CHAPTER 10: SOIL CHEMISTRY

LESSON 1: PROPERTIES OF SOIL

1. Soil Physical Properties

a. Horizonation

Soil “horizons” are discrete layers that make up a soil profile. They are typically
parallel with th
e ground surface. In some soils, they show evidence of the actions of the soil
forming processes.

O horizons are dominated by organic material. Some are saturated with water
for long periods or were once saturated but are now artificially drained; others
have never been saturated.

A horizons are mineral layers that formed at the surface or below an O horizon,
that exhibit obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure, and that show
one or both of the following:
• an accumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with the
mineral fraction and not dominated by properties characteristic of E or B
horizons
• modification as a result of the actions of cultivation, pasturing, or similar
kinds of disturbance

E horizons are mineral layers that exhibit the loss of silicate clay, iron,
aluminum, humus, or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of
sand and silt particles. These horizons exhibit obliteration of all or much of the
original rock structure.

B horizons are mineral layers that typically form below an A, E, or O horizon

and are dominated by obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure and
show one or more of the following:

• illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, humus, carbonate,

gypsum, or silica, alone or in combination
• evidence of removal of carbonates
• residual concentration of sesquioxides
• coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in
value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue than overlying horizons without
apparent illuviation of iron
• alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides or both and that
forms granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if volume changes
accompany changes in moisture content; or brittleness

C horizons are mineral layers which are not bedrock and are little affected by
pedogenic processes and lack properties of O, A, E or B horizons. The material
of C layers may be either like or unlike that from which the overlying soil horizons
presumably formed. The C horizon may have been modified even if there is no
evidence of pedogenesis.

R horizons are layers of hard bedrock.

 Transitional horizons are dominated by properties of one master horizon, but
have subordinate properties of another. AB and B/C are examples of transitional
horizon designations.

b. Soil Color

In well aerated soils, oxidized or ferric (Fe+3) iron compounds are responsible
for the brown, yellow, and red colors you see in the soil.

When iron is reduced to the ferrous (Fe+2) form, it becomes mobile, and can be
removed from certain areas of the soil. When the iron is removed, a gray color
remains, or the reduced iron color persists in shades of green or blue.

Upon aeration, reduced iron can be reoxidized and redeposited, sometimes in

the same horizon, resulting in a variegated or mottled color pattern. These soil
color patterns resulting from saturation, called “redoximorphic features”, can
indicate the duration of the anaerobic state, ranging from brown with a few
mottles, to complete gray or “gleization” of the soil.

Soils that are dominantly gray with brown or yellow mottles immediately below
the surface horizon are usually hydric.

Soil color is typically described using some form of color reference chart, such
as the Munsell Color Chart. Using the Munsell system, color is described in
reference to the color’s “hue”, “value”, and “chroma”. Hue describes where in the
color spectrum the soil color exists, which for soils includes the colors yellow,
red, blue, green, and gray. Value describes the lightness of the color. Chroma
indicates the strength of the color. In a Munsell notation, the color is written in
the order hue-value-chroma. The color “5YR 4/3” is an example of a Munsell
notation, where 5YR is the hue, 4 is the value, and 3 is the chroma.

c. Soil Texture

Soil texture refers to the proportion of the soil “separates” that make up the
mineral component of soil. These separates are called sand, silt, and clay. These
soil separates have the following size ranges:

• Sand = <2 to 0.05 mm

• Silt = 0.05 to 0.002 mm
• Clay = <0.002 mm

Sand and silt are the “inactive” part of the soil matrix, because they do not
contribute to a soil’s ability to retain soil water or nutrients. These separates are
commonly comprised of quartz or some other inactive mineral.

Because of its small size and sheet-like structure, clay has a large amount of
surface area per unit mass, and its surface charge attracts ions and water.
Because of this, clay is the “active” portion of the soil matrix.

For all mineral soils, the proportion of sand, silt, and clay always adds up to 100
percent. These percentages are grouped into soil texture “classes”, which have
been organized into a “textural triangle”.
 Soil texture can affect the amount
of pore space within a soil. Sand-
sized soil particles fit together in
a way that creates large pores;
however, overall there is a
relatively small amount of total
pore space. Clay-sized soil
particles fit together in a way that
creates small pores; however,
overall there are more pores
present. Therefore, a soil made
of clay-sized particles will have
more total pore space than a will
a soil made of sand-sized
particles. Consequently, clayey
soils will generally have lower
bulk densities than sandy soils.

Collectively, the soil separates of sand, silt, and clay are called the “fine-earth
fraction”, and represent inorganic soil particles less than 2mm in diameter.
Inorganic soil particles 2mm and larger are called “rock fragments”.

When the organic matter content of a soil exceeds 20 to 35% (on a dry weight
basis) it is considered organic soil material, and the soil is called an organic soil.
As this material is mostly devoid of mineral soil material, they cannot be
described in terms of soil texture. However, the following “in lieu of” texture terms
can be used to describe organic soils:
• “peat”; organic material in which the plant parts are still recognizable
• “muck”; highly decomposed organic material in which no plant parts are
recognizable
• “mucky peat”; decomposition is intermediate between muck and peat

d. Soil Structure
The soil separates can become aggregated together into discrete structural units
called “peds”. These peds are organized into a repeating pattern that is referred
to as soil structure. Between the peds are cracks called “pores” through which
soil air and water are conducted. Soil structure is most commonly described in
terms of the shape of the individual peds that occur within a soil horizon.

