numbers of dead rats are
is necessary. not seen. However, this
method is more effective
than other control
strategies in preventing
crop damage.
Timing control programs

• Rat control efforts must
begin within 2 weeks after
transplanting and continue
until the grain matures.
• Do not wait until the grain
matures to begin control.
By then the rat population
could already be high and
difficult to control, with
severe crop damage
occurring.
• Rat control is most
effective when all farms
use sustained baiting and
cultural control practices.
Cultural control practices

Rat control can best be
achieved by being aware of
the rats basic needs such as
food and shelter and then
limiting those factors which
favor rats. There are several
cultural practices that can be
used to limit rat population
growth.
It is difficult to control all
these factors in a rice-
growing area.
• With some cultural control
measures, however, we can
limit food and shelter,
which are the most
important factors that
determine rat population
levels.
• Cut down or remove weeds • Paddies flooded to just

on dikes and surrounding below dike level will fill rat
areas. This will reduce burrows with water and
shelter or daytime resting eliminate nesting sites.
areas. Because rats are excellent
• A weed-free rice field will swimmers, temporary
provide less shelter and flooding will not destroy
therefore a less favored rat them, but will force them to
habitat. higher ground.
• Completely remove or
destroy rice straw piles
after harvest. They provide
a place for rats to burrow,
nest, and produce young
rats.
• Reduce the size and
number of dikes to limit
burrowing sites and places
for weeds to grow.
• Plant fields in the same

area at the same time.
Large areas transplanted at
the same time will sustain
less damage than areas
with staggered planting
times.
• In areas where planting is

staggered, rats may
concentrate and severely
damage early and late
planted fields during the
ripening stage.
• Rats in harvested fields and effectiveness increased.

move to the remaining Large-scale programs can
unharvested fields because rapidly increase yields and
food and shelter are extend management
abundant. techniques over a wide area.
In many cases a farmer’s
rice field is surrounded by
others in which rats are not
controlled. Under these
circumstances, the rice
farmer using these
recommendations can still
protect his crop from high
rat damage.
When all farmers in a given
area control rats the
individual costs are reduced
Chemical control
Cultural control often will not separated into two basic feedings. This is because they
adequately control rats. If groups: acute (quick kill) and cause internal bleeding which
these cultural practices are chronic (slow kill). The older occurs over several days.
used in combination with or traditional acute rodenti- Some anticoagulants now
chemical baiting, the effec- cides are cheaper and more being introduced require only
tiveness of an integrated rat readily available but are not a single feeding, but they are
control program will be preferred for rat control in not as yet readily available to
increased. rice. The chronic or anti- the small farmer.
Many kinds of rodenticides coagulant rodenticides are
are available. They can be effective only with several
Compared with traditional

acute rodenticides the
chronic anticoagulant roden-
ticides are less hazardous to
humans and beneficial
animals.
Traditional acute rodenti-
cides become less effective
with time because many rats
survive after eating small
amounts of bait, and learn to
associate their illness with the
bait (bait shyness).
Materials used in a baiting

program. Chronic anticoagu-
lant baiting programs require
a rodenticide, a bait material
readily accepted by rats, a
suitable bait holder, and fre-
quent visits to the field.
When chronic anticoagu-

lant rodenticides are used,
rats must feed two or three
times before death will occur.
After 3 days rats stop feed-
ing and become sick. Six to
10 days after initial feeding
they die.
• Since chronic poisons kill

slowly, rats may die in bur-
rows or in other areas
where dead bodies are not
visible.
General procedures for sus- milled rice or broken rice transplanting and continue
tained baiting can be used as bait. How- through the ripening stage.
• Read the directions on the ever, rats must like it. • Establish five baiting points
container carefully before • Local materials such as in each hectare.
mixing the poison with the bamboo, oil cans, or coco- • Check baiting points twice
bait material. nut husks can be used as a week.
• Any low-cost available bait holders.
material such as low-grade • Begin baiting soon after
Density and spacing of bait-

ing points (location of bait
holders)
• Use five baiting points for
each hectare of rice field.
• Baiting points should be
about 50 m apart.
• The best location for the
baiting point is within the
paddy, at least one meter
from the dike.
• Put 6 tablespoons of poi-

soned bait in each holder.
• Check holder after 3 days.
• If one-half of the bait is
gone at any holder, set out
2 more holders 1 m from
the first in a cluster.
• Put poisoned bait in each
holder.
Maintaining bait holders during the season
• Check holders at the 5 bait-

• Remove and replace wet or
moldy bait.
ing points twice a week
throughout the season and
• If rats do not eat any bait at
any point, reduce the
add bait holders and bait
number of holders.
•
when necessary.
Always add enough bait so
• Always leave at least one
bait holder at each of the 5
that holders never become
original baiting points to
empty.
monitor rat activity.
Pattern of bait consumption

during the crop season
More bait is eaten as rats
move into the field and con-
sume bait from the added
holders.
When rice heads mature,
less bait is eaten because
most rats have already been
killed, bait holders have been
reduced, and any remaining
rats would prefer to feed on
the rice rather than the poi-
soned bait.
When a farmer uses sustained baiting, rats from

surrounding areas will be attracted to the bait
holders.
Although this will benefit adjacent farms it will
not fully protect them unless they also bait.
Your farm, however, will be fully protected.
Advantages of cooperative rat

control
When one farmer uses sus-
tained baiting, the protective
benefits may extend outside
his farm for 200 m in all
directions.
Rat control is more effec-
tive if a farmer and all of his
neighbors in an area use sus-
tained baiting and cultural
control practices.
SUMMARY
These recommendations have local conditions in other adjacent areas. tion of bait increased.
been developed, tested, and countries 2. Planting time was too 5. Rodenticide was not
shown to be effective in the When these recommenda- early or too late, not in mixed according to label
Philippines. They were tions are followed and rat synchrony with most of directions.
designed for the individual damage still occurs, the rea- the other fields in the 6. Bait material used was not
small farmer, with the son can usually be traced to a area. accepted by rats.
assumption that adjacent failure to follow all the steps. 3. Bait holders were not 7. Traditional acute rodenti-
farms may not control rats. For example, checked twice a week. cide was used and bait
These recommendations may 1. Weeds were allowed to 4. Bait holders were not shyness developed.
be modified to account for grow tall on dikes and Increased when consump-
CULTURAL CONTROL
CULTURAL CONTROL 335
Cultural Control
Cultural control of rice pests
covers crop production
methods – used consciously
or unconsciously by farmers
– that improve yield by
reducing pest numbers.
The term cultural is
derived from crop culture,
meaning the technology of
growing a crop. The term
culture also fits the
anthropological definition of
patterns of behavior (crop
production practices) that are
passed from farmer to son
and have achieved greatest
yield stability over time.
Cultural control is
• the use of crop husbandry
practices,
• patterns of behavior
transferred from generation
to generation,
• farmer-based technology
with little dependence on
outside resources, and
• reapplication of resources
not originally intended for It is often difficult to
pest control. measure the effectiveness of
cultural practices because
the same practice may
decrease one pest but
increase another. Another
practice may control a pest
but reduce yield. Therefore
the farmer must decide which
cultural practices are best for
each location.
Examples of decisions to
make are
• The choice to direct-seed
or transplant in a wetland
environment:
– Transplanting controls
most weeds.
– Direct seeding controls
kresek and whorl
maggots.
• The choice to use nitrogen
fertilizer or not:
– Nitrogen increases not
only yield but also most
pest populations.
Cultural practices can be

divided into those that
directly benefit the farmer if
he carries them out at the
farm level, and those which
require community action to
be effective.
Practices effective at the farm level

Cultural control practices
include farmer-developed
indigenous methods:
• Local plants with pesticide

properties
• Household remedies —
salt, kerosene, oil, sand,
ashes, sugar, or baits
• Traditional beliefs —
planting by phases of the
moon (possibly to avoid
insect pests such as stem
borers)
• Magical or superstitious
practices — food offerings
to rats in return for sparing
the standing crop, unlucky
days for farm operations,
bad omens, or hex signs to
repel pests and protect the
crop
Conventional crop husbandry consists of the following practices:
• Puddling the soil probably

evolved as a weed control
practice. Most weed seeds
or rhizomes cannot
germinate or grow without
air several centimeters
under the surface of
puddled soil.
• Repeated tillage in dryland
rice fields exposes weed
rhizomes to high
temperatures and buries
weed seeds deep in the soil
where they cannot
germinate.
• Planting in rows allows

labor-saving interrow weed
cultivation.
• Direct seeding reduces
kresek disease that enters
through root wounds made
when seedlings are pulled
from seedbeds.
• Use of a seedbed confines

the crop to a small area
where weeds and insects
can be removed by hand.
Seedbeds can also be
covered with plastic or
cloth to prevent vector
insects, birds, and rats from
reaching the crop.
• A dry seedbed does not
attract rice caseworm,
whorl maggots, or some
aquatic insects.
• Transplanting older
seedlings shortens field
time and therefore
population buildup from
pests that attack only
during the vegetative stage.
Older seedlings are more
competitive with weeds;
however, yields are lower
when older seedlings are
planted.
• Leveling a wetland field
before planting results in
more efficient weed control
with standing water.
• High rates of nitrogen

fertilizer provide greater
plant nutrition and higher
yield. However, they also:
1. increase weed
populations in the
current and subsequent
crops,
2. increase the incidence

of fungal and bacterial
diseases by increasing
tissue susceptibility and
tiller density that favors
dew formation, and
3. encourage the insects grow larger, generations per crop on Reduced nitrogen rates
multiplication of brown cause more damage, plants treated with high and split applications
planthopper and produce more offspring, levels of nitrogen). minimize pest problems and
leaffolder (in general and complete more increase profit.
Practices effective at the community level
• Crop rotation — rotating buildup. This method is • Weeding — cutting weeds

rice with a nonhost crop effective against pests for from areas bordering
will remove a pest’s food which rice is the preferred paddies and removing
and reverse its population host. weeds from rice fields
reduce nesting sites and
shelter for rats and
alternative hosts of insects.
• Stubble management — at
harvest, cutting the crop
close to the ground and
spreading the plants to
expose them to the sun kill
stem borers inside the
stems.
• borers
Burning straw — stem
that could emerge
and infest neighboring
fields are killed. But
burning stubble left in the
field has little effect on pest
reduction.
• Synchronous planting —
insects, diseases, and rats
readily disperse from field
to field. They can maintain
high population levels and
cause great yield losses in
farm communities where
planting times of
• Cultivation — plowing neighboring fields are
under the rice stubble after staggered beyond an
harvest to prevent a interval of 3 to 4 weeks (the
volunteer ratoon crop and generation time of most
subsequent weed buildup pests). Synchronous
is particularly important in planting and the creation of
curbing the spread of virus a rice-free period of at least
diseases in the community one month between
and in removing food and successive rice crops
shelter for most pests. greatly reduce pest
abundance.
Because synchronous
planting is impractical for
fields in a large rice-
growing area, the whole
area can be divided into
blocks, each 3 to 5
kilometers in diameter
(beyond the effective
dispersal range of most
pests). Adjacent blocks
should be out of phase with
each other by no more than
3 to 4 weeks.
Advantages of cultural
control practices
• Pests have not shown that
they can overcome the
suppressive effect of
cultural control practices
through the development of
biotypes.
• Most practices are
inexpensive or utilize
resources available to
farmers such as labor or
indigenous materials.
• Most practices are
compatible with other
control tactics.
Disadvantages of cultural
control practices
• Most methods reduce some
pests but increase others.
• Some practices decrease
pests but also decrease
yield.
• Communitywide practices
requiring organization of
farmers and institutions
may be difficult to achieve.
RESISTANT VARIETIES
RESISTANT RICE VARIETIES 343
Resistant Rice Varieties

