UNIT I SOIL PROPERTIES

OBJECTIVES AND VALUES OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING:

Introduction:
The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in which it is
considered.
To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's surface within
which roots occur, and which are formed as the products of past surface processes. The
restof the crust is grouped under the term "rock".
To an engineer, it is a material that can be:
 built on: foundations of buildings, bridges
 built in: basements, culverts, tunnels
 built with: embankments, roads, dams
 supported: retaining walls
Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its
behaviour and application as an engineering material.
Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of
solid particles, which are produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks,
regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents. Soil
consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This fundamental
composition gives rise to unique engineering properties, and the description of its
mechanical behavior requires some of the most classic principles of engineering
mechanics.
Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, and
strength. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water
content and unit weight.

Formation of soil:
In the Earth's surface, rocks extend upto as much as 20 km depth. The major rock types are
categorized as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
 Igneous rocks: formed from crystalline bodies of cooled magma.
 Sedimentary rocks: formed from layers of cemented sediments.
 Metamorphic rocks: formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat

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 fromigneous intrusions or pressure due to crustal movement.
Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration of rocks
by various processes of physical and chemical weathering. The nature and structure of a
givensoil depends on the processes and conditions that formed it:
 Breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
 Transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
 Environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine,
lacustrineor marine.
 Subsequent conditions of loading and drainage: little or no surcharge, heavy
surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater,
leaching,contamination.
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from different rock types.
Soil types:
Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two broad categories:
(1) Residual soils
(2) Transported soils
(3) Residual Soils
Residual soils are found at the same location where they have been formed. Generally,
thedepth of residual soils varies from 5 to 20 m.
Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid regions than in cold, dry regions
causing a faster breakdown of rocks. Accumulation of residual soils takes place as the rate
of rock decomposition exceeds the rate of erosion or transportation of the weathered
material. In humid regions, the presence of surface vegetation reduces the possibility of
soil transportation.
As leaching action due to percolating surface water decreases with depth, there is a
corresponding decrease in the degree of chemical weathering from the ground surface
downwards. This results in a gradual reduction of residual soil formation with depth, until
unaltered rock is found.
Residual soils comprise of a wide range of particle sizes, shapes and composition.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL:

Features of the soil profile and the soil horizons are often described in the field in
terms of the soil's physical properties. Horizons are defined based on difference in the
physical properties. Soil physical properties affect the appearance and feel of a soil.

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The major soil physical properties are:
o Soil Texture
o Soil Structure
o Soil Consistence/Soil Strength
o Soil Color
o Soil Permeability
o Soil Temperature
1. Soil texture:
Each soil separate represents a distinct physical size group. Mineral particles less
than 2 millimeters in equivalent diameter and ranging between specified size limits. The
names and sizes of the soil separates recognized in the United States are as follows
Very Coarse Sand 2.0 - 1.0 mm
Coarse Sand 1.0 - 0.5 mm
Medium Sand 0.5 - 0.25 mm
Fine Sand 0.25 - 0.10 mm
Very Fine Sand 0.10 - 0.05 mm
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 mm
Clay 0.002 mm
General classification is as follows:

Sand 2.0 - 0.05 mm

Silt 0.05 - 0.002 mm
Clay <0.002 mm

2. Soil structure:
Structure is the arrangement of primary sand, silt and clay particles into secondary
aggregates called peds or structural units which have distinct shapes and are easy to
recognize. These differently shaped aggregates are called the structural type.
The five basic types of structural units are as follows:

a. Platy:
Plate-like aggregates that form parallel to the horizons like pages in a book.
This type of structure may reduce air, water and root movement.
common structure in an E horizon and usually not seen in other horizons.

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 b. Blocky:
Two types--angular blocky and subangular blocky
These types of structures are commonly seen in the B horizon.
Angular is cube-like with sharp corners while subangular blocky has rounded
corners.
c. Prismatic:
Vertical axis is longer than the horizontal axis. If the top is flat, it is referred
to as prismatic.
If the top is rounded, it is called columnar.
d. Granular:
Peds are round and pourous, spheroidal. This is usually the structure of A horizons.
e. Structureless
No observable aggregation or structural units.
 Single grain-sand
 Massive-solid mass without aggregates
3. Soil Consistence
Expresses cohesive and adhesive forces holding soil particles together; varies with
moisture content. Describes the resistance of a soil at various moisture contents to
mechanical stress or manipulation. It is described at three moisture levels:

a. Wet
Stickiness (non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky,very sticky)
Plasticity (non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic, very plastic)
b. Moist
Very friable, friable, firm ,very firm
c. Dry
Loose.soft. slightly hard, hard, very hard ,extremely hard
It indicates amount and type of clay material, condition for tillage and potential for
compaction. Consistence is the resistance of the soil to deform or rupture. Soil consistence
is the forces of cohesion and adhesion that are holding the peds together. It refers to the
degree of plasticity and stickiness of the soil. Soil consistence is affected by the type and
amount of clay that is in the soil.

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 Soil consistence indicates:
 where are zones that may restrict root growth and seedling emergence.
 whether a soil is likely to develop compacted zones; ruts, crusts, hardpans etc.
Determining soil consistence
 Fingers - squeeze aggregates or push fingers into the soil.
 Penetrometer - measures how hard it is to push into the soil. this would be the
same effect as a plant root.
 Examine roots : J roots or a root mat indicate problems.

Sand has a very weak consistence, there is little force between the
particles. This means that a car tire can easily push the sand apart and it is
easy to getstuck.
Factors Affecting Soil Consistence
 Water Content
 Soil Texture
 Soil Density
3.Soil colour:
It is the most obvious and easily determined soil property It has little direct effect
on the soil, but is an indicator of soil properties. However, there are many things we can
tell about the soil by observing the color.
 Organic matter content; the more organic content the darker the soil color
 Soil color and soil temperature : dark colored soils absorb more heat so they
warm up quicker and have higher soil temperatures.
 Soil color and parent material : generally dark parent material will develop into
dark soils.
 Soil color and drainage:
- soil drainage refers to the length of time a soil is waterlogged. Not how fast
the soil is drained.
4. Soil permeability:
Permeability is the speed of air and water movement in a soil -- this is affected
bytexture and structure
1. if permeability is high : water moves quickly
2. if permeability is low : water moves slowly

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Drainage is the frequency and duration of saturation. The time that the soil is
waterlogged. -- this is affected by landscape position and permeability
Another way to view this is; drainage refers to the amount of oxidation which
has taken place in the soil and permeability
A clay could be very permeable, but in a low landscape position and be poorly drained.

PHASE RELATION OF SOIL :

Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate
material. Soils, as they exist in nature, consist of solid particles (mineral grains, rock
fragments) with water and air in the voids between the particles. The water and air contents
are readily changed by changes in ambient conditions and location.
As the relative proportions of the three phases vary in any soil deposit, it is useful to
consider a soil model which will represent these phases distinctly and properly quantify the
amount of each phase. A schematic diagram of the three-phase system is shown in terms
of weight and volume symbols respectively for soil solids, water, and air. The weight of
air canbe neglected.

