1.

Agriculture Heritage in India

Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS), as defined by the FAO (Food
and Agriculture Organization of the UNO), are: "Remarkable land use systems and landscapes
which are rich in globally significant biological diversity evolving from the co-adaptation of a
community with its environment and its needs and aspirations for sustainable development".[1]
Worldwide, specific agricultural systems and landscapes have been created, shaped and
maintained by generations of farmers and herders based on diverse natural resources, using
locally adapted management practices. Building on local knowledge and experience, these
ingenious agri-cultural systems reflect the evolution of humankind, the diversity of its
knowledge, and its profound relationship with nature. These systems have resulted not only in
outstanding landscapes, maintenance and adaptation of globally significant agricultural
biodiversity, indigenous knowledge systems and resilient ecosystems, but, above all, in the
sustained provision of multiple goods and services, food and livelihood security for millions of
local community members and indigenous peoples, well beyond their borders.

For millennia communities of farmers, herders, fishers and forest people have developed
complex, diverse, and locally adapted agricultural systems. These systems have been managed
with time-tested, ingenious combinations of techniques and practices that have usually led to
community food security, and the conservation of natural resources and biodiversity. Agricultural
heritage systems can still be found throughout the world covering about 5 million hectares,
which provide a vital combination of social, cultural, ecological and economical services to
humankind. These “Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems-GIAHS” have resulted not
only in outstanding landscapes of aesthetic beauty, maintenance of globally significant
agricultural biodiversity, resilient ecosystems and a valuable cultural heritage Above all these
systems sustainabley provide multiple goods and services, food and livelihood security for
millions of poor and small farmers. The existence of numerous GIAHS around the world testifies
to the inventiveness and ingenuity of people in their use and management of the finite
resources, biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics, and ingenious use of physical attributes of the
landscape, codified in traditional but evolving knowledge, practices and technologies. Whether
recognized or not by the scientific community, these ancestral agricultural systems constitute
the foundation for contemporary and future agricultural innovations and technologies. Their
cultural, ecological and agricultural diversity is still evident in many parts of the world,
maintained as unique systems of agriculture. Through a remarkable process of co-evolution of
Humankind and Nature, GIAHS have emerged over centuries of cultural and biological
interactions and synergies, representing the accumulated experiences of rural peoples.

Indian Agriculture

Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as a result of early cultivation of plants, and
domestication of crops and animals.[2] Settled life soon followed with implements and
techniques being developed for agriculture.[3][4] Double monsoons led to two harvests being
reaped in one year.[5] Indian products soon reached the world via existing trading networks and
foreign crops were introduced to India.[5][6]
Plants and animals—considered essential
to their survival by the Indians—came to be
worshiped and venerated.[7]

The middle ages saw irrigation channels

reach a new level of sophistication in India
and Indian crops affecting the economies of
other regions of the world under Islamic
patronage.[8][9] Land and water Grand Anicut Dam on river Caveri (1st-2nd Century
CE) is one of the oldest water-regulation structures in
management systems were developed with the world still in use.

an aim of providing uniform growth.[10][11]

Despite some stagnation during the later modern era the independent Republic of India was
able to develop a comprehensive agricultural program.

Agriculture Heritage in India

Our heritage is unique than any other civilization. As a citizen of India, we must feel

proud about our rich cultural heritage. Agriculture in India is not of recent origin, but has a long

history dating back to Neolithic age of 7500-4000 B.C. It changed the life style of early man from

nomadic hunter of wild berries and roots to cultivator of land. Agriculture is benefited from the

wisdom and teachings of great saints. The wisdom gained and practices adopted have been

passed down through generations. The traditional farmers have developed the nature friendly

farming systems and practices such as mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop rotation etc. The
great epics of ancient India convey the depth of knowledge possessed by the older generations

of the farmers of India.

Need and importance for studying Agricultural Heritage

Our agriculture has lot of inherited sustainable practices passed from one generation to

other generation. And also agriculture in India is not an occupation; it is a way of life for many

Indian populations. Hence the present day generation should be aware about our ancient and

traditional agricultural systems and practices. This will enable us to build the future research

strategy also.

India has made tremendous progress in agriculture and its allied fields, but the emphasis

on intensive use of inputs without considering their adverse impact of long term basis has

created several problems related to sustainability of agriculture. Irrational use of chemical

fertilizers, insecticides and exploration of natural resources is threatening the agro eco systems.

Soil is getting impoverished, water and air getting polluted and there is an increasing erosion of

plant and animal genetic resources. Therefore, attention in now shifting to sustainable form of

agriculture.

The indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) provides insight into the sustainable agriculture,

because these innovations have been carried on from one generation to another as a family

technology. There are several examples of valuable traditional technologies in India but

unfortunately these small local systems are dying out. It is imperative that we collect, document

and analyze these technologies so that the scientific principle/basis behind them could be

properly understood. Once this done, it will be easier for us to further refine and upgrade them

by blending them with the modern scientific technology.

Objective of the course

 ◗ Agriculture in India - Way of life and not an occupation

◗ To increase awareness of the rich heritage of Indian agriculture which is unique than

any other civilization.

◗ To implant a sense of pride amongst the people, particularly agricultural students as

our agriculture has sustainable practices for generations.

◗ To stimulate scientific research based on traditional technology.

Definitions

HISTORY : Continuous record of past events

HERITAGE : Inherited values carried from one generation to other

generation

AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE : Values and traditional practices adopted in ancient India

which are more relevant for present day system.

History denotes the continuous record of past events, where as heritage indicates the

inherited values carried from one generation to other generation. Agricultural heritage denotes

the values and traditional practices adopted in ancient India, which are more relevant for

present day system.

List of Available Documents on agriculture during ancient and medieval period

1. Rigveda (c.3700 BC)

2. Atharvaveda (c. 2000 BC)

3. Ramayana (c.2000 BC)

 4. Mahabharata (c.1400 BC)

5. Krishi-Parashara (c.400 BC)

6. Kautilya’s Artha-sastra (c.300 BC)

7. Amarsimha’s Amarkosha (c.200 BC)

8. Patanjali’s Mahabhasya (c.200 BC)

9. Sangam literature (Tamils) (200 BC-100 AD)

10. Agnipurana (c.400 ?)

11. Varahamihir’s Brhat Samhita (c. 500 AD)

12. Kashyapiyakrishisukti (c.800Ad)

13. Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda (c.1000 AD)

14. Lokopakaram by Chavundaraya (1025 AD)

15. Someshwardeva’s Manasollasa (1131 AD)

16. Saranghara’s Upavanavioda (c.1300 AD)

17. Bhavaprakasha-Nighantu (c.1500 AD)

18. Chakrapani Mistra’sViswavallbha (c.1580 AD)

19. Dara Shikoh’s Nuskha Dar Fanni-Falahat (c.1650 Ad)

20. Jati Jaichand’s dairy (1658-1714 AD)

21. Anonymous Rajasthani Manuscript (1877 AD)

22. Watt’s Dictionary of Economic Products of India (1889-1893 AD)

Formation of Indian – sub continent

Pangaea, the super-continent

 250 millions years ago the Earth's seven continents were all grouped together into a

super continent (one huge landmass) called ‘Pangaea’. This huge super continent was

surrounded by one gigantic ocean called Panthalassa.

Laurasia

About 180 million years ago the super continent Pangaea began to break up in the

Mesozoic Era into Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Laurasia was made of the present day

continents of North America (Greenland), Europe, Angara land (Asia) comprising Russia,

Siberia and China in the north. Gondwanaland was made of the present day continents of

South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. At this time India was not connected to

Asia. The huge ocean of Panthalasa remained.

‘The Triple Junction’ was formed because of a three-way split in the crust allowing

massive lava flows in three directions and poured out lava over hundreds of square miles of

Africa and South America. The rocks in these two continents were produced at the same time

and in the same place. This tells us that South America and Africa were connected at one time.

Today these two continents are separated by the Atlantic Ocean which is over 2000 miles wide.

Laurasia was still moving, and as it moved it broke up into the continents of North

America, Europe and Asia (Eurasian plate). In the second stage, the Gondwanan continents

separated from each other during the Jurassic and Cretaceous period. In the late Jurassic,

South America separated from Africa. This created another narrow basin between these two

continents. The eastern coast of North America separated from the Moroccan bulge of Africa.

The breakup of the Gondwanaland opened up the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean.

The Indian Subcontinent moved hundreds of miles in 135 million years at a great speed

(4 inches per year). The Indian plate crashed into the Eurasian plate (Asia) with such speed
and force that it created the tallest mountain range on Earth, the Himalayas. The Tethys was

being squeezed out of existence in the east of the Alpines as India approached Asia.

Physical geography of Indian sub-continent

The most outstanding fact about the physical geography of India is the natural division of

the country with three distinct segments of totally dissimilar character: (i) the Himalayas, the

great mountain system to the north, (ii) the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain of northern India

extending from the Punjab to Assam, and (iii) the Peninsula of the Deccan to the south of the

Vindhyas-a solid stable block of the earth's crust, largely composed of some of the most ancient

rocks, which the denudation of ages has carved into a number of mountain ranges, plateaus,

valleys and plains.

 2. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN CULTURE AND BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURE

Development of human culture

It is supposed that man was evolved on earth about 15 lakh years ago. This man was

evolved from the monkey who started to move by standing erect on his feet. Such man has

been called Homo erectus (or) Java man. Later on Java man transformed into Cro-Magnon and

Cro-Magnon into modern man. The modern man is zoologically known as Homo sapiens (Homo

- Continuous, Sapiens - learning habit). In the beginning such man had been spending his life

wildly, but during the period 8700-7700 BC, they started to pet sheep and goat, although the

first pet animal was dog, which was used for hunting.

The history of agriculture and civilization go hand in hand as the food production made it

possible for primitive man to settle down in selected areas leading to formation of society and

initiation of civilization. The development of civilization and agriculture had passed through

several stages. Archeologist initially classified the stages as stone age, Bronze and Iron age.

Subsequently the scholars spilt up the stone age into Paleolithic period (old stone age),

Neolithic age (New stone age) and Mesolithic age (Middle stone age).

Each of three ages, saw distinct improvements. The man fashioned and improved tools

out of stones, bones, woods etc. to help them in day-to-day life. They started growing food

crops and domesticated animals like cow, sheep, goat, dog etc.

Paleolithic age (old stone age)

This period is characterized by the food gatherers and hunters. The stone age man

started making stone tools and crude choppers.

Mesolithic period

The transitional period between the end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the Neolithic is

called Mesolithic. It began about 10000BC and ended with the rise of agriculture. This period is
characterized by tiny stone implements called microliths. People lived as food gatherers and

hunters. The domestication of the dog was the major achievement of the Mesolithic hunter.

Neolithic Agricultural Revolution (7500 BC - 6500 BC)

Neolithic revolution brought a major change in the techniques of food production which

gave man control over his environment and saved him from the precarious existence of mere

hunting and gathering of wild berries and roots. For the first time, he lived in settled villages and

apart from security from hunger he had leisure time to think and contemplate.

The main features of Neolithic culture in India

1. Neolithic culture denotes a stage in economic and technological development in

India

2. Use of polished stone axes for cleaning the bushes

3. Hand made pottery for storing food grains

4. Invented textile, weaving and basketry

5. Cultivation of rice, banana sequence and yams in eastern parts of India

6. Cultivation of millets and pulses in south India

7. Discovery of silk

Chalcolithic culture (Bronze age) (3000-1700 BC):

The term Chalcolithic is applied to communities using stone implements along with copper

and bronze. In more advanced communities, the proportion of copper and bronze implements is

higher than that of stones. The chalcolithic revolution began in Mesopotamia in the fourth

millennium B.C. from this area it spread to Egypt, and Indus valley.

The significant features are

1. Invention of plough

2. Agriculture shifted from hilly area to lower river valley

 3. Flood water were stored for irrigation and canals were dug

4. Irrigated farming started in this period

5. Sowing of seed by dibbling with a pointed stick

6. Salinity problem and water logging were noticed due to canal irrigation.

Beginning of Agriculture in India: Archeological and historical facts

12000 to 9500 years ago

 Hunters and food-gathers stage existed.

 Stone implements (microliths) were seen throughout the Indian subcontinent.

 Domestication of dog occurred in Iraq.

 Earliest agriculture was by vegetative propagation (e.g.,bananas, sugarcane, yam, sago,

palms, and ginger).

9500 to 7500 years ago

 Wild ancestors of wheat and barley, goat, sheep, pig, and cattle were found.

7500 to 5000years ago

 Significant features were invention of plough, irrigated farming, use of wheel, and

metallurgy and in Egypt, seed dibbling.

5000to 4000years ago

 Harappan culture is characterized by cultivation of wheat, barley and cotton; plough

agriculture and bullocks for drought.

 Wheeled carts were commonly used in the Indus valley.

  Harappans not only grew cotton but also devised methods for ginning / spinning /

weaving.

4000 to 2000years ago

 In North Arcot, bone / stone tools were found.

 In Nevasa (Maharastra), copper and polished stone axes were used. First evidence of

the presence of silk was found at this location.

 At Navdatoli on Narmada river (Nemar, Madhya Pradesh), sickles set with stone teeth

were used for cutting crop stalks. Crops grown were wheat, linseed, lentil, urd (black

gram), mung bean, and khesari.

 In Eastern India, rice, bananas, and sugarcane were cultivated.

2000-1500 years ago

 Tank irrigation was developed and practiced widely.

 Greek and Romans had trade with South India; pepper, cloth, and sandal wood were

imported by Romans.

 Chola King Karikala (190 AD) defeated Cheras and Pandyas, invaded Srilanka, captured

12000 men and used them as slaves to construct an embankment along the Cauvery,

160km along, to protect land from floods. He has built numerous irrigation tanks and

promoted agriculture by clearing forests.

1500-1000 years ago

The Kanauj Empireof Harshavardhana (606-647 AD)

 Cereals such as wheat, rice and millets, and fruits were extensively grown. A 60-day

variety and fragrant varieties of rice are mentioned.

  Ginger, mustard, melons, pumpkin, onion, and garlic are also mentioned.

 Persian wheel was used in Thanesar (Haryana).

The kingdoms of South India

 The kingdoms were of the Chalukyas (Badami), Rashtrakutas (Latur), Pallavas (Kanchi),

Pandyas, Hoysals (Helebid), and Kakatiyas (Warangal).

 Cholas ushered in a glorious phase in South Indian in the 10th century AD.

 New irrigation systems for agriculture were developed- chain tanks in Andhra in the 9th

century; and 6.4km Kaveripak bund.

 Cholas maintained links with China, Myanmar, and Campodia.

 The tank supervision committee (Eri-variyam) looked after the maintenance of a village

and regulated the water supply.

1000-700 years ago

 Arab conquest of Sind was during 711-712 AD; Md bin Qaism defeated Dahir, the Hindu

king of Sind. Arabs were experts in gardening.

 1290- 1320AD (Reign of Khiljis): Alauddin Khilji destroyed the agricultural prosperity of a

major part of India. He believed in keeping the farmers poor.

 3 . INDUS CIVILIZATION (3250 BC - 2750 BC)

In the year 1922, archaeologists dug up a few places in the Indus valley and carried out

excavations at Mohenjodara (meaning a mound of dead) in Sind (in Pakistan) and at Harappa

on the river Ravi in Punjab. They found traces of a very ancient civilization, which flourished

more than five thousand years ago. They

observed that the people utilized the pots,

utensils and ornaments. These cities were

built along the river Indus and hence this

civilization is known as Indus valley

civilization. It is also known as Harappan

culture and occupied the areas stretching from Delhi to Gujarat.

During this period the people identified the importance of ploughing for the proper sowing

of crop (i.e) soil has to be stirred and seed has to be covered. Ox-drawn wheel cart was used

for transport. The people cultivated wheat, barley, gram, peas, sesamum and rape. They also

cultivated cotton and also devised methods of ginning, spinning and weaving. Animal

nusbandary was also given more importance during this period. They domesticated buffalo,

cattle, camel, horse, elephant, ass and birds. They utilized them in agriculture and also for

transport.

The most remarkable discovery in Harappa is the Great Granary used for storing food

grain. These grannaries, each 50x20 feet overall, are arranged symmetrically in two rows of six

in each row with central passage and 23 feet wide. From the size of the granary it can be

concluded that the peasants paid their dues to the Government in kind, used the kinds in

granary for payments to employees. The artisans, carpenters and others received their wages in

kind from the farmers.