For as long as crops have breeding programs were
been grown, farmers have initiated in many countries to
noticed that some varieties select and develop good
suffered more damage from quality, high yielding rice
insects and diseases than varieties that are resistant to
other varieties. Recently rice insects and diseases.
Definition of a resistant variety

The term resistance has been Resistance is an inherited
defined in many ways. For characteristic that is due to
practical purposes a variety is one or many different genes.
considered resistant if it pro-
duces a larger amount of a
good quality crop than other
varieties grown under the
same conditions and exposed
to similar populations of
insects and diseases.
Resistant varieties are one

important part of an inte- • They limit damage at all
grated pest management levels of pest population
program for rice for several throughout the season.
reasons:
• They do not increase

farmers’ costs.
• They require less pesticide

than susceptible varieties
do.
• They can be integrated

effectively with other con-
trol methods in a pest man-
agement program.
Resistant varieties are particu-

larly well suited for use in a
rice pest management pro-
gram in Asia because the
value of production per hec-
tare is lower for rice than for
other crops, farms are small,
and farmers lack money and
knowledge to properly apply
pesticides.
VARIETAL RESISTANCE OF
RICE TO INSECT PESTS
The resistance of rice to

insects can be divided into
three basic categories:
1. Tolerance — the host
plant can survive heavy
infestations without a sig-
nificant yield loss. Pest
numbers on a tolerant vari-
ety are equal to those on a
susceptible variety.
2. Nonpreference — insects
do not feed upon, oviposit
in, or use a resistant vari-
ety for shelter.
3. Antibiosis — insects do
not grow, survive, or re-
produce well on the host
plant.
It is sometimes difficult to antibiosis. Larvae feeding

identify the type of resistance on the resistant rice are
of a given rice variety to an smaller and survival is
insect pest. Some varieties reduced.
may have only one type of
resistance, but others may
have a combination of the
three kinds.
For example, rice varietal
resistance to the yellow
stem borer is primarily
However, resistance to the

striped stem borer is due to
both nonpreference and
antibiosis.
Nonpreference Antibiosis
Moths deposit fewer egg Larvae are small and

masses on resistant survival is reduced.
varieties.
The level of resistance to dif-

ferent insects may vary
greatly among varieties. Even
highly resistant varieties may
be damaged by a heavy
infestation.
Varieties that are highly res- Varieties with only moder-

istant to the brown plant- ate levels of stem borer res-
hopper have been istance have been
developed. developed.
RICE VARIETAL
RESISTANCE TO DISEASES
The reactions of rice varieties

to plant diseases can be
divided into three categories:
Immunity Hypersensitivity
• The rice plant is not • Invaded cells are killed so
attacked by a disease under quickly that the disease
any conditions. remains localized and can-
Rice varieties are rarely not spread throughout the
immune to rice diseases. plant. Often the disease is
Usually if a disease has dif- completely suppressed as
ferent races, a resistant var- part of the “hypersensitive”
iety is immune to some reaction. Infected plants are
races but is attacked by largely undamaged.
others.
Tolerance
• Tolerance is the most
common kind of disease
resistance. The rice variety
infected by the disease may
develop symptoms, but the
crop yield is greater than
that of susceptible varieties.
In tolerant varieties, the
appearance, amount and
type of symptoms, and the
severity of the disease vary
greatly. Tolerant varieties
still serve as sources of
inoculum which can infect
susceptible varieties
nearby.
• Symptoms of rice blast on

varieties with different levels
of tolerance: resistant,
moderately resistant,
susceptible.
DISEASE RACES AND

INSECT BIOTYPES
Definition of "race" and

“biotype”
Insect biotypes or disease
races consist of forms that
are capable of surviving on
and damaging varieties that
are resistant to other popula-
tions of the same pest
species.
Reaction of rice varieties to Reaction of rice varieties to

different biotypes of the two races of rice blast.
brown planthopper. IR26,
IR28, IR29, and IR30 are res-
istant to biotype 1 but suscep-
tible to biotype 2.
• Several important rice important rice diseases

insect pest species, particu- have many different races
larly the leafhoppers and and the capability to form
planthoppers, have different new races in a relatively
biotypes; disease agents are short period of time.
even more variable. Most
On the basis of their reaction

to pest races or biotypes, res- 1. Horizontal resistance is
istant varieties can be divided general resistance usually
into two general groups: controlled by many genes.
those with horizontal resist- • Varieties with horizontal
ance and those with vertical resistance have low or
resistance. moderate level of
resistance to all or many
biotypes or races of a
given species.
2. Vertical resistance is spe-

cific resistance usually con-
trolled by one gene or a
small number of genes.
• Varieties with vertical
resistance are usually
highly resistant to one or
several races or bio-
types, but may be sus-
ceptible to others.
Use of resistant varieties in

the field
1. Whenever a resistant va-
riety is planted in the field,
the number of pests and
their damage will decrease
rapidly.
2. Usually, not all of the pests
will die. During successive
generations, the survivors
produce offspring that
gradually become capable
of surviving, damaging, and
reproducing on the for-
merly resistant variety.
3. Eventually, a new pest race
or biotype that can over-
come the varietal resist-
ance is selected.
Factors influencing the

chances and rate of develop- majority form in the pest
ment of new biotypes and population. When a variety
races “breaks down” it is the pest
1. The genetic makeup of the population — not the variety
insect or disease pest. — that has changed.
Within a population of pests 2. Pesticide applications may
a minority of individuals are destroy insect natural
unaffected by a resistant var- enemies and allow faster
iety. These individuals are population growth of the
selected to survive in the newly selected biotype.
presence of the resistant var-
iety and in time become the
3. The genetic makeup of the 4. The type and level of resistance to the pest.
resistant variety.
5. The hectarage planted to a 6. Cropping patterns in an area. 7. Weather and other factors lnfluencing
resistant variety. population levels of pests in the field.
It is difficult to predict when, in national programs. Any

or if, the resistance of a var- severe damage should be
iety will break down in the reported to the proper
field because of all the varia- research organization or
bles affecting the develop- government authority.
ment of races and biotypes. Scientists can determine if
Because of the possibility the resistance has been
that resistance will fail, all overcome, and either release
varieties, not just the resistant a new resistant variety or
ones, should be observed. develop appropriate
Traditional varieties may management recommenda-
show signs of horizontal tions to protect older varieties.
resistance that could be used
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF
RICE INSECT PESTS
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF RICE INSECT PESTS 351
Biological Control of Rice insect Pests

All insect pests of rice are
affected by natural controls
that limit their reproduction
and population buildup.
• Diseases and pathogens
• Amount of food and shelter
• Weather
• Predators
• Parasites
Effects of beneficials on
insect pests
• Parasites and predators are
called beneficials because
they help control insect
pests.
• Beneficials alone will not
always prevent damaging
buildups of insect pests,
but they reduce the sever-
ity of damage and the fre-
quency of outbreaks.
• Some insect pests are
more effectively controlled
by beneficials than are
others.
Characteristics of parasites
• Parasltes attack only one
prey species or a few
closely related species.
• Only the larvae are para-

Sitrc. Each parasite usually
feeds on only a single host
and gradually destroys it.
• Parasites of rice pests are • Adults are free living, feed-

other insects, commonly ing on nectar, honeydew,
flies or wasps. or host body fluids.
Characteristics of predators
• Most common predators of
rice insect pests are other
insects and spiders.
• A predator may feed on

many different species of
insects.
• A single predator may

attack a number of insect
Prey.
• Predators kill their prey
quickly by eating them or
sucking their body fluids.
• Usually both the immature

and adult stages attack
prey.
• Predators develop separ-

ately from their prey but
live in the same area.
PARASITES
Parasites of leafhoppers and

planthoppers
Parasites of eggs
— Leafhopper and plant-
hopper eggs are gener-
ally more heavily parasi-
tized than adults and
nymphs.
— Egg parasitization varies

considerably among
hopper species. It fluc-
tuates during the sea-
son, but usually aver-
ages about 30%.
• Estimating egg
parasitization
— Remove a piece of the
leaf sheath containing
an egg mass.
— Place egg masses in a
closed container on fil-
ter paper moistened with
an antifungal agent.
— Hopper nymphs emerge
first.
— Adult egg parasites
emerge several days
after unparasitized eggs
hatch.
To estimate egg parasitization

General life cycle of parasites

of hopper eggs
• The adult female parasite
lays most of its eggs the
first day after it emerges
from the pupal stage. It
searches with its antennae
until it finds a hopper egg
mass and then lays its eggs
inside the hopper eggs.
• The parasite larva develops
and pupates inside the
hopper egg.
• The Anagrus, Oligosita,

and Gonatocerus spp. are
the common parasites of
hopper eggs.
Anagrus species
Oligosita species
Gonatocerus species
Parasites of nymphs and

adults
— Hopper nymphs and
adults are attacked by
several species of
parasites, but the
percentage of
parasitization of these life
stages is not as high as
that of eggs.
• Estimating parasitization of
nymphs and adults
— Cage hoppers collected
from the field on rice
plants in small cages.
— Collect the emerging
adult parasites.
To estimate % parasitization
Record the hoppers Count the adult para- no. of emerged

placed in the cage. sites which emerge from % parasi parasite adults
= × 100
the caged hoppers. tization no. of hoppers
placed in cage
• The dryinids, strepsipte-

rans, and pipunculids par-
asitize hopper nymphs and
adults.
Dryinidae
•Life stages
A group of 5 wasp species
of the Dryinidae family are
common parasites of
hopper nymphs and adults.
• General life cycle
• Biology of adults
— Adults have front legs
adapted for grasping
hopper nymphs and
adults.
— Each dryinid may eat
several leafhoppers a
day.
— Females lay eggs inside
hopper nymphs.
— Each female may parasi-
tize up to 10
nymps/day.
• Biology of larvae
The larvae gradually
consume the body contents
of the host. Then they
wiggle out of the sac on the
hopper’s abdomen, and
pupate in a white cocoon
on a rice leaf.
• Migration of dryinids to
rice fields
Most dryinids enter rice
fields as larvae on migrat-
ing parasitized hoppers.
A few adults also move into
rice fields.
Strepsiptera • The triungulins crawl to a

• Insects of the order Strep- hopper nymph or adult and
siptera also parasitize leaf- bore inside.
hoppers and planthoppers. • They do not survive for
• Each adult female bears more than several hours
thousands of living larvae unless they locate a host.
called triungulins.
• Development of larvae.
• The female larva develops • The male larva also devel- • Adult males with wings
and pupates inside the host ops inside the host, but the emerge from the pupa,
and is visible only as a dark pupa sticks out of the mate with females, and die.
spot on the abdomen of the hopper's abdomen and is
host. seen as a bump on the
abdomen.
Characteristics of hoppers • Strepsipterans always dis-

parasitized by Strepsiptera perse through parasitized
• Parasitized hoppers may hoppers.
survive for a long time • Strepsipterans usually par-
before they die. asitize less than 10% of
• Parasitized hoppers do not hopper nymphs and adults.
reproduce, but may feed
and damage plants before
they die.
Pipunculidae
Several species of flies of the
family Pipunculidae parasi-
tize only green leafhopper
nymphs and adults.
• The adult females lay their • Parasitized nymphs devel- • The larvae pupate in the
eggs inside the body of a op normally for awhile, but soil or near the base of the
leafhopper nymph. are killed when the mature rice tillers.
parasite larvae emerge
from the host's body.
• Pipunculids are the most

important parasites of
green leafhoppers, often
attacking 25% of the
nymphs and the adults in
the field.
Parasites of stem borers