Fig- Phase relation of soil

The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air
components.Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Vv
Three phase system:
Soils can be partially saturated (with both air and water present), or be fully
saturated (no air content) or be perfectly dry (no water content). In a saturated soil or a

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dry soil, the three-phase system thus reduces to two phases only, as shown.

Fig-Phase relation of soil

For the purpose of engineering analysis and design, it is necessary to express
relationsbetween the weights and the volumes of the three phases.
The various relations can be grouped into:
1. Volume relations
2. Weight relations
3. Inter-relations
Volume relation :
As the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids is taken as
the reference quantity. Thus, several relational volumetric quantities may be defined.
The following are the basic volume relations:
1. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of soil solids (V s),
andis expressed as a decimal.

2. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil (V ),

and isexpressed as a percentage.

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

and
3. The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the
volumeof voids. This can be expressed as the degree of saturation (S) in percentage.

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For a dry soil, S = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, S = 100%.
4. Air content (ac) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of voids.

5. Percentage air voids (na) is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume.

Weight relation :
Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material. Unit weight
is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material. Both can be used interchangeably.
The units of density are ton/m³, kg/m³ or g/cm³. The following are the basic weight
relations:

1. The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the
watercontent (w), or sometimes the moisture content.

Its value is 0% for dry soil and its magnitude can exceed 100%.
2. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their particle

unit weight or specific gravity (Gs) of the soil grain solids .

where = Unit weight of water

For most inorganic soils, the value of G s lies between 2.60 and 2.80. The presence of
organicmaterial reduces the value of Gs.

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3. Dry unit weight is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume.

4. Bulk unit weight is a measure of the amount of solid particles plus water per
unit volume.

5. Saturated unit weight is equal to the bulk density when the total voids is
filled upwith water.

6. Buoyant unit weight or submerged unit weight is the effective mass per unit
volumewhen the soil is submerged below standing water or below the ground water table.

Inter relation :
It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately after receiving in the
laboratory and prior to commencing other tests. The water content and unit weight are
particularly important, since they may change during transportation and storage.
Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of others.
For example, dry unit weight can be determined from bulk unit weight and water content.
The following are some inter-relations:

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Numerical:
1. A soil sample has a porosity of 40 percentage . The specific gravity of solids is 2.7.
Calculate (a) voids ratio (b) Dry density (c) Unit weight is the soil is 50 % saturated
(d)Unit weight if the soil is fully saturated.
Solution:

DETERMINATION OF INDEX PROPERTIES:

Properties which are used in identification and classification of soil are called
indexproperties of the soil
 Water content
 Specific gravity
 Particle distribution
 Consistency limits
 In-situ density
 Density index.

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Methods for determining water content:
Water content of a soil sample can be determined from the following methods:
 Oven drying method
 Sand bath method
 Alcohol method
 Calcium carbide method
 Pycnometer method
 Radiation method
 Torsion balance method

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION :

It is also called mechanical analysis. It is used for the separation of soil into
different fractions.

Methods to determine particle size distribution :

Sieve analysis:
Sieve size is denoted by the number of openings per square inch. Oven dried sample is
separated into two fractions by sieving it through 4.75 mm IS sieve. Portion retained on
4.75 mm sieve is the gravel fraction which is used for coarse analysis. Portion passing
through
4.75 mm is used for fine analysis.
Sedimentation analysis:
For particles ≤ 0.05 mm (silt and clay fractions) sedimentation methods based on
Stokes law are used to deduce particle size distribution. Soil particles settle in aqueous
solution attaining terminal velocities proportional to their mass and size. The amount of
suspended soil after a given settling time is used to determine particle size fractions. •The
amount of soil in suspension is determined by either extracting a sample by the pipette
method or from a direct hydrometer reading.
According to Stoke’s law , velocity at which grains settle out of suspension , al other
factors being equal ,is dependent on the weight and size of the grain assuming that the soil
particles are spherical .

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Where V is the terminal velocity of the particles. Stokes’ s law is valid only for grain sizes
between 0.2 mm to 0.0002 mm .If the size is greater than 0.2 mm turbulency develops and
stokes law becomes invalid. If the size is less than 0.0002 mm , particle will not settle
properly and brownian movement takes place.

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE :

It is also called as the grading curve.It reveals if the soil is coarse or fine grained
soil.Thedistribution of particles of different sizes in a soil mass is called grading.
The results of mechanical analysis are generally presented by semi-logarithmic plots
known as particle-size distribution curves. The particle diameters are plotted in log scale
along the x axis , and the corresponding percent finer in arithmetic scale along the y axis.

Fig -Particle size distribution curve

Three basic soil parameters can be determined from these grain-size distribution curves:
 Effective size
 Uniformity coefficient
 Coefficient of gradation
The diameter in the particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer is defined
asthe effective size, or D10.

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Uniformity co efficient:
Cu= D 60 / D 10
Where D60 is the diameter corresponding to 60% finer in the particle-size
distribution.Cu< 2 – It is poorly or uniformly graded soil
Cu > 6 – It is well graded soil

Co efficient of gradation :
It is also called the co efficient of curvature. It represents the general shape of the
particlesize distribution curve.
2
Cc=30D /(D
10 xD
60 )
Where D30 is the diameter corresponding to 30% finer in the particle-size distribution.

Fig- Grading curve

Based on type of distribution of various soil sizes, the sample is classified as poorly graded ,
well graded or gap graded soil.
Uniformly or poorly graded soil :
The particle-size distribution in which most of the soil grains are the same size is called a
uniformly graded soil.

Fig- Uniformly graded soil

Well graded soil:
A sample which has a good representation of particles of all sizes is called well
gradedsoil.

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 Fig- Well graded soil
Skip or gap graded soil:
A sample in which some of the intermediate sizes of soil are missing is called skip
gradedsoil.

Fig- skip graded soil

ATTERBERG’S LIMIT / CONSISTENCY LIMITS:

Relative ease with which the soil can be deformed is called consistency. It denotes
thedegree of firmness of the soil which may be termed as soft, firm, stiff or hard.
Atterberg’s limits:
Water contents at which soil mass passes from one state to another is called consistency
limits. The various states through which the soil passes by are solid ,semi solid , plastic and
liquid states.

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Fig – Consistency limits
Liquid
limit (wL):
It is defined as the minimum water content at which part of the soil cut by a groove
ofstandard dimensions will flow together for a distance of half an inch under impact
of 25 blows in the device.
Determination of liquid limit :
It is determined using Casagrande’s apparatus. It consists of the following parts .

(i) Hard rubber base

(ii) Brass cup
(iii) Handle
(iv) Adjusting screws.

Fig - Casagrande apparatus

The handle is rotated at a rate of 2 rps. Number of blows are counted until two parts of
the soil sample come into contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 10mm .
Water content corresponding to 25 blows is called liquid limit.

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 Fig – Soil sample before testing with groove

Fig – soil sample after test with groove closed.

Flow index is determined by plotting number of blows on logarithmic scale on x axis
andwater content along y axis.

Fig- flow curve

Slope of the flow curve gives the value of flow index.

If= w1-w2/ (log N2/N1)

Where w1 is the water content corresponding to number of blows N1 and w2 is

thewater content corresponding to number of blows N2.

