Nickel and Nickel Alloys

NICKEL AND NICKEL–BASE ALLOYS are vitally important to modern

industry because of their ability to withstand a wide variety of severe operating
conditions involving corrosive environments, high temperatures, high stresses,
and combinations of these factors. There are several reasons for these
capabilities. Pure nickel is ductile and tough because it possesses a face-centered

cubic (fcc) structure up to its melting point (1453 ْC, or 2647 ْF). Therefore,
nickel and nickel alloys are readily fabricated by conventional methods
Wrought, cast, and powder metallurgy (P/M) products are available --,and they
offer freedom from the ductile-to-brittle transition behavior of other metals and
alloys, including steels. Nickel has good resistance to corrosion in the normal
atmosphere, in natural freshwaters, and in deserted no oxidizing acids, and it has
excellent resistance to corrosion by caustic alkali's. Therefore, nickel offers very
useful corrosion resistance, and it is an excellent base on which to develop
specialized alloys that can capitalize on the unique properties of specific alloying
elements.

Because nickel has an extensive solid solubility for many alloying elements, the
microstructure of nickel alloys consists of the fcc solid-solution austenite (y) in
which dispersion and precipitate particles can form. Nickel forms a complete
solid solution with copper and has nearly complete solubility with iron. It can
dissolve – 35% Cr, 20% each of molybdenum and tungsten, and 5 to 10% each
of aluminum, titanium, manganese, and vanadium. Thus, the tough, ductile fcc

1
Matrix can dissolve extensive amounts of elements in various combinations to
Provide solution hardening, as well as improved corrosion and oxidation
resistance. The degree of solution hardening has been related to the atomic size
Difference between nickel and the alloying element, and therefore the ability of
the solute to interfere with dislocation motion. Tungsten, molybdenum,
niobium, tantalum, and aluminum, when aluminum is left in solution, are strong
solution hardeners, with tungsten, niobium, tantalum and molybdenum also
being effective at temperatures above 0.6 Tm (Tm is melting temperature), where
diffusion-controlled creep strength is important. Iron, cobalt, titanium,
chromium, and vanadium are weaker solution-hardening elements.

Finally, unique intermetallic phases can form between nickel and some nickel
alloying elements. For example, aluminum and titanium are usually added
together for the age-hardening Y' precipitate Ni3 (Al, Ti). This enables the
formation of alloys with very high strengths for both low-and high-temperature
services.

Mining and Extraction

Nickel Ores. There are two main types of nickel ores; sulfide and oxide Sulfide
ores are most commonly extracted from underground mines with recovery by
typical "hard-rock' mining methods. Open-pit mining is practiced to a much
lesser extent. Oxide ores, in contrast, are recovered from earthy surface deposits
by direct excavation using conventional earth-moving methods and equipment.
Sulfide ore mining is, therefore, typified by higher costs relative to those
incurred for the oxide. However, the valuable mineral components of the sulfide
ores are readily amenable to concentration; hence the majority of extracted

2
nickel originates from sulfide ores. Once mined and crushed, sulfide ores are
readily upgraded by flotation and magnetic separation allowing the separation of
nickel, copper, and iron concentrates. Pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical,
electrolytic, and vapometallurgical processes are used to refine the concentrates
to elemental metal.

Pyrometallurgy. The concentrates are calcined in a roasting furnace, smelted in

a reverberatory or other similar furnace using coal or natural gas for f uel, and
blown with air in a converter. Nickel and copper concentrates are further refined
to increase the purity of the metals. Nickel is refined to lower to an acceptable
level those elements that would have a deleterious effect on subsequent metal
performance. The elements removed include antimony, arsenic, bismuth, copper,
iron, lead, phosphorus, sulfur, tin, and zinc. The major and minor impurities
removed are also recovered if economically viable. Precious metals present at
minute levels in sulfide ores are ultimately recovered to complete the total
refining/recovery process.

Hydrometallurgy. As an alternative to smelting pressure ammonia leaching is

used to treat nickel sulfide ore concentrate, after which refined nickel power is
precipitated from the leach solution by hydrogen reduction. Atmospheric-
pressure ammonia leaching has also been used to recover iron and nickel from
roasted and reduced iron-rich sulfide concentrate.

Electrolytic Processes. Electrorefined and electro winning both are electrolytic

processes used to produce pure nickel cathode sheet. In the former process, a
nickel electrolytic refining cell consisting of a slab of crude nickel to be refined
(anode) and a thin nickel starting sheet (cathode) are immersed in an aqueous
electrolyte, and direct current is passed through the cell. Nickel and some

3
impurities are dissolved in the electrolyte (anolyte). The solution is pumped from
the cell, and the impurities are chemically removed. Purified electrolyte is
returned to the cell as catholyte and deposited on the cathode as pure nickel.
Electro winning, also an electrolytic process, can electrolyte soluble anodes of
nickel sulfide or utilize insoluble anodes to extract the nickel from a leach liquor.
Vapometallurgical. The carbonyl process uses gas-to-metal transformation to
extract pure nickel from an impure nickel oxide. In this process, the oxide is
reduced with hydrogen and the nickel reacts selectively with carbon monoxide to
form gaseous nickel carbonyl. The gas is composed by heat to yield pure nickel.
This is acknowledged as the best available method of refining nickel. The power
or pellet produced is of a very high purity, the process is energy efficient, and
there are no polluting waste by products.
Use Nickel Consumption, %
Stainless steel 62.7
Nickel-base alloys 11.9
Plating 9.7
Alloy steels 9.0
Foundry products 3.5
Copper-base alloys 1.4
Other 1.8

Source: Nickel Development Institute

Stainless steels, principally the austenitic 300 series, are by far the largest
consumers of nickel.
Nickel is added to stainless steels to improve formability, weld ability, corrosion
resistance, strength and oxidation resistance at elevated temperature, low-
temperature toughness, and strength attainable by cold work.

4
Nickel and nickel alloys are used for a wide variety of applications, the majority
of which involve corrosion resistance and/or heat resistance. Some of these
include components used in the chemical and petrochemical industries, pollution
control equipment, coal gasification and liquefaction systems, parts used in pulp
and paper mills, aircraft gas turbines, team turbine power plants, turbochargers
and valves in reciprocating engines, electrical and electronic applications, and
heat-treating equipment. A number of other applications for nickel alloys involve
the unique physical properties of special-purpose alloys, such as controlled-
expansion alloys, electrical-resistance alloys, soft-magnetic alloys, and shape-
memory alloys. Compositions, mechanical properties, and the corrosion
resistance of nickel and nickel alloys are described in the following paragraphs.

Plating is used primarily for decorative coatings, although industrial coatings

and electroforming applications are significant. The principal objectives of
nickel plating are to improve appearance, surface finish, corrosion resistance,
and wear resistance.