Parasites of eggs
• Eggs of the stem borer are
more heavily parasitized
than other life stages, pro-
bably because they are
accessible on rice leaves.
•The levels of egg parasiti-
zation vary widely, ranging
from 0 to 100%.
Estimating parasitization of
stem borer eggs
• It is difficult to visually stem borer eggs are
determine in the field if parasitized.
• About 17 insect species

parasitize rice stem borer
eggs in Asia.
• The most common and
widely distributed groups
are Trichogramma, Tele-
nomus, and Tetrastichus.
Trichogramma species
• General characteristics
— short antennae
small body
hairs on wings
3-segmented tarsi
• Life cycle
— Trichogramma reprodu-
ces best at temperatures
of 20°-25°C with an
average relative humid-
ity greater than 70%.
— Adults live 7 days.
Telenomus species
• General characteristics
— 11 to 12 segmented
antenna
pointed abdomen
thin 3rd abdominal
segment
• Life cycle
— Adults survive for 14
days.
— Telenomus may be more
effective than Tricho-
gramma as a parasite of
stem borer eggs be-
cause the adults live
longer and females have
a greater reproductive
capacity.
Tetrastichus species
• Tetrastichus species are
primarily parasites of eggs
of the yellow stem borer.
• They occasionally attack
eggs of the striped stem
borer.
• Tetrastichus species —
sometimes considered
more effective than Tele-
nomus — attack all eggs in
a mass as well as hatching
stem borer larvae.
Parasitesof stem borer larvae

and pupae
• Many insect species para-
sitize rice stem borer larvae
and pupae, but the per-
centage of parasitization is
usually low, about 5-10%.
•These larvae and pupae are
somewhat protected from
natural enemies because
they develop mainly inside
rice stems.
• Parasitized stem borer lar-
vae and pupae cannot be
distinguished from normal
ones at the early stages of
parasitization. Parasitized
pupae eventually turn dark.
Estimating parasitization of
stem borer larvae and pupae
• Remove a portion of the
stem containing a larva or
pupa and place in a closed,
transparent vial.
• Some parasite larvae such
as Cotesia (= Apanteles)
emerge and pupate in silver
cocoons outside the host.
Other parasite species dev-
elop in the host larvae and
parasite adults emerge
from the host pupae.
Cotesia (= Apanteles ),
Tropobracon schoenobii,
Sturmiopsis inferens are
common parasites of stem
borer larvae.
• General characteristics of
Cotesia (= Apanteles)
• Adult females deposit 10- • The mature larvae emerge

15 eggs just inside the and spin silken cocoons.
body wall of stem borer The adult wasp emerges
larvae. Each female may • Several parasite larvae can from the cocoon.
lay up to 60 eggs. develop inside one host. Adults live 7-10 days.
Tropobracon schoenobii
– The level of larval para-

sitization by T.
schoenobii varies widely
– from 0 to 90%.
• The parasite larvae attach

• Each female adult lays up themselves to the host’s
to 20 eggs. body and feed on the body
• The female inserts its ovi- contents.
positor into the rice stem • The larvae then spin a whit- • The adult wasp emerges
and deposits one egg in ish cocoon and pupate from the cocoon.
each larva. inside it. • Adults live 7-10 days.
Sturmiopsis inferens
– S. inferens is one of the

more effective parasites,
sometimes attacking up
to 80% of the stem borer
larvae.
• The adult flies bear living

young and deposit them on
or near stem borer larvae.
• The parasite larvae burrow
into the host to complete
their development. • The adults live up to 45
• Usually only one parasite • The mature parasite larva days.
larva survives to maturity in emerges from the host • Each female may bear
each host. larva to pupate. about 250 larvae.
Other parasites of larvae

• Only one parasite emerges • Adults of Stenobracon
from each host parasitized nicevillei have very long
by Bracon chinensis. ovipositors.
Parasites of stem borer

pupae
• Parasites of stem borer
pupae include ltoplectis
and Xanthopirnpla.
• General characteristics of – The adult females

search with their anten-
ltoplectis
– The adults may survive nae for borer pupae
for 4-6 weeks. inside the rice stem.
– Females may lay 300 – A female may deposit
eggs over a long period several eggs in each
of time. pupa, but usually only
one larva survives to
maturity.
• General characteristics of – The female searches

Xanthopimpla with its antennae for
– Females survive for 4-9 stem borer pupae in rice
weeks; each may lay 5- stems.
14 eggs. – Then with its ovipositor,
the female penetrates
the stem and lays a sin-
gle egg in each pupa.
– The parasite larva com-
pletes its development
• Life cycle and pupates inside the
host pupal case. The
adult parasite emerges
from the stem borer
pupal case.
Parasites of other rice insect hoppers are less well known,

pests although they are also
Parasites of rice insect pests important in reducing pest
other than stem borers and population levels.
Rice bug
• tocorisa
Eggs of the rice bug (Lep-
) are attacked by a
parasite of the genus
Gryon.
Whorl maggot
• Larvae of the whorl maggot
(Hydrellia) are parasitized
by a small wasp, Opius,
emerging from the host
pupae.
Gall midge
• Platygaster oryzae is the
most important and widely
distributed parasite of the
gall midge.
• The female adult wasp lays • Parasitizedlarvae are filled

eggs inside newly hatched with parasite cocoons and
gall midge larvae. are much larger than nor-
mal larvae.
• Life cycle of Platygaster

oryzae
The level of parasitization
from P. oryzae sometimes
reaches 80%. This parasite
may suppress gall midge
populations if parasitization
reaches 50% before the
peak of gall midge damage
occurs.
Rice hispa
• A Bracon sp. of wasp is
the most common parasite
of hispa.
• Usually, larval parasitiza-
tion is less than 10%.
Leaffolders
• Female parasites of the
genus Copidosomopsis lay
their eggs inside the
leaffolder eggs. Numerous
parasite larvae develop
from a single egg and
pupate inside the host
larvae.
• Leaffolder larvae are • With their long ovipositors,

attacked by the parasites Temelucha females can
Macrocentrus and penetrate the leaf to find a
Temelucha. larva.
• The Trichomma wasp also

parasitizes leaffolder larvae.
— The female lays eggs in
the leaffolder larva.
— The parasite adult
emerges from the leaf-
folder pupa.
• Brachymeria parasitizes
leaffolder pupae.
• Distinguishing
characteristics
— black body
— enlarged hind leg
PREDATORS
It is often difficult to deter-

mine which insect species
are attacked by a predator
and how many prey are
killed.
To observe and measure

predation:
• Cage together a known
number of predators and
prey on an insect-free rice
plant in the field or
greenhouse.
• Count the remaining pre-
dators and prey daily.
Spiders
Lycosa
Life cycle
• Newly hatched spiderlings
remain attached to the
mother for several days.
• During its lifetime, each
female may produce sev-
eral egg sacs, each con-
taining 60 eggs.
Identification of sexes
• Distinguishing • Lycosa spiders are proba-
characteristics bly the most important
— Male has large predators in rice fields.
pedipalpi. — These spiders do not
— Female carries an egg make webs, but hunt
sac. their prey.
Habits and prey — leaf-

hopper, planthopper
• Adults are commonly
found near the base of rice
plants.
• The diet of Lycosa
depends upon the types of
insects available, but leaf-
hoppers and planthoppers
are the major prey. Lycosa
eat both nymphs and
adults.
• Spiders also eat each other
at high population
densities.
• Other hunting spiders

common in rice fields
Argiope and Tetragnatha are

web-spinning spiders. They
are probably not major pre-
dators of rice insects,
although some flying pests
are trapped in their web.
Microvelia
Life stages
Life cycle
• Adults live about 30 days.
Females may lay 4-5
eggs/day.
Habits
• Nymphs and adults live on
the water surface, attacking
insects that fall into the
water.
• Eggs are laid on the plant
near the water surface.
Feeding • The bugs paralyze their

• Microvelia prey primarily prey by injecting a toxic
on small hopper nymphs. solution with their
• One microveliid will attack mouthparts
a very small insect that falls • Groups of these predators
into the water and groups Will congregate around rice
of the bugs attack larger hills heavily infested with
prey. planthoppers
• Microvelia can survive for

long periods without food,
but rice fields must be
flooded or saturated for the
bugs to survive.
Cyrtorhinus
Life stages
Life cycle
• Each female may lay 10-13
eggs.
Prey
• The adult Cyrtorhinus also
• Both nymphs and adults of attack hopper nymphs and
adults.
Cyrtorhinus are important
predators of hopper eggs.
Habits
• Nymphs and adults are
found on rice leaves and
near the base of tillers
where hoppers are
abundant.
• The eggs are laid singly or
in groups in the leaf
sheath.
• Cyrtorhinus nymphs and

adults insert their mouth-
parts into hopper eggs and
suck out the liquid, causing
the eggs to collapse.
Other predators
Coccinellidae
• Adults and larvae of cocci-
nellid (or ladybird beetles)
attack several rice pests
including leafhoppers and
planthoppers.
Beetles
• Ground beetles and rove
beetles prey on rice pests
in some areas.
Damselflies
• Damselflies of the genus
Agriocnemis hunt inside
the rice canopy and may
eat hoppers, midges, and
other insects.
Management and conserva- • Importing beneficials from

tion of parasites and other countries and estab-
predators lishing them to help sup-
Approaches to increase the plement native parasites
effectiveness of parasites and predators.
and predators in rice fields: This method has not been
• Mass rearing of parasites in successful for control of
the laboratory and rice pests in the past. More
releasing mass-reared effort is needed to improve
parasites in the field. the chances of establishing
This approach, such as the imported beneficials in rice
mass rearing of Tricho- fields.
gramma for leaffolder con-
trol, has been useful in
some countries, such as
China, but is not currently
economically feasible on a
large scale throughout
Asia.
• Conserving native parasites

and predators.
Currently the most practi-
cal method of obtaining
maximum benefits from
beneficials is to conserve
native species of parasites
and predators and create
favorable conditions so
their populations will
increase.
• Reducing the harmful

effects of chemicals on
beneficials.
Pesticides, particularly
insecticides, may kill many
parasites and predators in
rice fields. To reduce the
harmful effects of these
chemicals on beneficials:
1. If possible, apply a selec-
tive insecticide.
Some insecticides are
more poisonous to para-
sites and predators than
others.
Apply the minimum dos-
age of an insecticide that
is toxic to the pest and
least harmful to
beneficials.
2. Apply insecticides only

when necessary.
Do not apply insecti-
cides on a regular,
calendar-based
schedule.
Apply insecticides only
when pest populations
reach the economic
threshold. This will
ensure that some prey
are available to stimulate
increases of parasites
and predators.
3. Use selective formula-

tions and application
methods.
If possible, use a formu-
lation and application
technique that is least
harmful to beneficials.
For example, either ap-
plying granules or incor-
porating insecticides into
the soil is usually less
harmful to beneficials
than foliar sprays.
PESTICIDES
PESTICIDES 373
Pesticides
A pesticide is any chemical
used to control pests.
Types of pesticides used in