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Plastic limit(wP):

Soil specimen passing through 425 microns is mixed with distilled water to
form a plastic paste. It is rolled on a glass plate to make a thread of uniform
diameter. Water content at which 3 mm diameter thread starts crumbling is called
plastic limit of the soil.

Fig – Crumbling of the soil particles.

Shrinkage limit:

It is the maximum water content at which reduction in water content will

not cause decrease in volume of the soil mass. It is the lowest water content at
which soilcan still be saturated.

Fig – shrinkage limit

Shrinkage ratio:

Ratio of a given volume change expressed as a percentage of dry volume, to

the corresponding change in water content above the shrinkage limit
expressed in percentage.

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S.R= {[(v1-v2)/vd]/(w1-w2)}x 100

Where

v1 is the volume of the soil at water

content w1 v2 is the volume of the soil at

water content w2. Vd is the volume of the

dry soil mass.

But v2=vd

and w2=ws

Hence

S.R= {[(v1-vd)/vd]/(w1-

ws)}x 100. Plasticity

index(IP):

It refers to the range of water content over which the soil will remain in
theplastic state. It is equal to the difference between liquid and plastic limit.

IP=wL-wP

Consistency index(IC):

It defines the firmness of the soil. It indicates the nearness of the water content to its
plastic limit.

IC= {(wL-w)/IP} x 100

Where IC is the

consistency indexwL is the

liquid limit

w is the natural water

content Ip is the

plasticity index.

Liquidity index(IL):

It indicates the nearness of the soil to the liquid limit.

IL= {(w-wP)/IP} x 100

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Where IC is the

liquidity indexwP is the

plastic limit

w is the natural water content

Ip is the plasticity index.

Activity of clay :

Ratio of plasticity index to percentage by weight of soil particles of

diametersmaller than 2 microns present in the soil.

Sensitivity of clay:

Ratio of unconfined compressive strength in the natural or undisturbed

state tothat in remoulded state without change in water content

Thixotropy of clay:

When sensitive clays are used in construction ,they loose strength due
to remoulding .With passage of time, strength again increases though not to the
same
level. This phenomenon of “strength loss-strength gain “ with no change in volume or
water content is called thixotropy.

Numerical:

1. The following test results were obtained for a fine-grained

soil:WL= 48% ; WP = 26%
Clay content
= 55% Silt
content =
35% Sand
content =
10%
In situ moisture content = 39% = w

Classify the soil, and determine its activity and liquidity index

Solution:

Plasticity index, IP = WL– WP = 48 – 26

= 22%Liquid limit lies between 35% and

50%.

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According to the Plasticity Chart, the soil is classified as CI, i.e. clay of intermediate
plasticity.

Liquidity index , = = 0.59

The clay is of normal activity and is of soft consistency.

SOIL DESCRIPTION & ITS CLASSIFICATION FOR

ENGINEERINGPURPOSE :

Purpose of classification:

 This standard classifies soils from any geographic location into categories
representing the results of prescribed laboratory tests to determine the
particle-size characteristics,the liquid limit, and the plasticity index.
 The assigning of a group name and symbol(s) along with the
descriptive information required in Practice can be used to describe a
soil to aid in the evaluation of its significant properties for engineering
use.
 The various groupings of this classification system have been devised to
correlate in a general way with the engineering behavior of soils. This
standard provides a useful first step in any field or laboratory investigation
for geotechnical engineering purposes.
 This standard may also be used as an aid in training personnel in the
use ofPractice
 This standard may be used in combination with Practice when working
withfrozen soils.

In engineering point of view, the following classification of soil are available.

 Particle size classification

 Textural classification
 Highway Research Board (HRB) classification
 Unified soil classification and IS classification.
2. Particle size classification :

Soils are arranged according to grain size. Grain sizes are gravel,sand,silt and clay.

a. U.S Bureau of soil and Public Road Administration (PRA) system of

UnitedStates.
b. International soil classification proposed at the International
Congress atWashington.

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 c. M.I.T classification
d. Indian standard classification based on M.I.T system.

Fig- Indian standard classification

3. Textural classification:

Soils occuring in nature are composed of different percentage of sand,silt

and clay size particles. Soil classification of composite soil exclusively based on
particle size distribution is known as textural classification.

Fig- Textural classification

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 4. Highway Research Board classification:

It is based on particle size composition and plasticity chararcteristics. It

is mostly used for pavement construction. In this soil is divided into 7 groups
from A1,A2 to A7.Group index is calculated to describe the performance of
soil. It means rating the value of soil as a subgrade material within its own
group. Higher the value of group index, poorer is the material.

Group index of a soil depends on

 Amount of soil passing 75 micron sieve.

 Liquid limit
 Plastic limit

Indian standard soil classification system :

The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil particles into
boulder,cobble, gravel, sand, silt or clay.

Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group symbols G, S, M,

andC respectively.

Fine-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the material has
particle sizes less than 0.075 mm. Clay particles have a flaky shape to which water
adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.

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 A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit (WL) and plasticity
index (IP), is provided in ISSCS to aid classification. The 'A' line in this chart is
expressed as

IP = 0.73 (WL - 20).

Fig- plasticity chart

Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided into clays (C),
silts (M), or organic soils (O). The organic content is expressed as a percentage of
the mass of organic matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil
solids.Three divisions of plasticity are also defined as follows.

Table- Classification based on activity of soil

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 Fig -Indian soil classification
system

Problems for practice:

1. An undisturbed sample of soil has a volume of 100 cm3 and mass of

190g.On oven drying for 24 hours, the mass is reduced to 160g.If the
specific gravity is 2.68, determine the water content, voids ratio and degree
of saturation of the soil.
2. A saturated sample of soil has a moisture content of 22.22% and specific
gravity of 2.7.Determine the saturated unit weight and voids ratio.
3. A natural soil deposit has a bulk unit weight of 18.4 KN/m3 and water
content of 5%. Calculate the amount of water required to be added to 1
cubic meter of soil to raise the water content to 15%. Assume the voids ratio
to remainconstant. What will be the degree of saturation. Assume G=2.67.

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 Unit II

Soil water and Water flow

When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the water in the pores as well as the
solid grains. The increase in pressure within the pore water causes drainage (flow out of
the soil), and the load is transferred to the solid grains. The rate of drainage depends on
the permeability of the soil.

The strength and compressibility of the soil depend on the stresses within the solid
granular fabric. These are called effective stresses

The importance of effective stress

The principle of effective stress is fundamentally important in soil mechanics. It
must be treated as the basic axiom, since soil behaviour is governed by it. Total and
effective stresses must be distinguishable in all calculations: algebraically the
prime should indicate effective stress, e.g. s´

Changes in water level below ground (water table changes) result in changes in
effective stresses below the water table. Changes in water level above ground (e.g. in
lakes, rivers, etc.) do not cause changes in effective stresses in the ground below.

Changes in effective stress

 Changes in strength
 Changes in volume

In some analyses it is better to work in changes of quantity, rather than in absolute

quantities; the effective stress expression then becomes:
Ds´ = Ds - Du

If both total stress and pore pressure change by the same amount, the effective stress
remains constant. A change in effective stress will cause: a change in strengthand a change
in volume.