The Vedic civilization

The word “Veda” is derived from “Vid” which means “Knowledge” Veda is the only literary

source from which we know about the Aryans in India. Aryans were more prevalent during Vedic

time which extends from Eastern Afghanistan, Kashmir, Punjab and Parts of Sind and

Rajasthan. The land of Aryans was called land of seven rivers i.e., (Satlaj, Beas, Ravi,

Chennab, Jhelum, Indus and Saraswathi). The Rig-veda was the oldest book of Aryans.

Pastoralism

The Vedic Aryans were primarily pastrol. When they settled in the Punjab, they cut the

jungles and built their villages. They grazed the animals in jungles and cultivated barley near the

houses to protect from wild animals.

Vedic people realized the importance of off-season ploughing and they started ploughing

as and when the rain was received. The first ploughing of the season was inaugurated amidst

much ritual. The plough used was large and heavy. Bullocks and ox were used for ploughing.

With regard to irrigation, channels were dug from the rivers.Wells were in use for supply of

drinking water and irrigation called kucha wells, which were just holes dug in the ground. Even

now such wells are in use in the river rain areas of northern India.

Crops cultivated in Vedic period

In early Vedic period there is no mention of rice and cotton though they were cultivated in

Harappa period. In the later Vedic period (1000 - 600 BC) agricultural implements were

improved and iron ploughshare also improved. The people possessed the knowledge of fertility

of land, selection of seed, seedtreatment, harvesting, manuring and rotation of crops. Barley

sesame and sugarcane were the main crops. Cucumber and bottle gourd were also mentioned

in Vedic period, Aryans were accustomed to barley diet. Barley is good for men, cattle and

horses. Barley is used in Hindu rituals even today. For cloths, wool and cotton were used.

The agriculture implements mentioned in vedic literature include the plough (langala - a
lase pointed type having smooth handle, Sira - a large and heavy plough).Sickle was used for

harvesting and sieves were used for cleaning.

Civilizations in other parts of World

LEMURIA CIVILIZATION

Lemuria was originally the name given to a vast hypothetical sunken continent or a land-bridge

or landmass stretching from Ceylon to Madagascar all the way to the central Pacific Ocean

across the Indian Ocean and Indonesia. Ancient Lemuria-map of India in 30,000 B.C. The

lemurs derive their name from that of the Lemurs (or "Ancestors"). Man descends from the

apes. Hence, the name of Lemuria can be interpreted as "Land Ancestral" or "Land of the

Ancestors". The ancient land tying India and Australia together that sank incrementally over

time, is referred to as ‘Lemuria’. The Tamil bark writings in Southern India tell of the gigantic

Southern part of India, which used to connect to Australia cataclysmically sinking incrementally

over a long period of time. This was ancient Lemuria or Kumari Kandam. The great flood would

have sunk Lemuria or Kumari Kandam before the Ramayana period (10,000 BC).
 4. Status of farmers in the society during Indus, Vedic, Buddhist, Mauryan, Gupta and

Sangam periods

Harappan period:

The Indus Civilization had the first farming cultures in South Asia, which emerged in the

hills of what is now called Baluchistan, to the west of the Indus Valley. The farmers took part in

the so-called Neolithic Revolution, which took place in the Fertile Crescent around 9000 to 6000

BCE. These early farmers domesticated wheat and a variety of animals, including cattle. In the

"Era" terminology, the Neolithic is known as the "Early Food Producing Era".

Early Harappan

The development of these farming communities ultimately led to the formation of larger

settlements from the later 4th millennium. Indus valley civilization was composite product of

different races who lived and worked together in a particular environment. Mohenjo daro had

easy land and water communication; it was the meeting ground of people for different parts of

Asia. Farmers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds,

dates and cotton, as well as a wide range of domestic animals, including the water buffalo.

Late Harappan

By 2500 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into urban centers. Thus far,

six such urban centers have been discovered, including: Harappa, Mohenjo Daro and Dicki in

Pakistan, along with Gonorreala, Dokalingam and Mangalore in India. In total, over 1052 cities

and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Florence River

and its tributaries. By 2500 BCE, irrigation had transformed the region.

Vedic period:
 The most important people of the Vedic period are Vaishnava. There are four Vedic

periods viz., Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharvana Vedas. In Rig Vedas period, the farmers

occupied more number in the society. During this period, the superior people are called as

Vaishnavas, the next position was Shathriyas and the least position occupied was Suthriyars.

The Suthriyars are the farmers they cultivated the land and produced agricultural products

under the land lord.

The farmers status was more in Atharva Vedic period. They cultivated the crops based on the

advice of the saints.

Buddhist period:

A food producing economy emerged with the practice of agriculture on a wide scale by

using iron implements. There was pleasant proprietorship in rural areas and there were no land

lords. But a land owner could not sell for mortage his land without permission of the village

councils.

The village residents unitedly undertook task such as laying irrigation channels, buildings,

rest houses etc. the women extended their full co operation in their works (public utility). He

whole of each village was self sufficient, life was simple.

Mauryan period:

The economy was agrarian, majority of population were agriculturists. People were

also engaged in animal husbandry and cattle rearing which meant additional income to

peasants and the state. Gaha pathi were the term used for head of rich land owing family.

Gupta period:

The cultivators were called by various terms called Krishihala or Kinars. They had

low social and economic life.

Sangam period:

During Sangam literature, agriculture was the main occupation and hence the

position of the farmers in the society was also high during this period.

Agriculture Sangam was developed in Madurai. The farmers are called uzhavar

(plough man) and also they are called as Kalmar. The land owners called superior vellars and

the farmers who plough the land are called as inferior vellars.

The farmers’ status was mainly determined by the holding of land and animal population.

Thirukural period:

Thiruvalluvar mentioned about importance of farmers in the society. In his statement,

“Farmers alone live an independent life. Others worship them and are second to

them”

“If farmers stop cultivation, even Rishis (sages) can not survive”
 5. KAUTILYA’S ARTHA-SASTRA, AGRICULTURE, ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, COMMODITY

TRADE etc. – FEATURES OF VILLAGE

Kautilya (also known as Vishnugupta or Chanakya) (321-296 BC) was a great scholar of

time. He wrote a treatise titled, Artha-sastra, which deals with the management of resources.

During Kautilya’s time agriculture, cattle breeding and trade were grouped into a science called

varta. Kautilya gave great importance to agriculture and suggested a separate post of head of

agriculture and named it as Sitadhakashya. Agriculture today receives prime importance, by

policy and administrative support from government officials. eg. i) Supply of good seeds and

other inputs ii) Provision of irrigation water iii) prediction of rainfall by IMD iv) Assistance in

purchase of machineries v) Marketing and safe storage. All the important aspects are

mentioned by kautilya in his book. He suggested many important aspects in agriculture which

are highly relevant today.

1. The superintendent of agriculture should be a person who is knowledgeable in agriculture

and horticulture. There was a provision to appoint a person who was not an expert but

he was assisted by other knowledgeable person. This is applicable even today,

appointment of the directors of agriculture, horticulture are sometimes civil servants

assisted by technical persons.

2. Anticipation of labours by land owners before sowing. Slaves and prisoners were

organised to sow the seeds in time. He also emphasized that thorough ploughing

provides good soil texture required for a particular crop. Even today farmers in Punjab

hire labours from Bihar at times of heavy demand period.

3. Timely sowing is very important for high yield particularly for rainfed sowing for which, all

the implements and accessories have to be kept ready. Any delay in these

arrangements received punitive action.

4. Kautilya suggested that for getting good yield of rainfed crop, a rainfall of 16 dronas (one

drona=40 mm to 50 mm) was essential and 4 dronas rainfall is sufficient for rice. It is

very significant to note that rain gauge was used during Kautilya’s period. It was

apparently a circular vessel (20 fingers width, 8 fingers width depth) and the unit to

measure rain was adhaka (1 adhaka=12 mm approx.)

5. He also stressed the optimum distribution of rainfall during crop growing season one

third of the required quantity of rainfall falls both in the commencement and closing

months of rainy season (July/Aug; October/Dec) and 2/3 of rainfall in the middle

(August/ Sept.; October) is considered as very even. This concept is applicable even

today i.e. even distribution is essential for rainfed crop.

6. The crops should be sown according to the change in the season. eg. Sali (transplant

rice), Virlu (direct sown rice), till (Sesame), millets should be sown at the

commencement of rain. Pulses to be sown in the middle of season. Safflower, linseed

mustard, barley, wheat to be sown later. It is clear that even today our scientific results

prove that cereals, millets were sown early and oilseeds, wheat, barley require less

water which could be sown at last or as post rainy season.

7. He also stressed that rice crop require less labour expense vegetables are intermediate,

and sugarcane is worst as it requires more attention and expenditure. It is true even

today after 2000 years the situation has never changed that sugarcane requires heavy

labour and expenditure.

8. The crops like cucurbits are well suited to banks of rivers, Long-peper, sugarcane and

grapes do well where the soil profile is well charged with water. Vegetable require

frequent irrigation, borders of field suited for cultivation of medicinal plants. Even today

the practice of growing cucurbit (Watermelon, pumpkin) on river banks continue from

river Ganges north to Pamba river in south. This is an outstanding example of sustained

practice, which ensures utilization of moisture available in river bank.

 9. Some of the biocontrol practices suggested by Kautilya has got relevance even today.

They are:

a) Practice of exposing seeds to mist and heat for seven nights. These practices are

followed even now in wheat to prevent smut diseases. Soaking of seed in water to

activate fungal mycelia and drying the seed under hot sun to kill the fungal.

b) Cut ends of sugarcane are plastered with the mixture of honey, ghee and cowdung.

Recently evidences proved that honey has widely an antimicrobial property. Ghee

could seal off the cut ends prevent loss of moisture and cowdung facilitated

biocontrol of potential pathogens.

10. He also suggested that harvesting should be done at proper time and nothing should

be left in the field not even chaff. The harvested produce should be properly processed

and safely stored. The above ground crop residues were also removed from fields and

fed to cattle.

Trade and Marketing (Economic policies)

All the industries were categorized into two groups according to their ownership. One

group of key industry was covered by state and another group by private.It is interesting to note

that this policy resembles today’s model mixed economy. The production, distribution and

consumption of agricultural produces were well controlled by the king. Agriculture was placed in

the category of privately owned industries. The state Government should control and regulate all

the economic aspects and evade the influence of market forces and private interests.

These practices suggested by Kautilya were followed by Indian farmers for over centuries

which are more sustainable and relevance to scientific agriculture.

 6. AGRICULTURE IN THE SANGAM LITERATURE OF TAMIL NADU

During the Sangam period (200 BC to 100 AC), the main profession of the population of

the Tamil region (now Tamil Nadu) was agriculture. The region extended from Cape Comorin in

the South to Tirupati (in Andhra Pradesh) in the North, parts of present Kerala and Karnataka in

the West. The methods of cultivation practised during this ancient period were revealed by

several proverbs, village songs and literature of the period which are available even today. It is

rather surprising that the people had good knowledge about agriculture (seed varieties, seed

selection, seed storage, ploughing, manuring, irrigation, weeding, crop protection, pests, and

botanical pesticides).

The Sangam period literature covers wide aspects of the people’s life, such as epics,

ethics, social life, and religion. Several poems composed during this period have been passed

on from generation to generation through memorizing and chanting and later through

manuscripts written on palmyara leaves. With the advent of paper and printing machinary, Shri

Swaminatha Iyer who is popularly called “Tamill grandfather” painstakingly collected them and

brought them out as printed books. Two peoms of the Sangam period, viz., Tholkappiyam and

Thirukural, gives us a vivid picture of agricultural practices in that period.

Tholkappiyam

The poem Tholkapiyam was written by the poet Tholkappier during 200 BC. It give

descriptions of various agricultural aspects and these are enumerated below.

Land classification

Land was classified into four groups, viz., mullai (forest), Kurinji (hills), marudham

(cultivable lands), and neithal (coastal areas).

Seasons
 Six seasons are mentioned: early spring, late spring, cloudy, rainy, early winter, and late

winter.

Cultivated crops

There are references to rice, millets, sugarcane, banana, cardamom, pepper, cotton,

sesame, coconut, and nut. Farmers were aware that rice could be grown as rainfed crops.

Banana and sugarcane were ratooned. Plants were considered as living beings and endowed

with sensitivity. Tholkappier mentions about monocots and dicots 2700 years ago.

Importance of agriculture

Kings considered agricultural development as their primary duty. They felt that soil fertility

and irrigation facilities should be the country’s assets. Increased agricultural production was

considered a yardstick of prosperity of the country. The stability of a kingdom was ensured not

by army but by agriculture and sufficient crop production. Failure of monsoon rains and

reduction in grain yield were attributed to the king’s sins.

Irrigation

Kings dug tanks at locations where water flow from rains was plentiful. Semicircular bunds

were raised adjacent to small hillocks and water reservoirs akin to present day dams were

raised and constructed. Thus indicates awareness of water harvesting.The king Karikal Cholan

brought 1000 slaves from a conquered country and raised the bunds of river Cauvery. The

stone dam constructed across the river Cauvery centuries ago is considered a master piece of

engineering even today. River water was diverted to tanks through channels. It is mentioned

that irrigation should be given either in early morning or late evening and not during hot mid-day.

Agricultural implements

Buffaloes were used for ploughing with a wooden plough. Deep ploughing was considered

superior to shallow ploughing. A labour saving tool called parambu was used for levelling paddy
fields. Tools such as amiry, keilar, and yettam were used to lift water from wells, tanks, and

rivers. Tools called thattai and kavan were used for scaring birds in millet fields. Traps were

used to catch wild boars in millet fields.

Seeds

Seed was selected from those earheads that first matured. The selected seed was stored

for sowing only and never used as food grain. It was believed that such a diversion would

destroy the family.

Crop rotation

Crop rotation was practised by raising black gram (urd) after rice. This indicates that

farmers were aware of the benefits to the following rice crop which we now know is due to the

nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of urd. They also practised mixed cropping; e.g., foxtail

millet with lablab or cotton. Today we know that a balanced diet should have starch (supplied by

rice and millets) and protein (supplied by lablab). In coconut and jack fruit plantations, ginger

and turmeric were grown as intercrops

Threshing

A tool called senyam was used for havesting rice. Threshing of rice was done by hand

with the help of a buffalo (and in large holdings by elephants). Hand winnowing was done to

remove chaff. One sixth of the produce was paid as tax to the king. Farm labourers were paid in

kind.

The land was immediately ploughed after harvest or water was allowed to the field to

facilitate rooting of stubbles. These agronomic practices are recommended even today based

on scientific principles. Operations requiring hard work such as ploughing were done by men

while women attended to light work such as transplanting, weeding, bird scaring, harvesting,

and winnowing.
 In Kandapuranam, it is mentioned that Valli, daughter of a king, was sent for bird scaring

in millet fields where Lord Muruga (son of Lord Shiva) courted her and married.

Marketing

Products were exchanged by weight. In Madurai ( the headquarters of Sangam poets),

there was a food grain bazaar where 18 kinds of cereals, millets, and pulses were sold. Each

shop had a banner hoisted high so that it could be seen from a distance indicating that the

grains are sold here. What a novel method instead of neon signals and name boards! Customs

duty was collected on imports and exports.

Thirukural

The poem was composed by a gifted poet named Thiruvalluvar during 70 BC. It consists

of 1330 couplets (133 topics each having 10 couplets). It is the pride of Sangam Tamil literature

and its greatness can be realized from the fact that it has been translated into English and

several other languages. It devotes one topic (10 couplets) for agriculture under the chapter

politics. This clearly reveals the recognition that the prime duty of a king is to ensure agricultural

production. Even today we know that Government fall when people are starved. The French

revolution 200 years ago can be traced to food shortage leading to the fall of Louis XVI. One of

the causes of defeat of Germany in World War I was potato shortage due to the late blight

disease of potato. When the available copper was diverted to meet the army’s requirements,

production of copper sulphate, lime and water) preparation was affected and late blight could

not be controlled. The available potato was sent to soldiers fighting in the front. Hence, potato

was not available to families of soldiers. This severely affected the morale of German

soldiers.Horsfall and Cooling jocularly mention the story in the following lines:

For want of a nail, the shoe was lost.

For want of shoe, the horse was lost.