growing rice
Formulations
A pesticide is usually not ap-
plied in a pure form. It must
be diluted with water, oil, or
an inactive solid so it is less
toxic to humans and can be
spread evenly over a large
area. The final product is
called a pesticide
formulation.
Types of formulations
Dusts
a finely ground
dry particle such
Dust = pesticide + as clay, talc, or
volcanic ash
• Advantage
Dusts require no mixing
and can be applied directly
to the rice plant
• Disadvantage
Dusts may drift long dis-
tances from where they
were applied and contami-
nate areas where humans
and livestock are present.
Granules
dry particles of clay

or sand which are
Granules = pesticide +
larger than those
used in a dust
• Advantages • Disadvantage
Granules as purchased can Granules cannot be used
be applied with simple to treat foliage because
equipment and require no they will not stick to it.
additional mixing.
Granules are relatively non-
toxic to applicators and do
not drift from the target
area.
PESTICIDES 375
Liquid formulations
Liquid formulations, called
emulsifiable concentrates, A liquid formulation may
are mixed with water and contain all or some of the
sprayed. agents listed below:
• Advantages • Disadvantages
Liquid formulations contain It is easy to underdose or
a high concentration of overdose if they are not
pesticide so the price per carefully mixed.
unit of pesticide is low. They are dangerous to
They are easy to transport humans because of their
and store. liquid form, which allows
They are effective for treat- the pesticide to be
ing foliage. absorbed through the skin.
They require little agitation
in the tank to keep them
mixed.
Flowables
Flowables are a special kind • Advantage
of liquid formulation in which They do not clog nozzles
finely ground solid particles and require only moderate
of pesticide are suspended in agitation.
a liquid. They are applied • Disadvantages
and used in the same way as Similar to those for liquid
other liquid formulations. formulations.
Wettable powders
Wettable powders have the
same materials as emulsifia-
ble concentrates, except that
the insecticide is distributed
in small, dry, powder-like
particles. The amount of pest-
icide in these formulations
ranges from 15 to 95%.
Wettable powders are mixed • Advantages • Disadvantages
with water to form suspen- Wettable powder is rela- They may be toxic to the
sions. The suspended parti- tively cheap per unit. applicator if he inhales the
cles settle out if not agitated. Wettable powders are easy concentrated dust during
to carry and store. mixing.
They are easily measured They must be agitated
and mixed and are not periodically in the spray
absorbed easily through tank or they will settle out.
the skin.
They can be used effec-
tively to treat foliage.
Soluble powders • Advantages • Disadvantage

Soluble powders have the The same as for wettable They may be toxic to the
same materials as wettable powders. In addition, solu- applicator if he inhales the
powders but dissolve in ble powders need not be concentrated powder dur-
water to form solutions. agitated in the spray tank ing mixing
Thus, they do not settle out as they will not settle out.
like wettable powders.
Poisonous baits • Advantages • Disadvantages

A poisonous bait is food or Baits are useful for pests Baits are often attractive
other substances mixed with such as rats and birds that and dangerous to children
a pesticide. Baits are eaten range over a large area. and livestock.
by pests and cause their With baits, low amounts of Baits may be ineffective
death. pesticide are used in small when the pest prefers the
areas and environmental crop rather than the baits.
pollution is minimized.
PESTICIDES 377
Pesticide toxicity
Most pesticides control the
pest by poisoning it. Many
pesticides are also poison-
ous to humans. Some may
kill or seriously injure peo-
ple, and others can irritate
the skin, eyes, nose, or
mouth.
Ways in which pesticides enter the body
• Oral • Dermal
Pesticide may enter the Pesticide can also be taken
body through the mouth in through the skin.
— Eating Wearing clothes that are
— Smoking wet from a pesticide solu-
— Storage in food tion, or letting pesticide
containers liquids or powders and
dusts touch your skin dur-
ing mixing or application of
the materials is dangerous.
Areas of the body where

pesticides are absorbed
most easily are the
• Inhalation
You can breathe in pesti-
cides too.
Pesticide dusts, fumes, or
spray mists can be inhaled.
This route of entry is most
important when dusts, wet-
table powders, or granules
are applied.
Which methods of entry are You may breathe in pesti-

most important? cides or splash them on the
• Inhalation body during applications,
• Dermal but you do not purposely
•Oral eat or drink the chemicals
The dermal and inhalation you are using. You can be
routes of pesticide entry poisoned no matter how
are more important to the the pesticide enters your
applicator than the oral body. It may poison you in
route. all 3 ways.
Definition of toxicity — Acute toxicity measured in LD 50 amounts

Toxicity means “how poi- Acute toxicity is the poison- ranging from 0 up. LD means
sonous.” The toxicity of a ous effect of a pesticide on lethal dose (deadly amount)
pesticide may be measured animals or humans after a required to kill 50% of test
in more than one way. single exposure. animals in a given time
Acute toxicity may be meas- period. Usually LD50 values
ured in terms of oral, dermal, are measured in milligrams of
and inhalation toxicity. insecticide per kilogram body
weight of humans (1 mg/kg
Measuring acute toxicity — = 1 part/million).
Oral and dermal toxicity are
• Oral toxicity • Inhalation toxicity • Dermal toxicity

• Pesticides with low LD 50
values are more toxic than
pesticides with high LD 50
values.
For example, a pesticide
with an LD 50 of 10 mg/kg is
more toxic than one with
an LD50 of 100 mg/kg.
Acute inhalation toxicity is

measured by LC50. LC
means lethal concentration.
LC50 values are measured in
milligrams per liter.
• Pesticides with low LC 50
values are more toxic than
pesticides with high LC 50
values.
Acute toxicity is the basis for

the warning statements on
the pesticide label (see
page 379).
PESTICIDES 379
Chronic toxicity If you are often exposed to

Chronic toxicity is the poi- these pesticides, they may
sonous effect of a pesticide build up in your body. You
on animal or man after small, can be poisoned even with-
repeated doses over a period out getting a large dose of
of time. pesticide.
Chronic toxicity is important
because some pesticides can
remain in the body for a long
time.
Information on a pesticide label

Reading the pesticide label
Read the label before you

buy the chemical to
determine:
• If this is the chemical you
need for the job.
• If the material is too toxic
to use under your
conditions.
• The concentration of active
ingredient.
• If the formulation is suita-
ble for your equipment and
conditions.
Read the label before storing
and disposing of pesticides
or pesticide containers to
determine:
• Where and how to store the
material.
• How to decontaminate and
dispose of the container or
leftover pesticides.
Read the label before you
mix and apply the chemical
to determine:
• Warnings and antidotes if
necessary.
• Protective equipment.
necessary for application.
• How much to use.
• When and how to apply.
Problems caused by pesti- pest management in rice, but Improper use or overuse of
cide misuse they must be applied prop- pesticides may cause unde-
Pesticides are a useful and erly and used only when sirable side effects:
necessary part of integrated necessary.
Pesticide resistance
Several species of rice insect

pests have already become
resistant to certain
insecticides.
If in the future more pesti-
cides are used on rice in
Asia, resistance problems
will probably increase.
To reduce the likelihood of
the development of pesticide
resistance, apply chemicals
only when pest levels reach
the economic threshold, and
use the minimum effective
rate.
PESTICIDES 381
Environmental pollution long-lasting harmful effect

• Non-accumulative on the environment.
pesticides
Some pesticides break
down quickly into harmless
materials after they are
applied. Although these
materials may be initially
toxic to animals and
humans, they do not have a
• Persistent pesticides
Other pesticides may
remain unchanged in the
environment for long peri-
ods. These materials are
not necessarily harmful
unless they are taken up
and accumulate in living
organisms.
• Accumulative pesticides a pesticide. This type of

Some pesticides may be pesticide is very harmful in
taken up from the envir- the environment and
onment and accumulate in causes long-lasting
animals and plants. Wildlife damage.
and people that eat animals
contaminated with pesti-
cide may be poisoned
without directly contacting
Phytotoxicity Common symptoms of phyto-

The active ingredient or toxicity are
materials in pesticide formu- • spots on leaves
lations may damage crop • stunting
plants. Phytotoxicity, or tox- • twisting of leaves
icity to plants, may be • tillers spread out
caused by:
a. using the wrong pesticide,
b. applying an improper pest-
icide mixture,
c. incorrect timing of
application,
d. using too much pesticide,
e. selecting the wrong pesti-
cide formulation.
Damage to nontarget
organisms through:
• wind
• irrigation water
If pesticides are carried by
wind, water, or other
means from the area where
they were applied, they
may be harmful to humans,
livestock, wildlife, and
other crops.
Precautions in handling pesticides
Before application: Check the sprayer Mixing and filling d. Keep your head away
• Read the label to determine: a. Fill the tank with plain Extra caution is necessary
when mixing and filling
from the opening of the
sprayer.
a. rates, water and test the
b. timing, sprayer to be sure there sprayers because the pesti- e. If concentrated pesticide
c. need for protective cloth- are no leaks or loose cide is concentrated: is spilled on clothing,
ing and equipment, connections and the a. Wear protective clothing. wash and change clothes
d. antidotes and other pre- equipment is working b. Open pesticide containers immediately.
cautionary measures, properly. carefully to avoid f. Do not mix pesticides with
e. field reentry intervals b. Repair or replace any splashes, spills, or drift. your hand or allow the
after treatment, and worn or faulty parts. c. Stand upwind when concentrated materials to
f. other safety measures. adding material to the touch bare skin.
sprayer to avoid drift of
pesticide fumes or
particles.
During application
• Wear protective clothing
when applying highly toxic
pesticides.
• Avoid exposure.
• Do not eat, drink, smoke, or
blow clogged nozzles with
your mouth while applying
pesticides.
PESTICIDES 383
• Spray with the wind to

avoid contact with pesti-
cide drift.
• Avoid contamination of
nontarget areas.
• Do not spray during high
winds to prevent drift.
• Do not spray near or in
ponds, lakes, or streams.
• Spray areas near homes in

early morning or evening
when humans, pets, and
livestock are less likely to
be exposed.
After application
• Make sure the sprayer is
empty. If necessary, spray
remaining material on
another field. Clean and
rinse the inside and outside
of sprayer and return to
storage area.
• Dispose of empty pesticide
containers properly.
• Store remaining pesticide
properly.
• Bathe and change clothing.