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Changes in strength
The critical shear strength of soil is proportional
to the effective normal stress; thus, a change in
effective stress brings about a change in strength.

Therefore, if the pore pressure in a soil slope

increases, effective stresses will be reduced by Ds'
and the critical strength of the soil will be
reduced by Dt - sometimes leading to failure.

A seaside sandcastle will remain intact while damp, because the pore pressure is negative;
as it dries, this pore pressure suction is lost and it collapses. Note: Sometimes a sandcastle
will remain intact even when nearly dry because salt deposited as seawater evaporates
slightly and cements the grains together.

Changes in volume
Immediately after the construction of a foundation on a fine soil, the pore pressure
increases, but immediately begins to drop as drainage occurs.

The rate of change of effective stress under a loaded foundation, once it is constructed,
will be the same as the rate of change of pore pressure, and this is controlled by the
permeability of the soil.

Settlement occurs as the volume (and therefore thickness) of the soil layers change. Thus,
settlement occurs rapidly in coarse soils with high permeabilities and slowly in fine soils
with low permeabilities.

Calculating vertical stress in the ground

 Simple total and effective stresses

 Effect of changing water table
 Stresses under foundations
 Short-term and long-term stresses
 Steady-state seepage conditions

The worked examples here are designed to illustrate the principles and methods dealt with
in Pore pressure, effective stress and stresses in the ground. The examples chosen are
typical and simple.

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Simple total and effective stresses

The figure shows soil layers on a site.

Unit weights are:
dry sand: gd = 16 kN/m³
saturated sand: gg = 20 kN/m³

(a) At the top of saturated sand (z = 2.0 m)

Vertical total stress sv = 16.0 x 2.0 = 32.0 kPa
Pore pressure u=0
Vertical effective stress s´v = sv - u = 32.0 kPa

(b) At the top of the clay (z = 5.0 m)

Vertical total stress sv = 32.0 + 20.0 x 3.0 = 92.0 kPa
Pore pressure u = 9.81 x 3.0 = 29.4 kPa
Vertical effective stress s´v = sv - u = 92.0 - 29.4 = 62.6 kPa

Effect of changing water table

The figure shows soil layers on a site. The unit weight of the silty sand is 19.0 kN/m³ both
above and below the water table. The water level is presently at the surface of the silty sand, it
may drop or it may rise. The following calculations show the effects of this:
Watertable

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Stresses under foundations

From an initial state, the stresses under a foundation are first changed by excavation,
i.e. vertical stresses are reduced. After construction the foundation loading increases stresses.
Other changes could result if the water table level changed.

The figure shows the elevation of a foundation to be constructed in a homogeneous soil.

The change in thickness of the clay layer is to be calculated and so the initial and final
effective stresses are required at the mid-depth of the clay.

Unit weights: sand above WT = 16 kN/m³, sand below WT = 20 kN/m³, clay = 18 kN/m³.

Calculations for
initial
stresses
final
stresses

Short-term and long-term stresses

 Initially, before construction

 Immediately after construction
 Many years after construction

The figure shows how an extensive layer of fill will be placed on a certain site.The

5
unit weights are:
clay and sand = 20kN/m³ ,
rolled fill 18kN/m³ ,
assume water = 10 kN/m³.

Calculations are made for the total and effective stress at the mid-depth of the sand and the
mid-depth of the clay for the following conditions: initially, before construction;
immediately after construction; many years after construction.

Initially, before construction

Initial stresses at mid-depth of clay (z = 2.0m)

Vertical total stress
sv = 20.0 x 2.0 = 40.0kPa
Pore pressure
u = 10 x 2.0 = 20.0kPa
Vertical effective
stresss´v = sv - u
= 20.0kPa

Initial stresses at mid-depth of sand (z = 5.0 m)

Vertical total stress
sv = 20.0 x 5.0 = 100.0 kPa
Pore pressure
u = 10 x 5.0 = 50.0 kPa
Vertical effective
stresss´v = sv - u
= 50.0 kPa

Immediately after construction

6
The construction of the embankment applies a surface
surcharge:q = 18 x 4 = 72.0 kPa.
The sand is drained (either horizontally or into the rock below) and so there is no
increase in pore pressure. The clay is undrained and the pore pressure increases by
72.0 kPa.

Initial stresses at mid-depth of clay (z = 2.0m)

Vertical total stress
sv = 20.0 x 2.0 + 72.0 = 112.0kPa
Pore pressure
u = 10 x 2.0 + 72.0 = 92.0 kPa
Vertical effective
stresss´v = sv - u
= 20.0kPa
(i.e. no change immediately)

Initial stresses at mid-depth of sand (z = 5.0m)

Vertical total stress
sv = 20.0 x 5.0 + 72.0 = 172.0kPa
Pore pressure
u = 10 x 5.0 = 50.0 kPa
Vertical effective
stresss´v = sv - u
= 122.0kPa
(i.e. an immediate increase)

Many years after construction

After many years, the excess pore pressures in the clay will have dissipated. The pore
pressures will now be the same as they were initially.

Initial stresses at mid-depth of clay (z = 2.0 m)

Vertical total stress
sv = 20.0 x 2.0 + 72.0 = 112.0 kPa
Pore pressure
u = 10 x 2.0 = 20.0 kPa
Vertical effective stress
s´v = sv - u = 92.0 kPa (i.e. a long-term increase)

7
 Initial stresses at mid-depth of sand (z = 5.0 m)
Vertical total stress
sv = 20.0 x 5.0 + 72.0 = 172.0 kPa
Pore pressure
u = 10 x 5.0 = 50.0 kPa
Vertical effective stress
s´v = sv - u = 122.0 kPa(i.e. no further change)

Steady-state seepage conditions

The figure shows seepage occurring around embedded sheet piling.

In steady state, the hydraulic gradient,
i = Dh / Ds = 4 / ( 7 + 3 ) = 0.4
Then the effective stresses are:
s´A = 20 x 3 - 2 x 10 + 0.4 x 10 = 44 kPa
s´B = 20 x 3 - 2 x 10 - 0.4 x 10 = 36 kPa

Introduction - Permeability.

Permeability of the soil quantitatively describes how easily water can flow through it. In
loose soil, amount of pores within the soil grains is more. Water can flow easily through
loose soils. However, in case of dense soil, amount of pores within the soil grains is
less. Water can not flow easily through dense soils (as shown in Figure 17.1). Thus,
permeability is high in case of loose soil whereas, it is low in case of dense soil.

Fig. Flow of water a different type of soils

8
 Darcy’s Law

Velocity (v) of flow is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (i). Thus,

V = Ki (17.1)

where k is the coefficient of permeability (cm/sec) or hydraulic conductivity. If i is equal

to one, the v= k. Thus, coefficient of permeability is velocity of water for unit hydraulic
gradient. Hydraulic gradient can be expressed as: i = Δh / L , where Δh is the head loss
and L is the length between two points (as shown in Figure 17.2).

