Chapter Three

Dire Dawa poly Technic College Sattelite Campus 2021
Chapter Three
3. Geometric design of Road Alignments
Geometric design for transportation facilities includes the design of geometric cross
sections, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, intersections, and various design
details. These basic elements are common to all linear facilities, such as roadways,
railways, and airport runways and taxiways. Although the details of design standards
vary with the mode and the class of facility, most of the issues involved in geometric
design are similar for all modes. In all cases, the goals of geometric design are to
maximize the comfort, safety, and economy of facilities, while minimizing their environ-
mental impacts.
3.1. Horizontal alignment
Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency
and safety of a highway. Horizontal alignment design involves the understanding on the
design aspects such as design speed and the effect of horizontal curve on the vehicles.
The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the
circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the superelevation section. These
elements are presented in detail in the following text.
3.1.1. Tangent Sections
From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country
but are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide
better visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase
the danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate
areas, such as on the Awash- Djibouti Road, long tangents have been shown to increase
driver fatigue and hence cause accidents. This issue needs to be addressed in the course
of the horizontal design. The maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed
4.0 kilometers.
3.1.2. Circular Curve
Curves are usually employed in lines of communication in order that the change of
direction at the intersection of the straight line shall be gradual. The lines connected by
the curves are tangential to it and are called as tangents or straights. A simple curve
By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 1

consist of a single arc connecting two straights or tangents. simple curve is normally
represented by the length of its radius or by the degree of curve.
Figure3.1: Simple circular curve.

A curve is designated by the angle subtended by a chord of a specified length or by the
radius.
Let ,
R = the radius of a curve in m
D = the degrees of the curves
MN = the chord 30 m long
P = its mid point.
IN the ∆ OMP, OM=R; MP=1/2MN= 15 m. MOP= D/2 Then,
When D is small, sin (D/2) may be taken approximately equal to D/2 in radians.

Example: compute the radius of simple circular curve using choord and arc definition
while 3 of degree curvature subtended with 30m of arc length.
Answer :
Using chord definition
Using arc definition

If MN =100 links (20m) and R is expressed in links degree of the curve can be shown as
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal

force. The centrifugal force is counter balanced by superelevation of the roadway and/or
the side friction developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the
minimum horizontal radius, Rmin, for a particular design speed, the following equation
shall be used:
Where
VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e = Maximum superelevation (%/100)
f = Side friction coefficient

Table 3.1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Superelevation
Design Speed
20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz.
15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 630
Radius R (m)
Side Friction
0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.10
Factor (f)
Table 3-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Superelevation (Urban Streets)
Design Speed
20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz.
15 35 60 100 150 215 320 490 810
Radius R .(m)
Side Friction
0.40 0.32 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10
Factor (f)
Example 1: The horizontal allignment of geometric design was designed with 100km/hr of
vehicle speed and 8% of road supper elevation with side friction factor of 0.12. Calculate
the minimum radius of designed road.
Answer:
Example 2: The horizontal allignment of geometric design was designed with 150m of
vehicle minimum radius of designed road and 4% of road supper elevation with side
friction factor of 0.19. Calculate the vhicle speed of designed road.
Answer:
√
Other equations used in the calculation of horizontal curve elements are given below.
Elements of a Circular Curve
I. Point of Intersection (PI). The point of intersection is the point where the back and
forward tangents intersect. Sometimes, the point of intersection is designated as
V (vertex).