• Stay away from treated
fields for 1-2 days. This pre-
vents poisoning from con-
tact with treated plants or
water and inhalation of
pesticide fumes.
Symptoms of pesticide poisoning
The symptoms of pesticide those of other types of poi-

poisoning are similar to soning and diseases.
Pesticide poisoning may be confused with:
• Heat exhaustion • Food poisoning • Asthma or other illnesses

Just because a person
becomes ill after using or
being around pesticides is
not proof that he is
poisoned.
Kinds of poisoning
• Acute poisoning
Acute poisoning occurs
after exposure to a single
dose of pesticide.
Symptoms may occur im-
mediately or be slightly
delayed.
• Chronic poisoning
Chronic poisoning occurs
after repeated exposures
over long time periods.
Symptoms include ner-
vousness, slowed reflexes,
irritability, and a general
decline of health.
General symptoms
• Mild poisoning or early

symptoms of acute
poisoning:
— irritation of eyes, nose,
or throat
— headache
— dizziness
— fatigue
— diarrhea
PESTICIDES 385
• Moderate poisoning or
early symptoms of acute
poisoning.
— upset stomach
— blurred vision
— extreme weakness
— excessive perspiration
— muscle twitches
— rapid heartbeat
• Severe or acute poisoning

— pinpoint pupils — difficulty in breathing — unconsciousness
— vomiting and convulsions
First aid for pesticide poisoning
Call a doctor or get the If the patient has poison in

patient to a hospital. Always the eye, wash the eye as
save the pesticide and the quickly and gently as
label for the doctor. possible.
• Hold eyelids open and
wash eyes with a gentle
stream of running water for
15 or more minutes.
• Do not use chemicals in
the wash water.
While waiting for medical
help or transporting the vic-
tim to the hospital, apply the
following first aid measures:
If the patient has inhaled
poison, immediately move
If the patient has poison on him to fresh air.
the skin, the faster it is
• Loosen all tight clothing.
washed off, the less the
• Prevent chilling.
injury will be.
• Apply artificial respiration if
• Remove clothing. breathing has stopped or is
• Drench skin and body with irregular.
water from a hose, faucet,
ditch, or pond.
• Do not give alcohol in any
form.
• Dry patient, and wrap in a
clean blanket.
Selection of a pesticide
Before choosing and apply-

ing any pesticide several fac-
tors must be considered:
• Identify the pest
— Carefully check the field
to identify both symp-
toms of damage and
species of pests.
— Sometimes, very con-
spicuous insects or dis-
eases do not cause
serious crop loss.
— Often damage from
unfavorable weather,
soil, or growing condi-
tions may be confused
with pest injury.
• Determine if control is
necessary
— Use the sampling tech- — Make sure that the pest
niques and economic is in the proper stage of
threshold levels de- development to be con-
scribed in this manual to trolled by pesticides,
decide if pest popula- and that it is not too
tions or damage is large early or late in crop
enough to require growth for control to be
control. economically beneficial.
Alternative pest control methods
• Consider other control methods do not reduce

or maintain the pest
methods
— The integration of var- population below the
ious types of nonchemi- economic threshold.
cal control measures — After you have identified
has been discussed for the pest, determined if
most rice pests in this control is necessary.
manual. and considered other
— Pesticides should be control measures, a pest-
applied only when these icide application may be
alternative control the most practical control
method.
PESTICIDES 387
• Choose a pesticide that:
— Is effective against the — Will not move off the

target pest. treated area, to persist In
— Has directions on the the environment to harm
label for the intended humans, Iivestock, or
use. fish.
— Will not cause injury

(phytotoxicity) to the
crop.
— Is the right formulation

to work in the equip-
ment the applicator will
use.
— Will cause the least

damage to beneficial
organisms (birds, para-
sites, and predators).
Spray equipment
Knapsack sprayers
Knapsack sprayers are the
most common and widely
used sprayers for rice
throughout Asia. They have
a capacity of 8-20 liters, are
carried on the operator's
back, and are operated by
continuous hand pumping.
Knapsack sprayers are oper-

ated by continuous hand
pumping. The pump inside
the tank, which is operated
by moving an outside lever,
may be either a plunger type
or a diaphragm pump with
an air chamber.
Some sprayers also have an
agitator inside the tank to around the tank contents to
keep spray solutions tho- keep sprays from settling
roughly mixed. If the sprayer (particularly wettable
does not have an agitator, powders)
the operator may have to The cut-off valve controls the
periodically stop and slosh flow of spray to the nozzle.
388 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN RlCE
Cleaning the sprayer
1. Empty the tank of remain- 2. Fill the tank 1/3 full with
ing pesticide. Either drain detergent solution, shake
the tank on wasteland vigorously, then operate
where the pesticide will the pump 10 times while
not contaminate irrigation spraying the rinse solu-
canals, streams, or tion. Pour out the remain-
cropland ing rinse solution.
or 3. Repeat step 2 two times
spray the remaining pesti- using clean water.
cide on a crop for which
the pesticide is 4. Drain the sprayer.
appropriate.
Spray nozzles
The spray nozzle breaks up particular pattern. Different
liquids into droplets and dis- types of nozzles produce dif-
perses these droplets in a ferent droplet patterns.
Types of sprayer nozzles
• Fan nozzles
Fan nozzles are used
mainly for applying herbi-
cides. They may also be
used for directed insecti-
cide applications.
• Cone nozzles
Cone nozzles give good
coverage of plant leaf and
stem surfaces for control of
insects and diseases.
PESTICIDES 389
Calibration of knapsack sprayers
1. Check the sprayer to make

sure there are no leaks,
the nozzle is clear, and the
parts are in good
condition.
2. Stake out a test area in the
field.
3. Place a known amount of

water into the sprayer
tank.
4. Establish the spray swath.
5. Enter the test area and

make the test run, spray-
ing the area at the recom-
mended pressure and
speed.
Proper calibration of
6. After spraying the test sprayers will ensure that
area measure the length of pesticides are uniformly
the test area sprayed. distributed and the crop is
covered adequately. This will
improve pest control and
7. Calculate the application save money.
rate in liters/ha:
Pesticidestorage and
disposal
Storage
Store pesticides in original
containers in a safe, dry,
locked, and well-ventilated
area.
They should be sealed,
correctly labeled, and kept
out of the reach of animals
and children.
Disposal of pesticide
containers
Rinse all empty containers 3
times with clean water, and
dump rinse water into the
sprayer.
Separate the used containers
that will burn and those that
will not.
Where burning is not unlaw- Crush and bury non-

ful, small amounts of card- burnable containers in a land
board or paper containers area where humans, live-
may be burned in areas far stock, and groundwater will
from humans and livestock. not be contaminated.
Bury the leftover ashes. Containers should be buried
Do not burn empty at least 0.5 m beneath the
containers that contained soil.
mercury, lead, cadmium,
arsenic, or inorganic
pesticides.
Pesticide calculations
Simple conversion factors Volume: 1 liter = 1,000 milli- To convert g/liter to % divide
Area: 1 hectare (ha) = liters (ml) by 10
10,000 square 1 gallon (gal) = 3.8 To convert Ib/US gallon to %
meters (m 2 ) liters multiply by 12
1 tablespoon = 10 To convert Ib/Imperial gallon
Weight: 1 kilogram (kg) =
ml to % multiply by 10
1,000 grams (g)
Foliar sprays
It is important to apply the
correct volume of spray per
hectare when treating a field.
If the spray volume is too
low, the rice plants are not
properly covered.
If too much spray is applied,
the insecticides will run off
the foliage and be wasted.
PESTICIDES 391
To provide adequate Calculations of %

coverage, a knapsack concentration in
sprayer should be calibrated recommended solution
(see page 389) to deliver at Rate recommendations on
least 300 liters spray/ha. pesticide labels are often
Information needed to given in weight or volume of
calculate spray volume in formulated product to be
liters per hectare: added to a certain weight or
a. size of sprayer (liters) volume of water.
b. area of field (ha) volume (ml) or weight (g) % active
c. number of sprayerloads % = of recommended formulation ingredient
Concentration recommended volume (ml)
or weight of water (g)
liters of = size of sprayer (Iiters) X no of loads
spray/ha
area of field (ha) Example:
Concentra-
Example: Product Label recommendation Calculation tion of the
You have a 10-liter sprayer solution (%)
and you apply 6 loads to a 20 ml X 50%
0.2-ha field. What is your 50% EC Add 20 ml of product/20 = = .05
liters of water 20 liters x 1.000
spray volume (liters/ha) in ml/liter
the field?
Add 15 grams of = 15 g x 50%
50% WP = .04
product/5 gallons of water 5 gal x 3,800 g/gal
3 tablespoons
Add 3 tablespoons to 5 = x 10 g/tbsp x 30%
30% EC = .05
gallons of water 5 gal x 3,800 g/gal
To determine how many
sprayerloads are necessary Calculation of rate when %
to achieve a certain spray concentration is known
volume (liters/ha), use the Necessary information:
equation: a. recommended rate (%
No. of = desired spray volume (Iiters/ha) X area of field (ha) concentration ai)
loads size of sprayer (liters) b. volume (liters of spray
desired/treated area)
Example: c. % ai in commercial
You have a 10-liter sprayer, formulation
and wish to apply a spray at d. area (ha) to be treated
a rate of 250 liters/ha in a
(3.4-ha field. How many Example:
sprayerloads do you need to You wish to apply 320 liters
apply? of spray solution/ha to a 0.5-
ha area. The recommended
spray concentration of the
45% EC pesticide is 0.04%.
How many liters of the com-
mercial formulation are
required for the treatment?
To calculate dosages needed

for foliar sprays, convert rate
recommendations to:
1. percent concentration in
the solution
2. kg ai/ha
Calculation of rate when Applying pesticide granules

recommendations are based Necessary information:
on kg ai/ha. a. recommended rate (kg
Necessary information: ai/ha)
a. recommended rate (kg b. area to be treated (ha)
ai/ha) c. percent ai in the granular
b. percent ai in the formulation
formulation
c. area (ha) to be treated Example:
You wish to apply pesticide
Example: granules at a rate of 0.6 kg
You wish to apply 320 liters/ ai/ha to a 2-ha field. The
ha of spray solution to a 0.5- granules contain 3% ai. HOW
ha area. The recommended many kilograms of commer-
rate of the 70% wettable cial formulation are needed
powder pesticide is 0.75 kg to treat this area?
ai/ha. How many kilograms
of the commercial formula-
tion are required to treat the
0.5-ha area?
Use the same equation for

liquid formulations. Amounts
will be in liters and milliliters
and not kg and g.
INTEGRATION OF CONTROL MEASURES
INTEGRATION OF CONTROL MEASURES FOR ALL RICE PESTS 395
Integration of Control Measures for All Rice Pests

In this manual, the different
rice pests — insects, weeds,
diseases, and rats — are dis-
cussed separately and the
biology and management of
each pest presented
individually.
In the field, the different
pests, the weather, agricul-
tural practices, and the rice
plant are interdependent and
are all linked together in a
unit called the
agroecosystem.
Because of this interrela- then decide which pests are