Fig.17.2. Flow of water

17.3. Factors affecting permeability

Some of the factors affecting permeability are:

 Grain Size

 Viscosity and temperature

 Void ratio

 Soil fabric of clay

Typical values of coefficient of permeability of various soils are presented as (Das,

1999):

9
Introduction to Permeability

Permeability is one of the important physical properties of soil as some of the

major problems of soil mechanics are directly connected with it. Design of highways,
airports, earth dams, construction of foundation below water – table, yield from a well,
settlement of foundation etc. depend upon the permeability of soil. Hence to become a
good soil engineer the knowledge of permeability is very essential. A material is said to be
permeable if it contains continuous voids. Since such voids are contained in all soils
including the stiffest clay, all these are permeable. Gravels are highly permeable and stiff
clay is the least permeable soil.

Importance of Permeability:

The knowledge of permeability is important for the following engineering

problems:
(i) Seepage through earthen dams and canals.

(ii) Unfit pressure under hydraulic structure and safety against piping

(iii) Rate of settlement of a saturated compressible soil layer.

(iv) Yield from a well and drainage of water logged agricultural land.

(v) Stability of upstream and downstream slopes of dams.

10
Definitions:
Permeability:

Permeability is the property of the soil which allows water to pass through its

interconnecting voids.

Laminar Flow:

The flow in which all the particles of water move in parallel paths without crossing the

path of other particles.

Turbulent Flow:

The flow in which all the particles of water move in zig-zag path.

Hydraulic Gradient:

The loos of hydaulic head per unit distance of flow is called hydraulic gradient. Consider a

saturated flow through a uniform porous soil mass of length ‘L’ and let h P1 and hP2 be

the piezometric head” or “Pressure head” at the entry and exit face respectively. Let + Z1

and – Z2 be the elevation head at the entry and exit face assuming the downstream water

level as the datum line. The velocity head for flow through soil is negligible.

11
Method of Determination of Co-Efficient of Permeability:

The coefficient of permeability can be determined by the following methods:

(a) Laboratory methods [Direct
methods]

(i) Constant head permeability test

(ii) Falling head test.

(b) Field methods

(i) Pumping out tests

(ii) Pumping in tests

(c) Indirect methods

(i) Computation from grain (K = CD10 2) size

(ii) Horizontal capillarity test

(iii) Consolidated test data.

Constant Head Permeability Test:

The figure shows diagrammatical representation of the

test.

18
Water flows from the overhead tank consists of three tubes: inlet, outlet and overflow

tube. Constant head ‘h’ is maintained throughout the test. As the length of the soil sample

‘L’ is fixed throughout the test, the hydraulic gradient ‘i’ remains constant all through the

test

We know I = h/L

Where h = difference of water level of overhead tank and bottom tank. If Q is the total

quantity of flow in a time interval‘t’, we have form Darcy’s law.

The measurement of Q is done after reaching the steady state. The test is repeated two or

three times and the average value of Q is taken for the calculation of K. This test is

suitable for coarse grained soil where a reasonable discharge can be collected in a given

time.

19
Falling Head Permeability Test:

Falling head test is suitable for less permeable soils. A stand pipe of known cross-

sectional area ‘a’ is fitted with the permeameter and water is allowed to run down through

this pipe. The water level in the stand pipe constantly falls as water flows. Observations

are started after steady state of flow has reached. The head at any time‘t’ is equal to the

difference in water levels in the stand pipe and the bottom tank.

Let h1 and h2 be heads at time intervals t 1 and t2 respectively (t1 > t2). Let h be the head

at any intermediate time interval t and -dh be the change in the head in a smaller time

interval ‘dt’ (minus sign has been used since h decreases as t increases). From Darcy’s

law, the rate of flow q is given by

20
The laboratory observations consist of measurement of the heads h1 and hg at two chosen

time intervals t 1 and t2. The averages of time intervals are taken for calculations.

Observation sheet for falling head permeability test:

21
Permeability of Stratified Soils:

Where a soil profile consists of a number of strata having different permeability, the

equivalent or average permeability of the soil is different in direction parallel to and

normal to, the strata. For flow parallel to layers the hydraulic gradient in each layer is the

same and the total flow rate is the sum of flow rates in all the three layers.

22
Where Kx = Equivalent or average permeability in direction parallel to the layers. For

flow normal to the layers the flow rate must be same in all layers for steady flow, and as

the flow area ‘A’ is constant the flow velocity across layer is also the same

Where Kz = equivalent permeability for flow normal to the layers. So the equivalent

permeability for flow parallel to the strata is always greater than that for flow normal to

the strata i.e., Kx is always greater than Kz.

Solved Example:

Example 1:

In a falling head permeability test on a specimen 6 cm high and 50 cm2 in cross- sectional

area, the water level in the stand pipe, 0.8 cm2 in sectional area, dropped from a height of

60 cm to 20 cm in 3 min 20 secs. Find the permeability.

23
 UNIT – 3
Compressibility and Consolidation

INTRODUCTION

An important task in the design of foundations is to determine the settlement; this is shown

Schematically in Figure 1.

The skeletal soil material and the pore water are relatively incompressible and any change in
volume can only occur due to change in the volume of the voids. For the volume of the voids to
change, pore water must flow into or out of a soil element. Because this cannot happen
instantaneously when a load is first applied to a soil there cannot be any immediate change in its
volume.

For one-dimensional conditions with no lateral strain this implies that there is no immediate
vertical strain and hence that the excess pore pressure is equal to the change in vertical stress.
However, under more general conditions both lateral (or horizontal) and vertical strains can
occur. Immediately after load is applied there will be no change in volume, but the soil
deformations will result in an initial settlement. This is said to occur under undrained conditions
because no pore water has been able to drain from the soil. With time the excess pore pressures

2
generated during the undrained loading will dissipate and further lateral and vertical strains will
occur. Ultimately the settlement will reach its long term or drained value.

Spring Analogy model

The consolidation process is often explained with an idealized system composed of a spring, a
container with a hole in its cover, and water. In this system, the spring represents the
compressibility or the structure itself of the soil, and the water which fills the container
represents the pore water in the soil.

On figure 3, the tube on the left of the container shows the water pressure in the container.

1. The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated soil)
2. A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the
later resists the applied load. (Development of excessive pore water pressure)
3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring
shortens. (Drainage of excessive pore water)
4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the
applied load. (Full dissipation of excessive pore water pressure. End of consolidation)

3
The Oedometer or Consolidometer Laboratory Test
The behaviour of soil during one-dimensional loading can be tested using a device called an
oedometer4, which is shown schematically in Fig. The one-dimensional condition in which the
vertical strain, zz ≠ 0, and the lateral strains, xx = yy = 0 is also referred to as confined
compression.

The following points may be noted:

The soil is loaded under conditions of no lateral strain (expansion), as the soil fits tightly into a
relatively rigid ring.

4
Uncontrolled drainage is provided at the top and bottom of the specimen by porous discs (two
way drainage). In more sophisticated Oedometer apparatus control of drainage is possible.

A vertical load is applied to the specimen and a record of the settlement versus time is made. The
load is left on until primary consolidation ceases (usually 24 hours although this depends on the
soil type, impermeable clays may take longer) shown in the graph

Primary consolidation is caused by drainage of excessive pore water. Secondary consolidation is

caused by creep, is behaviour of the clay-water system, compression of organic matter, and other
processes. In sand, settlement caused by secondary consolidation is negligible, but in peat, it is
very significant.