Alloy Steels. Nickel, in amounts up to 9%, is an important constituent of many

alloy steels. It is frequently used in conjunction with other alloying elements
(such as chromium and molybdenum) to permit development of optimum
hardness, strength, ductility, corrosion resistance, and processing characteristics.
Nickel lowers the ductile-to brittle transition temperature of steel, making nickel-
containing steels useful for transporting and handling liquefied gases and for
machinery and structures used at subzero temperatures.

5
Foundry Products, Nickel, in amounts up to 35%, is an important constituent of
heat-and corrosion-resistant cast stainless steels. It is also used in alloyed cast
irons; austenitic high-alloy gray and ductile cast irons containing 15 to 35%
nickel. Engineering grades of cast low-alloy steels also contain nickel.

Copper Alloys. The corrosion resistance, heat corrosion resistance, heat

conductivity, and strength of copper-nickel alloys containing 10 to 30% Ni
account for their use in heat exchangers, particularly in sea water. Nickel is also
used in nickel silvers (Cu-Ni-Zn alloys containing up to 25% Ni) and cast
bronzes.
Other uses for nickel include chemicals, salts, catalysts, batteries, and other
miscellaneous applications.

Categories of Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Nickel and nickel alloys, like the stainless steels, offer a wide range of corrosion
resistance. However, nickel can accommodate larger amounts of alloying
elements, chiefly chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten, in solid solution than
iron. Therefore, nickel-base alloys, in general, can be used in more severe
environments than the stainless steels. In fact, because nickel is used to stabilize
the austenite (fcc) phase of some of the highly alloyed stainless steels, the
boundary bet wean these and nickel-base alloys is rather diffuse. For example,
the Unified Numbering System (UNS) for metals and alloys classifies the
following austenitic stainless steels as nickel alloys:

Material UNS No.

20Cb3 (Fe-35Ni-20Cr) N08020
6
20M0-4 (Fe-37Ni-23Cr-4M0) N08024
20M0-6 (Fe-35Ni-24Cr-6M0) N08026
Al-6X (Fe-24Ni-21Cr-7M0) N08366

Table 1 Compositions wrought corrosion-resistant nickel-base alloys

Composition, wt % (a)
Alloy UNS No. Ni Cu Fe Mn C Si Si Other

Commercially pure and low-alloy nickels

Nickel 200 NO2200 99.0 min 0.25 0.40 0.35 0.15 0.35 0.01 ….
Nickel 201 N02201 99.0 min 0.25 0.40 0.35 0.02 0.35 0.01 …..
Nickel 205 N02205 99.0 min (b) 0.15 0.20 0.35 0.15 0.15 0.008 0.001-0.08 Mg,0.01-005Ti
Nickel 211 N02211 93.7 min (b) 0.25 0.75 4.25-5.25 0.20 0.15 0.015 ….
Nickel 212 …. 97.0 min 0.20 0.25 1.5-2.5 0.10 0.20 …. 0.20 Mg
Nickel 222 ….. 99.0 min (b) 0.10 0.10 0.30 … 0.10 0.008 0.01-0.10 Mg, 0.005 Ti
Nickel 270 N02270 99.9 min 0.01 0.05 0.003 0.02 0.005 0.003 0.005 Mg, 0.005 Ti
Nickel 290 N02290 bal 0.02 0.015 0.001 0.006 0.001 0.0008 0.001 Al, 0.001 Mg
Duranickel 301 N03301 93.00 mon 0.25 0.60 0.50 0.30 1.00 0.01 4.00-4.75 Al,
0.25-100 Tl

Nickel-copper alloys
Alloy 400 N04400 63.0 min (b) 28.0-34.0 2.5 0.20 0.3 0.5 0.024 ….
Alloy 401 N0441 40.0-45.0 (b) bal 0.75 2.25 0.10 0.25 0.015 ….
Alloy 404 N04404 52.0-57.0 bal 0.50 0.10 0.15 0.10 0.024 0.05 Al
Alloy R-405 N04405 63.0 min (b) 28.0-34.0 2.5 2.0 0.3 0.5 0.25-0.060 …..
Alloy K-500 N05500 63.0 min (b) 27.0-33.0 2.0 1.5 0.25 0.5 0.01 2.30-3.15 Al.0.35-0.85 Tl

Composition, wt % (a)
Alloy UNS No. Ni Cr Fe Co Mo W Nb Tl Al C Mn Si B Other

Nickel-chromium-iron (-molybdenum) alloy

Alloy 600 N06600 72.0 min(b) 14.0-17.0 6.0-10.0 ….. ….. ….. …. …. …. 0.15 1.0 0.5 …. 0.5 Cu
Alloy 601 N06601 58.0-63.0 21.0-25.0 bal …. … … … …. 1.0-1.7 0.10 1.0 0.50 … 1.0Cu
Alloy 617 N06617 44.5 min 20.0-24.0 3.0 10.0-15.0 8.0-10.0 … … 0.6 0.8-1.5 0.05-0.15 1.0 1.0 0.006 0.5 Cu
Alloy 625 N06625 58.0 min 20.0-23.0 5.0 1.0 8.0-10.0 … 3.15-4.15© 0.40 0.40 0.10 0.50 0.50 ….. …..
Alloy 690 N06690 58.0 min 27.0-31.0 0-11.0 ….. …. …. ……. ….. ….. 0.05 0.50 0.50 …….. 0.50 Cu
Alloy 718 N07718 50.0-55.0(b) 17.0-21.0 bal 1.0 2.8-3.30 …. 4.75-5.50(c) 0.65-1.15 0.20-0.80 0.08 0.35 0.35 0.006 0.30 Cu
Alloy 725 N07725 55.0-59.0 19.0-22.5 bal …. 7.0-9.5 ….. 2.75-4.0 1.0-1.70 0.35 0.03 0.35 0.20 ……. ……..