tionship, control measures most serious. He must man-
directed against one pest or age them as effectively as
group of pests may affect possible while seeking maxi-
other pests. mum profit, although this
For an effective pest man- may cause some minor pests
agement program for rice, the to become more abundant.
effects of individual control The following information
and management practices about some of the general
on the entire pest complex relationships among man-
must be considered and inte- agement practices and differ-
grated so that as many pests ent groups of pests and bio-
as possible are maintained at control agents (predators and
nondamaging levels. parasites of insects) as de-
Sometimes complete inte- scribed in the table will help
gration of agronomic practi- in designing more effective
ces and control measures for integrated management
all individual pest species is programs.
not possible. The farmer must
General relationship among management practices, pest population, and biological agents. a
Leafhoppers
Management practice Rats Weeds Bacterial Fungal Virus Nematodes Biocontrol
diseases diseases diseases and Stem borers agents
planthoppers
Cultivars
Short duration – + ? ? N N – N N
Insect resistance ? – – – – N – – –
Diseaseresistance ? – – – – – + + N
Pesticides
Rodenticides – – N N N N N N N
Insecticides – – – – – – ± – –
Fungicides N – N – N N ± N –
Herbicides – – – – – N N N –
Nematicides N ± N N N – N N –
Fertilizer
High N + + + + + – + + +
High P and K + + – N N ? ? N N
Split N application – – N – N N – – N
Water management
Periodic draining + + N N – N – N N
Upland cultivation – + – + – – – N N
Flooded – – + – + – + N N
Planting method
Transplanting – – N N N N N N N
Direct seeding + + N N + N + N N
Close spacing + – + N + N + N N
Planting time
Early planting + N – – – – – – N
Late planting + N + + + – + + N
Wet season + + + + + N + + +
Cropping pattern
Staggered planting + N + + + N + + +
Synchronous planting – N – – – N – – –
Multiple rice crops + + + + + + + + +
Crop residue management
Plowing stubbles – – – – – N – – N
Burning straw – N – – N N N – N
Weeding – – – – – N N N –
a+= increases pest populations or damage, or both. – = decreases pest populations or damage, or both. N = no effect on pest populations or
damage, or both. ? = effect unknown. ± = pests may increase or decrease.
CULTIVARS resistant varieties. Resistant borer-infected plants, to lations if they control fun-
varieties control the leaf- which rats are attracted. gal pathogens attacking
• Short-duration cultivars hopper and planthopper Control of insects allows hoppers.
decrease rat and plant- vectors of rice viruses. plants to grow better and • Herbicides reduce rat popu-
hopper populations. The Because of fewer prey, bio- be more competitive with lations that are attracted to
planthoppers are unable to control agents decrease, weeds. Any management weedy fields. Herbicide use
complete as many genera- but the ratio of insect pests option which increases reduces disease incidence
tions on short-duration cul- to predator is lower, and crop growth decreases because weeds are alter-
tivars as on long-duration thus more favorable, on re- weeds. Bacterial and fungal nate hosts for some dis-
cultivars; thus populations sistant than on susceptible diseases are less because eases. A decrease in weeds
may not reach damaging cultivars. pathogens invade insect- decreases species diversity
levels. Weed damage is • Disease resistance damaged tissue. and populations of insect
more severe because of the decreases weeds because Virus vectors — the predators and parasites.
shorter time for crop recov- healthy plants are more hoppers — are generally • Nematicides may increase
ery after weeds senesce. competitive. But healthy controlled by insecticides. or decrease weeds. They
• Insect resistance has a and lush growing plants are However, certain insecti- kill nematodes that attack
negative effect on pests also more attractive to cides, if improperly applied, weeds. On the other hand,
and biocontrol agents. colonization by insects. will cause increases of control of nematodes that
When insect populations planthoppers, a condition attack rice results in a bet-
are low, the crop grows PESTICIDES referred to as resurgence. ter rice crop that is more
faster. The canopy closes • Fungicides increase crop competitive with weeds.
sooner and thus shades the • Weeds grow where rats growth and thus decrease Nematodes which para-
sitize insect pests may be
weeds. Bacterial and fungal damage rice. Rodenticides weeds. Because some fun-
diseases decrease because help rice to compete with gicides have antifeedant partially controlled with
feeding damage on the action and ovicidal effects, nematicides but other bio-
weeds.
leaves and stems, which • Insecticides reduce all the they may decrease control agents would prob-
ably not be affected.
allows entrance of patho- pests. Rat damage is less hoppers. However, they
gens, is less in insect- because there are few stem may Increase hopper popu-
INTEGRATION OF CONTROL MEASURES FOR ALL RICE PESTS 397
FERTILIZER populations and exposes close spacing between cially in the latest planted
rat burrowing space on the plants under direct seeding fields. Pests which build up
• High nitrogen rates gener- levees. provides favorable condi- in one field move to
ally favor rice pests, and as • Upland fields have higher tions for the hopper vectors younger adjacent fields
the population increases populations of weeds, of viruses. when they mature.
the biocontrol agents also nematodes, and a higher • Close spacing increases rat • Synchronous planting has
increase. Rats prefer to degree of fungal disease populations by providing the opposite effect of stag-
attack lush growing plants, infection, especially blast. more cover. It produces gered planting and is an
and insects and diseases Blast is favored by upland suitable ecological condi- effective cultural control
grow well on healthy, lush conditions because there is tions for the growth of bac- method.
growing plants. much dew on the plants. teria and the virus vectors, • Multiple rice cropping
• High phosphorus and pot- Bacterial disease incidence the hoppers. Weeds Increases the incidence of
assium make plants grow is low because moisture to decrease because of the all pests and the popula-
well and attractive to rats. disperse the pathogen from competition from rice tions of biocontrol agents.
• The crop cannot use all of one plant to another is plants. Proper pesticide manage-
the nitrogen if it is applied insufficient. Hopper popula- ment practices must be fol-
at one time; the weeds also tions are low because of PLANTING TIME lowed to conserve the bio-
benefit. Split nitrogen the dry ecological condi- control agents necessary
application decreases weed tions and thus virus carried • Early planting is a cultural for the increased pest pop-
growth because the by hoppers is also low. method that effectively con- ulation when 2-3 crops a
majority of the amount • Flooding helps to control trols most pests. But when year are grown.
applied is used by the rice rats, weeds, fungal dis- a farmer plants earlier than
crop; very little or none is eases, and soil-inhabiting his neighbors, rats from the STUBBLE MANAGEMENT
left for the weeds. The crop nematodes. Bacterial dis- surrounding areas move to
should be weeded before eases increase because the his planted field near har- • Plowing is an excellent
nitrogen is topdressed. pathogen disperses rapidly vest time. Diseases and management practice that
Fungal diseases and by water and enters the insects are low because controls most pests
insects are decreased plant where it is in contact there has not been suffi- because it removes the
because rice vegetative with water. Vectors of vir- cient time to build up dis- stubbles which serve as
growth is less rapid with uses, the hoppers, increase ease inoculum levels and their habitat.
split applications at trans- under the humid conditions insect populations. • Burning straw also controls
planting and panicle initia- in flooded fields. • Late planting increases stem borers hibernating in
tion. Highly fertilized, most pests. Rats increase the stems and rats hiding in
rapidly growing plants are PLANTING METHOD because they move from the straw. However, it has
more susceptible to fungal the harvested neighboring no detrimental effect on
diseases and are highly • Transplanting has no fields to the late planted weeds as temperatures
reached in burning straw
nutritious to insects. effects on most pests and field which still provides a
Moreover, the closed can- biological agents, but it source of food and cover. generally are insufficient to
opy provides environmental reduces weed problems • Wet season planting favors kill weed seeds.
conditions suitable for because of the competitive most pests because of the
hoppers. advantage of transplanted large area planted to rice WEEDING
seedlings which are almost and the abundance of
alternate hosts.
• Weeding destroys habitat in
WATER MANAGEMENT a month old by the time which rats hide and de-
weed seeds germinate. stroys alternate hosts of
• Periodic draining of fields • Direct seeding increases CROPPING PATTERN pathogens and insects.
increases rat and weed weed populations because Biocontrol agents are most
problems but decreases it makes hand weeding dif- • Staggered planting of abundant in weedy fields
virus vectors and, conse- ficult. Moreover, there are neighboring fields favors all and species diversity is
quently, virus disease infec- no herbicides that are pests except weeds and greater. Thus weeding has
tion. Rats increase because highly effective against the nematodes. It also favors a negative effect on biocon-
draining increases weed various weed species. The biocontrol agents, espe- trol agents.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
IMPLEMENTATION OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 401
Implementation of Integrated Pest Management Strategies

Implementation of integrated
pest management strategies’
design begins with farmers in
their communities. It is
community development
because through the process,
farmers learn to recognize
and deal with their own
problems. By designing their
own strategies, farmers learn
how to gather information,
make decisions, and execute
them.
At the same time, those intensity of interactions

who are implementors learn decline with time.
how to listen, obtain Once technology for a
information from outside region has been
sources, and communicate approximated, integrated
that information to farmers in pest management
a usable form. implementation can jump to
This process requires a the extension phase in
continuous commitment, nearby villages without
beginning with an applied duplicating the applied
research phase of about 2-3 research phase.
years’ duration followed by a
perpetual extension phase —
only the frequency and
APPLIED RESEARCH PHASE
Site selection
Integrated pest management
reverses the concept of
developing national
recommendations derived
from research results in a
limited number of sites.
Rather the regional sites
become the focal points.
One or several
neighboring villages with a
history of pest problems and
heavy pesticide use should
be selected because farmers
there will be more receptive.
Focusing on one or several
villages allows concentration
on the social processes of
strategy building, not on the
recommended tactics
themselves. Farmers must
own and control the
technology if they are to feel
comfortable using it.
Team formation
Teams to be formed at the bers can be an economist gathering and interacts with possible to the target villages.
regional and national levels and an agronomist. farmers. One person is The site coordinator serves
should involve research, The regional team is selected as a coordinator as a communication bridge
surveillance, extension directly involved in data who should live as close as between the various agencies
organizations, and farmers. and personnel working at the
The national team acts as site and makes decisions
a coordinating body and involving use of shared
supports the regional teams resources.
financially, logistically, and
technically.
At least one formal
meeting should be held each
year, where the regional
teams report their results to
the national team.
The regional team should
at the minimum have strong
pest control research,
surveillance, and extension
components. The extension
service should have a history
of working with the farmers
in the site area. Nonpest-
control research team mem-
Once the regional team is

formed, a meeting should be
held in each of the villages to
describe the purpose of the
program to the farmers and
their leaders. If the farmers
are receptive, several of their
leaders should become part
of the regional team. If they
do not voice support for the
program, select another site.
Site description
Information on the biological, • The economist should tenure status. labor
arrangements, varieties
calculate costs and returns
from rice production. This
physical, sociological, and perform a baseline survey
economic aspects of the to determine farmers' crop used, cost of credit. labor, information helps
target area will be needed to production practices, and agrochemical usage to researchers to decide what
develop pest strategies. technology to test in field
• Extension workers and trials and gives them price
structures with which to
researchers who have
worked at the site and evaluate technology
farmers should be performance.
consulted about soil,
weather, and agronomic
features as well as pest
problems. It is important
that the team learn how to
grow rice crops that
achieve the agronomic
potential for the site. An
agronomist team member
can provide this
information and may
undertake on-site
agronomic trials to confirm
the technology.
• Through interviews,
researchers in each
discipline should determine
the key pests as perceived
by farmers and the control
measures used. Farmers’
pest control methods
should be evaluated for
their suitability along with
newer technology.
• Prices for agrochemicals
should be obtained from
local outlets.
• Trials conducted at the site

should quantify yield losses
and identify the key pests
responsible for those losses
so that control strategies
can focus on actual
problems.
Research for design of pest

management strategies
The basic philosophy is to
start with an understanding
of the farmers’ crop
production and pest control
practices. Field trials, farmer
surveys, and other on-site
data gathering activities will
pinpoint key pests and
quantify economic losses.
The known technology for
combating the key pests
should be assessed.
Features of the farmers’

production and pest control
practices that might
economically be changed to
produce profitable and stable
yields should be determined.
Cultural control methods
should be assessed. Can any
be fitted into the farmers’
system? Such ideas should
be discussed in farmer
meetings. Such meetings
may lead to a field trial to test
potential practices or to
communitywide adoption of
synchronous planting.
Any pest-resistant varieties

not being grown can be
discussed with the farmers as
they may have very good
reasons for not growing
them. A field trial designed to
test the yield of and pest
reaction to resistant varieties
may be undertaken.
Measures to conserve The efficacy and