For want of horse, the soldier was lost.

 For want of soldier, the war was lost.

In India also, several state governments have fallen when they failed to ensure adequate

supply of food grains through public distribution system.

The importance of agriculture and related aspects are indicated in the following couplets

and descriptions.

Importance of agriculture

“World spins around many industries. All such industries spin around agriculture.”

“Farmers alone live an independent life; others worship them and are second to them.”

“If farmers stop cultivation, even rishis (sages) cannot survive.”

Ploughing

“If land is ploughed deep and soil allowed to dry to one fourth weight, even manuring is

not necessary.”

Manuring

“Manuring is more important than ploughing: crop protection is more important than

irrigation.” Green leaf manuring, farmyard manure, and sheep penning were in vogue though

farmers were not aware that they supplied nitrogen to the crop. One is amazed at the depth of

agricultural knowledge our ancestors possessed.

Irrigation

Bed method was followed as an efficient method of water management.

Weeding

“Just like the farmer pulls out weeds with the root system, so the king should eliminate

rowdies from society.”

Care of crops
 “If the farmer does not regularly visit his field, the crop will not grow.”

The foregoing account of agriculture from ancient Tamil literature clearly indicates the

agricultural knowledge of our forefathers. By following their footsteps, the present generation of

agricultural scientists have used the advanced technologies and have tried to stabilize

agricultural production in our country to meet our food requirements.

 7. Astronomy - Prediction Of Monsoon Rains; Parashara, Varamihira, Panchanga in

comparison to modern methods

Modern scientific knowledge of methods of weather forecasting have originated recently.

But ancient indigenous knowledge is unique to our country. India had a glorious scientific and

technological tradition in the past. A scientific study of meteorology was made by our ancient

astronomers and astrologers. Even today, it is common that village astrologers (pandits)are

right in surprisingly high percentage of their weather predications.

Meteorology is generally believed to be a new science. It may be new to the west, but not

in india, where this science has existed since ancient times. A systematic study of this science

was made by our ancient astronomers and astrologers. The rules are simple and costly

apparatus are not required. Observations coupled with experience over centuries enhanced to

develop meteorology.

The ancient/indigenous method of weather forecast may be broadly classified into two

categories.

1. Observational method

 -indicators

2. Theoretical methods (or) Astrological factors (or) planetary factors

 Computation of planetary positions and conjunctions of planets and stars

 Study of solar ingress and particular date of months

  Study of Nakshatra Chakras

 Study of Nadi Chakras

 Dashatapa Siddhanta

Alamanacs in Indian astronomy and astrology (Panchangs)

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica (1969), “An almanac is a book or table

containing a calendar of the days, weeks and months of the year, a register of ecclesiastical

festivals and saint’s day and a record of various astronomical phenomena, often with weather

prognostications and seasonal suggestions for countrymen”.

In India, the classical Hindu almanac is known as “Panchang’. This book is published

yearly, and is the basic book of the society giving calendrical information on daily basis and is

extensively used by the people all over India. For astrologers, it is one of the basic book for

making astrological calculators, casting horoscopes, and for making predictions. For farmers, it

is an astrological guide to start any farming activity.

The word ‘Panchang’ has it’s roots in two Sanskrit words, viz., ‘panch’ and ‘ang’, which

means ‘five’ and ‘body part/limb’ respectively. These parts are

1. Tithi (or) Lunarday - Total of thirty tithis in a lunar month, fifteen in each fortnight.

2. Vara of week day - seven varas, namely

Ravivara (Sunday)

Somavara (Monday)

Mangalavara ( Tuesday)

Budhavara (Wednesday)

Guruvara ( Thursday)

Shukravara (Friday) and

Shanivara (Saturday)
 3. Nakshatra (or) asterism (or) constellation - Total of twenty seven nakshtras named

according to the yagataras (or) identifying stars of each of the twenty seven equal

parts of the ecliptic (or) solar path.

4.Yoga (or) time during which the joint motion of the sun and the moon covers the

space of the nakshatra (there are twenty seven yogas).

5. Karana (or) half of a lunar day (or) half-tithi.

The other items considered for astrological prediction are

1. Rashi (or) twelve equal parts of the Zodiac belt, hence twelve rashis

2. Planets

3. Solar months and solar year

4. Lunar months and lunar year

5. Era

Theoretical basis of weather forecasting in ancient literature and panchangs.

According to Varahamihira and other scholars, the formation of clouds (or) garbhadharana

takes place 195 days before their birth (or) delivery (or) garbhaprasava. During this period

clouds were grouped as Abartak (Avartak), Sambartak (Samvartak), Pushkara and Drona. If

abartak is dominating one year, rain will be received in certain places in that year; if sambartak,

rain will be received in all of the country;

If pushkara, the quantity of rain will be very less; and if drona, that year will receive

abundant rain water.

It is also true that even today, the cloud classification indicates Circus, Cirrostratus, Cirro

cumulus, Altostratus, Altocumulus, Stratocumulus, stratus, Nimbo Stratus, Cumulus and

Cumulonimbus. Among this, Nimbostratus and Cumulonimbus gives rainfall to the earth.

According to the ruling planet of a year, overall rainfall of that particular year should be
anticipated as follows:

S.No. Ruling Planet Rainfall

1. Sun Moderate

2. Moon Very heavy

3. Mars Scanty

4. Mercury Good

5. Jupiter Very good

6. Venus Good

7. Saturn Very low (Stormy wind)

For predicting the monsoon and its subsequent effects on weather, all panchang makers

consider three different Nadi Siddhantas (Capsular theories) commonly known as Nadi

charkas. These are:

1. Dwinadi charka

2. Trinadi charka

3. Saptanadi charka

Arrangement of nakshatras in Saptanadis and its associated effect on weather

SEVEN NADIS EFFECT ON WEATHER

Chanda Bright sunshine, no rainfall

Vata Sunshine and wind, normal rainfall

Vanhi Strong hot wind (Westerlies)

Soumya Normal rainfall

Meera Very good rainfall

Jala Abundant rainfall

Amrita Heavy to very happy rainfall causing flood

Prediction analysis and discussion

The analysis indicates that rainfall predictions made in panchangas based on ancient

astrological theories are, on an average, better and in some cases at par with the predictions

made by Govt. meteorological department through modern techniques and procedures.

(E.g.) The yearly truly corrected predictions of rainfall made during 1946-1995 were 75,

78, 74 and 75% respectively for different panchangam. The seasonal prediction also indicated

that it was 89% for summer, 55% for rainy, 90% for winter and 78% for overall.

Method of measurement of rainfall

The method of measurement of rainfall is described by Varahamihira. A circular vessel

with a diameter equal to one (human) arm or the distance measured by the width of 20 (human)

fingers and with a depth equal to the distance measured by the width of eight fingers should be

accepted for measurement of rainfall. When this vessel is completely filled with rainwater, the

rainfall should be equal to 50 palas or one adhaka. This method has been explained by the

Parashara.

A model for forcasting seasonal rainfall recorded in Brhat Samhita

Brhat Samhita reveals that even in the sixth century AD, Varahamihira, a resident of

Malwa (present-day western Madhya Pradesh) faced the problem of uncertainty of monsoon

rains. The date of onset of such rains could not be predicted and so the amount of rainfall during

the season was also a gamble. As he was proficient in astrology, he tried to evovle or adapt a

technique which was based on that science. This technique lays down that after the occurence

of the full-moon day of the month of Jyestha (approximately coinciding with June of Gregorian

calendar), the asterism or lunar mansion or nakshatra of the day on which the first rainfall of that

year’s rainy season is received should be noted. This asterism provided the basis for the

forecast of seasonal rains (Table ). While giving this forecast, it was also necessary to take into

account the area over which the first rainfall of the season had occured. There are twenty-seven

such asterisms or lunar mansions in Indian astrology, with each one falling under a particular

zodiac sign.

Table : Varahamihira’s technique for forecasting seasonal rains.

Zodiac sign Predicted total seasonal rainfall

 Sanskrit English In ancient In modern units

units2

Lunar mansion 1 (dronas) (cm)

Hasta Kanya Virgo 16 102.4

Purvashadha Dhanu Sagittarius 16 102.4

Mrugshirsha Vrushabha Taurus 16 102.4

Chitra Kanya Virgo 16 102.4

Revati Meena Pisces 16 102.4

Dhanistha Makara Capricorn 16 102.4

Satabhisaj Kumbha Aquarius 4 25.6

Jyeshtha Vrushchika Scorpio 4 25.6

Swati Tula Libra 4 25.6

Krittika Vrushabha Taurus 10 64.0

Shravan Makara Capricorn 14 89.6

Magha Simha Leo 14 89.6

Anuradha Vrushchika Scorpio 14 89.6

Bharani Mesha Aries 14 89.6

Mula Dhanu Sagittarius 14 89.6

Purvaphalguni Simha Leo 25 160.0

Punarvasu Mithun Gemini 20 128.0

 Vishakha Vrushchika Scorpio 20 128.0

Uttarashadha Makara Capricorn 20 128.0

Ashlesha Karka Cancer 13 83.2

Uttarbhadrapada Meena Pisces 25 160.0

Uttaraphalguni Kanya Virgo 25 160.0

Rohini Vrushabha Taurus 25 160.0

Purvabhadrapada Kumbha Aquarius 15 96.0

Pushya Karka Cancer 15 96.0

Ashvini Mesha Aries 12 76.8

Aardra Mithun Gemini 18 115.2

1 On the day of the first rainfall of the season

2. 1 drona = 6.4 cm

Monsoon forecast for Southern Tamil Nadu in India based on Saint Kaikkadar’s

predictions.

Year Name of the Forecast of rainfall Preferred rainfed crops

Tamil Year

2001/02 Vishu Average Millet, Pulses, Vegetables

2002/03 Chitrabanu HIgh Rice, groundnut

2003/04 Subanu Below average Small millet, pulses

2004/05 Tharana Below average Small millet, pulses

2005/06 Parthipa Average Cotton, rice, vegetables

2006/07 Via High Rice, cotton, sugarcane

2007/08 Sarvapithu Very High Rice, maize, sugarcane

2008/09 Sarvathari High Rice, Maize, sugarcane

2009/10 V irothi Very high Rice, maize

2010/11 Vihirthi Very high Rice, maize

2011/12 Kara Very high Rice, maize

2012/13 Nandana Below average Millet, oilseeds

2013/14 Visaya High Rice, cotton

2014/15 Seya Average Cotton, millet, vegetables

2015/16 Manmatha Average Cotton, millet, vegetables

2016/17 Thunmuki Average but only in the later Groundnut, cotton

part of the year

2017/18 Avilambi Below average Millet

2018/19 Vilambi Average Cotton, millet

2019/20 Vikari Very low Millet

2020/21 Sarvari Very low Millet

2021/22 Pilawa Below average Millet

2022/23 Subakiruthu Very low Millet

2023/24 Sobakiruthu Average Millet

2024/25 Kurothi Very low Millet

2025/26 Visivavasu High Cotton, rice

2026/27 Prabava Average but only in the later Groundnut, cotton

part of the year

2027/28 Pilavanga Average Cotton, millet, vegetables

2028/29 Kilaga High Cotton, rice, groundnut

2029/30 Sowmia Average Cotton, rice, groundnut

2030/31 Sathaarana High Cotton, rice, groundnut

2031/32 Virothikiruthu High Rice, groundnut, vegetables, Chickpea

2032/33 Parithabi Below average Millet, sorghum

2033/34 Pramadesa Very high Rice, maize, pulses

2034/35 Ananda Very high Rice, maize, pulses

2035/36 Raatsara Below average Small millet, pearl millet

2036/37 Nala Very low Rice, maize, cotton

2037/38 Pingala Very low Small millet, pearl millet

2038/39 Kalayuthi Above average Rice, maize, cotton

(Very high in

northern Tamil

Nadu)

2039/40 Siddharthi Below average Millet, sorghum

2040/41 Rowthri Below average Millet, small millet

(famine expected)

2041/42 Thunmathi Low (famine Millet, minor millet

expected)

2042/43 Thunthubi Average Rice, cotton

2043/44 Ruthrothkari Average in the later Rice, groundnut

half of the year

2044/45 Rathakshi High Rice, cotton, sugarcane

2045/46 Krothana Above average Rice, groundnut, cotton

2046/47 Atchaya Average Rice, groundnut, vegetables

Prapava Above average to Rice, vegetables, groundnut

heavy
2047/48
2048/49 Vivaba Above average to Rice, groundnut, vegetables

heavy

2049/50 Sukkila Above average Rice, vegetables, groundnut

2050/51 Premadootha Below average Millet, pulses

2051/52 Prasorpathi Heavy Rice, vegetables, groundnut

2052/53 Angirasa Heavy Rice, vegetables, groundnut.

sugarcane

2053/54 Srimuga Average in the later Rice, groundnut

half of the year

2054/55 Pava Above average Rice, groundnut

2055/56 Yuva Above average Rice, groundnut

2056/57 Thadhu Average Sorghum, groundnut, vegetables

2057/58 Eswara Above average Sorghum, groundnut, vegetables

2058/59 Veguthanya Average in the later Rice groundnut

half of the year

2059/60 Pramathi Below average Millet, pulses

2060/61 Vikkirama Below average Millet, pulses

Comparison of actual rainfall (mm) received in Tamil Nadu, India with Saint Idaikkadar’s

forecast from 1950/51 to 2000/01.

Tamil year Gregorian Actual Year Rainfall

Vikruthi 1950/51 781A

Kara 1951/52 762A

Nandana 1952/53 686A

 Vijaya 1953/54 1016A

Jaya 1954/55 969A

Manmatha 1955/56 824A

Thunmuki 1956/57 979A

Hevilambi 1957/58 909A

Vilambi 1958/59 747A

Vikari 1959/60 826A

Saarvari 1960/61 978A

Pilava 1961/62 867A

Subarkiruthu 1962/63 931A

Sobakiruthu 1963/64 907A

Kurothi 1964/65 859A

Visuvavasu 1965/66 870A

Prabhava 1966/67 1152A

Pilavanga 1967/68 958A

Keelaka 1968/69 682A

Sowmia 1969/70 1036A

Sathaarana 1970/71 918A

Virothikruthu 1971/72 968 A

Parithabi 1972/73 990A

Pramadesa 1973/74 839A

Ananda 1974/75 643A

Radshasa 1975/76 857A

Nala 1976/77 941A

Pingala 1977/78 1123A

Kalayukhi 1978/79 949A

Siddharthi 1979/80 1091A

Rowthri 1980/81 669A

Durmathi 1981/82 952A

Dundubi 1982/83 662A

Ruthrothkari 1983/84 1222ª

Rathakshi 1984/85 791A

Krothana 1985/86 950ª

Akshaya 1986/87 700A

Prabava 1987/88 982A

Viba 1988/89 708A

Sukkila 1989/90 916ª

Premadootha 1990/91 714A

Prajorpathi 1991/92 898A

Ankirasa 1992/93 862A

Srimuga 1993/94 1171ª

Pava 1994/95 933A

Yuva 1995/96 668DA

Thadhu 1 1996/97 1121 DA

Easwara 1997/98 1133A

Vekuthanya 1998/99 825A

Pramathi 1999/2000 904A

Vikrama 2000/01 705A

This above table clearly indicates that annual rainfall forecast for the tamil year was test

verified. Out of fifty years forty eight years the forecast was in agreement (A) with prediction and

only two years were in disagreement. (DA)

Krishi-Panchang

The researcher developed the Krishi panchang (or) Agroalmanac (or) Agropanchang. It

may be defined as basic astro-agricultural guide book/calendar published annually, giving

calendrical information on various aspects of agricultural and allied activities, basically

suggesting region wise, seasonwise and cropwise. Crop strategy based on astro-meteorological

prediction, giving auspicious time for undertaking various farm related operations, along with a

list for performing religious rites, festivals, observing fasts and some non-astrological agricultural

guidance, primarily useful for the farming communities and persons having interest in

agricultural development.

The contents of the proposed Krishi-Panchang can broadly be categorized into two major
groups as follows:

1. Information which changes every year

 Annual date and Holiday calendar

 Month-wise daily guide for the whole year

 “Rashiphal”, i.e., month-wise forecasting of persons having different zodiac signs.