Iron-nickel-chromium (-molybdenum) alloys

Alloy 800 N08800 30.0-35.0 19.0-23.0 39.5 min …. ….. …… ……. 0.15-0.60 0.15-0.60 0.10 1.5 1.0 ……. …….
Alloy 800HT N08811 30.0-35.0 19.0-35.0 39.5 min …… ……. ……. …….. 0.15-0.60 0.60-0.60 0.06-0.10 1.5 1.0 ……… 0.895-1.20
Al+ Tl
Alloy 825 N08825 38.0-46.0 19.5-23.5 22.0 min ……. 2.5-3.5 …… ……. 0.6-1.2 0.2 0.05 1.0 0.5 ………. ………..
Alloy 925 N09925 38.0-46.0 19.5-23.5 22.0 min …….. 2.5-3.0 …… 0.50 1.9-2.4 0.10-0.50 0.03 1.0 0.50 ……… …….
20Cb3 N08020 32.0-38.0 19.0-21.0 bal ……… 2.0-3.0 …… 1.0 ……. …….. 0.07 2.0 1.0 ……… 3.0-4.0Cu

Nickel-chromium-molybdenum (-iron) alloys or nickel-molybdenum alloys

Alloy B NI 0001 bal 1.0 6.0 2.5 26.0-33.0 …… …… …….. ……… 0.12 1.0 1.0 …………. 0.60 V
Alloy B-2 NI 0665 bal 1.0 2.0 1.0 26.0-30.0 ….. …….. …….. ……… 0.02 1.0 0.10 …………. ……….
Alloy B-3 Nl 0675 65.0 1.0-3.0 1.0-3.0 3.0 27.0-32.0 3.0 0.20 0.20 0.50 0.01 3.0 0.10 ……….. 0.20 Ta
Alloy C Nl 0002 bal 14.5-16.50 4.0-7.0 2.5 15.0-17.0 3.0-4.5 ……. …… …… 0.08 1.0 1.0 ……… 0.35 V
Alloy C-4 N06455 bal 14.0-18.0 3.0 2.0 14.0-17.0 …… …… 0.70 ………. 0.015 1.0 0.08 ……….. ……….
Alloy C-22 N06022 bal 20-0-22.5 2.0-6.0 2.5 12.5-14.5 2.5-3.5 …… …….. ……… 0.015 0.5 0.08 ……….. 0.35 V
Alloy C-276 Nl 0276 bal 14.5-16.50 4.0-7.0 2.5 15.0-17.0 3.0-4.5 …… …….. ……… 0.02 1.0 0.08 ……….. 0.35 V
Alloy G N06007 bal 21.0-23.5 18.0-21.0 2.5 5.5-7.5 1.0 1.75-2.5 ……… ……… 0.05 1.0-2.0 1.0 ……….. ………..
Alloy G-2 N06975 47.0-52.0 23.0-26.0 bal … 5.0-7.0 ….. ……. 0.70-1.5 ……… 0.03 1.0 1.0 ……… 0.70-1.20Cu
Alloy G-3 N06985 bal 21.0-23.5 18.0-21.0 5.0 6.0-8.0 1.5 …… ……… …… 0.015 1.0 1.0 ………. 1.5-2.5 Cu
0.50
Nb+Fa
Alloy G-30 N06030 bal 28.0-31.5 13.0-17.0 5.0 4.0-6.0 1.5-4.0 0.3-1.5 ……… ………. 0.03 1.5 0.8 ………. 1.0-2.4 Cu
Alloy N N10003 bal 6.0-8.0 5.0 0.2 15.0-18.0 0..5 …….. ………. ………. 0.010 1.0 1.0 0.010 0.50V.0.35
Cu
Allcorr N06110 bal 27.0-33.0 …….. 12.0 8.0-12.0 4.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 0.15 …… ……. ……. …….
(a) Single values are maximum unless otherwise indicated. (b) Nickel plus cobalt content

A distinction is usually made between alloys that are primarily used for bight-

7
temperature strength, commonly referred to as super alloys, and alloys that are
primarily used for corrosion resistance. Again, the distinction is not sharp,
because some of the super alloys are used in corrosion service and some of the
corrosion-resistant alloys are used in high-temperature service. Many of the
alloys that have high-temperature strength are multiphase alloys with
precipitation-strengthening elements such as aluminum, titanium, and niobium.
They also have higher carbon levels. Most of the corrosion-resistant alloys are
primarily single-phase alloys that can be strengthened mainly by cold working.

Wrought Corrosion-Resistant Alloys

Wrought corrosion-resistant nickel-base alloys range in composition from
commercially pure nickel to complex alloys containing many alloy elements.
Table 1 lists the compositions of commonly used alloys. Representative
mechanical properly data are given in Table 2.

The commercially pure nickel grades.

Nickel 200 to 205, are highly resistant to many corrosive media, especially in
reducing environments, but also in oxidizing environments where they can
maintain the passive nickel oxide surface film. They are used in the chemical
processing and electronics industries. They are hot worked at 650 to 1230 ْ C
(1200 to 2250 ْ F),annealed at 700 to 925 ْ C (1300 to 1700 ْ F), and are hardened
by cold working. For processed sheet, for example. The tensile properties in the
annealed condition (460 MPa. Or 67 ksi, tensile strength; 148 MPa. Or 22 ksi,
yield strength; and 47% elongation) can be increased by cold rolling up to 760
MPa (110 kis) tensile strength, 635 MPa (92 ksi) yield strength, and 8%

8
Elongation. Because of nominal 0.08% C content (0.15% max). Nickel 200
(UNS N02200) should not be used above 315 ْ C (600 ْ F), because embitters-
Meant results from the precipitation of graphite in the temperature range 425 to
650 ْ C (800 to 1200 ْ F). The more widely used low-carbon alloy Nickel 201
(UNS N02201) , with 0.02% max C, can be used at temperatures above 290 ْ C
(550 ْ F). Higher-purity nickel is commercially available for various electrical
applications.

Low-alloy nickels contain 94% min Ni. The 5% Mn solid-solution addition in

Nickel 211 protects against sulfur in service environments. As little as 0.005% S
can cause liquid embitterment at unalloyed nickel grain boundaries in the range
between 640 and 740 ْ C (1185 and 1365 ْ F). Cupronickel alloy 301 (Ni-4.5Al-
0.6Ti), offers the corrosion resistance of commercially pure nickel with the
strengthening provided by the precipitation of Y'. There is sufficient alloying
additions in alloy 301 to lower the Curie temperature, making the alloy weakly
ferromagnetic at room temperature.

Nickel-copper alloys are strong and tough, offering corrosion resistance in

various environments, including brine and sulfuric and other acids, and showing
impunity to chloride-ion stress corrosion. They are used in chemical processing
and pollution control equipment. Capable of precipitating Y' , Ni 3 (Al,Ti) with
2.7Al-0.6Ti alloy addition, alloy K-500 adds an age-hardening component to the
good solution strengthening and work-hardening characteristics already available
with the nominal 30% Cu in alloy 400.The composition of these alloys can be
adjusted to decrease the Curie temperature to below room temperature.

The Ni-Cr-Fe(-Mo) alloys might simply be thought of as nickel-base analogs of

9
the iron-base austenitic stainless steel alloys, with an interchange of the iron and
nickel contents. In these commercially important alloys the chromium content in
general ranges from 15 to 30%, and iron ranges from 3 to 20% With a well-
maintained Cr2 O 3 surface film, these alloys offer excellent corrosion resistance
in many sever environments, showing immunity to chloride-ion stress-corrosion
cracking (SCC). They also offer good oxidation and sublimation resistance with
good strength at elevated temperatures. These nickel-rich Ni-Cr-Fe alloys have
maximum operating temperatures in the neighborhood of 1200 ْ C (2200 ْ F).
Alloy 600 (UNS N06600, with Ni-15Cr-8Fe) is a single-phase alloy that can be
used at temperatures from cryogenic to 1093 ْ C (2000 ْ F). The modest yield
strength of strip in the annealed condition (207 to 310 MPa, or 30 to 45 ksi) can
be readily work hardened by cold rolling to reach yield strengths of 827 to 1100
MPa (120 to 160 ksi) and can retain most of this strength up to – 540 ْ C
(1000 ْ F).