natural enemies of pests profitability of pesticides
should also be assessed with (fungicides, herbicides,
farmers, for example, rodenticides, insecticides)
pointing out that certain should be verified at the site
pesticides cause pest Economic threshold values
resurgence and indiscri- for insect pests should be
minate use of pesticides may refined and verified by on-
cause more harm than good. site field trials.
Testing
Separate trials should be
carried out by weed, disease,
insect, and vertebrate pest
control disciplines. The
results, however, will be
examined and analyzed with
researchers from other
disciplines. The farmers
should agree to help with the
trials. Land should not be
rented, but the cost of inputs
for growing the crop can be
given to farmer cooperators
who, in turn, will grow and
maintain the crop, except for
operations involving the pest
discipline. The farmer retains
the yield and bears the risks
from crop damage from
sources outside of the
management of the trial, e.g.
stray livestock, drought, and
floods.
Treatments are replicated
on different farms to expose
the technology to the realistic
range of variation existing
among farms.
The trials are conducted at
the time the crop is grown by technology is tested. measure yield loss at each • weed control trial to
the farmers. The farmer Verification trials such as the growth stage and refine measure yield loss and test
cooperators should plant the following are conducted: and verify economic weed control practices
trials over the existing range • variety trial to evaluate pest thresholds. Information on • rodent control trial to
of planting dates at the site. resistance (particularly yield loss helps in the measure population levels
Verification trials differ diseases) and yield interpretation of treatments and test the suitability of
from experiment station trials potential; that will establish economic baits and bait holders and
in that only proven • insect control trial to threshold values. other control practices
Evaluation
Each of the trials should be Economic analyses of the EXTENSION PHASE acute pests, monitor the
conducted over at least 2 pest control technology development of biotypes and
years for each season until should include costs-and- After the regional and races resulting from new
the research team is satisfied returns and benefit-cost national integrated pest pest-resistant varieties,
that the technology is ratios. management teams have participate in the introduction
suitable. Returns (profit) should tested and formulated an of exotic natural enemies into
exceed the levels farmers integrated pest management the country, handle mass
receive from their current strategy, the information is rearing and release of
pest control practices. extended to farmers indigenous natural enemies,
The benefit-cost ratios for throughout the target area. and monitor the development
material inputs should be The farmers themselves of pesticide-resistant pest
higher than two, meaning must be given technological populations.
that there should be at least a information to be able to
two-to-one rate of return diagnose field problems and
from investment costs. make management decisions.
The economist member of The functions of a national
the team can evaluate the pest surveillance network are
technology. to predict epidemics from
Farmers’ classes
The first step is to hold
weekly farmers’ classes in
several villages (or village
units in more populated
locations) for an entire crop
season. The technical
information is explained in
the weekly subject matter
sessions lasting one to two
hours each. Each session
involves a short lecture, with
demonstrations if possible,
followed by question and
answer periods and then a
field exercise.
Before classes begin, the management. After this The extension officer will exposed to new knowledge
regional team should invite meeting the research organize each weekly class that could evoke their
all farmers in the village to a members of the team no and present the information curiosity and create in them a
general meeting to explain longer are directly involved at to the farmers. The attitude of desire to attend weekly
the purpose of the classes. the site other than to the extension officer toward meetings over succeeding
The farmers then decide diagnose problems and the farmers and the manner crop seasons to learn more.
where and when the classes prescribe solutions to field in which the classes are If farmers’ attendance at
will be held and what problems that trouble the conducted are critical to the meetings declines, the
subjects to cover first. The extension officer. However, success of the extension officer must visit
subjects should include all researchers are accountable implementation process. the farmers in their homes
aspects of crop production, for the performance of the Classes are only an initial more frequently to establish
as the extension officer’s technology and must step in the farmers’ learning social bonds with them.
responsibilities are broader respond if the technology process. Through the classes
than simply pest fails in any way. the farmers should become
Farmers will not be able to the classes should have

assimilate sufficient sufficient social and technical
information over a period of skills to develop a solid
only one crop season no rapport with farmers and gain
matter how well the their respect.
information is presented. The farmers' opinions and
Therefore, there is no need ideas should always be
for elaborate training aids respected, and the extension
such as movies, colorslides, officer should have no air of
or handouts. A blackboard is superiority. The officer
helpful, however. Written should always come to class
quizzes or examinations on time, as frequent
where farmers are tested absences will lower farmer
should be avoided. The attendance at meetings.
extension officer conducting
Follow-upmeetings
Farmers learn to diagnose
pest problems and make
control decisions through
experiences where they are
not told what to do but rather
have to think on their own.
Because the extension officer
cannot meet with each
farmer in the village regularly
— it is important that existing
farmers' organizations be
utilized. Organizations such
as irrigation associations
where farmer groupings are
based on field location are
ideal.
After the farmer classes
are over, the extension officer
should meet with farmer
leaders during succeeding
crop seasons. Each farmer
leader should represent no
more than 20 farmers. These
follow-up meetings, again
held weekly at a
predesignated time, could
rotate among the homes of
the farmer leaders.
Group decision making is the problems are shown to

an important aspect of the the extension officer who
learning process. Before confirms or rejects the
each weekly meeting each farmers’ diagnoses and
farmer leader needs to meet solutions. During the field
with his members either in tour the extension officer can
groups or individually and point out problems
together they will scout their overlooked by the farmers.
fields to diagnose problems The farmers can learn a
and arrive at solutions. little more from the
However, the farmers will not discussion in the field. The
carry out any field operations problems brought out in the
such as pesticide application follow-up meetings may deal
until after the weekly follow- not only with pests, but all
up meeting with the crop production problems.
extension officer. These small lessons learned
Each follow-up meeting each week, however, must
may last one to two hours focus on problems as they
Half of the time is spent on naturally develop in the field.
discussions at the home of The extension officer
one of the farmer leaders and should be responsible only
the other half in a short for technology. Direct
verification tour in the field involvement in a credit
The farmer group leaders program will lessen his or her
report to the extension officer effectiveness.
the problems they diagnosed The extension officer
and the action that they needs the support of the
believe should be taken. The regional and national
extension officer notes down integrated pest management
the problems and the teams in confirming problem
farmers’ solutions but does diagnoses and in presenting
not make a decision until latest technologies.
they are in the fields. There
As the farmers’ capabilities

in problem diagnosis and
decision making progress
over several crop seasons,
the frequency of follow-up
meetings may be reduced to
twice a month and,
eventually, to only two or
three meetings per crop
season.
Farmers not only can
begin to monitor field
problems for themselves but
also can extend these skills
to other farmers.
Because pest problems
and solutions change with
time, there will be a continual
need for the extension officer
to maintain scheduled visits
to each village. Each exten-
sion officer can readily cover
6 to 10 villages or village
units.
APPENDIX
Arthropod Identification Service
Guidelines for preparing specimens