II. Deflection Angle (∆ )፡The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn
from the center of the circle (O) to the PC and PT. The value of the central angle
is equal to the I angle. Some authorities call both the intersecting angle and
central angle either I or A.
III. Radius (R)፡ The radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc, or segment. The
radius is always perpendicular to back and forward tangents.
IV. T (Tangent Distance),
V. E (External Distance),
VI. L (Curve Length)
VII. M (Middle Ordinate)

VIII. Point of Curvature (PC). The point of curvature is the point on the back tangent
where the circular curve begins. It is sometimes designated as BC (beginning of
curve) or TC (tangent tocurve).
P.C = P.I – T
IX.Long Cord (C). The long chord is the straight-line distance from the PC to the PT.
X. Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station

XI. Point of Tangency (PT), The point of tangency is the point on the forward tangent
where the curve ends. It is sometimes designated as EC (end of curve) or CT
(curve to tangent)፣ P.T = P.C + L

Figure 3.1: Curve Elements

Example: A circular curve has 300 m radius and 60° deflection angle. What is its degree
by (a) arc definition and (b) chord definition of standard length 30 m. Also calculate (i)
length of curve, (ii) tangent length, (iii) length of long chord, (iv) mid-ordinate and (v)
apex distance.

Example:
A curve has a deflection angle of ∆ = 23o 18’ 02”, and a Radius of 1432.6m. The Point of
Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate tangent distance (T), external distance (E), curve
length (L), Point of Curvature (PC), and Point of Tangent (PT).
P.C.= P.I. – T = 5+053.87 – 295.35 = 4 + 758.52

P.T. = P.C. + L = 4 + 758.49 + 582.51 = 5+341.00

Example: A tangent with a bearing of N 56° 4848’ 2020” E meets another tangent with a
bearing E meets another tangent with a bearing of N 40° 1010’ 2020” E at PI STA 6 +
26.57. A horizontal curve with radius = 1000 meter will be used to connect the two
tangents. Compute the degrfeet will be used to connect the two tangents. Compute the
degree of curvature, tangent distance, length of curve, chord distance, middle ordinate,
tangent distance፣ external distance, PC and PT Stations.distance, PC and PT Stations.
Solution:Solution:
Example: A curve has a deflection angle of ∆ = 60, and a Point of commencement(PC)
is 4 + 758.52. The Point of Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate Radius(R), tangent
distance (T), choord lenth(c), external distance (E), curve length (L), mid ordinate(M),
and Point of Tangent (PT).
Example: A curve has a intrsection angle of 120, and a Radius of 1432.6m. The Point of
Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. tangent distance (T), choord lenth(c), external distance (E),
curve length (L), mid ordinate(M), and Point of Tangent (PT).
Example : Two straight lines AB &BC intersect at chainage of 1+20 & the deflection angle
being 40.The radius of the curve is 280m. Determine:
a. Tangent Distance (T)
b. Long Chord (LC)
c. Point Curvature (PC)
d. Length of Curve (L)
e. Point of Tangency (PT)
f. External Distance (E)
g. Middle Ordinate (M)
Example : Two straight lines AB &BC intersect at chainage of 1+20 & the Intersection
angle being 120.The curvature angle of 6 subtended with chord definition. Determine:
a. Curve radius( R)
b. Tangent Distance (T)
c. Long Chord (LC)
d. Point Curvature (PC)
e. Length of Curve (L)

f. Point of Tangency (PT)
g.External Distance (E)
h. Middle Ordinate (M)
3.2.Sight distances
Sight distance is the length or distance of roadway visible to the driver. This is a major
design control for vertical alignments and is essential for the safe and efficient operation
of vehicles. This distance is dependent on the driver’s eye height, the specified
object height, and the height/position of sight obstructions. The three-dimensional
features of the roadway should provide a minimum sight line for safe operations.
Sight distance crateria during geometric design to provide a minimum sight line for safe
operations are:
3.50 feet above road surface (passenger vehicles) 7.60 feet above
road surface (trucks)
Height of Driver’s Eye
3.50 feet above road surface (passenger vehicles) 7.60 feet above
road surface (trucks)
2.00 feet above road surface (stopping & decision) 3.50 feet
above road surface (passing & intersection)
Height of Object
2.00 feet above road surface (stopping & decision) 3.50 feet
above road surface (passing & intersection)
Due to differences in driver needs, various types of sight distances apply to

geometric design:
Stopping
Decision
Passing
Intersection
The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The
minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes
into account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle.
Stopping sight distance is composed of two distances:

Brake Reaction Time starts upon driver recognition of a roadway obstacle until
application of the vehicle’s brakes. Typically, the driver not only needs to see
the object but also recognize it as a potential hazard. The time required to
make this determination can widely vary based on the object’s distance, visibility,
roadway conditions, vehicle speed, type of obstacle, etc. A brake reaction time of 2.5
seconds met the capabilities of most drivers including older drivers.
Braking Distance is the roadway distance traveled by a vehicle during braking
(from the instant of brake application).
The formula of stopping sight distance(SSD) is:
where
d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 3.4 )
DesignSpeed Coefficient PSD(m) ReducedPSD for

SSD (m)
(km/h) of Friction (f) from formulae design (m)
20 .42 20 160 50
30 .40 30 217 75
40 .38 45 285 125
50 .35 55 345 175
60 .33 85 407 225
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425

3.2.1. Control of Sight Distance

Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of
sight lines፡
Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters
Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
3.2.2. Stopping Sight Distance: Single Lane Roads
Certain classes of roads only have a single lane, with passing pullouts. In these
circumstances, a stopping sight distance is required to enable both approaching drivers
to stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping sight distance for the two vehicles, plus
a 30- meter safety distance. The resultant distance is that shown in Table 3-4, doubled,
plus 30 meters.
Example:
Design speed = 50 km/hr. From Table 3-4
SSD = (55 x 2) + 30 = 140 meters
Example: Calculate SSD for V =50kmph for (a) two-way traffic in a two lane road (b)
two-way traffic in single lane road.
Answer:
Given
V= 50km/hr
f = 0.35 from table.
t= 2.5 sec
Solution: a)

b)
Pasing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads
that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the
roadway. Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions
and widen cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care
must be exercised in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight
distance may be obscured in the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
)
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h

d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent
on ambient speeds as per Table 3.5 :
Table 3.5: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds

Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120
d3 (m) 30 55 80 100
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2

less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Example: A vehicle moving at a speed of 50 mph is slowing traffic on a two-lane highway.
What passing sight distance is necessary, in order for a passing maneuver to be carried
out safely?
Passing vehicle driver's perception/reaction time = 2.5 sec
Passing vehicle's acceleration rate = 1.47 kmph/sec
Initial speed of passing vehicle = 50 kmph
Passing speed of passing vehicle = 60 kmph
Speed of slow vehicle = 50 kmph
Speed of opposing vehicle = 60 mph
Length of passing vehicle = 22m
Length of slow vehicle = 22m
Clearance distance between passing and slow vehicles at lane change = 20m
Clearance distance between passing and slow vehicles at lane re-entry = 20m
Clearance distance between passing and opposing vehicles at lane re-entry = 250m
Answer:
)

( )
d2 = 0.278 vt2
d2 = 0.278 *50*(22/50) = 5.5m, where t2= 22/50
Clearance Distance (d3) = 20m
d4 = 2d2/3 =(2*5.5)/3 =2.2m but in this equation is given by 250m
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 =36.13+5.5+20+2.2 = 63.83m
3.3. Vertical Allignments
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by
sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of
service. Vertical curves are curves, in a vertical plane, used to join two intersecting grade
lines. The reduced level of these curves change from point to point in a gradual and
systematic manner. A vertical summit curve is provided when a rising grade joins a falling
grade and a vertical sag curve is provided when a falling grade joins a rising grade.

Vertical curves are usually parabolic and are classified as summit and sag vertical curve.
A parabolic curve also provides the best riding qualities as the rate of change in grade is
uniform throughout along a parabola having its axis vertical i.e., the rate of change of
slope of a parabola is constant.
There are several factors that must be taken into account when designing a grade line of
tangents and curves on any highway or railroad project. They include:
1. Providing a good fit with the existing ground profile, thereby minimizing the depths of
cuts and fills,
2. Balancing the volume of cut material against fill,
3. Maintaining adequate drainage,
4. Not exceeding maximum specified grades, and
5. Meeting fixed elevations such as intersections with other roads.
In addition, the curves must be designed to
a) Fit the grade lines they connect,
b) Have lengths sufficient to meet specifications covering a maximum rate of change of
grade(which
affects the comfort of vehicle occupants), and
c) Provide sufficient sight distance for safe vehicle operation.
In the same way as horizontal curves are used to connect intersecting straights in the
horizontal plane, vertical curves are used to connect intersecting straights (gradients) in
the vertical plane.
Gradients: is the ratio between vertical heights to horizontal distance, usually expressed
as percentages,
for example,
1 in 50 = 2 percent
1 in 25 = 4 percent
3.3.1. Vertical Curve Formula

Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients.
The simple parabola is specified for these. The parabola provides a constant rate of
change of curvature, and hence acceleration and visibility, along its length and has the
form:
Where
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)
g1 = starting grade (%)
g2 = ending grade (%)
L = length of curve (horizontal distance m)
y = elevation of a point on the curve
x = distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100)
BVC = beginning of the vertical curve
EVC = end of the vertical curve
Arelative formula is:

Elevation point on tangent line= EPT= g1X

Offset from tangent line to curve=(r/2) X2
y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters)
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve (meters).
3.3.2. The grade of vertical curve and rate of Change of grade
The gradient or grade may be defined as a proportional rise or fall between two points
along a straight line. It is expressed either as a percentage or as a ratio.
1. As a percentage (%). Vertical rise or fall per 100 horizontals e.g. 1%, 2%, 5%,
etc.
2. As a ratio. One vertical rise or fall in n horizontals e.g. 1 in 200, 1 in 500 etc.
The grades are further classified into following two categories :
(a) Up-grades or positive grades
(b)Down grades or negative grades
A grade is classified as an upgrade if elevations along it increase whereas it is classified as
downgrade if the elevations decrease. It is important to note that these classifications
depend upon the direction of the movement of the vehicles. An upgrade becomes a down
grade if the direction of motion of the vehicle is reversed.
3.3.3. Type of vertical curves
The formulae for design of crest and sag vertical curves can be rather complex to apply,
and thus the design is best accomplished through the application of a computer program,
or by use of design charts.

Two types of vertical curves exist: (a) Crest Curves (summit curve) (b) Sag Curves
(valley curve).Sag curves are used where the change in grade is positive, such as valleys,
while crest curves are used when the change in grade is negative, such as hills.
Both types of curves have three defined points:
1. PVC (Point of Vertical Curve),
2. PVI (Point of Vertical Intersection), and
3. PVT (Point of Vertical Tangency)
PVC is the start point of the curve while the PVT is the end point. The elevation at either
of these points can be computed as EPVC and EPVT for PVC and PVT respectively. The
roadway grade that approaches the PVC is defined as g1 and the roadway grade that
leaves the PVT is defined as g2. These grades are generally described as being in units of
(m/m) or (ft/ft), depending on unit type chosen.
Crest curves: - Which can also be referred to as a summit or hogging curve, is one for
which the algebraic difference is negative when calculated from right to left. Crest curves
are used when the change in grade is negative, such as hills. If a vertical curve has its
convexity upwards it is called a summit curve.
Sag curves፡ A sag curve (valley or sagging) curve is one for which the algebraic
difference of the gradients is positive when calculated from right to left. Sag curves are
used where the change in grade is positive, such as valleys. The vertical curve having its
convexity downward or when it is concave upwards it is called a sag or valley curve.

Valley curve Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards.
They are formed when two gradients meet in any of the following four ways:
When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient.
When a descending gradient meets a flat gradient.
When a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient.
When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient.
Crest curves are vertical curves with convexity upwards. They are formed when two
gradients meet in any of the following four ways:
When a ascending gradient meets another descending gradient.
When a ascending gradient meets a flat gradient.
When a ascending gradient meets an ascending gradient.
When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient.
The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to provide sufficient
stopping sight distance. The design is based on minimum allowable "K" values, as defined
by the formula:
K = L/A
Where
K = limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade
L = length of vertical curve (m)
A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%)
Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves have been recommended based on
design speeds and stopping sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort,
appearance, and most importantly, safety.
Example: Calculate the length of a vertical curve if an upgrade g1 = 1.4% is followed by a
downgrade g2 = 0.6% and the rate of change of grade, is recommended as 0.1 % per 20
m chain.
Answer:

Example: Calculate the length of a vertical curve if an upgrade g1 = 1.5.% is followed by

an upgrade g2 = 1.5%. Assume the recommended rate of change of grade as 0.1 per 30 m
chain.
Answer:
Example: Calculate the value of the constant K when an upgrade 2.5% is followed by a
downgrade 1.5%. Assume the rate of change of grade is 0.05% per 20 m chain.
Answer:
Example: A + 4% gradient is linked to a –3% gradient by a crest curve. What length of

curve is required for a design speed of 100 km/h?
A = (4% – (– 3%)) = + 7% (positive for crest)
Desirable minimum crest K-value = 105 (From ERA)
Desirable minimum length = L =7%* 105/% =735m

Example: A 1600m long sag vertical curve (equal tangent) has a PVI at station 120 + 00
and elevation 1500m. The initial grade is -3.5% and the final grade is +6.5%. Determine
the elevation and stationing of the low point, PVC, and PVT
Answer:

Example: two grade lines intersect at Station 2+200m where the point of vertical
intersection (PVI) elevation is 239.5 m. The starting grade is –6 percent and the ending
grade is +2 percent. The length of curve is 400 m. Compute the elevation at station
2+200 m.
Example: A 200m vertical curve is to join two grade lines g1and g2 which are –5% and -
3% respectively. The vertex of the intersection of the grades is at a station of 62+00 and
the elevation sis 1000.00m. Compute the grade elevations at 20-m intervals throughout
the curve.
I. Grade change ( A)
II.Rate change( r )
III. Speed change cofficients (K)
IV.Chainage at the point of commencement (PVC)
V.Elevation point commencement (PVC)
VI.Elevation point of tangency (PVT)
VII.Elevation at the center of PVC & PVT
VIII.Elevation on grade line(EPVC + g1X)
IX.Elev. On curve(Y= EPVC + g1X +(r/2) X2)
Example: A vertical curve is to join two grade lines g1and g2 which are 4% and -6%
respectively. The chainage of the starting curve is 5 + 900m with vertex of the
intersection of the grades is at a station of 6+000 and the elevation sis 500.00m.
Compute the grade elevations at 20-m intervals throughout the curve.
I. Grade change ( A)
II. Curve length( L)
III. Rate change( r )
IV. Speed change cofficients (K)
V. Chainage at the point of commencement (PVC)
VI. Elevation point commencement (PVC)

VII. Elevation point of tangency (PVT)

VIII. Elevation at the center of PVC & PVT
IX. Elevation on grade line(EPVC + g1X)

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Dire Dawa poly Technic College Sattelite Campus 2021

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 1

Figure3.1: Simple circular curve.

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 2

Using arc definition

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 3

When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal

f = Side friction coefficient

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 5

VI. L (Curve Length)

VII. M (Middle Ordinate)

X. Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 6

Figure 3.1: Curve Elements

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 7

P.C.= P.I. – T = 5+053.87 – 295.35 = 4 + 758.52

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 8

e. Length of Curve (L)

Due to differences in driver needs, various types of sight distances apply to

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 10

DesignSpeed Coefficient PSD(m) ReducedPSD for

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 11

3.2.1. Control of Sight Distance

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 12

Pasing Sight Distance

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 13

Table 3.5: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 14

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3.3.1. Vertical Curve Formula

Arelative formula is:

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 17

Elevation point on tangent line= EPT= g1X

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 18

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 19

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Example: Calculate the length of a vertical curve if an upgrade g1 = 1.5.% is followed by

Example: A + 4% gradient is linked to a –3% gradient by a crest curve. What length of

Desirable minimum length = L =7%* 105/% =735m

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 21

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VII. Elevation point of tangency (PVT)

By: Fanta D. Road Construction Page 23

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