The Fe-Ni-Cr(-Mo) alloys are also an extension of stainless steel technology.

Incoloy alloy 800 was designed as a leaner nickel version of the Ni-Cr-Fe series
of materials described previously. It offered god oxidation resistance and was
introduced as a sheathing material for electric stove elements. The 800 alloy
series has also found extensive use in high-temperature petrochemical
environments, where sulfur-containing feedstock's (naphtha and heavy oils) are
cracked into component distillate parts. Not only are they resistant to chloride-
ion SCC, but they also offer resistance to polyphonic acid cracking. (Alloy 801
offers optimum resistance.) The Fe-Ni-Cr alloys also offer excellent strength at
elevated temperature (creep and stress rupture).

The Ni-Cr-Mo (-Fe) alloys consist of a large family of alloys that are used in
10
the chemical processing, pollution control, and waste treatment industries to
utilize their excellent heat and corrosion resistance. Alloys in this commercially
important family, such as C-276 and alloy 625, are made even more versatile by
their excellent welding characteristics and the corrosion resistance of welded
structures. The molybdenum additions to these alloys improve resistance to
pitting and crevice corrosion. The high molybdenum (-28%) in Hostelry B, B-2,
and B-3 promote good corrosion resistance in the presence of hydrochloric acid
and other strongly reducing chemicals.
Table 2 Room-temperature mechanical properties of selected nickel-base alloys

Ultimate Yield strength Elongation in Elastic

Tensile strength (0.2 % offset) 50 mm modulus (tension)
Alloy MPa Ksi MPa Ksi (2 in.), % GPa 106 psi Hardness
Nickel 200 462 67 148 21.5 47 204 29.6 109 HB
Nickel 201 403 58.5 103 15 50 207 30 129 HB
Nickel 205 345 50 90 13 45 …… …… ………..
Nickel 211 530 77 240 35 40 …… …….. ………
Nickel 212 483 70 …… …… …. ……… ……… ………..
Nickel 222 380 55 ……. …….. …… ………. ………...
Nickel 270 345 50 110 16 50 ……….. ………. 30 HRB
Duranickel 301
(precipitation hardened) 1170 170 862 125 25 207 30 30-40 HRC
Alloy 400 550 80 240 35 40 180 26 110-150 HB
Alloy 401 440 64 134 19.5 51 ……. …… …….
Alloy R-405 550 80 240 35 40 180 26 110-140 HB
Alloy K-500
(precipitation hardened) 1100 160 790 115 20 180 26 300 HB
Alloy 600 655 95 310 45 40 207 30 75 HRB
Alloy 601 620 90 275 40 45 207 30 65-80 HRB
Alloy 617 (solution annealed) 755 110 350 51 58 211 30.6 173 HB
Alloy 625 930 135 517 75 42.5 207 30 190 HB
Alloy 690 725 105 348 50.5 41 211 30.6 88 HRB
Alloy 718
(Pnecipitation hardened) 1240 180 1036 150 12 211 30.6 36 HRC
Alloy C-22 785 114 375 54 62 …… …… 209 HB
Alloy C-276 790 115 355 52 61 205 29.8 90 HRB
Alloy G3 690 100 320 47 50 199 28.9 79 HRB
Alloy 800 600 87 295 43 44 193 28 138 HB
Alloy 825 690 100 310 45 45 206 29.8 ………….
Alloy 925 (a) 1210 176 815 118 24 ……. ……… 36.5 HRC
20Cb3 550 80 240 35 30 …. ……… 90 HRB
Properties are for annealed sheet unless otherwise indicated. (a) Annealed at 980ْ C (1800 ْ F) for 30 min, air cooled, and aged at 760 ْ C (1400 ْ F) for 8 h, furnace coled at a rate of ْ C (100 ْ F)/h, heated to 620 ْ C (1150 ْ F) for 8 h, air cooled.

Cast Corrosion-Resistant Alloys

Nickel-base alloy castings are widely used for handling corrosive media and are
regularly produced by high-alloy steel foundries. The principal alloys are
identified in ASTM A 494. In addition, several specialized proprietary grades are
often specified for severe corrosion applications. Table 3 gives classification and
Compos lotions of these alloys. Minimum mechanical property requirements are
listed in Table 4. In general, these alloys are produced to optimize corrosion
resistance, and mechanical properties are secondary.

11
The property of most interest to foundry is ductility. High ductility allows for
better weld-ability and response to heat treatment. If the metal composition is not
properly balanced, the
Casting may crack from solution annealing and water quenching.
The cast nickel-base alloys, with the exception of some high-silicon and
proprietary grades, have wrought counterparts (see Table 3) and frequently are
specified as cast components in systems built of both wrought and cast
components made of a single alloy. Compositions of cast and equivalent wrought
grades differ in minor elements because workability in wrought grades is a
dominant factor, whereas actability and soundness are dominant factors in cast
grades. The differences in minor elements do not result in significant differences
in serviceability.
Nickel-base casting are employed most often in fluid-handling systems where
they are matched with equivalent wrought alloys. They also are quite commonly
used for pump and valve components or where crevices and high-velocity effects
are present. The higher silicon contents in some castings also provide superior
wear and galling resistance compared to their wrought counterparts. Because of
high cost, nickel-base alloys are usually selected only for severe service
conditions where maintenance of product purity is of great importance and
where less-costly stainless steels or other alternative materials are inadequate.

Heat-Resistant Alloys (Super alloys)

Heat-resistant nickel alloys can be made by wrought, cast, and P/M methods.
Super alloys are cast under carefully controlled conditions to produce the desired
polycrystalline, elongated (directionally solidified), or single-crystal grain
structure for improved elevated-temperature mechanical properties. The majority

12
of the nickel-base super alloys utilize the combined strengthening of a solution-
Hardened austenite matrix with Y' precipitation. The niobium-rich, age-
hardening precipitate Y' (Ni 3 Nb), offers the ease of heat treatment and weld
ability that has made alloy 718 the most important nickel-base super alloy for
aerospace and nuclear structural applications. Alloy 718, which contains 4.75 to
5.50% Nb, is a high-strength, corrosion-resistant alloy that is used at
temperatures from-250 to
700 ْ C (-423 to 1300 ْ F). Some of the alloys, Hostelry X for example, obtain
additional strengthening from carbide precipitation instead of Y'. Others MA
754, for example, utilize P/M techniques in evolving mechanical alloying to
Achieve a dispersion of – 1 vol% of very fine (25 nm) inert oxide particles, such
as Y2 O 3, to promote higher elevated-temperature tensile and stress-rupture
strength. More detailed information on nickel base alloys used for heat-resistant
applications found in the Section "Super alloys" in this Hand book.