The load is then increased (usually by a factor of 2, so the vertical stresses might be e.g. 20, 40,
80, 160 kPa). When the maximum load is reached, the soil is unloaded in several increments. If
desired reloading can be carried out. At each step, time-settlement records are made.

It is conventional to plot the void ratio versus the logarithm of the effective stress in examining
the behaviour of soil, rather than plotting the relationship between effective stress and strain as is
often done in materials testing. The reason for this is that the relationship between effective
stress and voids ratio is fundamental to an understanding of soil behaviour.

Thus the final voids ratio can be determined by measuring ∆ and the initial voids ratio ei

5
Over Consolidation Ratio

Settlement Analysis

Theory of One-Dimensional Consolidation

The theory for the time rate of one-dimensional consolidation was first proposed by Terzaghi
(1925).

The underlying assumption in the derivation of the mathematical equations are as follows:

6
 1. The clay layer is homogeneous.

2. The clay layer is saturated.

3. The compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume only, which, in turn, is
due to the squeezing out of water from the void spaces.

4. Darcy’s law valid.

5. Deformation of soil occurs only in the direction of the load application.

6. The coefficient of consolidation is constant during the consolidation

With the above assumptions, let us consider a clay layer of thickness as shown in Figure. The
layer is located between two highly permeable sand layers.

7
8
9
The term Cv is called the coefficient of consolidation

Terzaghis Limitation is only applicable for Shallow Foundation.

Problems

1. For a laboratory consolidation test on a soil specimen that is drained on both sides, the
following were obtained:

Thickness of the clay specimen = 25 mm

P1 = 50 kN/m2 ;

e1 = 0.92 P2 = 120 kN/m2 ;

e2 = 0.78

10
 COMPACTION

Introduction:
Compaction is the process of increasing the bulk density of a soil or aggregate by driving out air.
For any soil, at a given compactive effort, the density obtained depends on the moisture content.
An “Optimum Moisture Content” exists at which it will achieve a maximum density. Compaction
is the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil. The densification of soil is achieved
by reducing air void space. During compaction, air content reduces, but not water content It is not
possible to compact saturated soil. It should be noted that higher the density of soil mass, stronger,
stiffer, more durable will be the soil mass.

Hence, Compaction
1) Increases density
2) Increases strength characteristics
3) Increases load-bearing capacity
4) Decreases undesirable settlement
5) Increases stability of slopes and embankments
6) Decreases permeability
7) Reduces water seepage
8) Reduces Swelling & Shrinkage
9) Reduces frost damage
10) Reduces erosion damage
11) Develops high negative pore pressures (suctions) increasing effective stress

16
Mechanism of Compaction-

Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) is the moisture content at which the maximum possible dry
density is achieved for a particular compaction energy or compaction method. The corresponding
dry density is called Maximum Dry Density (MDD). Water is added to lubricate the contact
surfaces of soil particles and improve the compressibility of the soil matrix. It should be noted that
increase in water content increases the dry density inmost soils up to one stage (Dry side). Water
acts as lubrication. Beyond this level, any further increase in water (Wet side)will only add more
void space, thereby reducing the dry density. Hence OMC indicates the boundary between the dry
side and wet side. Hence the compaction curve as shown in figure indicates the initial upward
trend up to OMC and the down ward trend.

Reasons for the shape of curve

1. On dry side of OMC, clayey soil shows high suction, lumps are difficult to break or
compact.
2. Increasing the water content reduces suction, softens lumps, lubricates the grains for
easycompaction.
3. As water content increases, lubrication improves compaction resulting in higher dry density.

17
 4. Now nearly impossible to drive out the last of the air – further increase in water content
results in reduced dry density (curve follows down parallel to the maximum possible
density curve – the Zero Air Voids curve)
5. MDD and OMC depend on the compaction energy and are not unique soil properties.
6. For sand, suction at low water contents also prevents compaction (but not if completely dry)
7. In cohesionless soils, MDD is achieved either when completely dry, or when completely
saturated.
8. At low water content, grains are held together by suction (water at grain contacts only)
9. This prevents compaction.
10. Laboratory test for MDD on sand requires fully saturated
sample, and involves vibration

Percent Air Voids:

Factors affecting Compaction-

1. Water Content
2. Amount of Compaction
3. Method of Compaction
4. Type of Soil
5. Addition of Admixtures

Effect of Water Content-

1. With increase in water content, compacted density increases up to a stage, beyond which
compacteddensity decreases.
2. The maximum density achieved is called MDD and the corresponding water content is called
OMC.
3. At lower water contents than OMC, soil particles are held by the force that prevents the
development ofdiffused double layer leading to low inter-particle repulsion.
4. Increase in water results in expansion of double layer and reduction in net attractive force
betweenparticles. Water replaces air in void space
5. Particles slide over each other easily increasing lubrication, helping in dense packing.
6. After OMC is reached, air voids remain constant. Further increase in water, increases the
void space, thereby decreasing dry density.

18
Effect of Amount of Compaction-
1. As discussed earlier, effect of increasing compactive effort is to increase MDD And reduce OMC
(Evident from Standard & Modified Proctor’s Tests).

2. However, there is no linear relationship between compactive effort and MDD.

Effect of Method of Compaction-

The dry density achieved by the soil depends on the following characteristics of compacting method.

Weight of compacting equipment

19
Type of compaction

Area of contact of Time of exposure of these approaches will yield different compactive effort.
Further, suitability of a particular method depends on type of soil.

Effect of Type of Soil

Maximum density achieved depends on type of Coarse grained soil achieves higher density at lower
water content and fine grained soil achieves lesser density, but at higher water content.

Effect of Addition of Admixtures-

1. Stabilizing agents are the admixtures added to soil.

2. The effect of adding these admixtures is to stabilize the soil.

3. In many cases they accelerate the process of densification.

Effect of compaction on soil properties-

1. Density
2. Shear strength
3. Permeability
4. Bearing Capacity
5. Settlement
6. Soil Structure
7. Pore Pressure
8. Stress Strain characteristics
9. Swelling & Shrinkage

Influence on Density:
Effect of compaction is to reduce the voids by expelling out air. This results in increasing the dry
density of soil mass.

Influence on Shear strength:

Increase the number of contacts resulting in increased shear strength, especially in granular soils. In
clays, shear strength depends on dry density, moulding water content, soil structure, method of
compaction, strain drainage condition etc. Shear strength of cohesive soils compacted dry of optimum
(flocculated structure) will be higher than those compacted wet of optimum (dispersed structure).

20
 Effect of compaction on permeability

1. Increased dry density, reduces the void space, thereby reducing permeability.
2. At same density, soil compacted dry of optimum is more permeable.
3. At same void ratio, soil with bigger particle size is more permeable.
4. Increased compactive effort reduces permeability.