 Daily/monthly/annual weather forecasting for the particular year

 Crop prospects of that year based on planetary positions

 Season-wise crop strategy based on anticipated weather

2. Information which remains the same irrespective of any particular year

 Theories relating to agricultural and meteorological forecasting

 Auspicious moments for agricultural and allied activities

 Some general agricultural guidance.

Panchang-making

The content and coverage of the proposed Krishi-Panchang, indicate that only qualified

astrologers cannot prepare the whole content on their own, rather an editorial board comprising

of both qualified astrologers and crop specialists can do justice. While preparing the Panchang,

the editorial board members should keep in mind the following important points :

 The Krishi-Panchang is largely meant for the local farming communities, having very

low educational status. Hence, it must be in the local colloquial language to facilitate
 reading and comprehension.

 Care should be taken to make the Krishi-Panchang easily understandable and clear in

its meaning.

 It should be very comprehensive in its content and coverage with proven predictive

information only.

 It should not contain any astrological details or complexities which would go beyond the

understanding capability of our less educated farmers and agriculturists.

 It should be attractive in colour, and presentation of information should be systematic

according to seasons (kharif, rabi, and summer) and crops.

 It must be low-priced/nominal-priced, within the affordable range of small and marginal

farmers.

 More important is, it must be made available to the farmers and needy persons

sufficiently in advance, i.e., at least1-2 months before the start of the agriculture year

(july-june)
 8. ANCIENT SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SOIL PRODUCTIVITY

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

In ancient times geographical distribution by Surapala was jangala (arid), anupa (marshy)

and samanya (ordinary). It is further divided by colour into black, white, pale, dark, red and

yellow by taste into sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent. Samanya land was

suitable for all kinds of trees.

Rig-veda identified productive and non-productive soils. There were 12 classification

based on soil fertility, irrigation and physical characteristics. These soil classifications are as

follows :

1. Urvara (fertile)

2. Ushara (barren)

3. Maru (desert)

4. Aprahata (fallow)

5. Shadvala (grassy)

6. Pankikala (muddy)

7. Jalaprayah (water)

8. Kachchaha (land contiguous to water)

9. Sharkara (full of pebbles)

10. Sharkaravari (sandy)

11. Nadimatruka (land water from river)

12. Devamatruka (rainfed)

Another classification based on crops suitable

a. Vrdiheyam (rice (rainfed) / corn)

 b. Shaleyam (kamala (wet) rice)

c. Tilyam (sesamum)

d. Mashyam (blackgram)

e. Maudginam (mung bean)

Sangam, Tamil literature classified soils as mullai (forest), Kuringi (hills), marudham

(cultivable) and neithal (coastal).

Maintenance of soil productivity

Traditional soil management practices are the product of centuries of accumulated

knowledge, experience and wisdom refined and perpetuated over generations. These practices

were evolved within the framework of local technical possibilities. They enlivened the soil,

strengthened the natural resources diversify and maintained the production levels in accordance

with the carrying capacity of agro-ecosystem without damaging it.

Ancient farmers mostly relied on crop residues, manures, legumes and neem for enriching

soil fertility.

In Kirishi - parashara, it is stated that crops grown without manure will not give yield and

stressed the importance of manures. He also recommended compost preparation from cow

dung. The dried, powdered cow dung is placed in pit for decomposition where weed seeds are

destroyed. The time duration for composting is two weeks.

Kautilya mentioned the use of cowdung, animal bones, fishes, milk as manure. Surapala

describes the ancient practice of preparing liquid manure (kunapa) prepared by boiling a mixture

of animal excreta, bone marrow, flesh, dead fish in an iron pot and then add it to sesame oil

cake, honey and ghee. This is clearly evident that present day Panchakavya is prepared in the

same way and used in all crops.

Liquid manure (Kunapa) : Preparation of kunapa involves boiling flesh, fat, and marrow
of animals such as pig, fish, sheep or goats in water, placing it in earthen pot, and adding milk,

powders of sesame oil cake, black gram boiled in honey, decoction of pulses, ghee and hot

water. There is no fixed proportion of ingredients. The pot is put in a warm place for two weeks.

This fermented liquid manure is called kunapa.

Green manures :

In Rajasthan : Prosopis cineraria - brings up moisture and nutrients from the

underground and leaves used as green manure.

In Tamil Nadu : Calotropis gigantiea, Mortinda tinctoria Theprosia purpurea, Jatropha,

Ipomoea Adathoda

In North India : A traditional weed Kochia indica used as green manure.

Ancient farmers adopted crop rotation and inter cropping to restore soil fertility. Mixed or

inter cropping with legumes in cereal and oil seed cultivation were widely practices. All these

practices adopted in ancient time are now being recommended today under organic farming

concept.
09 . Water harvesting and irrigation developments during different periods – water
storage – distribution and relevance to modern agriculture.

The need for continuous supply of water for irrigation whether from canal, well, pond or

lake is realized as the most important for agriculture in ancient period. It should be preserved by

all sorts of efforts for the benefit of agriculture. The different irrigation principles adopted in

ancient period are :

 Construction of large mud embankment on a stone foundation for diverting flood water

from the river.

 Building of small tanks.

 It is also indicated that severe penalty was imposed when water is let out other than

sluice gate.

 Extensive tank irrigation systems were adopted in Sri Lanka and later in South India. In

Srilanka ancient kings practiced that not even a drop of rainfall should go to sea without

benefiting man.

 The topography of Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka is ideally suited

for the construction of tanks. A special feature of tanks in Telengana tank construction

in series, by bunding the same valley at several points and surplus water from lower

elevation and so on. Even now the tanks constructed by chola king in the same way

exist today in Tamil Nadu.

 Every farmer emphazises the efficient and skilful use of water.

 It is also suggested that preference of the use of water should be in the order of food

crop, vegetables and flowers.

 For the mainteance of tanks, a committee of villages called `eri- variyam’ was

appointed. The committee ensured repairs and de-silting tanks and distribution of
 irrigation from wells.

Bullocks to draw water from wells for irrigation was practiced and pulled a leather bag with

ropes. Persian well was used for drawing water from wells which was developed in North India.

HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Period Irrigation Development

1. Ancient Period 2500 - 1000 BC People settled near the banks of

river / tanks for the purpose of

getting water for drinking and

irrigation.

2. Chalcolithic 3000 - 1700 BC Practice of irrigation to crops was

evolved.

3. Vedic period 1500 - 1600 BC People employed craftsman to dig

channels from rivers to their fields.

Well irrigation through kuccha and

puccha wells and were practiced

4. Pandyas / Cholal (1st Century 300 AD) Irrigated rice cultivation started during

chera’s Period this period. Dams and Tanks were

constructed for irrigation.

5. Medieval period (1200 - 1700 AD) Irrigated agriculture was developed

during Mogul period. Canals, Dams

and Tanks were constructed (e.g.)

 1. Construction of western

yamuna canal

2. Constructions of Anantaraja

sagar.

Methods of conserving rain water

In ancient days itself, people, especially Indians, know the methods of conservation of rain

water. There are evidences that, even during Harappan period, there was very good system of

water management as could be seen in the latest excavation at Dholavira in Kachch. During

Independence period, the people use to manage water resources considering it as part of the

nature which is essential for their survival. This could be seen from the rain water harvesting

structures in the low rainfall areas of Rajasthan, harvesting springs in hilly areas and

mountainous region and percolation ponds and tanks in southern India.

In Tamil Nadu, the ancient people stored rainwater in public, placed separately one for

drinking purposes and another for bathing and other domestic purposses and called them as

Ooranies. They also formed percolation tanks or ponds, for the purpose of recharging irrigation

or domestic wells. They periodically clean the water ways so as to get clean water throughout

the year. These are instances in the history that people constructed crude rubble bunds across

river courses either for diversion of water or for augmenting the ground water. The various

methods of rainwater harvesting are classified below under two category, Traditional and

Modern methods.

Traditional rainwater harvesting, which is still prevalent in rural areas, was done in surface

storage bodies like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, temple tanks etc. In urban areas, due to

shrinking of open spaces, rainwater will have to necessarily be harvested as ground water,
Hence harvesting in such places will depend very much on the nature of the soil viz., clayey,

sandy etc. The below listed are the various kinds of traditional rainwater harvesting methods.

The Modern methods of rainwater harvesting are categorised under two, they are Artifical

Recharging and Rain Water Harvesting. The former is classified into Absorption Pit Method,

Absorption Well Method, Well cum Bore Method and Recharge trench cum injection well. The

later is categorised into Individual Houses and Grouped Houses which are further classified into

Percolation Pit Method, Bore Well with Settlement Tank, Open Well Method with filter bed Sump

and percolation Pit with Bore Method.

Bamboo method of rainwater harvesting

In Meghalaya (one of the seven northeastern states in India), an indegenious system of

tapping of stream and springwater by using bamboo pipes to irrigate plantations is widely

prevalent. It is so perfected that about 18-20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe system

per minute gets transported over several hundred metres and finally gets reduced to 20-80

drops per minute at the site of the plant. The tribal farmers of Khasi and Jaintia hills use the

200-year-old system.

The bamboo drip irrigation system is normally used to irrigate the betel leaf or black

pepper crops planted in arecanut orchards or in mixed orchards. Bamboo pipes are used to

divert perennial springs on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity. The channel sections,

made of bamboo, divert and convey water to the plot site where it is distributed without leakage

into branches, again made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. Manipulating the

intake pipe positions also controls the flow of water into the lateral pipes. Reduced channel

sections and diversion units are used at the last stage of water application. The last channel

section enables the water to be dropped near the roots of the plant.

Kunds of Thar Desert

 In the sandier tracts, the villagers of the Thar Desert had evolved an indegenious system

of rainwater harvesting known as kunds or kundis. Kund, the local name given to a covered

underground tank, was developed primarily for tackling drinking water problems. Usually

constructed with local materials or cement, kunds were more prevalent in the western arid

regions of Rajasthan, and in areas where the limited groundwater available is moderate to

highly saline. Groundwater in Barmer, for instance, in nearly 76 per cent of the district’s area,

has total dissolved salts (TDS) ranging from 1,500-10,000 parts per million (ppm). Under such

conditions, kunds provide convenient, clean and sweetwater for drinking. Kunds were owned by

communities or privately, with the rich having one or more kunds of their own. Community kunds

were built through village cooperation or by a rich man for the entire community.

Traditional Rain water harvesting

The traditional rainwater harvesting methods in North India is surface water harvesting

methods are viz., Tanka, Nada, Nadi, Talai, Talab, Khadin Sar, Sagar and Samend. Depending

upon rainfall, topography of area, type of soil, the water harvesting methods are different from

region to region.

Tanka

It is one of the ancient, common and relatively hygenic methods of water storage. It is

constructed of on farm, country yard and fort. The shape is normally circular / square.

Dimension is 2 m dia. 3 m deep capacity 10000 lit. It is made on sloping land to arrest run off

water in the farm; however in houses the construction is made on an elevated place to avoid

entry of dirty water in to it.

Talai

Similar to Tanka, still deeper (2-3cm depth). Special attention paid for selection of location

such that there is adequate flow of rain water into Talai. Care is also taken so that loose soil

does not flow along with water stream.

Nada

In this method, low lying areas in between hillocks is excavated as pit and provided

embankment to arrest rain water from these hillocks. The catchment area of Nada is 5 to 10 ha.

The Nada is constructed on rangeland, barren land pastureland and agriculture field. It provides

short-term storage of rainwater and mainly used for animals.

Nadi

Compared to Nada. the Nadi is bigger in size. A village or group of Villages uses the run

off water collected in the Nadi. Depth is 6-8m, catchment area 10-150 ha. In the Nadi, water is

available for whole of the year as a result it provides shelter for many wild animals and birds.

Talab

It is relatively shallow and spread over to more area compared to Nadi. It is generally

constructed in rangeland. The catchment area of Talab is 480 ha, when it is filled its fullest

capacity can lost for many years.

Khadin

Accumulation of run off water in between hillocks is known as Khadin. Khadin means

cultivation crops. The khadin water is generally used for crop cultivation and animals.

Sar, Sagar and Samand

It is used to harvest rainwater for irrigation purpose. Even today this structure provides

excellent source of reservoir and also tourist spot.

Practices of irrigation and rainwater harvesting adopted in ancient period were more

relevant in Indian agriculture today.

❒ Water is elixir or life and kingpin of successful agriculture.

❒ Priority to be given for water conservation for efficient use for agriculture and-for

domestic needs.
❒ Sustainability of irrigation system was very much stressed where the tanks, wells or

canals must ensure continuous supply of water.

❒ Avoidance of problems of salinization/alkalinization and water logging which become

features of canal irrigation system of today.

10. PLANT PROTECTION IN ANCIENT PERIOD – ITK – HARVESTING – THRESHING AND

STORAGE

In the past when Indians were gaining knowledge on the prediction of rainfall,

management of agriculture, farm operations, harvesting, and storage, nothing was known about

plant protection. The only methods to protect the crop were prayers and mantras. It was

believed that the crop is protected if the mantra was written with red lac-dye and tied to the crop.

But it cannot be said that the people of that time were unaware of insects and other pests and

their damage. Some of the pests (in Sanskrit) affecting crops were gandhi, Shankhi,

Pandarmundi, dhuli, and shringari. It is certain that gandhi (offensive odour) is what is called

today the gandhi bug (Leptocorisa varicornis F.); shankhi must be a snail (Pila sp.); and

pandarmundi means white head which is the typical symptom of the attack of rice stem borer

(Tryporyza incertulus Walker). It is certain that they knew the rice stem borer and its symptom of

attack. Dhuli means powder and it is possible that this word must have been used for powdery

mildew of wheat and barley. The word “shringari” in Sanskrit indicates something adorned with

red colour and it is possible that the term was used for rust diseases.

Besides these pests, goats, rats, wild boars, pigs, deers, parrots, and sparrows were

mentioned as destroyers of crops. In fact when the damage to crops due to different pests

reached the economic injury level, they might have started thinking about plant protection and

diverted their efforts to develop protection technology. It is significant that people at that time

considered that plants and human beings have similar physiology. Therefore, they divided the

diseases of plants into two categories: (1) internal; and (2) external. The internal diseases were

those which were caused by “vata”, “pitta”, and “kafa” and external diseases were those which

were caused by insects, birds, and weather. These categories can be attributed today to fungi,
bacteria, viruses, and nematodes-internal diseases; and insects, non-insect pests, frost,

waterlogging, and drought-external diseases.

Information contained in Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda , related to kinds of internal

disorders observed in trees, causes and symptoms attributed, and remedies suggested.

Cause Symptoms Cause elaborated Possible causes2

given

Vata Trunk slender and crooked; Arid land on account of Underground

knots on trunk or leaves; excessive supply of dry and mechanical barrier,

hard fruits (less juicy and pungent matters. leaf-galling insects;

sweet); gradual defoliation; root-infecting fungi or

flower and fruit drop; ematodes;viruses ;

generally yellowing of leaves saline or alkaline soils.

and fruits.

Pitta Leaf yellowing; premature Occur at the end of summer

Viral disease; salinity
drop; decay of flowers and if trees are excessively
in irrigation water;
fruits watered with bitter, sour,salty predisposal to
and strong materials
blossom blight; fruit

decays due to

fungal/bacterial

infections
Kapha Fruit-bearing delayed and Appear in winter and spring if
Fungal gummosis /
fruits are tasteless and ripen trees are excessively
rot;nutrient deficiencies
prematurely; oozing without watered with sweet, oily,sour or toxicities ; excessive

wounds or cold materials

watering

Today integrated pest management (IPM) is considered a recent approach for plant

protection but the so called recent approach was conceptualized and practised centuries ago in

India. Some of the practices adopted in those days are given below.

Seed treatment : Seed treatment which is considered an important component of IPM to

ensure better germination was given a lot of importance in ancient times. The seed was treated

with milk, mustard, sesame-ash, and cowdung for better germination and protection against

insect pests.

Fumigation : Fumigation methods were not as developed in those days as they are today

but the concept of fumigation was prevalent. For example, diseases of cucurbits were controlled

by smoking the bones of cow and dog mixed with the excreta of cat.

Field application : The plant protection appliances of the present era were not developed

at that time; sprinkling of aqueous suspension and hand-dusting of various materials were

used. For the control of insect pests several ancient recommendations are available. Some of

them are as follows:

· Insects infesting trees can be removed by smoking a mixture of white mustard, black

peper, asafoetida, vidanga (Embelia ribes), vaca (Zingiberzerumbet), and water mixed

with beef, horn of a buffalo, flesh of pigeon, and the powder of bhillata (Semecarpus

anacardium).
 · Insects infesting creepers can be controlled by sprinkling water mixed with oilcake.