Special-Purpose Alloys
Unique combinations of properties are avail able with other nickel-base alloys
for special applications. While some of these properties at also available to some
extent with alloys described previously. The following alloys were developed to
promote their rather unique proper ties. More detailed information on these
materials is found in the Section "Special-Purpose Materials" in this Handbook.
There are many electrical resistance alloy used for resistance heating elements.
They ca contain 35 to 95% Ni, but invariably contain greater than 15% Cr to
form an adherent surface oxide to protect against oxidation and carburization at
Tempe natures up to 1000 to 1200 ْ C (185 to 2200 ْ F) in air. Examples are Ni-
20Cr (UNN06003), Ni-5Cr-25Fe (UNS N06004), and Ni20Cr-3Al-3Fe. These

13
Table 3 Compositions of cast corrosion-resistant nickel-base alloys
Composition, %
Wrought
equivalent
Alloy Si Mn Cu Fe Cr P S Mo Others

C
Cast nickel
CZ-100 …….. 1.0 max 2.0 max 1.5 1.25 3.0 …. 0.03 0.03 ….. ……
Nickel-copper
M-35-1 Monel 400 0.35 1.25 1.5 26.0-33.0 3.50 max …. 0.03 0.03 …… …….
M-35-2 …….. 0.35 2.0 1.5 26.0-33.0 3.50 max …. 0.03 0.03 …… …….
M-30H …….. 0.35 2.7-3.7 1.50 27.0-33.0 3.50 max ….. 0.03 0.03 …… …….
M-25S …….. 0.25 3.5-4.5 1.50 27.0-33.0 3.50 max ….. 0.03 0.03 ……. ……..
M-30C ……. 0.30 1.0-2.0 1.50 26.0-33.0 3.50 max ….. 0.03 0.03 ……. 1.0-3.0Nb
Nickel-chromium-iron
CY-40 Inconel 600 0.40 3.0 1.5 ……. 11.0 max 14.0-17.0 0.03 0.03 ……… ………
Nickel-ehormium-molybdenum
CW-12MW Hastelloy C 0.12 1.0 1.0 …….. 4.5-7.5 15.5-17.5 0.04 0.03 16.0-18.0 0.20-0.40V, 3.75-5.25W
CW-6M Hastelloy C (mod) 0.07 1.0 1.0 …….. 3.0 max 17.0-20.0 0.04 0.03 17.0-20.0 ………
CW-2M Hastelloy C-4 0.02 0.8 1.0 …….. 2.0 max 15.0-17.5 0.03 0.03 15.0-17.5 0.20-0.60V
CW-6MC Inconel 625 0.06 1.0. 1.0 …….. 5.0 20.0-23.0 0.015 0.015 8.0-10.0 3.15-4.50 Nb
CY5SnBiM …….. 0.05 0.5 1.5 …….. 2.0 max 11.0-14.0 0.03 0.03 2.0-3.5 3.0-5.0 Bi, 3.0-5.0 Sn
CX2MW ……. 0.02 0.8 1.0 ……… 2.0-6.0 20.0-22.5 0.025 0.025 12.5-14.5 2.5-3.5 W, 0.35 V max
CU5MCuC(a) …….. 0.05 max 1.0 max 1.0 max 1.5-3.5 bal 0.030max 0.030 max 0.030 max 2.5-3.5 0.60-1.2 Nb
Nickel-molybdenum
N-12MV Hastelloy B 0.12 1.0 1.0 ……. 4.0-6.0 1.0 0.04 0.03 26.0-30.0 0.20-0.60 V
N-7M Hastelloy B (mod) 0.07 1.0 1.0 …….. 3.0 max 1.0 0.04 0.03 30.0-33.0 ……
Proprietary grades
Chlorimet 2 ……. 0.07 1.0 1.0 …….. 2.0 1.0 ….. …… 30-33 ……..
Chloriment 3 ……. 0.07 1.0 1.0 …….. 3.0 17-20 …… …… 17-20 ……..
Hastelloy D ……. 0.12 8.5-10 0.5-1.25 2-4 2.8 1.0 ….. …… …… 1.5 Co
Llium 98 (b) …….. 0.05 1.0 1.0 5.5 … 28 ……. …… 8.5 …….
Llium G (b) …….. 0.20 1.0 1.0 6.5 5.0 22.5 ……. …… 6.5 …….
(a) Contains 39.0-44.0% Ni.(b) Nominal composition

Alloys are single-phase austenite and have the needed properties fcc heating
elements: desirably high, reproducible electrical resistance; low thermal
expansion minimize thermal fatigue and shock; good Cree strength: and strength
and ductility for fabrication.
The ferromagnetic characteristics of nickel allow formulations of nickel-base
Alloys for corrosion-resistant soft magnets for a variety of applications, typified
by Ni-5Mo-16Fe. Low thermal expansion characteristics are shown by Fe-(36-
2)Ni-(0-17)Co alloys, making these materials sinful for glass-to-metal sealing
and
Containment equipment for liquefied natural gas, for example. The controlled
thermal expansion alloys, typified by alloy 903 (Ni-42Fe-15Cu+Nd,Al,Ti), are
also Y' –precipitation hardenable, offering high strength and low, relatively
constant thermal expansion coefficient for applications up to -650 C (1200 ْ F).
With nearly 50-50 at.%, nickel arms a shape memory intermetallic alloy with
titanium, which offers 8% of reversible strain via thermoplastic martens tic
transformation, along with good ductility and corrosion resistance .

14
The Ll2 intermetallic compound, Ni3 Al, has peen the focus of development work
to create a Argon, corrosion-resistant material for elevated-temperature
applications. Wrought and cast beryllium-nickel alloys are commercially
available UNS No3360 with Ni-2Be-0.5Ti. for example and respond to
processing and age hardening goat treatments as readily as tee beryllium-copper
alloys, but offer high strength (yield strengths as ugh is 1690 MPa, or 45 ksi, in
the old-rolled and aged condition) with better resistance to thermal softening and
stress relaxation.

Corrosion Resistance
Effects of Alloying Elements
Copper. Additions of copper provide improvement in the resistance of nickel to
nonoxidizing ecid. In particular, alloys containing 30 to 40% Cu offer useful
resistance to nonaerated sulfuric ecid (H2 SO 4) and offer excellent resistance to
all concentrations of nonaerated hydrofluoric acid HF). Additions of 2 to 3% Cu
to nickel-chromium-nolybdenum-iron alloys have also been found to imorove
resistance to hydrochloric acid (HCI), H2 SO 4 and phosphoric acid (H3PO 4) .