Effect on Bearing Capacity

1. Increase in compaction increases the density and number of contacts between soil particles.
2. This results in increased
3. Hence bearing capacity increases which is a function of density and

Effect on Settlement
1. Compaction increases density and decreases void ratio.
2. This results in reduced settlement.
3. Both elastic settlement and consolidation settlement are reduced.
4. Soil compacted dry of optimum experiences greater compression than that compacted wet of
optimum.

Effect on Compressibility
Optimum shows more compressibility than that on dry side. But at higher pressure, behavior is similar.

Effect on Soil Structure

In fine grained soil

1. On dry side of optimum, the structure is flocculated. The particles repel and density is less.
2. Addition of water increases lubrication and transforms the structure into dispersed
structure In coarse grained soil, single grained structure is maintained

In composite soil, behaviour depends on composition.

21
 Effect on Pore Pressure

1. Clayey soil compacted dry of optimum develops less pore water pressure than that
compacted wet ofoptimum at the same density at low strains.

2. However, at higher strains the effect is the same in both the cases.

Effect on Stress Strain Characteristics:

The strength and modulus of elasticity of soil on the dry side of optimum will always be better
than on the wet side for the same density. Soil compacted dry of optimum shows brittle failure
and that compacted on wet side experiences increased strain.

FIELD TEST

Standard Proctor’s Compaction Test

Apparatus

1. Cylindrical metal mould with detachable base plate (having internal diameter 101.6 mm, internal height
116.8 mm and internal volume 945000 mm3)
2. Collar of 50 mm effective height
3. Rammer of weight 2.5 kgf (25 N) with a height of fall of 304.8 mm

22
Procedure
1. About 3 kg of dry soil, with all lumps pulverized and passing through 4.75 mm sieve is taken.
2. The quantity of water to be added in the first trial is decided. (Less for Corse grained soil and more
for Fine grained soil).
3. Mould without base plate & collar is weighed
4. The inner surfaces of mould, base plate and collar are greased.
5. Water and soil are thoroughly mixed.
6. Soil is placed in mould and compacted in three uniform layers, with 25 blows in each layer. Blows
are maintained uniform and vertical and height of drop is controlled.
7. After each layer, top surface is scratched to maintain integrity between layers.
8. The height of top layer is so controlled that after compaction, soil slightly protrudes in to collar.
9. Excess soil is scrapped.
10. Mould and soil are weighed (W)
11. A representative sample from the middle is kept for the determination of water content.
12. The procedure is repeated with increasing water content.
13. The number of trials shall be at least 6 with a few after the decreasing trend of bulk density.

23
Modified Compaction Test
In early days, compaction achieved in field was relatively less. With improvement in knowledge and
technology, higher compaction became a necessity in field. Hence Modified Compaction Test became
relevant. It was developed during World War II by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering tobetter represent
the compaction required for airfield to support heavy aircraft.

Types of field Compaction Equipment:

1. Smooth Wheeled Steel Drum Rollers
2. Pneumatic Tyred Rollers
3. Sheepsfoot Rollers
4. Impact Rollers
5. Vibrating Rollers
6. Hand Operated vibrating plate & rammer compactors

24
Degree of Compaction
Relative compaction or degree of compaction

Problem : 1 : Find the optimum moisture content (OMC).

A Standard Proctor test has yielded the values shown below. Determine:
a) The maximum dry unit weight and its OMC; remember V=1/30ft3.
b) The moisture range for 93% of maximum dry unit weight.

No Weight of wet soil(lb) Moisture%

1 3.26 8.24
2 4.15 10.20
3 4.67 12.30
4 4.02 14.60
5 3.36 16.80

25
 UNIT – 4

Stress Distribution and Shear Strength

STRESS DISTRIBUTION
Stress Distribution in soil media

For many problems of practical interest, it is necessary to estimate settlements under

conditions in which the induced stress varies spatially. The first step in the analyses of such
problems usually involves estimations of the initial states of stress in the soil and of the
changes in these stresses during loading and as the soil again approaches equilibrium. Two
methods of analysis have commonly been followed.
The stresses within a soil mass due to its own weight are known as geostatic stresses.
Let us take the soil mass to be bounded by the horizontal plane ( ground surface) xy, and the
z-axis be directed downwards. Under this condition, the soil mass is said to be semi-infinite.
Where there is no external loading, the ground plane becomes a principal plane since it is
devoid of any shear loading. τxy = τxz = τyz = 0 , we get σz = γz
γ = Unit weight of soil
σz = Vertical stress at the point within and soil massat a depth z below ground surface

VERTICAL STRESS INCREASE (σz) IN SOIL

BOUSSINESQ EQUATION (POINT LOADING )
Boussinesq (1885) solved the problem of stress distribution in soil due to a
concentrated load acting at the ground surface. The following assumption are made in the
solutions by the theory of elasticity.
1. The soil mass is an elastic medium, for which the modulus of elasticity E is constant.
2. The soil mass is homogeneous, that is , all its constituent parts or elements are
similar.
3. The soil mass is isotropic, that it has identical elastic properties in all directions
through any point of it.
4. The soil mass is semi- infinite, that it extend infinitely in all directions below ground
surface.

Let a point load P act at the ground surface, at a point O which may taken as the origin of
the x, y and z axes as shown. And the Table shows the variation of influence factor with
respect to r/z

2
Vertical Stress Increase in soil for Point Load

Δσz = Change in vertical stress

P = Point Load
I1 = Boussinesq influence factor

Vertical Increase in soil for Line Loading

3
  =Change in Vertical Stress
q = Load per Unit Length
z = Depth

x = Distance from Line Load

Vertical Increase in soil for Strip Loading

 =Change in Vertical Stress

q = Load per Unit Area
z = Depth

x = Distance from Line Load

Table :Variation of /q with 2z/B and 2x/B

Vertical Stress Increase in soil for Circular Loading.

 =Change in Vertical Stress

q = Load per Unit Area
z = Depth

R= Radius

4
Table:Variation of /q with z/R

Vertical Stress Increase in soil for Rectangular Loading.

m=B/z;n=L/z

Fig : Variation with m and n

5
 UNIT 5

SHEAR STRENGTH AND STABILITY

Introduction:

An exposed ground surface that stands at an angle ( ) with the horizontal is called
slope. Slopes are required in the construction of highway and railway embankments,
earth dams, levees and canals. These are constructed by sloping the lateral faces of
the soil because slopes are generally less expensive than constructing walls. Slopes
can be natural or manmade. When the ground surface is not horizontal a component
of gravity will try to move the sloping soil mass downwards. Failure of natural
slopes (landslides) and man-made slopes has resulted in much death and destruction.
Some failures are sudden and catastrophic; others are widespread; some are
localized. Civil Engineers are expected to check the safety of natural and slopes of
excavation. Slope stability analysis consists of determining and comparing the shear
stress developed along the potential rupture surface with the shear strength of the
soil. Attention has to be paid to geology, surface drainage, groundwater, and the
shear strength of soils in assessing slope stability.

In this chapter, we will discuss simple methods of slope stability analysis from
which one will be able to:

Understand the forces and activities that provoke slope failures.

Understand the effects of seepage on the stability of slopes.
Estimate the stability of slopes with simple geometry for different types of
soils.