· Leaf-eating insects can be destroyed by dusting cowdung-ash and brick-dust.

· Trees are watered with cold water for 7 days to remove insects from the roots and

branches.

· A wound caused by insects is healed if sprinkled with milk after being anointed with

mixture of vidanga, sesame, cow’s urine, ghee, and mustard.

A new term, eco-friendly pesticides, has been coined recently. In IPM more emphasis is

laid on this term and botanicals are being used instead of chemical pesticides. In fact this is not

new. Years ago several botanicals and other materials which have biocidal properties were

identified and recommended by Surapala to control plant diseases. The famous “panchamula”

(roots of five plants) which was commonly used at that time has antifungal, antiviral,

antibacterial, and antifeeding properties. Likewise, mustard had been used for all kinds of

diseases caused by “kafa”. We now know that mustard causes antibiosis in insects; in addition it

is antifungal and has nematicidal activity.

Some important products used in pest management during Ancient and Medieval periods

in India.

Material Author/Period Properties

Root of vasika (Justicia Varahamihira Soothing effect, insecticidal, antifungal,

adhatodaa) (505-587 AD) antibacterial, anthelmintic.

Branches and leaves of Varahamihira Leaf juice insecticidal; bark contains

atimuktaka(Hiptage (505-587 AD) glucoside (hiptagin) and tannins `

enghalensis)

Mustard (Sinapis alba = Surapala (1000AD) Insect antixenosis and antibiosis;

Brassica alba) acaricidal; nematicidal; antifungal

Bidanga (vidanga) (Embelia Surapala (1000AD) Anthemintic; antibacterial insecticidal

ribes) Someshwara Deva

(1126 AD)

Ash Someshwara Deva Dessicates insect eggs on seed;

(1126 AD) speeds up germination by softening

seed coat through mild alkalinity;

provides micronutrients

Sesame (Sesamum indicum) Surapala Allelopathic to rice; insect repellent;

(1000 AD) insecticidal

Mahua (Madhuca spp.) Surapala Insecticidal oil; piscicidal; antibacterial

(1000 AD)

Kusta (costus) Surapala Insecticidal (repellents, anti-feedant);

(Saussurea lappa) (1000 AD) antiseptic

Bhillata (Bhallataka) Surapala Insecticidal; antiseptic’ termite-

(Semecarpus anarcardium (1000 AD) repellent;mildew moth-proofing of cloth

anthelmintic; antibacterial

Cotton(Gossypium spp) seed

oil
Materials and practices that need our early attention

Milk and milk products : Milk and ghee have been used for centuries. Even buttermilk was

found useful. About 40% of total aminoacids in milk are glutamate, leucine, and proline. Milk is

reported to contain plant growth promoters. A recent report claimed that milk sprays induced

systemically acquired resistance in chilli against leaf curl, a viral disease. Milk (10% aqueous

suspension) also has been effectively used for controlling powdery mildews. Besides, milk has

excellent sticker-spreader properties.

The aminoacid proline has been found to systemically induce resistance in plants. It

stimulates production of antimicrobial phenolics. High amounts of endogenous proline increase

contents of cytokinin and auxins. Besides milk, proline is present in the connective tissues of

animals including fish.

Application of cowdung : Use of cowdung for dressing seeds, plastering cut ends of

vegetatively propagating units such as sugarcane setts, dressing wounds, sprinkling diluted

suspension on plants, and applying to soil has been indicated since the time of Kautilya (c.300

BC). Indian farmers continue to use cowdung in various ways, but the agricultural scientists

have ignored its use for other purposes except manure.

Briefly speaking cowdung from the cattleshed is a mixture of dung and urine, generally in

a ratio of 3:1. Cowdung consists of crude fiber, crude protein, and materials that can be

obtained in nitrogen-free extracts and ether extracts. Cellulose along with lignin makes up most

of the crude fiber; hemicellulose and pentosans (poly saccharides based on pentose sugars)

are also present. Micronutrients too are present in cowdung. The urine portion of cowdung

contains nitrogen, potash, and sulfur and only traces of phosphorus. The nitrogenous

compounds excreted in fecal matter consist in part undigested or unabsorbed food nitrogen and
in part another fraction called metabolic nitrogen. The metabolic fraction comprises substances

originating in the body such as residues of the bile and other digestive juices, epithelial cells

from the alimentary tract, and the bacterial residues. In short, fecal residues comprise

undigested fiber, debris from sloughed-off intestinal epithelium, some excreted products derived

from bile (eg. pigments), intestinal bacteria, and mucus. There are more than 60 species of

bacteria and over 100 species of protozoa encountered in the rumen of a cow. A majority of the

bacteria are cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin fermenters. The bile constituents are bile salts,

bile acids, and bile pigments. Bile salts confer hydrophilic coat to otherwise hydrophobic

droplets, thus acting as emulsifying agents. No bile salt is supposed to be present in the dung

because these are reabsorbed through the intestine and are put back in the bile. However, in

each such cycle (enterohepatic circulation) involving bile salts, a small part is lost through

bacterial degradation in the feces as dyslysin which is the slimy material. Bile salts have

antiseptic properties. Two chief bile pigments are bilirubin (reddish / golden yellow) and

biliverdin (green). It is the biliverdin (C33H36N4O8) which is chiefly present in herbivorous

animals and gives greenish color to the dung.

Materials recommended by Surapala to control tree disorders and their currently known

properties.

Materials Properties

Plant species

Acorus calamus L. Antibacterial

Brassica alba (L.) Rabenh/Sinapis alba Insect antixenosis;antifungal;acaricidal;

L.(white mustard) nematicidal;glucosinolate sinalbin “anti-insect”

and “anti-nematode” allyl isothiosinate

antifungal
Curcuma longa Koenig non L. Curcuma Antioxidative curcuminoids; antimicrobial

domestica Val. (turmeric)

Embelia ribes Burm. F Anthelmintic; antibacterial; insecticidal

(embelinbenzoquinone)

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (triphala)2 Anthelmintic with other two species of triphala.

Ficus benghalensis L. (banyan) Latex with good sealing property; tannin

Ficus glomerata Roxb. Latex; bark 14% tannin; some Ficus spp. are

antibacterial.

Piper nigrum L. (black pepper) Oleoresin antibacterial/antifungal;alkaloid

piperin is insecticidal.

Sesamum indicum L. (sesame) Insecticidal and repellent; oil synergistic to

pyrethrums; antioxidative lignins in seed; 17%

protein; 800 mg per 100g calcium,

phosphorous, and potassium; 14% iron

(ash) - highest.

Solanum indicum L. Fruits/leaves antifungal /antibacterial; glyco-

alkaloid solasonine present.

Animal products and other materials

Ash Particles hygroscopic; absorb moisture from

insect eggs and spores; interfere with insect

feeding; ash potassium interacts with

surface fats.

Cowdung With urine it is antiseptic; rich in bacteria which

compete with pathogens; good medium for

biocontrol agents; beneficial to Rhizobium

and Azotobacter.

Fish meal Rich in protein; releases aminoacids including

proline.

Ghee Same as animal fat

Honey Antimicrobial; protects wounds in plants /

animals; proline present; honeybee peptide

apidaecin is antibacterial.

Liquid manure (kunapa) Effects would include : healthy crop/tree; crop

tolerance to abiotic stresses such as frost,

heat, etc. as well as to insect pests and

disease; high yields; high quality produce.

Harvesting and Threshing

Kautilya Arthasasthra states “Grains and other crops shall be collected as often as they

are harvested. The threshing of different fields shall be in close proximity. In Sangam literature it

is mentioned that paddy was removed from the stalks by beating them on ground or by making
the bullocks to tread on them. Cleaned paddy was collected, measured and stored in proper

places. Sickles and swords were used for harvesting millet. For threshing, buffaloes were made

to tread or men are used to tread ears with feet. Blackgram was threshed with sticks. Women

considerably contributed to threshing and cleaning. A common vessel for measuring grain was

referred as “ambanam”

Festivals were celebrated before the commencement of harvest and during the time of

harvest. For threshing, Parashara mentioned a levelled threshing “pit” and installation of

threshing pillar called “medhi” are mentioned. The wood for the pillar was obtained from a tree

that produces milky sap, preferably by silk cotton, Ficus bengalensis, F. glomerata.

Measurement :

`Adhaka’ is wooden vessel made of mango, punnaga (Callophyllum inophyllum) is used to

measure grains which is equal to approx. 11 oz or 3.5 Kg.

 11. CROPS – INDIGENOUS AND INTRODUCED - HISTORY OF RICE, SUGARCANE AND

COTTON

Since time immemorial, cereals, particularly wheat, rice, and maize are considered to be

life sustaining crops for humans. Even in future these crops will play a pivotal role in food

security system of several nations across the world. The utilization of cereals as food and feed,

and for industrial purpose is around 1792 million out of which wheat, rice, and coarse grains

contribute nearly 35.4%, 20.8%, and 53.7% respectively. In the past fifty years the world has

witnessed structural change in cereal economics:

Long run trend towards wheat and rice and to some extent for maize, while replacement of

coarse grain crops occurred.

Developing countries achieved higher growth in production and consumption and at the

same time recorded rise in deficits.

Rapid expansion of cereals as feed in developing countries and increased share of

cereals in world trade.

It has been projected that world demand for cereals will increase by 2-3% per annum in

the next 25 years mainly due to increase in population as well as change in taste and income of

the people. This projection clearly suggests that despite impressive growth the world community

is still facing the daunting task to maintain adequate food supply for larger sections of population

and this will further aggravate in future

History of agricultural development and food production.

Agricultural Cultural stage/time Cereal yield World Land holding

system (t ha-1) Population (ha person-1)

(million)

Hunting and Paleolithic - 7 -

gathering

Shifting Neolithic 1 35 40.0

agriculture (10000 years ago)

Medieval 500-1450 AD 1 900 1.5

rotation

Livestock Late 1700s 2 1800 0.7

farming

Improved 20th century 4 4200 0.3

farming

1. Use of fertilizers, pesticides, and improved crop varieties.

Source: Tisdale et al. (1993).

In recent years, the concept of “sustainable agriculture development” has been introduced

to the world community by the “Bruntland Commission”, which has been accepted by all the

countries. It ensures that “long-term effects of development do not damage the rightful heritage

of future generations.” More specifically referring to food security, it calls for “increasing

production to satisfy growing demands while at the same time preserving basic ecological
integrity of production system.” Such sustainable development in agriculture emphasizes

conservation of land, water, plant, and animal genetic resources through technically appropriate,

economically viable, socially acceptable methods. Presently, utilization and access to genetic

resources have become an increasingly important issue because:

Technological advancement in molecular biology and biotechnology have opened new

avenues for widening gene pool of several crops.

Legal situation concerning ownership of genetic resources have changed (patent law,

state ownership)

The decline/less recognition in value of biological diversity has made risk of their

extinction/shortages.

Agricultural development in the recent past has markedly accelerated erosion of plant

genetic material, loss of genetic diversity, or heterogeneity on one hand while on the other hand

it has increased uniformity and genetic vulnerability of cultivated species to diseases and pests.

This necessitates indepth knowledge of the history of cereals involving the origin, process of

domestication, and morpho-physiological changes that occurred during the evolutionary

process. These aspects can help in conservation of primitive types and further improvement in

genetic capabilities of these crops.

Rice

Rice is the most important tropical cereal and supplies a quarter of the entire caloric intake

of the human race. About 90% of its area and consumption is in South and Southeast Asia,

which support a major part of the world population. Rice belongs to the genus Oryza and there

are two main cultigens, i.e., sativa in Asia and glaberrima in Africa. Rice is a semi aquatic

graminaceous crop having great deiversity as it is grown in complex range of environments, i.e.,

from uplands at altitude of 3000m to rainfed lowland irrigated, tidal swamp, and deepwater

areas. Besides these two species, aquatic rice species, i.e., Zizania aquatica and Z. palustris,
are endemic to North America, where it is the staple food of Indians.

Origin

The place of major diversity where rice might have domesticated is roughly the east west

belt along the Himalayas and adjoining Asia mainland (from Assam, Bangladesh, Burma,

Thailand, southern China, and northeren Vietnam). The archaeological evidence suggests that

Asian rice culture was established around 7000 years ago. In India carbonized grains excavated

from Hastinapur (New Delhi) suggest that it was in cultivation during 1100-800 BC.

Subsequently, the grain samples collected at Atrankikar (Uttar Pradesh) were oldest (1500-1100

BC). It has been inferred from the excavation of rice samples belonging to 5000-4000 BC in

Thailand that from this place rice spread to other countries.

Evolutionary history

The evidences from diverse disciplines including biosystematic and paleogeology suggest

that the genus Oryza arose from a common ancestor. The evolutionary path was from wild

perennial to wild annual to cultivated annual, and the closely related wild relatives contributed

differentiation of two cultigens. In oryza sativa, the evolution of different geographical races, i.e.,

japonica, javanica, and indica (the latter forming aman, aus, and indica types in the Ganges

belt) took place assisted strongly by human selecton. There is general agreement that in both

Asia and Africa elongation and floating ability in two cultigens was derived from their wild

relatives. Regarding transformation from perenial to annual types, a theory has been advanced

which suggest that climatic changes during the Pleistocene period induced physiological stress

in herbaceous flora, which accelerated evolution of annuals from perennials. In rice, change

might have occurred in the following sequence:

Perennial->climatic stress->seasonal->human selection-> cultivated rice.

Future strategies
 The primitive cultivars and allied wild species of cultivated rice constitute a store house of

rare and valuable genes but their use in the breeding programme is limited because these

possess many undesirable characters such as shattering of grains, sterility, and red grains.In

recent years, the precise elimination of undesirable characters while maintaining vital

characteristics has been found possible as evident from the fact that:

Four different spontanea types (O.rufipogon) subjected to different chemical mutagens

treatment, produced short plants with thick, erect leaves, and profuse tillering and possessed a

different source of dwarfening gene.

Short culm mutants induced in the Assam type of O. rufipogon produced higher yield and

proved more adaptable under waterlogged conditions during the monsoon compared to the

variety IR 8.

Rice species growing under marshy areas provide excellent sources of resistance to

drought and waterlogged conditions.

Agri-history of Cotton in India : An Overview

The antiquity of cotton in the Indian subcontinent has been traced to the 4th millenium BC.

The fabrics dated approximately 3000 BC , recovered from the Mohenjo-daro excavations in

Sind (Pakistan), were identified to have originated from cotton plants, closely related to the

Gossypium arboreum species. The lint-bearing species of the genus Gossypium, the true

cottons, are four, out of which the diploid (2n=26) species G. arboreum and G. herbaceum are

indigenous in Asia and Africa.

The history of introduction into India of the new world cottons (tetraploid species of G.

hirsutum and G. barbadense with 2n=52) dates back to the 18th century AD. By the last decade

of the 20th century, India had gained a pride of place in the global cotton statistics with the

largest cropped area of 8.9 million in 1996-97, growing the most diverse cultivars in terms of

botanical species and composition, producing the widest range of cotton fiber quality suitable for
spinning 6’s to 120’s counts yarn, and supporting the largest agrobased national industry of the

country.

Origin of the indigenous cottons

The cotton textiles of the Harappan civilization (2300-1750BC) were produced by

sophisticated textile craftsmanship. Thus at the earliest agricultural levels yet discovered, true

cottons were already present in the Indian subcontinent.

Wild and weedy types have been found to be associated with primitive cultivated types in

both the old world species of G. herbaceum and G. arboreum.

Species of G. herbaceum, have been found from the coastal strip northwest of Karachi

(Pakistan), through northern Baluchistan to south Yemen, Ethiopia, and Sudan and even in

West Africa south of the Sahara. Species of G. arboreum. have been recorded by in Kathiawar,

Gujarat, Khandesh, and the Deccan in India. It seems likely that it was in Gujarat (India) or Sind

(Pakistan) that G. arboreum cottons were first brought into cultivation (Hutchinson, 1971).

It may further be surmised that the differentiation of the three perennial races of G.

arboreum, namely burmanicum of northeastern India, indicum of western India and the

Penninsula, and sudanense of northern Africa, ante-dated domestication and that each

contributed separately to the cultivated cottons in Asia and Africa.