Chromium additions impart improved resisance to oxidizing media such as

nitric (HNO3) and chromic (H2 CrO4 ) acids. Improved resisance to hot H3PO 4
has also been shown. Chromium also improves resistance to high-temperature
oxidation and to attack by hot sulfur-bearing bases. Although alloys have been
formulated containing up to 50% Cr, allouing additions are usually in the range
of 15 to 30% .
Iron is typically used in nickel-base alloys to reduce costs, not to promote
corrosion resistance. However, iron does provide nickel with improved
resistance to H2 SO4 in concentrations above 50%. Iron also increases the
solubility of carbon in nickel; this iproves resistance to high-temperature

15
carburizing environments.

Molybdenum in nickel substantially improves resistace to nonoxidizing acid.

Commercial alloys containing up to 28% Mo (Hastelloy B series alloys) have
been developed for service in nonoxidizing solutions of HCI, H3PO4, and HF, as
well as H2 SO4 in concentratons below 60%. Molybdenum also maredly
improves the pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of nickel-base alloys. In
addition, it is an important alloying element for imparting strength in metallic
materials designed for high-temperature service.

Tungsten behaves similarly to molybdenum in providing improved resistance to

nonoxidizing acids and to localized corrosion. However, because of its atomic
weight, approximately twice as much tungsten as molybdenum must be added by
weight to achieve atomically equivalent effects. Because of the negative impact
this would have on alloy density and because of the typically higher cost and
lower availability of tungsten, additions of molybdenum are generally preferred.
However, additions of tungsten of the order of 3 to 4% in combination with 13 to
16% Mo in a nickel-chromium base result in alloys with outstanding resistance
to localized corrosion.

Silicon is typically present only in minor amounts in most nickel-base alloys as a

residual element from deoxidation practices or as an intentional addition to
promote high-temperature oxidation resistance. In alloys containing significant
amounts of iron, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten, or other refractory elements, the
level of silicon must be carefully controlled because it can stabilize carbides and
harmful intermetallic phases. On the other hand, the use of silicon as a major

16
alloying element has been found to greatly improve the resistance of nickel to
hot, concentrated H2 SO4 . Alloys containing 9 to 11% Si are produced for such
service in the form of castings.

Cobalt, like iron, incrases the solubility of carbon in nickel-base alloys, and this
increases resistance to carburization. Further, the melting point of cobalt sulfide
is higher than that of nickel sulfide; therefore, alloying with cobalt also tends to
improve high-temperature sulfide-tion resistance.

Behavior in Specific Environments

Atmospheric Corrosion. Nickel and nickel-base alloys have very good
resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Corrosion rates are typically > 0.0025
mm/year (0.1 mil/year), with varying degrees of surface discoloration depeding
on the alloy (Table 5). Nickel 200 will become dull and acquire a thin adherent
corrosion film, which is usually a sulfate. A greater tarnish will result in
industrial sulfur-containing atmospheres than in rural or marine atmospheres.
Corrosion of alloy 400 is negligible in all types of atmospheres, although a thin
gray-green patina will develop. In sulfurous atmospheres, a brown patina may be
produced. Because of low corrosion rate and pleasing patina, alloy 400 has been
used for architectural services, such as roofs, gutters, and flashings, and for
outdoor sculpture.
Nickel alloys containing chromium and iron, such as alloys 600 and 800, also
have very good atmospheric corrosion resistance, but may develop a slight
tarnish after prolonged exposure, especially in industrial atmospheres. Nickel-
chromium-molybdenum materials such as alloys 825, 625, G, C-276, and C-22
develop very thin and protective passive oxide films that prevent even significant
carnishing. A mirror finish can be maintained after extended exposure to the
atmosphere.

17
Corrosion in Water. Nickel and nickel-base alloys generally have very good
resistance to corrosion in distilled water and freshwater. Typical corrosion rates
for Nickel 200 (commercially pure nickel) in a distilled water storage tank at
ambient temperature and domestic hot water service are > 0.0025 mm/year (>0.1
mil/year) and >0.005 mm/year (>0.2 mil/year), respectively. Nickel-copper
alloys such as 400 and R-405 also have very low corrosion rates and are used in
freshwater systems for valve seats and other fittings. Because of the cost of
nickel alloys, less expensive stainless steels or other materials are usually
specified for pure or freshwater applications unless increased resistance to SCC
or pitting is required. Alloys 600 and 690, for example, are used for increased
SCC resistance in high-purity water nuclear steam generators.

In steam-hot water systems, such as condensers, appreciable corrosion of

Nickel 200 and alloys 400 may occur if noncondensables (CO2 and air) in the
steam exist in certain proportions. Deaeration of the feed water or venting of the
noncondensable gases will prevent this attack. Alloy 600 is resistant to all
mixtures of steam, air, and CO2, and is particularly useful in contact with steam
at high temperatures.

Table 4 Tensile requirements for cast corrosion-resistant nickel-base alloys

Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation 50 Hardness,
Alloy MPa Ksi MPa Ksi Mm (2 in.), % HB
CZ-100 345 50 125 18 10 …..
M-35-1 450 65 170 25 25 …..
M-35-2 450 65 205 30 25 …..
M-30H 690 100 415 60 10 243-294
M-25S …. ….. ….. ….. …. 300 (min)
M-30C 450 65 25 32.5 25 125-150
N-12MV 525 76 275 40 6 ….
N-7M 525 76 275 40 20 …..
CY-40 485 70 195 28 30 ……
CW-12MW 495 72 275 40 4 …….
CW-6M 495 72 275 40 25 ……
CW-2M 495 72 275 40 20 …..
CW-6MC 485 70 275 40 25 ……
CX2MW 550 80 280 45 30 ……
CU5MCuC 520 75 240 35 20 …..

18
Table 5 Atmospheric corrosion and pitting of nickel-base alloys
Average Average corrosion
Weight loss, Rate (a)
Alloy mg/dm2 mm/yr Mils/yr
Nickel 200 468.6 <0.0025 <0.1
Alloy 800 27.9 <0.0025 <0.1
Alloy 600 19.7 <0.0025 <0.1
Alloy 400 644.7 <0.0025 <0.1
Alloy 825 8.7 <0.0025 <0.1
(a) No pitting recorded for Nickel 200 and alloy 600. The average of the four deepest pit depths for the other
three alloys was <0.025 mm (0.001 in.).