2
Man made slopes are used in

 Highways
 Railways
 Earth Dams
 River Training works

Slope Failure Triggering Mechanisms

 Intense Rain-Fall

 Water-Level Change Seepage Water Flow Volcanic Eruption

 Earthquake Shaking Human activity

Causes of Slope failure

1. Erosion: The wind and flowing water causes erosion of top surface of slope
and makes the slope steep and thereby increase the tangential component of
driving force.

2. Steady Seepage: Seepage forces in the sloping direction add to gravity forces
and make the slope susceptible to instability. The pore water pressure
decrease the shear strength. This condition is critical for the downstream
slope.

3. Sudden Drawdown: in this case there is reversal in the direction flow

and results in instability of side slope. Due to sudden drawdown the shear
stresses are more due to saturated unit weight while the shearing resistance
decreases due to pore water pressure that does not dissipate quickly.
4. Rainfall: Long periods of rainfall saturate, soften, and erode soils. Water
enters into existing cracks and may weaken underlying soil layers, leading to
failure, for example, mud slides.

5. Earthquakes: They induce dynamic shear forces. In addition there is sudden

buildup of pore water pressure that reduces available shear strength.
6. External Loading: Additional loads placed on top of the slope increases the
gravitational forces that may cause the slope to fail.

7. Construction activities at the toe of the slope: Excavation at the bottom of

the sloping surface will make the slopes steep and thereby increase the
gravitational forces which may result in slope failure

3
Types of failure

Broadly slope failures are classified into 3 types as

1. Face (Slope) failure

2. Toe failure

3. Base failure

1. Face (Slope) Failure: This type of

failure occurs when the slope angle ( ) is
large and when the soil at the toe portion
is strong.

2. Toe Failure: In this case the failure

surface passes through the toe. This
occurs when the slope is steep and
homogeneous.

3. Base Failure: In this case the failure

surface passes below the toe. This
generally occurs when the soil below
the toe is relatively weak and soft.

Definition of Key Terms

centre of
rotation „O‟
Slip or failure
crest of B
surface slope toe of slope

A
slope

4
Slip or failure zone: It is a thin zone of soil that reaches the critical state or
residual state and results in movement of the upper soil mass.
Slip plane or failure plane or slip surface or failure surface: It is the surface of
sliding.
Sliding mass: It is the mass of soil within the slip plane and the ground surface.

Slope angle: It is the angle of inclination of a slope to the horizontal. The slope
angle is sometimes referred to as a ratio, for example, 2:1 (horizontal: vertical).

Stability Analysis consists of

 Determination of the potential failure surface.

 Forces that tend to cause slip.

 Forces that tend to restore (stabilize)

 Determination of the available margin of safety.

Types of Slopes

1. Infinite Slopes

2. Finite Slopes

Infinite slopes: They have dimensions that extend over great distances and thesoil
mass is inclined to the horizontal.

Infinite Slope

Finite slopes:
A finite slope is one with a base and top surface, the height being limited. The
inclined faces of earth dams, embankments and excavation and the like are all finite
slopes.

5
6
When FS = 1, then the slope is said to be in a state of failure.

Infinite Slopes:

Infinite slopes have dimensions that extended over great distances and the soil mass is
inclined to the horizontal. If different strata are present strata boundaries are assumed
to be parallel to the surface. Failure is assumed to occur along a plane parallel to the
surface.

Infinite Slope in layered soils

3 cases of stability analysis of infinite slopes are considered

Case (i) Cohesionless soil

Case (ii) Cohesive soil

Case (iii) Cohesive-frictional soil.

Infinite slopes in cohesionless soils




Infinite slope in cohesion less soil

7
The maximum inclination of an infinite slope in cohesion less soil for
stability is equal to the angle of internal friction of the soil”.

The limiting angle of inclination for stability of an infinite slope in cohesion

less soil is as shown below.

Unstable Slope
Mohr – cumlomb
Strength envelope
Limiting
Condition Stable stress



8
Normal stress Vs. Shear stress indicating the limiting condition of aslope

Effect of seepage when seepage force is parallel to the slope

& %

´

´


Infinite slope in cohesionless soil under steady seepage

9
Infinite slope in pure cohesive soil




Free body diagram of slice in infinite slope of pure cohesive soil

10
11
Finite Slopes

A finite slope is one with a base and top surface, the height being limited. The
inclined faces of earth dams, embankments, excavation and the like are all finite
slopes.

Investigation of the stability of finite slopes involves the following steps

a) assuming a possible slip surface,

b) studying the equilibrium of the forces acting on this surface, and

c) Repeating the process until the worst slip surface, that is, the one with
minimum margin of safety is found.

Methods:-

I. Total stress analysis for purely cohesive soil.

II. Total stress analysis for cohesive –frictional (c-ϕ) soil – (Swedish method
of slices or Method of slices)

III. Effective stress analysis for conditions of steady seepage, rapid drawdownand
immediately after construction.

IV. Friction circle method

V. Taylor’s method.

Total stress analysis for pure cohesive soil

)
C=l.c

l=r

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Finite slope in cohesive soils

The analysis is based on total stresses, it is also called ϕ = 0 analysis. It gives

the stability of an embankment immediately after construction. It is assumed that the
soil has no time to drain and the shear strength parameters used are obtained from
undrained conditions with respect to total stresses. These may be obtained from
either unconfined compression test or an undrained triaxial test without pore pressure
measurements.

Let AB be a trial slip surface in the form of a circular arc of radius „r‟ with respect to
center of rotation „O‟ as shown in Fig

Let `W' be the weight of the soil within the slip surface

Let `G' be the position of its centre of gravity.

The exact position of G is not required and it is only necessary to ascertain the
position of the line of action of W, this may be obtained by dividing the failure plane
into a set of vertical slices and taking moments of area of these slices about any
convenient vertical axis.

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In case of cohesive soil when the slope is on the verge slippage there develops a
tension crack at the top of the slope as shown in Fig 11. the depth of tension crack is

Where, c = cohesion

= unit weight

There is no shear resistance along the crack. The failure arc reduces fromArc
AB to Arc AB' and the angle reduces to ´.

For computation of FS we have to

1. Use ´ instead of in the restoring moment component.

2. Consider the full weight `W' of the soil within the sliding surface AB to
compensate for filling of water in the crack in the driving moment component

“Tension crack reduces F.S due to decrease in restoring moment”

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 The effect of tension cracks are

1. It modifies the slip surface and reduces the length of the slip surface.
2. It is usually filled with water and produces hydrostatic pressure alongthe
depth.
3. It acts as channel for water to flow into underlying soil layers, inducing
seepage forces.
4. It reduces the factor of safety.

The Swedish method of slices for a cohesive –frictional (c-ϕ)soil

R2

R1
N


T
+ ,-

Method of slices in c-ϕ soils

For a c-ϕ soils the undrained strength envelope shows both c and ϕ values. Thetotal
stress analysis can be adopted.

The procedure is follows

1. Draw the slope to scale

2. A trail slip circle such as AB with radius `r' is drawn from the center of
rotation O.
3. Divide the soil mass above the slip surface into convenient number of slices
(more than 5 is preferred)

4. Determine the area of each slice A1, A2, --------- , An

A = width of the slice X mid height

=bXZ

17