Agri-history of cotton production development

Until the middle of the 18th century, only indigenous arboreum and herbaceum varieties of

cotton were grown in different regions of the country. Due to the human skills and dexterity of

the local artisans, very fine yarns were produced by them, from even the short staple and

coarse cottons grown in India.

In 1788, the Governor General (at Calcutta) was requested by London to encourage

growth and improvement of Indian cottons to meet the requirements of the Lancashire textile
industry. The figures for exact area under indigenous cottons and production in India during this

period are not available, although it is reported that the local production had stabilized by 1900

AD.

Sugarcane

The origin of sugarcane was India. The species saccharum officinarum was first

domesticated in India and the spread to other countries by Arab merchants. Evidences revealed

that 3000-7000 years ago, Atarna veda indicated that sugarcane originated from the area

Sakkaram and then later it was indicated as sakkra in Sanskirit. Earlier indications in Kautilya

Artha Sastra also mentioned about the cowdung sett treatment for sugarcane.

List of major plant species domesticated, introduced and cultivated in India.

Crops domesticated in Indian sub-continent

Cereals Oryza sativa (Rice)

Millets and Cenhrus ciliaris (bunch grass), Coix lacrymz-jobi (job’s tears), Digitaria cruciata

Forages (Digitaria), Echinochloa colona (Deccan grass), Echinochloa crus-galli

(cockspur grass), Panicum arntidotale (blue panicum), Panicum miliaceum

(french millet), Panicum sumatrense (little millet), Paspalum scrobiculatum

(kodo-millet), Sesbania bispinosa syn. Sesbania aculeata (dhaincha)

Grain Cajanus cajan (pigeonpea), Dolichos biflorus syn. Macrotyloma uniflorum

legumes (horse gram/kulthi), Dolichos lablab (hyacinth bean), Mucuna utilis (velvet

bean), Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (Goa bean), Vigna aconitifolia (moth

bean), Vigna angularis (adzuki bean), Vigna mungo (black gram), Vigna

radiata (green gram), Vigna triloba (jungi bean), Vigna umbellata (rice bean)
Oilseeds Brassica juncea (indian mustard), Brassica rapa ssp. trilocularis (yellow

sarson or Indian Colza), Brassica rapa var. toria (Indian rape), Brassica rapa

var. dichotoma (brown sarson), Sesamum indicum (sesame)

Fibre crops Agave cantala (kantala), Bombax malabaricum (red silk cotton), Corchorus

capsularis (white jute), Corchorus olitorius (tossa jute), Crotolaria juncea (sun-

hemp), Gossypium arboreum (tree-cotton), Gossypium obustifolium (Asiatic

cotton), Hibiscus cannabinus (Deccan hemp), Hibiscus sabdariffa (Jamaica

sorrel)

Vegetables
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra), Amaranthus blitum (sag chulai), Amaranthus

tricolour (lal sag), Amorphophallus campanulatus (elephant-foot yam),

Chenopodium album (common pigwheat), Coccinia indica (kovai fruit),

Colocasia esculenta (taro), Cucumis sativus (cucumber), (Indian lett) (ridge

gourd), Luffa cylindrica (sponge gourd), Momordica charantia (bitter gourd),

Momordic cochinchinesis (kakora), Momoridica dioica (balsam apple),

Moringa oleifera (drumstick), Praecitrullus fistulosus (round gourd), Raphanus

caudatus (rat-tail Radish), Rumex vesicarius (bladder dock), Sesbania

grandiflora (agathi), Solanum melomgena (brinjal), Spinacia oleracea

(spinach), Trichosanthes anguina (snake gourd), Trichosoanthes dioica

(pointed gourd)

Fruits
Aegle marmelos (Bengal quince), Areca catechu (areca nut), Artocarpus

heteophyllus (jack fruit). Carissa congesta (karaunda), Citrus limon (lemon),

Mangifera indica (mango), Musa paradisiaca (plantain/banana), Phoenix

sylvestris (date sugar palm, Indian palm), Zizyphus jujuba (Indian jujube),

Zizyphus nummularia (wild jujube)

Some
Abelmoschus moschatus (muskmallow), Atropa acuminata (Indian belladona),
important
Azadirachta indica (margosa tree), cassia fistula (Indian laburnum),
medicinal Cymbopogon marini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon nardus (citronella grass),
and aromatic
Cymbopogon pendulus (lemon grass), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass),
plants
Datura metel (datura), Emblica officinale (Indian gooseberry), Patchouli

(patchouli), Rauvolfia serpentina (serpentine root), (costus), Vetiveria

zizanioides (vetiver)

Narcotics
Cannabis sativa (hemp) Cinnamomum tamale (Indian cassis) Cinnamomum
Spices and
verum (cinnamon), Crocus sativus (saffron), Curcuma amada (mango ginger),
condiments
Curcuma caesia (black turmeric), Curcuma domestica syn. C. longa

(turmeric), Curcuma zedoaria (zedoary), Elettaria cardamomum (small

cardamom), Kaempferia galanga (chandramula), Mentha piperita (mint),

Murraya koenigii

Spices and
(curry leaf tree), Myristica malabaricum (nutmeg), Piper betel (betel pepper),
Condiments
Piper longum (long pepper), piper nigrum (black pepper), Trigonella foenum-

graecum (fenugreek), Zingiber officinale (ginger)

Others Acacia catechu (kattha), Acacia nilotica (India acacia), Bambusa arundinacea

(thorny/spiny bamboo), Bambusa tuldo (Bengal bamboo), Bauhinia purpurea

(camel foot tree), Borassus flabellifer (palmyra-palm), Caesalpinia sappan

(Indian redwood), Camellia sinensis var. assamica (tea), Cedrela toona (red

cedar), Cordia myxa (Indian cherry), Coffea bengalense (coffee), Curcum

angustifolia (Indian arrowroot), Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Dendrocalamus),

Dendrocalamus strictus (Calcutta bamboo), Dioscorea alata (greater yam),

Dioscorea esculenta (lesser yam), Ficus bengalensis (banyan tree), Ficus

elastica (Indian rubber), Ficus religiosa (peepal), Garcinia sylvestris (wild

mangosteen), Indigofera tinctoria (indigo), kochia indica (bui), Lawsonia alba

(henna), Maoutia puya (pua, poi), Marsdenia tinctoria (rion), Morinda

angustifolia (ban haldi), Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry), Nephelium

longana (anshaphal), Nerium indicum (kaner), Nyctanthes arbortristis (Tree of

Sadness), Ochlandra travancorica (elephant grass), Oroxylum indicum

(sonapatha), Pluchea indica (pludina), Rubia cordifolia (Indian madder),

Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane), Saccharum sinense (sugarcane),

Sapindustrifoliatus (soap nut tree), Sida rhombifolia (Cuba jute), Sinocalamus

giganteus (Sinocalamus), Tamarindus indica (tamarind)

Crops introduced by Portuguese

Pseudo cereals Amaranthus caudatus (amaranth)

Oilseeds Arachis hypogeae (groundnut)

Vegetables Cucurbita moschata (pumpkin), Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato),

Solanum tuberosum (potato)

Fruits Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut), Anona squamosa (custard

apple), Psidium guajava (guava)

Narcotics Nicotiana tabaccum (tobacco)

Spices and Capsicum annuum (chilli)

condiments

Crops introduced by Britishers

Pseudo cereals Avena sativa (oat)

Grain legumes Castanospermum australe (black bean), Pisum sativum (pea)

Fiber crops Gossypium barbadense (cotton)

Vegetables Allium tuberosum (leek), Asparagus racemosus (satawar), Beta

vulgaris (beet root), Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower),

Brassica oleracea var. gemmifer (Brussels pekinensis (celery),

Capsicum frutescens (sweet pepper), Cichorium intybus (chicory),

Cucurbita maxima (squash), Daucas carota (carrot, orange type),

Lactuca sativa (lettuce), Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Pisum

sativum (sweet pea)

Fruits Averrhoa bilimbi (bilimbi), Averrohoa carambola (carambola), Carica

papaya (papaya), Eugenia jambos (rose apple), Fragaria ananassa

(strawberry), Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen), Helianthus

tuberosus (artichoke), Manihot esculenta (cassava), Malus pumila

(apple), Prunus armeniaca (apricot), Prunus avium (cherry), Prunus

communis syn. P. domestica (plum), Prunus persica (peach), pyrus

communis (pear), Ribes rubrum (red currant)

Medicinal and Cinchona officinalis (quinine), Origanum vulgare (majoram),

aromatic plants Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), Pelargonium capaitatium

(Geranium), Salvia officinalis (sage), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), Vanilla

aromatica (vanilla)

Crops introduced from West and Central Asia by Mughals or Arabs

Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic), Brassica rapa (turmip),

Brassica oleracea var. capitata (cabbage), Coriandrum sativum

(coriander), Cucumis melo (sweet muskmelon), Daucas carota (carrot,

black & red type), Phoenix dactylifera (date palm), Pisum sativum

(pea), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), Vitis vinifera (grape)

Crops introduced by Spaniards

Phaseolus vulgaris (French bean)

Crops introduced from China

Aleurites fordii (tung-oil), Glycine max (soyabean), Eriobotrya japonica

(loquat), Juglans regia (walnut), Litchi chinensis (litchi), Sapium

sebiferum (tallow-tree)

Crops introduced from Latin America

Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber), Ananas comosus (pineapple)

Crops introduced from Southeast Asia and Pacific islands

Arenga pinnata (sugar-palm), Artocarpus communis (breadfruit),

Citrus decumanus (pomelo), Citrus paradisi (grapefruit), Durio

zibethinus (durian) and Metroxylon sagus (sago)

Some recent introductions

Humulus lupulus (hops), Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Simarouba

glauca (simarouba), Cyphomandra betacea (tree tomato), Carya

illinoensis (pecan nut), Corylus avellana (hazel nut), Macadamia

tetraphylla (macadamia nut), Parthenium argentatum (guayule), and

Mentha arvensis (spearmint, USA) Acacia senegal (Australia), Acacia

mangium (Australia) and Actinidia chinensis (kiwifruit, New Zealand)

 12. GARDENING IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD – ARBORI HORTICULTURE -

ORCHARDS

Man is inseparable from nature. Since prehistoric times, the Indian people have had close

relationship with nature, particularly plants and flowers. The cult of tree worship has been a

tradition and faith in India through the ages. Trees and flowers have been sanctified in Indian

mythology, history, art and socio-religious culture. The pre-historic and proto-historic man in the

Indus Valley had great reverence for trees and worshipped them during the chalcolithic period.

Tree was worshipped in its natural form and as tree spirit personified as human attributes in

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The divine character of the trees has been depicted in a number of

seals, sealings, potteries, potsherds and some rock paintings as archeological evidences of the

Mohenjodaro and Harappa period (2500-1750 BC). A few trees, such as pipal or asvattha (Ficus

religosa), neem (Azadirachta indica), katha or khadira (Acacia catechu) and jhand or sami

(Prosopis cineraria) were held sacred by the ancient people of the Indus Valley. In the Indus

Valley Civilization, the belief was that trees were symbolic of gods and goddesses, which dwelt

in them (vriksha devata or vriksha devi). In ancient India trees were considered to be divine and

spiritual as the tree knowledge (brahma tarn), the tree of life Uivan tarn) and also as medicinal

tree (rogu tarn).

Mauryan period

After the rise of the Mauryas in the 4th to 3rd century BC, there has been vast secular

literature and texts, both Vedic and post-Vedic, like Vedas, Brahamanas, Aranyakas,

Upanishadas, Sutras, Smritis, Mahakavyas, Puranas, Buddhists texts (Jataka) and Jain

literature (Sutras). The sages of the Upanishadas have described the Cosmic Tree rooted in the

Brahman, the ultimate, whose branches are space, wind, fire, water and earth. The cosmic tree
is the World Mother, the Goddess of nature, which nourishes all Life. Kalpavrksa (wish-fulfilling

tree) and kalpalata (wish-fulfilling creeper) are mythological tree and creeper, not mentioned in

the Vedic literature, which have been a part of folk cult in Hindu mythology. Kalpavrksa is

mentioned in Ramayana, Mahabharata, Jatakas, Divyavadana and the Jain Sutras. In

Brahamanical religion, vata (Ficus benghalensis) was identified with Shiva, asvattha (Ficus

religiosa) with Vishnu, lotus with Surya (Sun) and nine leaves of nine trees (navapatrika) with

nine different aspects of Durga.

There are vivid descriptions of trees in the Rigveda (3700-2000 BC), the Ramayana

(1200-1000 BC), The Mahabharata as well as other literature by Shudraka (100 BC), Kalidasa

(c. 57 BC), Ashvaghosha (100 AD), Vatsyayana (300-400 AD) and Sarangdhara (1300 AD).

The art of gardening and kinds of gardens were described by Sarangdhara and Vatsyayana,

respectively.

In the Ramayana, mention is made of Ashokavana or Panchavati, in which Sita was held

captive. Ashoka trees (Saraca asoca) were predominant in this garden. In the Panchavati, five

trees were planted, asvattha (Ficus religiosa) on the,east side, bilva (Aegle marmelos) on the

north, the banyan (Ficus benghalensis) on the west, amla (Emblica officinalis) on the south and

the ashoka (Saraca asoca) on the southeast. A description of the layout of gardens and parks

and artificial lakes in the city of Indraprastha is given in the Sabha-Parva of the Mahabharata.

Several trees, such as Saraca asoca, Terminalia arjuna, Mesua ferrea, Ficus benghalensis, F.

religosa, Michelia champaka, Butea monosperma and Cassia fistula, have been mentioned in

the Ramayana. Almost all of them also have been described in the Mahabharat. It is said that

Lord Buddha was born under the pipal tree in a garden. The bodhi tree, under which the

Buddha attained nirvana, is sacred to Buddhists. The trees and plants mentioned in Buddhist

texts include asvattha (Ficus religiosa), banyan (Ficus benghalensis), udumbara (Ficus

glomerata), patali (Bignonia suaveolens), sala (Shorea robusta) and sirisa (Acacia sarisa). The
planting of roadside avenue trees (margeshuvriksha) was an important contribution of the king

Ashoka (233 BC).

Vedic times

The trees and the plants mentioned in the Vedic times were, soma (Sarcostemma

acidum), pipal/asvanha (Ficus religiosa), sami (Prosopis ceneraria), banyan (Ficus

benghalensis), udumbara (Ficus glome rata) , bilva (Agele marmelos); khadira (Acacia catechu),

neem (Azadirachta indica), palasa/plpksa (Butea monosperma), tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) and

lotus (Nelumbo nucifera). The other trees and plants of the Vedic and post-Vedic period include

salmalilsilk cotton tree (Bombax ceiba), coconut (Cocos nucifera), rudraksha (Elacocarpus

sphaericus), snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia), madhavi lata (Hiptage madablota), amalka (Emblica

officinalis; syn. Phyllanthus emblica), mango, amra (Mangifera indica), banana, plantain / kadali

or rambha (Musa paradisiacal), ber / vadari (Zizyphus mauritina), sala/shal (Shorea robusta),

asoka (Saraca asoca), kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), bahira (Terminalia belli rica),

arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), nagavalli, tambula or paan (Piper betle), nalaka (Arundo donax),

jivaka(Putranjiva roxburghii), mandara (Erythrina variegata), tili/tila (Sesamum indicum),

amarphal (Monstera deliciosa), Ficus krishnae, gaduchi (Cocculus cordifolius), ketaki

(Pandanus odoratissimus), imli/tintrini (Tamarindus indica), parijata (Nycanthes arbortristis) and

tinduku (Diospyros peregrina).