• Immature (soft-bodied) specimens
— Kill by immersing in hot (not boiling) water for
10minutes.
— Transfer to 1) vials containing a mixture of 80
parts 85% alcohol, 5 parts glacial acetic acid, 5
parts glycerine, and 10 parts clean water, or 2)
vials containing 80% alcohol.
— Fill each vial to overflowing (no air bubbles)
before capping.
— Dip the capped end of the vial in molten
candle wax or paraffin to seal.
• Adult (hard-bodied) specimens
Specimens larger than 5 mm
— Pin or wrap in soft tissue paper (do not wrap
in cotton, which is very difficult to untangle
from specimens).
— Dry specimens after pinning and before
wrapping.
Specimens smaller than 5 mm
— Preserve in vials filled to overflowing with 80%
alcohol.
— Dip the capped end of the vial in molten
candle wax or paraffin to seal.
• Information label for each specimen, either
pinned/wrapped or preserved in alcohol, should
contain
— Type of rice culture and environment,
— Stage of the host — egg, larva, pupa, or adult
— if specimen is a parasite,
— Name of collection area and distance to
nearest town that can be found on a popular
road map, and
— Collection date and name of collector.
• Prepare 5 male and 5 female, and 10 immature
specimens of each arthropod to be identified,
Shipping specimens
• Pinned or wrapped specimens
— Remove all preservative crystals from boxes of
dried, pinned, or wrapped specimens before
shipping.
— Pin specimens in a strong box that is provided
with a strong pinning bottom such as cork to
hold pins (Fig. 1).
— Place additional pins on each side of every
pinned insect to prevent movement.
— Place a layer of cardboard on top of the pins.
— To hold specimens snugly, place a layer of
cotton between the cardboard and the top of
the box.
• Specimens in liquid
— Wrap with cotton each vial containing
specimens preserved in liquid.
• Packing for shipment
— Pack vials or the pinning box in a larger
container (Fig. 2).
— If you are shipping specimens in vials and
specimens in a pinning box, keep the two
containers separate from each other in the
large shipping container. — Enclose in the box copies of any letters sent
— The shipping container should be large separately.
enough to permit surrounding the specimen — Send specimens to:
boxes with at least 5 cm of packing material
on all sides and on the top and bottom. Entomology Department
— Include your name and address in the IRRI. P. O. Box 933
shipping box. Manila, Philippines
GLOSSARY 409
GLOSSARY
Accumulative pesticide. A pesticide which tends to build up in the Defoliation. Removal of leaves or portions of leaves from a plant.
tissues of animals, plants, or the environment. Dermal toxicity. How poisonous a pesticide is to man or animal when
Acute toxicity. How poisonous a pesticide is to an animal or man absorbed through the skin.
after a single exposure Dew. Moisture condensed from the atmosphere which forms small
Adult. The mature stage of an insect which occurs after the nymphal drops on the surface of plants. Hot days and cold nights produce
or pupal stages. Adults have mature sexual organs and usually condensation.
have wings. Direct damage. Plant damage caused by the feeding of an insect
Adult activity. Abundance of adult insects as indicated by light trap through the removal of plant sap or plant parts as compared with
catches. indirect damage caused by a disease transmitted by an insect
Alternate host. One of the two or more kinds of plants on which an which causes delayed symptoms.
insect or disease may complete its life cycle. Direct seeding. A rice planting system in which seeds (either
Annual. A plant which completes its life cycle in one year or less. The pregerminated or dry) are sown directly in the field.
plant dies after flowering or maturity. Disease. A condition in which use or structure of any part of the
Antibiosis. A type of varietal resistance in which insects do not grow, living organism is not normal.
survive, or reproduce well on the plant. Drift. Movement by the wind or air currents of a pesticide in small
Anticoagulant. A chemical used for rodent control which when eaten droplets or as dust particles from the target area to an area not
prevents blood clotting by interfering with vitamin K. It causes intended to be treated.
the rat to bleed to death Drizzle. A light rain falling in small drops.
Antidote. A remedy to counteract the toxic effects of a pesticide such Dryland (syn., upland). Level areas without levees and sloping areas
as atropine sulfate for carbamate and phosphate poisoning. which are not terraced where rice is grown during the rainy
Ascospore. The spore produced by fungi in a sac-like body called season without retaining water in the field.
the ascus. Dust. A finely ground dry mixture containing a small amount of
Awn (syn.: arista, beard). A bristle-like extension of varying length pesticide and a carrier such as clay, talc, or volcanic ash. The
originating from the lemma of the rice grain. dust is carried to the rice plants by the wind.
Bacterium (pl., bacteria). Primitive, one-celled, microscopic orga- Ecology. In weed science it is the study of the effect of climatic, soil,
nisms which reproduce by fission. Some bacteria infect rice and topographic, and biotic factors on weed populations.
produce disease symptoms. Economic injury level. The pest population density where the loss
Bait. A food substance, mixed with a pesticide, which attracts a pest caused by the pest is greater than the cost to control the pest.
to eat the pesticide. The pest density at which artificial control measures are econo-
Bait shyness. Occurs when rats learn to associate their illness with mically justified.
poison bait upon which they have fed and stop feeding on it. Economic threshold. The pest density at which artificial control
Beneficials. Parasites and predators which kill insect pests and there- measures should be applied to prevent an increasing pest
fore help reduce insect pest populations. population from reaching the economic injury level. It is a control
Biological control. The man-directed control of insect pests by action threshold which tells the farmer when he must take action
employing natural means such as predators, parasites, or to prevent a pest outbreak.
pathogens. Egg. In insects, the reproductive body in which the embryo develops
Biotype. A population of insects that is capable of surviving on and and from which the nymph or larva hatches.
damaging varieties that are resistant to other populations of the Egg mass. A group of eggs deposited by the female insect which are
same insect species. adjacent to each other as in the rice bug or overlapping such as in
BPH. Abbreviation for brown planthoppper. the yellow stem borer as opposed to eggs laid singly.
Bract. A leaf from the axis of which a flower arises. Emergence (insect). Act of an adult insect leaving the pupal case or
Broadcast application. To spread pesticide granules by hand or last nymphal skin.
machine randomly over a surface area. Emigrate. Movement of animals such as insects or rats away from a
Chlamydospore. A thick-walled, resting fungal spore; also used for particular area.
smut spores. Emulsifiable concentrate. A pesticide formulation with a large
Chronic toxicity. How poisonous a pesticide is to an animal or man amount of active ingredient dissolved in a liquid, plus an
after small, repeated doses over a period of time. emulsifying agent. When water is added an emulsion or opaque
Clod. A mass or lump of aggregated soil, usually clay soil. liquid is formed.
Cocoon. A silken case made by the larva and inside which an insect Eyespots. Eyes of an insect embryo within an egg which appear as
pupa develops. spots through the egg shell.
Coleoptile. Appearing at seed germination, the cylinder-like, protec- Fallow. Land that is ordinarily used for crops but allowed to lie idle.
tive covering that encloses the young plumule. Flag leaf. The uppermost rice leaf originating just below the panicle
Common name. A universally accepted name given a pesticide by an base.
appropriate professional organization. Flowable. A liquid chemical formulation in which finely ground, solid
Condensation. The reduction of water vapor to a liquid on the leaf particles of pesticide are suspended in a small amount of liquid.
surface. Footprint. An impression of an animal's (such as a rat) foot in a soft
Conidium (pl., conidia). Any asexual fungal spore except sporangio- or wet soil or on a tracking tile.
spore, or chlamydospore. Formulation. The form in which a pesticide is sold for use, e.g. dust,
Contact herbicide. A herbicide which affects only those plant parts granule, wettable powder, emulsifiable concentrate, etc.
with which it comes in contact. Fungus (pI., fungi). An organism with no chlorophyll, reproducing by
Cultural control. The use of agronomic practices such as soil tillage, sexual or asexual spores, usually with mycelium with well marked
varying planting time, fertility levels, sanitation, water manage- nuclei.
ment, and short-duration cultivars to reduce pest populations. Gall. An abnormal plant growth, swelling, or tumor induced by
Damage (plant). Destruction, injury, or loss in value caused by the another organism such as an insect.
feeding activity of insects and rats or by disease infection or by Generation. The time between birth and reproduction of an
weed infestation. individual.
Deadheart. Dead rice tiller caused by a stem borer which girdles its GLH. Abbreviation for green leafhopper.
base.
Granule. Pesticide impregnated on dry particles, larger than those Liquid formulation. Pesticide formulations which are applied as
used as a dust which allows it to be spread by hand. sprays, for example, emulsifiable concentrates and flowable
Growing point. Mass of meristematic tissue at the stem tip where formulations.
growth in length of the stem occurs. Lodging. To fall down. Characteristic of rice cultivars with weak stems
Habitat. In weed science, a location or site where a weed commonly to fall over when under the influence of strong winds. Lodging is
grows, as in ricefields, levees, and irrigation canals. most common near harvest when the upper portion of the plant is
Hatching. The emergence of a nymph or larval insect from the egg. heavy because of the weight of the grain. High nitrogen, high
Herbicide. Chemical used to kill or prevent growth of weeds. plant populations, and weed competition contribute to lodging.
Hibemation. A period of arrested development usually due to cold Management (pest). Management of pest populations through the
temperatures. use of monitoring methods and the employment of control mea-
Hill. A group of rice plants directly adjacent to each other because sures based on economic thresholds.
the seeds or seedlings were planted together. A hill may also Midrib. Central vein of the leaf.
consist of only one plant. Milk stage. Stage occurring during the ripening phase of rice growth
Hopperburn. Drying up of rice plants caused by the feeding of leaf and development when the inside of the grain is at first watery but
and planthoppers which remove plant sap. later turns milky in consistency.
Horizontal resistance. A general resistance, controlled by many Mine. A cavity between the upper and lower surface of a leaf caused
minor genes, which provides resistance (usually moderate) to all by the removal of plant tissue by the feeding of an insect larva.
disease races or insect biotypes of a given species. Modern varieties. Dwarf, stiff-stemmed, high-tillering, nitrogen-
Host. The organism on which a parasite lives; the plant on which a responsive, photoperiod-insensitive high yielding varieties in con-
pest feeds. trast to traditional varieties (cultivars).
Host plant. A plant species which serves as a source of food, shelter, Molt. In insects, the process of shedding the skin.
or as an oviposition site for various organisms. Monitor. To make regular observations to determine the density or
Humidity. The amount of water vapor in the air. feeding activity of a pest population.
Hypersusceptibility. A type of resistance to a disease in which Multiple crops. Two or more crops in the same field in a year.
invaded cells are killed so quickly that the disease remains local- Mycoplasma. Virus-like agents.
ized and cannot spread throughout the plant. Natural enemies. Pathogens, parasites, and predators which regulate
Immigrate. Movement of animals such as insects or rats into a parti- populations of insect pests.
cular area. Node. The solid portion of the jointed stem. Leaves, tillers, and
Immunity. A type of resistance to disease in which the rice plant is adventitious roots arise from nodes on the stem.
not attacked under any conditions. Rice cultivars are rarely Nonpreference. A type of resistance in which insects do not feed
immune to rice diseases. upon, oviposit in, or, use a plant for shelter.
Inhalation toxicity. How poisonous a pesticide is to man or animal Nontarget organisms. Organisms such as beneficial insects against
when it is breathed in. which pesticides are not directed.
Insect. Members of phylum Arthropoda ("jointed legs") with unique Nymph. In certain insects, the stage of development immediately
characteristics of six legs, division of the body into three distinct after hatching; resembling the adult but lacking fully developed
body regions (head, thorax, and abdomen), and wings. wings and sexual organs.
Integrated rice pest management. Management of rice pests includ- Oral toxicity. Toxicity of a pesticide which enters the body through
ing diseases, insects, weeds, and rodents at populations below the mouth.
the economic injury level through the use of combinations of two Outbreak. A sudden increase in a pest population resulting in eco-
or more control methods such as biological and chemical control. nomic damage to the rice crop.
Label. Information attached to the pesticide container which should Oviposition. The act of laying or depositing eggs.
include the name of the pesticide, manufacturer's name, net con- Palea. The hardened 3-nerved bract of the floret which fits closely to
tent, ingredient statement, warning statement, directions for use the lemma. It is narrower than the lemma.
and antidotes for accidental poisoning. Panicle. The terminal shoot of the rice plant that produces grain.
Larva. An immature stage of an insect occurring between the egg Parasite. An Insect (commonly a wasp or fly) whose larvae develop
and pupal stage in insects having complete metamorphosis. within the body of its host and usually feed on a single host arid
Latent period. Incubation period of a virus in an insect. The time destroy it.
between acquisition of the virus and the time when the insect Perennial. Plants which require more than one year to complete their
becomes infective. life cycle.
LC (lethal concentration). LC 50 refers to the concentration required Perithecium (pl., perithecia). In fungi, a globular to flask-shaped body
to kill 50% of test animals in a given time period. LC 50 values are having a hole through which ascospores are released.
expressed in mg pesticide/liter of air or liquid. Persistent pesticides. Pesticides which remain unchanged in the
LD (lethal dose). LD 50 refers to the dose of pesticide required to kill environment for long periods. They are not readily broken down
50% of test animals in a given time period. LD 50 values are usually into single components by microorganisms, enzymes, heat, or
expressed in µg pesticide/g or mg pesticide/kg body weight of the ultraviolet light.
test animal. Pest. An unwanted organism which competes with people for food
Leafhopper. Insect of the order Homoptera. family Cicadellidae, and shelter, or threatens their health, comfort, or welfare.
which feeds by removing sap from veins in leaves of the rice Pesticide. Any substance used to control pests including insecticide,
plant. More slender and quick moving than planthoppers. herbicide, fungicide, bactericide, rodenticide, or nematicide.
Leaf sheath. The lower part of the leaf originating from a node and Photoperiod-sensitive cultivars. Cultivars which will not flower unless
enclosing the stem (culm) above the node. exposed to certain day lengths.
Leaf veins. Vascular bundles of the leaf seen, externally in monocoty- Phytotoxicity. Plant injury caused by chemicals or some other agent.
ledonous plants such as rice, as longitudinal ridges. Common symptoms are spotting, wilting, stunting, tiller spread-
Lemma (syn., outer glume). The hardened 5-nerved bract of the floret ing, and twisting of leaves.
partly enclosing the palea. Planthopper. Insect of the order Homoptera, family Delphacidae,
Lesion. Localized spot of diseased tissue on a plant part. which feeds by removing sap from leaf veins along the lower por-
Levee. Dike made of soil to retain water in rice fields. tion of the rice plant. Usually more stout and slow moving than
Life cycle. The stages in the growth and development of an organism leafhoppers.
that occur between the appearance of the individual and its death Predator. An animal that attacks or feeds on other animals.
or reproduction. Prey. The animal on which a predator feeds.
Light trap. A device used to collect insects, consisting of a light. Pupa. A nonfeeding and usually inactive stage which occurs between
source which attracts insects at night and a mechanism which the larval and adult stages of insect development.
traps the insects.

Illustrated Guide To Integrated Pest Management in Rice in Tropical Asia

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Illustrated Guide To Integrated Pest Management in Rice in Tropical Asia

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W. H. Reissig, E. A. Heinrichs, J. A.

Copyright © International Rice Research Institute 1986. Corrected edition

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Chronic pests — weeds, most leaf-feeding

Pest epidemics have been recorded ever

In recent years, the need to intensify rice

• New irrigation systems have 1) allowed dry

• Development of new varieties has 1) led to

• Fertilizer usage increased with the

• Pesticide use has expanded in response to

Pesticide misuse may:

The pest problems brought about by the

Integrated pest management is a strategy or

Rice Plant Structure and Growth Stages

Insects, diseases, and the

The life cycle of many pests

Many crop management

STRUCTURE OF THE RICE PLANT

The rice leaf

The rice stem

Stage 1 — seedling stage

Stage 2 — tillering stage

Stage 3 - stem elongation

Stage 4 — panicle initiation

Stage 7 — milk grain stage

Stage 8 — dough grain stage

Stage 9 — mature grain stage

General rice growth stages

The number of days in the

The number of days in the

Insect Pests of Rice

General life cycle

Insects with gradual meta-

Nymphal stages may be Adults and nymphs both feed

Insects with complete

In some insects with

Adults do not feed upon or

In other species (hispa) both

Most insect pests of rice Sucking insects pierce the

Rice insects can also be

The biology and

Scientific names are used to

Description of insect pests in

Insects are designated as

— rainfed upland rice — rainfed wetland rice — irrigated wetland rice

• Development and actual

The actual size of the

• Location and behavior

The major species of host

The type of damage caused

The section on management

ANTS (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE)

Several species of red or

Ants are most prevalent in fields in rainfed wetlands.

Ants' nests are below the