Types of Soil Structure

 "Structureless" Soil Types

e. Soil Consistence

Soil consistence refers to the ease with which an individual ped can be crushed
by the fingers. Soil consistence, and its description, depends on soil moisture
content. Terms commonly used to describe consistence are:

Moist soil:

• loose – noncoherent when dry or moist; does not hold together in a mass
• friable – when moist, crushed easily under gentle pressure between thumb
and forefinger and can be pressed together into a lump
• firm – when moist crushed under moderate pressure between thumb and
forefinger, but resistance is distinctly noticeable

Wet soil:

• plastic – when wet, readily deformed by moderate pressure but can be

pressed into a lump; will form a “wire” when rolled between thumb and
forefinger
• sticky – when wet, adheres to other material and tends to stretch somewhat
and pull apart rather than to pull free from other material

Dry Soil:

• soft – when dry, breaks into powder or individual grains under very slight
pressure
• hard – when dry, moderately resistant to pressure; can be broken with
difficulty between thumb and forefinger
f. Bulk Density

Bulk density is the proportion of the weight of a soil relative to its volume. It is
expressed as a unit of weight per volume, and is commonly measured in units of
grams per cubic centimeters (g/cc).

Bulk density is an indicator of the amount of pore space available within individual
soil horizons, as it is inversely proportional to pore space:

Pore space = 1 – bulk density/particle density

For example, at a bulk density of 1.60 g/cc, pore space equals 0.40 or 40%. At a
bulk density of 1.06 g/cc, pore space equals 0.60 or 60%.

The addition of even a small percentage of organic soil material to a mineral soil
can affect the bulk density of that soil. Compare the two soil samples below:

Soil “A”: 100% mineral soil material; bulk density = 1.33 g/cc
Soil “B”: 95% mineral soil material and 5% organic soil material; bulk
density = 1.26 g/cc

The difference in bulk density relates to a difference in “particle density” of mineral

soil material versus organic soil material. The average particle density of mineral
soil material is 2.65 g/cc, which approximates the density of quartz. Conversely,
the average particle density of organic soil material is 1.25 g/cc. Organic soil
material weighs less than mineral soil material, so it will lower the bulk density of
a mineral soil when added, as it reduces the overall weight of the soil.

2. Soil Chemical Properties

a. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Some plant nutrients and metals exist as positively charged ions, or “cations”, in
the soil environment. Among the more common cations found in soils are
hydrogen (H+), aluminum (Al+3), calcium (Ca+2), magnesium (Mg+2), and
potassium (K+). Most heavy metals also exist as cations in the soil environment.
Clay and organic matter particles are predominantly negatively charged
(anions), and have the ability to hold cations from being “leached” or washed
away. The adsorbed cations are subject to replacement by other cations in a
rapid, reversible process called “cation exchange”.

Cations leaving the exchange sites enter the soil solution, where they can be
taken up by plants, react with other soil constituents, or be carried away with
drainage water.

The “cation exchange capacity”, or “CEC”, of a soil is a measurement of the

magnitude of the negative charge per unit weight of soil, or the amount of cations
a particular sample of soil can hold in an exchangeable form. The greater the
 clay and organic matter content, the greater the CEC should be, although
different types of clay minerals and organic matter can vary in CEC.
Cation exchange is an important mechanism in soils for retaining and supplying
plant nutrients, and for adsorbing contaminants. It plays an important role in
wastewater treatment in soils. Sandy soils with a low CEC are generally unsuited
for septic systems since they have little adsorptive ability and there is potential
for groundwater.

b. Soil Reaction (pH)

By definition, “pH” is a measure of the active hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. It

is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil, and also known as “soil
reaction”.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with values below 7.0 acidic, and values
above 7.0 alkaline. A pH value of 7 is considered neutral, where H+ and OH- are
equal, both at a concentration of 10-7 moles/liter. A pH of 4.0 is ten times more
acidic than a pH of 5.0.

The most important effect of pH in the soil is on ion solubility, which in turn affects
microbial and plant growth. A pH range of 6.0 to 6.8 is ideal for most crops
because it coincides with optimum solubility of the most important plant nutrients.
Some minor elements (e.g., iron) and most heavy metals are more soluble at
lower pH. This makes pH management important in controlling movement of
heavy metals (and potential groundwater contamination) in soil.

In acid soils, hydrogen and aluminum are the dominant exchangeable cations.
The latter is soluble under acid conditions, and its reactivity with water
(hydrolysis) produces hydrogen ions. Calcium and magnesium are basic
cations; as their amounts increase, the relative amount of acidic cations will
decrease.

Factors that affect soil pH include parent material, vegetation, and climate. Some
rocks and sediments produce soils that are more acidic than others: quartz-rich
sandstone is acidic; limestone is alkaline. Some types of vegetation, particularly
conifers, produce organic acids, which can contribute to lower soil pH values. In
humid areas such as the eastern US, soils tend to become more acidic over time
because rainfall washes away basic cations and replaces them with hydrogen.
Addition of certain fertilizers to soil can also produce hydrogen ions. Liming the
soil adds calcium, which replaces exchangeable and solution H+ and raises soil
pH.

Lime requirement, or the amount of liming material needed to raise the soil pH
to a certain level, increases with CEC. To decrease the soil pH, sulfur can be
added, which produces sulfuric acid.