Tree worship and trees and environment

Tree motifs have been found in the art of Indus Valley, Mauryan ring stones, and

gateways and railings of stupas at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Amaravati and Nagajunakonda,

Mauryan relief sculptures, particularly on the Ashokan Pillar Capitals and Rampura Bull Capital

of Ashoka. Old sculptures and architecture of Mathura (Kanishka period, AD 78-101) and Ajanta

frescoes (AD 100-600) also bear testimony to the importance of plants and flowers in ancient

India. The relationship of trees with the Brahamanical and Buddhist gods and goddesses and
Jain Tirthankaras in Indian art date back from the 151 century AD to 1200 AD. Trees and

flowers have been also delineated in ancient coins found at the pre-Mauryan site, Sugh, Taxila,

Ayodhya during Mitra Kings, Kausambi and Mathura and also of the Andhra dynasty and

Pandyan territory. The ancient Sanskrit and other literature and texts, mythological epics and

legends, paintings, cave murals and frescoes, sculptures, architecture, folklores and tribal arts

and crafts provide evidences of the kind of plants and trees and flowers growing in the forests

and gardens. The science of plant life, (Vrikshayurveda) and arbori-horticulture, and usefulness

of forests and gardens were well-known in ancient India. The utilitarian qualities of trees and

plants for food, medicine, shelter, shadow and fuel, and the relationship of trees with fertility

were also known to ancient Indians. They were concerned with the conservation of trees and

biodiversity in nature and ecological balance in environment. Their concept of identifying trees

with gods and goddesses, and threats and punishments against the destruction of useful trees

helped to save the trees and flora, which is a remarkable contribution of our ancient people.

Mughal period

With the renaissance of gardening in India by the Mughal rulers beginning with Babur,

many plant species were brought by them from Persia and Central Asia where herbaceous and

bulbous flowers were already under cultivation. Many of these have been mentioned in

autobiographies and other books written during those days. Besides, in Mughal paintings also

we find illustrations of many flowers. These have also been used to illustrate the borders of

those paintings. In the book Bagh-I- Wafa. Babur has presented a description of gardening in

India.

During the 16th and 17th centuries AD, Mughal gardens were developed in Agra, Delhi,

Pinjore (near Shimla) , Srinagar, Kashmir and a few other places. The most important Mughal

gardens are the Taj Mahal Garden, Agra; Shalimar and Nishat Gardens, Srinagar; Pinjore
Gardens, Pinjore and the garden at Hamayun’s tomb, Delhi. The rose was introduced into our

country via the port of Bussorah by Babur in around 1526. Jehangir and Nurjehan were ardent

lovers of the rose and encouraged rose growing in gardens. The most important plants

introduced in Kashmir from Persia by the Mughal ruler, Jehangir in 1619 when he laid out the

famous Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar, were the majestic Chinar tree (Platanus orientalis), the

cypress (Cupresus sempervirens) and the weeping willow (Salix babylonica), and flowers like

rose, narcissus, daffodil, iris, lilies, tulip and carnation.

European period

Later, mainly Englishmen and the Portuguese introduced many species. Missionaries and

priests, civil servants and individual amateur, gardeners mostly brought these in. One of the

important missionaries who introduced a number of exotic plants was Dr Firminger, an

Englishman, who wrote a book on gardening, giving descriptions of various species of flowers in

1863. The book titled ‘Firminger’s Manual of Gardening in India’ is an authoritative reference

book on ornamental flowering plants even today.

With the establishment of Government Botanic Gardens by the British rulers during 18th

and 19th centuries, such as Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore (1760); the Government

Botanic Garden, Saharan pur (1779); the Indian Botanic Garden, Sibpur, Calcutta (1787); the

Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling (1878); and the Government Botanic Garden, Oatacamund

(1884), numerous economic plants as well as ornamentals were introduced in these gardens.

Among the noteworthy introductions of that period are the mahogany (Swietenia

mahogany) from Jamaica in 1795 and the Giant Amazon lily, Victoria regia, into Sibpur garden

followed by Grevillea robusta and Araucaria exceLsa in 1857 and Amherstia nobiLis in ] 859 in

the Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore. A few important and rare flowers of India are

Agapetes auriculata. Corydalis govaniana. Dendrobium chrysanthum, D. nobile. Geranium

wallichianum, Katherinea ampla, Meconopsis aculeate. Notholirion thomsonianum, Nepenthes

khasiana, Rhododendron macabeanum, R. hodgsonii. and R. thomsonii.

Native Indian Ornamental Plants

Trees

Albizzia lebbeck, Alstonia scholaris, Anthocephalus cadamba, Azadirachta indica,

Bauhinia variegata, Bombax malabaricum, Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, C. nodosa, C.

siamea, Erythriana indica var. parcellii, E. Variegata var. orientalis, Ficus religiosa, F.

benghalensis, F. benjamina, F. elastica, F. infectoria, F. retusa, Lagerstroemia speciosa,

Michelia champaka, Milletia ovalifolia, Millingtonia hortensis, Mimpusops elengi, Polyalthia

longifolia, Pongamia pinnata, Pterospermum acerifolium, Putranjiva roxburghii, Rhododendron

arboreum, Saraca asoca, Tecomella undulata, Terminalia arjuna, Thespesia populnea.

Shrubs

Barleria cristata, Buddleia asiatica, Daedalacanthus nervosus, Dombeya spectabilis,

Holmskioldia sanguinea, Jasminum sambac, J. grandiflorum, J. humile, J. officinale, Nyctanthes

arbortristis, Russellia juncea, Spermadictyon suaveolens.

Climbers

Clematis paniculata, Clitoria ternatea, Ficus repens, Hiptage benghalensis, Jasminum

grandiflorum, J. humile, J. officinale, Porana paniculata, Thunbergia grandiflorum.

Seasonal Flowers

Amaranthus spp., Celosia, Gomphrena, Lady’s lace (Pimpinella monoica), Torenia.

Bulbous Flowers

Allium giganteum, Canna, Gloriosa superba, Iris spp., Tulip spp., Orchids (Aerides,

Anoectochilus, Arachnis, Arundina, Calanthe, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Dendrobium,

Paphiopedilum).

Other Plants
 Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), Nymphaea spp. (N. pubescens, N. rubra, N. stellata)

Indoor Foliage Plants

Aglaonema, Asplenium nidus, Begonia rex, Coleus blumei, Pilea cadieri, Pteris cretica

var. crispate.

Indoor Flowering Plants

Crossandra infundibuliformis, Gynura aurantiiaca, Kalanchoe blossfeldiana.

 14. VEGETABLE FARMING – FLORICULTURE – PERFUMES and MEDICINAL PLANTS

Vegetable farming

• The Indian sub continent, one of the Vavilovian centres of crop plant, is endowed with

diversity in several vegetable crops.

• Egg plant, cucumber, ridge and sponge gourd have been identified native to this country.

• Around 80 species of major and minor vegetables occur here apart from several wild

edible species.

Distribution of major vegetable crops variability in different agro ecological regions of

India

Sl.No. Agro Ecological region Geographical Variability in major crops

Ranges

1. Humid western J&K, H.P and Parts Cucurbits, radish carrot, turnip,

Himalayan Region of UP cowpea, fenugreek, amaranthus

2. Humid Bengal / Assam WB and Assam Cucurbits, radish, cowpea,

Basin chillies, brinjal, Abelmoschus

manihot Momordica

chodinchinensis sechium edule

3. Humid Eastern Arunachal Solanum torvum S.sisymbrifolium

Himalayan Region and Nagaland, Manipur

Bay islands Mizoram, Tripura

and Meghalaya

4. Sub-humid sutlej, Ganga Punjab, UP and Febugreek, onion garlic Solumum

alluvial plains Bihar hispidum S.Surattense

5. Humid Eastern and south East Madhya S.torvum

eastern uplands Pradesh, Orissa Cucurbits, radish carrot, cowpea,

and Andhra chillies brinjal, okra, spinach

Pradesh

6. Arid Western plains Haryana, Rajasthan Cucurbit, cauliflower, carrot,

and Gujarat peas, fenugreek, onion, garlic,

citrullus sp.

7. Semi Arid Lava plateau Maharashtra and Cucurbits, Cauliflower, radish,

and central highlands West Madhya fenugreek Solanum torvum

Pradesh S.nigrum S.kharianum

8. Humid to semiarid Karnataka, Tamil Cucurbits, chillies brinjal, okra,

western Ghats and Nadu, Kerala and amaranthus, Solanum trilobatun

Karnataka plateau lakshadweep S.indicum Luffa, acutaugula

Basella Basella rubra

Floriculture in Ancient India

 Plants were also featured in personal adornment and beautification of the home. Of the

climbers, Madhavilata (Hiptage madhablata) received frequent mention in Kalidasa’s play (5th

century) and among sweet scented shrubs the mask-mallow (Hibiscus abelmoschus) and the

garland flower (Hedichium coronarium). Description of flowers and gardens and the garland

flower (Hedichium corononarium). Description of flowers and gardens had been presented in

ancient Sanskrit classics like Rig Veda (3000-2000 B.C), Ramayana (1200-1000 B.C) and

Mahabharata (500 B.C). Other Sanskrit books of early days wirtten by Shudraka (100 B.C.),

(Asvaghosha (100 A.D) and Sarnghara (1283-1301 A.D) also mentioned about flowers and

gardens.

Among the flowers the sacred lotus (Nelumbo mucifera) was the most important and

numerous references to it occur in Sanskrit literature. Int he days of Moahendjadaro, lotus

blossoms were wreathed over the head of Sun-God.

During the Buddhist period gardens were laid out around the monasteries and

stupas and there were beautiful gardens in Nalanada the Taxila.

The Hindus were so fond of ornamental plants that some of them were actualy worhsipped.

During the Mughal period (16th and 17th centuries AD) and the British period (18th and 19th

centuries) several ornamental plants were introduced into India. Indian native flora has

made significant contributions to the gardens of the world and also to the improvement

of a few flowers like orchids and Rhododendrons.

Mughal period

 The concept of developing a garden in an enclosed space was introduced by the

Mughals in India during 16th and 17th centuries.

 Babur is credited with the introduction of scented Persian rose in India.

 Akbar the Great (1556-1605), the Mogul emperor of India was the garden lover.

 Abu-i- Fazi provided a list of 21 fragrant flowering plants along with flower colour and

season of flowering in Ain-i-Akbari.

 He also gave another list of 29 plants with flowers notable for their beauty.

 From the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri it appears that Jahangir was familiar with nearly all important

fragrant palnts of India like Michelia champaca, Pendanus odoratissimum, Mimusops

elengi, Jasminum officinale. Mughal gardens were developed in Agra, Delhi, Pinjore

(near Shimala), Srinagar, Karhmir and a few places during the 16th and 17th

centuries AD.

European period

 Missionary priests, Englishmen, Portuguese, amateur and professional gardeners from

Europe, Asia and Africa, introduced a large number of plants into Indian gardens.

 Several botanical gardens were established during 18th and 19th centuries in various

parts of India, where indigenous and exotic plants were introduced and maintained.

 With the establishment of Government Botanic Gardens by the British rulers during 18 th

and 19th centuries such as Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore (1760); the

government Botanic Garden, Saharanpur (1779); the Indian Botanic Garden, Sipbur
 Calcatta (1783); the Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling (1878) and the Government

Botanic Garden, Oatacamud (1884), numerous economic plants as well as ornamentals

were introduced in these gardens.

PERFUMES

India has a perfumery tradition that dates back to over 5,000 years to Indus Valley civilization.

The roots, flowers and leaves were used in perfumery. The Sanskrit Encyclopedia 'Manasollasa'

composed by Someshwara in AD 1127 deals with the blending of perfumes which were used in

royal baths and for the rituals and worship. The Ain -1- Akbari (17th century) provides a list of

twenty one fragrant flowering plants along with season and colours.

Preparation of Perfumes (Brhat Samhita):

The word ‘yukti’ means combination and composition. Perfumes and scents are manufactured

for the benefit of royal personages and inmates of harems.

Medicinal plants and their relevance today

Medicinal plants in ancient India

• Medicinal and aromatic plants have been used for a long time for their medicinal

properties.

• About 2000 native plants species have curative properties and 1300 species are known

for their aroma and flavour.

• The Indian systems of medicines, popularly known as Ayurveda, unani and sidha drugs

are of great demand in the country.

• There is already spurt in demand of plant based drugs and of late may such native

species of medicinal values are being brought under systematic cultivation.

 • Saffron, opium poppy have been under cultivation for many years.

• Opium poppy is perhaps the exotic plant brought under cultivation in the later part of

16th century through introduction from West Asia. It is one of the cultivated crops where

the selection pressure has played a major role in developing new varieties and land

races.

• Cinchona has been introduced in India mainly to fight the menace of malaria and

diahorrea respectively, while belladonna, ergot, pyrethrum, henbane and toxglove were

introduced in India during second world war to meet the demand of raw materials for

vital drugs.

• India is blessed with a wide variety of soils and agro-climatic situation that supports a

large variety of plants.

• Out of these, about 65 plants have large and consistent demand in world trade.

• India however produces only limited quantities of these materials.

• Interms of market share in production value, India holds only the 6th place with a mere

7% share.

• At present, about 90% collection of medicinal plants is from the forests and since 70% of

the plant collections involve destructive harvesting many useful plant species are

endangered or threatened.

• In India, more than 15 lakh practitioners use medicinal plants in preventive and curative

application.

There are two ancient systems of medicine in India, the Siddha that flourished in the

South and the Ayurveda prevalent in the North. Instead of giving the name of any one individual

as the founder of either system, our ancients wisely attributed their origin to the Creator.

According to tradition, it was Shiva who unfolded the knowledge of Siddha system of medicine
to his consort, Parvati, who handed it down to Nandideva and he, to Siddhars. Therefore it is

called 'Saiva Sampradayam' (tradition of Shive), or 'Siddha Sampradayam'. In the case of

Ayurveda it was Brahma, the Creator of the Universe, who taught the science to Prajapati, he to

Aswini Devatas and they, in their turn, to Atreya etc. So this tradition is called the Brahma or

Arsha Sampradaya (the tradition of Rishis). The inference to be drawn from these traditions is

that, there is no exact point of time to which the beginning of these systems could be traced.

They are eternal, without a beginning or end; they began with man.

Origin of Siddha Medicine: Siddha system is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India.

The term ‘Siddha’ means achievement and the ‘Siddhars’ were saintly figures who achieved

results in medicine through the practice of Yoga. Eighteen ‘Siddhars’ seem to have contributed

towards the development of this medical system. Siddha system’s literature is in Tamil and it is

practiced in Tamil speaking parts of India. The system is also called Agasthyar system in the

name of its famous exponent sage Agasthya. A number of medical works of this system are

ascribed to him but it may be difficult at this time to say the exact number that can be credited to

him. This system of medicine developed within the Dravidian culture, which is of the pre-vedic

period. The Siddha system is largely therapeutic in nature.

The Siddhars: The ancient Tamils in their quest for knowledge for longevity developed two

ways by which man can achieve mastery over nature. One is the Yogic way and the other is

through medicines. The persons who dedicated themselves to this task were themselves great

yogis known as Siddhars. Hence the system of medicine propounded by them came out be

known as Siddhars system of Medicine.

The Neem Tree: The Neem tree was regarded as sacred in Mohenjo-daro Civilization. In the

annals of the ancient Siddha System of Medicine, the first medicinal plant mentioned as well as

found a place, in ancient Tamil literature is Margosa or Neem. This has been used by Tamils
from time immemorial as a deterrent for smallpox and other infectious diseases and also

considered to possess powers to ward off evil spirits.

Kalpa Treatment: Ancient Siddha devoted time in finding out suitable remedies rather than

describing the causes of a disease in detail. The scope of ‘Kaya Kalpa’ treatment is two-fold;

one is to cure degenerative diseases and the other is to prolong the life span. Kalpa serves as

an anti-degenerative elixir -- that can cure cancer and heart diseases is itself rejuvenation.

Timeline of Indian Medicine

1000 BC - Atharva Veda.

600 BC – Codification of medical knowledge into Ayurveda.

400 BC – Caraka Samhita by Caraka.

400 BC - Susruta Samhita by Susruta.

700 AD - Ashtanga Samgraha by Vagbhata.

700 AD - Ashtanga Hridya Samhita by Vaghbata.

800 AD - Rasaratnakara by Nagarjuna.

900 AD - Rug Vinishchaya by Madhakara.

1000 AD - Siddha Yoga by Vrinda.

1000 AD - Nava Nitaka by Navanita.

1300 AD - Sharangadhar Samhiti by Sharangadhar.

1550 AD - Bhavaprakasha by Bhava Misra.

1563 AD - Garcia da Orta`s Coloquios dos simples e Drogas e cousas medicineis da India (A.D

1563) includes description of many Indian medicinal plants.

1591 AD - Christophoras Acosta`s Aromaticum et medicametorum in Orientali Indian

nascentium liber and Historia Natural R moral de las Indias scuilla (Barcelona, A.D. 1591) are

important works on medicinal plants of India.