Nickel 200, alloy 400, and nickel-base alloys containing chromium and iron are
very resistant to flowing seawater, but in stagnant or very low velocity seawater,
pitting or crevice corrosion can occur, especially under fouling organsms or
other deposits. In moderate- and high-velocity seawater or brackish water, alloy
400 is frequently used for pump and valve trim and transfer piping. It has
excellent resistance to eavitation erosion and exhibits corrosion rates >0.025
mm/year (1 mil/year). Alloy 400 sheathing also provides economical seawater
splash zone protection to steel offshore oil and gas platforms, pilings, and other
structures. Although pitting can occur in alloy 400 under stagnant conditions,
such pitting tends to slow down after fairly rapid initial attack and rarely exceeds
1.3 mm (50 mils) in depth. Age-hardened alloy K-500, with corrosion resistance
similar to that of alloy 400, is frequently used for high-strength fasteners and
pump and propeller shafting in freshwater and seawater applications.
Other nickel-base alloys containing chromium and molybdenum offer increased
resistance to localized corrosion in stagnant seawater. Table 6 shoes a
comparison of corrosion resistance of some nickel-base alloys and type 316
stainless steel in ambient temperature seawater. In hot seawater applications,
such as heat exchangers, highly alloyed materials such as alloys 652 or C-276

19
may be required. In addition, alloys 625 or 400, and K-500 are frequently
specified for U.S. Naval wetted components in contact with seawater.

Corrosion by Sulfuric Acid. Commercially pure nickel adequately resists

unaerated sulfuric acid, but would be selected for service in such an environment
only if use was dictated by other conditions, such as the presence of
contaminants, exposure to alternating environment, or simultaneous exposure to
caustics (encountered in some heat-exchanger applications).
Alloy 400 is widely used for handling sulfuric acid under reducing conditions.
At room temperature, its corrosion rate in air-free acid at concentrations up to
85% is less than 0.25 mm/year (10 mils/year) Tests in boiling sulfuric acid
produced corrosion rates of 0.086 mm/year (3.4 mils/year) at 5% acid
concentration, 0.061 mm/year (2.4 mils/year) at 10%, and 0.19 mm/year (7.5
mils/year) at 19%. At 95 ْ C (203 ْ F), corrosion rates in unaerated acid at
concentrations of up to 60% were >0.51 mm/year (20 mils/year).
Alloys B and D have exceptional resistance to sulfuric acid; Table 7 gives results
of tests at various acid concentrations.
Alloys 600 and 800 are used in low-concentration sulfuric acid at room
temperature. Although they are rarely used in sulfuric acid sevice under any
other conditions. Alloy 800 has been employed in 99% acid at 120 ْ C (250 ْ F).
Table 6 Resistance of various alloys to stagnant seawater
Maximum pit depth
Alloy mm mils

625 nil nil

825 0.025 0.98
K-500 0.864 34
400 1.067 42
AISI type 316 1.575 62
Three year exposure tests

20
Alloys C-276 and 625 both exhibit good resistance to sulfuric acid; however,
neither would be selected on this basis alone.
20Cb-3, alloy G, and alloy 825 have excellent resistance to sulfuric acid.
Although the compositional differences among these alloys result in some
variation in corrosion behavior, the alloys normally exhibit corrosion rates of
>0.13 mm/year (5 mils/year) at all concentrations when solution temperature is
below 50 ْ C (120 ْ F). Depending on composition, all three alloys exhibit
maximum corrosion at acid concentrations between 60 and 80%.

Corrosion by Hydrochloric Acid. Nickel 200, Nickel 201, alloy 400, and alloy
K-500 have room-temperature corrosion rates of below 0.25 mm/year (10
mils/year) in air-free hydrochloric acid at concentrations of up to 10%.
Concentration of hydrochloric acid produced during hydrolysis of chlorides or
chlorinated solvents usually is >0.5%; Nickel 200 and alloy 400 can withstand
this environment at temperature up to about – 205 ْ C (400 ْ F). In air-saturated
solutions, corrosion rate increases sharply. In boiling acid, alloy 400 has
corroded at rates of 0.74 mm/year (29 mils/year) at 0.5% concentration, 1.07
mm/year (42 mils/year) at 1%, and 1.12 mm/year (44 mils/year) at 5% Rates for
Nickel 200 are much higher.
Alloy B has outstanding resistance to hydrochloric acid, whereas alloy D has
moderate resistance. Alloy B corroded at a rate of 0.23 mm/year (9 mils/year) in
1,2, and 5% HCI at 66 ْ C (150 ْ F). When acid concentration was increased to
37%, corrosion rate decreased to 0.05 m/year (2 mils/year). In boiling HCI,
corrosion rates were 0.05 mm/year (2 mils/year) at 1% concentration, 0.08
mm/year (3 mils/year) at 2%, 0.18 mm/year (7 mils/year) at 5%, 0.23 mm/year
(9mils/year) at 10%, 0.36 mm/year (14 mils/year) at 15%, and 0.61 mm/year (24
mils/year) at 24T.Because chromium is rapidly attacked by hydrochloric acid,

21
alloys 600 and 800 have little resistance to this acid. Because of their high
molybdenum contents, both alloys C-276 and 62.5 are resistant to all
concentrations of hydrochloric acid at room temperature. At 66 ْ C (150 ْ F) in
acid concentrations of from 5 to 37%, alloy C-276 corrodes at rates of from 0.51
to 1.3 mm/year (20 to 50 mils/year). When tested at a 37% acid concentration at
66 ْ C (150 ْ F), alloy 62.5exhibited a corrosion rat( ) f 0.38 mm/year (15
mils/year). 20Cb-3, alloy G, and alloy 85. although normally not considered
candidate materials for hydrochloric acid service, exhibit useful room-
temperature resistance at acid concentrations of up to 15%. When tested at room
temperature, alloy G corroded at a rate of 0.25 mm/year (10 mils/year) at 10%
acid concentration, and In-coloy 825 exhibited corrosion rates of 0.12 mm/year
(4.9 mils/year) at 5%, 0.18 mm/year (7.2 mils/year) at 10%, and 0.19 mm/year
(7.3 mils/year) at 15% .

Corrosion by Phosphoric Acid. Neither commercially pure nickel nor nickel-

copper alloys are used extensively in applications involving hot, concentrated
phosphoric acid. At low temperatures or low acid concentrations, these materials
show miner corrosion .Alloy 400, for example, exhibits co – rosion rates below
0.25 mm/year (10 mils/year) for all acid concentrations when tested at
temperatures below 95 ْ C (200 ْ F).
Even in boiling 10 to 85% phosphoric acid, alloys B and D show low corrosion
rates. Alloys 600 and 800 are resistant to all concentrations of are phosphoric
acid at room temperature. Corrosion rates inerease rapidly with temperature.
Several contaminants, such as chloride, fluoride, and silica, are present during
manufacture of wet-process phosphoric acid. Because these contaminants
increase susceptibility to pitting and crevice corrosion, resistance to general

22
corrosion is not as important as resistance to local attack. In evaporators
handling wet acid, alloys C-276 and 625 have proved useful.