Medical Education in Ancient India: Medicinal knowledge has been systematized thousands

of years ago in a system of medicine called Ayurveda. Ayurveda is a Sanskrit word, derived

from two roots: ayur, which means life, and veda, knowledge. It has its root in ancient Vedic

literature and encompasses our entire life, the body, mind and spirit. In ancient India, Medical

education was available in in the larger cities such as Taxila, Kasi (Varanasi) and Nalanda. The

plant wealth of forest was utilized through ‘Ayurveda’ for the welfare of human beings. The city

of Ayodhya was inhabited by a good number of vaidyas or physicians. Proficient and

skilled surgeons known as ‘salyakrt’ (v. 28.6) existed at the time of Ramayana.

Physicians accompanied royal well developed and surgeons were in special demand.

Surgeons of the structure of the human body as can be inferred from the many

anatomical terms used in the epic.

Relevance of medicinal plants today

The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that 80 % of the population of

developing countries still relies on traditional medicines, mostly plant drugs, for their primary

health care needs. Also, modern pharmacopoeia contains at least 25% drugs derived from

plants. Many other are synthetic analogues built on prototype compounds isolated from plants.

Demand for medicinal plant is increasing in both developing and developed countries due to

growing recognition of natural products, being non-toxic, having no side-effects, easily available

at affordable prices. There has been resurgence in the consumption and demand for medicinal

plants. These plants are finding use as pharmaceuticals, neutraceuticals, cosmetics and food

supplements. According to an all India ethno-biological survey carried out by the Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Government of India, there are over 8000 species of plants being

used for medicine in India.

15 . Role of cattle and other domestic animals- management of cattle for draught

and milk – indigenous breeds

India has a distinguished livestock heritage and a place of pride in the history of livestock

development in the world. It has shared its livestock resources with many countries all over the

world, thus contributing immensely to livestock development on a global scale. It ranks first in

cattle and buffalo population with 15% and 52% respectively and together making up 28% of the

large ruminant population of the world. Likewise, India ranks first in goat population (19%) and

fifth in sheep population (45%), the two together making up 26% of small ruminant population of

the world. India has the largest number of breeds of cattle (26), buffaloes (7), goats (20), and

sheep (40) in the world. Thus livestock wealth of India constitutes the richest livestock bank of

the world. In India the zebu are much prized for their heat tolerance, disease resistance, and

capacity to thrive under harsh environments. They have been exported to countries in Asia.

Africa, the Americas, and Australia, where they have adapted well.

Animals are sources of food, fibre, power, manure, hides. skins, bones, and recreation.

Besides being an integral part of agriculture and rural life. their contribution to the national

income is invaluable. The contribution of animal husbandry is 26.4% and that of the latter is

36% of the gross national product. The annual growth rate of animal husbandry is 6.2% and that

of agriculture is 3.42%. Thus the growth rate of livestock products in India has been comparable

to that achieved by any other important sectors of economy. Today, the country ranks first in

milk production in the world.

The present glory of animal husbandry has a long historical background. The history of

animal husbandry is interwoven with the progress of agriculture and ultimately the progress of

civilization. In developing crop husbandry, man learned to supplement his own capabilities with
that of domestic animals. The importance of livestock was well known since time immemorial. In

prehistoric and ancient India animal husbandry has been an integral part of agriculture. Written

documents and old civilization manifestations suggest that animal husbandry in ancient and

medieval India was of high order. Several references exist on importance of livestock and their

rearing; e.g., Vedas, Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Buddhist and Jain literature,

Kautilya’s Artha-sastra. Puranas, Krishi-Parashara. and Ain-i-Akbari. According to some

scholars the Vedas are dated 5000-3000 BC, Puranas 2000-1000 BC, and Artha-sastra 300-

600 AD; Ramayana is considered 9000 years old, Mahabharata 5000 years old, and Jain and

Buddhist literature about 2500 years old.

Domestication of animals

Dog, a domestic pet, was the first animal to be domesticated in the Old Stone Age (10,000

BC) and other farm animals were domesticated in the New Stone Age (7500-6500 BC).

Different animals have been domesticated in different periods in Europe, Central and West Asia,

and India. It is considered that horse, cow, sheep and goat were domesticated first in Europe

and Asia. pig in China. and poultry, elephant, and buffalo in India. The order of domestication

was dog. goal. sheep. cow, buffalo, pig, elephant. horse. camel. and ass. However. evidence

from Mohenjo-daro excavation amply suggests that indigenous breeds of cattle had originated

in India and not brought by Aryans in India. The present-day cattle of Sind, Gujarat, and

Rajputana are similar to those that existed in Mohenjo-daro.

Animal husbandry in Vedic literature

Many uses of animals and birds for the human society arc mentioned in the Vedas. These

include food items such as milk and milk products; medicines from milk, ghee (clarified butter),

and urine of cows; wool; skin and hides; manure; and fuel and animal power in agriculture and

transportation. The sound of animals and birds are indicators of future events such as rains,

lightning. and earthquakes; presence of poisons in food; and location of lurking dangerous
animals. Therefore, Vedas have directed to raise and protect animals.

Cow is referred as “aghnya” which means not to be killed but to be raised and protected.

Likewise, Vedas have directed to protect other animals too. A lot of emphasis has been given to

rearing and protecting cows as they produce milk and manure (dung and urine), and bullocks for

draught power.

The Aryans, in the Vedic Age, knew the importance of pasture and forests . They used to

graze their cattle by taking them to the grasslands in the morning and bring them back in the

evening.This practice still survives in villages all over India. A number of hymns in Vedas are

addressed to God for gifts of cattle and other animals. The vocabulary of Aryans is rich in

names for every aspect of herds with special words for cows with strange calves; a cow barren

after calving; and red, black, and light coloured cows; also herds were differentiated by distinct

names. Cuts in the ears were made for identification. The cows were milked three times daily

suggesting their high milk-yielding capacity. Castration was practised and oxen were used for

their normal purpose of farm transport:’Cows which gave abundant milk and which could be

milked easily are prayed for. The quality of some cows which let down milk merely on the sight

of their calves has been well observed and referred to.

Avi, the Sanskrit word for sheep, is used by transference for wool. Sheep wool was mainly

used but there is evidence of use of goat’s wool (hair) from long-haired animals such as those

from Kashmir. The wool when spun was woven on a loom.

Animal husbandry during 200-300 BC

The Buddhist text (Suttanipata) declares cattle to be givers of food, beauty, and

happinessand pleads their protection. There used to be superintendents of cows who

supervised herds of milch cattle, cow herdsman, buffalo herdsman, milkers, and churners. The

superintendent ensured that calves were not starved but fed well. The herds included equal

number of milch cows, pregnant cows, aged cows, heifers, and calves. Crippled cows and cows
difficult to milk were kept in special herds. The superintendent branded the cows to indicate that

their calves were more than two months old. He registered them and also noted their natural

marks, colour, and distance between horns. Thus herd registration and marking for identification

was in practice. The cattle were allowed to graze in fields after harvesting of crops. However,

during the cropping season they were sent under normal charge of a herdsman, hired by the

village collectively, to grazing land. The herdsman knew each animal under his charge by

general appearance and marks upon it. He was experienced in removing eggs of flies from their

hide, to heal sores, knew places of availability of food and water, and clever in choosing

pastures.

Kautilya’s Artha-sastra also mentions importance of cows and states, ‘The killing of cows

is a deadly sin.” The king will daily visit the cows, observe them, and salute both cows with her

calf and bull by circling round them, before going to the court.

In the Mauryan age, buffaloes were also recognized as dairy animals. The rations for

buffaloes were prescribed. It is stated that buffalo milk is richer in butter fat than cow’s milk, the

fact established very well today. Kautilya clearly mentions for providing breeding bulls in herds

of cows.

During the reign of Ashoka, veterinary hospitals were state institutions and functioned all

over the empire. Herbs and medicinal plants used for healing ailments of beasts were grown

and those lacking at a particular place were imported and planted. Thus, there was a provision

for care and treatment of cattle, horses. and elephants.

Animal husbandry in medieval India

Abdur Razzak, a foreign visitor in South India, observed that Devendra II of Vijayanagar

empire had many elephants. The king also had a white elephant. He described in detail the’

procedure for catching, taming, feeding, and breeding of elephants. Cows and oxen were not

slaughtered in that empire but were worshipped on certain occasions. Mention has been made
of Hallikar cattle breed which was poor in milk production but one of the best draught type cattle

that was available in South India. Bullocks were strong and quick, covering 30-40 miles a day

on rough road. In the field, the animal was fast and yet a steady worker, being useful for all

types of cultivation. Males were castrated when broken to yoke, i.e., around 3 years. Giving a

historical record, Kristnasamienger and Pease mentioned that the Hallikar cattle breed was

taken to Mysore between 1500 and 1600 AD. It was bred and developed into Amritmahal breed.

Akbar had 12000 horses in his stables. He collected horses from Iraq, Iran, Turkey,

Arabia. Central Asia, and Tibel. Much attention was given to breeding of horses in Mughal India

for which skilful and experienced men were kept. India ranked higher than Arabia in this regard

writes Abul Fazal, Kachhi horses being equal to Arabian horses. Goat breeds of Bengal and

Coach Bihar are also mentioned. Feed and fodder for horses were described; e.g., in winter

boiled grains or vetch and in summer 2 seers (about 2 kg) flour, 1 1/2 seers jaggery. and fresh

grass or hay feeding is suggested. It has heen mentioned to keep 3 bighas land for grass.

Cattle of Gujarat were stated to be the best. Bullocks travelled 80 miles a day and some

even surpassed horses. The life span of cow was stated to be 25 years. Various classes of

cows have been mentioned, e.g. ‘Khas’ class and first class. Khas class were fed 61 1/4 seers

grain and 1 1/2 dams grass whereas the other category was fed 3 seers grain and I dam grass.

Molasses was also used for feeding. Female buffaloes were fed 8 seers wheat flour, 1/2 seer

molasses, 1 1/2seers grain, and 2 dams grass. Milk yield of cows varied and was 1 - 15 seers

day-1 and that of buffalo was 2-30 seers day-1. Buffaloes of Punjab were best. One man was

kept for looking after 4 adult cattle with their followers.

Thus it can be observed that importance of animals was very well known in ancient and
medieval India. The husbandry of animals was well established. Norms of feeding, breeding,

housing, and health care were also very wen established and practised. The present-day animal

husbandry development is an outcome of the gradual enhancement in knowledge in this field for

thousands of years.

Dairy production systems

In ancient India, number of cows that were kept by the people is amazing. There are

instances that people possessed lakhs (one hundred thousand is one lakh) of cows and one

King used to donate drive away the entire cow herd of other kings when there used to be any

conflict between them. We can imagine that in such an endeavor the tremendous human power

that would be required to drive away such a large herd from one place to another. This indicates

that the number of animals in those days was far more than the total livestock population

existing today. Not only this, the husbandry practices and grazing facilities for cows were very

good and in abundance. Lord Krishna used to call his cows by name (a method of identification

of animals). In Garg Sarnhita (Golok Khand) three titles, which used to be conferred upon

persons possessing cowherds are mentioned below.

Brakh - the person who reared 10 lakh (one million) cows,

Nand - the person who reared 9 lakh cows,

Upnand - the person who reared 5 lakh cows,

The existing thumb rule of feeding concentrate ration to the animals was based on the

feeding standards of ancient days, which by and large approximate to the present-day feeding

standards of animals.

Evidently, ancient India has thus remained traditionally a “dairying” country and the

prosperity and social status of a person was judged not by the landholding but by the number of

cows he possessed. Hence, the present day sciences by no means can estimate vast utility and

purpose of cows, which our ancient visionaries had realized, propounded and established.
 16 . Description of Indian civilization and agriculture by travelers from

China, Europe and USA

Indus valley civilization: Allchins, relying on Lambrick, who, according to them, had personal

knowledge of Sind, describe as follows how crops were grown in the riverain tract of the Indus.

"The principal food grains, that is wheat and barley, would have been grown as spring (rabi)

crops: that is to say, sown at the end of the inundation upon land which had been submerged by

spill from the river or one of its natural flood channels, and reaped in March or April.

The Greek writers highly praised the fertility of Indian soil and favourable climate

condition describing the principal agricultural products of the land.

The Greek writers also affirm that India has a double rainfall and the Indians generally

gather two harvests. - Megasthenes witnesses - the sowing of wheat in early, winter rains and of

rice, 'bosporum', sesamum and millets in the summer solstice (Diodorus, II, 36). Megasthenes

adds further to the winter crops, viz., "wheat, barley, pulse and other esculent fruits unknown to

us".

The Chinese pilgrim Hsieun Tsang who arrived at the monastic University of Nalanda in 630

A.D. mentioned the gardening as: "The temple arose into the mists and the shrine halls stood

high above the clouds . . . streams of blue water wound through the parks; green lotus flowers

sparkled among the blossoms of sandal trees and a mango grove spread outside the

enclosure."

Protection of cultivators: Sher Shah had genuine concern for the peasantry and safety of

their crops. One of the regulations made by Sher shah was this: That his victorious standards
should cause no injury to the cultivations of the people; and when he marched he personally

examined into the state of the cultivation, and stationed horsemen round it to prevent people

from trespassing on any one`s field. As regards the peasantry and their condition, there is

reliable evidence in the observations of the European travellers who travelled in India in the

seventeenth century.

Evidence of the structure of the Mughal gardens and plants grown in them is in the Persian

classics illustrated during the reign of Akbar. Among them is Diwan-i-Anwari, a collection of

poems by the Persian poet Anwari, who flourished in the latter part of twelfth century. It contains

some excellent paintings on gardens and gardening. Abu-l-Fazl mentions three kinds of

sugarcane, viz. paunda, black and ordinary. Abu-l-Fazl provides a list of twenty-one fragrant

flowering plants along with the colour of their flowers and the season of flowering in the Ain-

iAkbari.

Terry, an English traveler, writes, ‘The country was abounding with musk-melons. One could

also find water-melons, pomegranates, lemons, oranges, dates, figs, grapes, coconut, plantains,

mangoes, pineapples, pears, apples, etc.’ Terry also mentions the use of coffee by some

people. He writes, ‘Many religious people drank a “wholesome liquor” which they called coffee.

Black seeds were boiled in water, which also become black. It altered the taste of water very

little. It quickened the spirit and cleansed the blood.

Francois Bernier: Of the European travelers who come to India during the Mughal rule, the

most intelligent and learned was Francois Bernier a Frenchman. Bernier gives a vivid

description of Bengal its landscape people and its plant and animals products. With extensive
fields of rice, sugar, corn, three or four sorts of vegetables, mustured, seasems for oils and

small mulberry trees two or three feet (61 to 91 cm) in height, for the food of silk worms.

Meadows Taylor states “The Bahmanis constructed irrigation works in the eastern provinces,

which incidentally did good to the peasantry while primarily securing the crown revenue.

Vincent Smith points out that those items to their credit weigh lightly against the wholesale

devastation wrought by their credit weight lightly against the wholesale devastation wrought by

their wars, massacres, and burnings. Their rule was harsh and showed little regard for the

welfare of Hindu peasants, who were seldom allowed to retain the fruits of their labour much

more than would suffice to keep body and soul together.

Herodotus (484-425 BC) the father of history reported in his writings that the wild Indian

(cotton) trees possessed in their fruits fleeces, superseding those of sheep in beauty and

excellence from which the natives used to weave cloth. Herodotus further wrote that “trees

which grow wild in India and the fruit of which bear wool exceeding in beauty and fineness that

of sheep wool Indians make their clothes with this tree wool”. Some traveller writers fabricated

stories of a lamb sitting inside the fruit. Marco Pola, a Venetian, who traveled widely throughout

the Asia in AD 1290 said that the coast of Coromandel (Madras, India) produced the finest and

most beautiful cotton in the world. Indian cloth, particularly the Dacca muslin was renowned all

over the world and has been described as ‘webs of woven wind’ by oriental poets. It was so fine

that it could hardly be felt in the hands. It is said that when such muslins were laid on the grass

to bleach and the dew had fallen, it was no longer visible. A whole garment made from it could

be drawn through a wedding ring of medium size. There is also the often repeated tale of

Moghul princes who put on seven layers of muslin and still the contours of her body were so

visible that she had to be admonisher by her father, Muhamed Bin Thuklak.