Corrosion by Nitric Acid. Those alloys containing no chromium have poor

resistance to nitric acid. Chromium-bearing nickel alloys show good resistance,
with corrosion rates decreasing primarily as chromium content increases.
Because boiling 65% nitric acid (Huey test) often is used to measure the
resistance of an alloy to intergranular corrosion, it should be pointed out that
allouing elements (such as niobium in 20Cb-3, alloy 625 and alloy G, and
titanium in lncoloy 825) are added for preferential modification of carbide
precipitation and for minimization of intergranular corrosion.

Corrosion by Organic Acids. Both commercially pure nickel and nickel-copper

alloys find limites use in monocarboxylic acids. In glacial acetic acid at 110 ْ C
(230 ْ F), alloy 400 has shown a corrosion rate of 0.33 mm/year (13 mils/year).
Again, aeration normally increases corrosion rate.
Alloys B and D have very good resistance to most organic acid. In either acetic
or formic acid at 70 ْ C (160 ْ F), the highest corrosion rate was 0.1 mm/year (4
mils/year).
Alloys 600 and 800 have excellent resistance to hot, long-chain organic acids.
Fat-splitting towers for stearie, oleic, linoleic, and abietiec acids are commonly
fabricated from alloy 600. Both alloys C-276 and 625 display excellent
resistance to organic acids. Formic acid normally is considered the most
corrosive monocarboxylic acid. In all concentrations of boiling acids, both alloys
C-276 and 625 corrode at rates of 0.025 to 0.05 mm/year (1 to 2 mils/year)

23
Table 7 Corrosion rates in sulfuric acid
Corrosion rate
Acid Hastelloy B Hastelloy D
Concentration, % m/yr mils/yr m/yr Mils/yr
Tested at 66 ْ C (150 ْ F)
2 0.13 5 0.15 6
5 0.10 5 0.13 5
10 0.08 3 0.13 5
25 0.03 1 0.05 2
50 0.03 1 0.03 1
60 0.03 1 0.15 6
77 ….. …. 0.05 2
80 ….. …. 0.05 2
85 ….. ….. 0.05 2
90 ….. ….. 0.05 2
96 ….. ….. 0.03 1
Tested in boiling acid solution
2 0.03 1 0.10 4
5 0.03 1 0.18 7
10 0.05 2 0.33 13
25 0.05 2 0.23 9
50 0.05 2 0.28 11
60 0.18 7 0.20 8
80 …. …. 0.91 36
85 … …. 2.31 91
90 …. …. 4.85 191
96 ….. …. 2.18 86

These alloys are the preferred materials for construction of high- temperature
distillation columns for glacial ace- ic acid.
20 Cb-3, alloy G, and alloy 825 are highly resistant to organic acids and are
adequate for most applications involving them.

Corrosion by Alkalis. Commercially pure nickel is unsurpassed by any

common engineering materials in resistance to corrosion by bases. An exception
24
is ammonium hydroxide, which forms complexes with nickel and copper. Nickel
200 is not subject to corrosion by anhyd-ous ammonia or ammonium hydroxide
in conce-etrations up to 1%. However, ammonium hydroxide in higher
concentrations causes repid attack.
Nickel 200 and Nickel 201 have excellent resistance to sodium hydroxide and
potassium hydroxide at all concentrations and at all temperatures (even molten).
In sodium hydroxide or otassium hydroxide at concentrations of less han 50%,
Nickel 200 and Nickel 201 exhibit negligible corrosion rates (usually >0.005
mm/year, or 0.2 mils/year, even in boiling solutions). As concentration and
temperature increase, corrosion rates increase slowly. Although stress cracking
of nickel in molten anhydrous caustic soda has been reported, long-term
laboratory and plant exposures of stressed specimens have not revealed any
susceptibility to cracking. The presence of chlorates or oxidizable sulfur
compounds increases the corrosive effect of caustics on nickel.
Nickel-copper alloys are not as resistant as oure nickel to the corrosive effects of
alkalis. In oiling alkalis in concentration up to 50%, however, corrosion rates for
nickel-copper alloys are still below 0.025 mm/year (1 mil/year), and thus haese
less-expensive materials are widely emoloyed in such applications.
Alloys B, C-276, D, and G have excellent resistance to alkaline environments,
but they are seldom employed unless other corrodents are involved. Also
possessing excellent resistance to alkaline environments are 20Cb-3 and alloy
825; bowever, they too, are seldom used in such environments.
In certain applications involving high-temeraure causties where sulfur is present
or high strength is required, alloy 600 is used instead of Nickel 201. The
chromium content of alloy 600 orovides greater resistance to sulfur

embritlement. Alloy 600, in common with all nickel alloys except commercially
pure nickels, is subject 0 SCC when brought in contact with high-temerature,
high-strength caustics. Thus, equipment should be fully stress relieved prior to
25
use, and operating stresses should be minim zed.

Corrosion by Salts. Except for halide salts, the corrosivity of a salt is based
primarily on oxidizing strength and on whether it hydrolyzes on an acid or a
base. For example, materials that are resistant to nitric acid most likely are
resistant to nitrates, including both sodium nitrate and erire nitrate. These nitrate
salts have high oxidizing strength and will readily hydrolyze to form nitric acid.
Halide salts, particularly chlorides, tend to promote localized attack such as
pitting, crevice corrosion, and SCC. In general, high-molybdenum contents help
to control pitting and crevice corrosion, and high-nickel contents resist chloride-
ion SCC.
Nickel 200 and alloy 400 are not subject to SCC in any of the chloride salts.
They have excellent resistance to all of the nonoxidizing halides. Oxidizing acid
chlorides, such as ferric chloride and cupric chloride, are very corrosive to these
alloys. Hypochlorites can cause pitting. A mixed group of very reactive and
corrosive salts-phosphorus oxychloride, phosphorus trichloride, nitrosyl
chloride, benzyl chloride, and benzoyl chloride-9s commonly contained in
equipment made of Nickel 200.
Nickel 200 and alloy 400 have good resistance to solutions of neutral and
alkaline salts such as carbonates, sulfates, nitrates, and acetates. Even under
severe conditions of concentration, temperature, agitation, and aeration,
corrosion rates normally are less than 0.1 mm/year (5mils/year).
Nickel 200 tubing is being used successfully in sodium chloride and sodium
sulfate evaporators, and nickel-clad steel is used in construction of rotary salt

driers. Alloy 400 is widely used in salt plants for evaporators, crystallizers,
filters, piping, and similar equipment. In solutions of acid salts such as zinc
chloride, ammonium sulfate, and ammonium chloride, both Nickel 200 and alloy
26
400 have good resistance, but alloy 400 is more widely employed.
Alloy B has excellent resistance to nonoxidizing salts. Cupric chloride and ferric
chloride are extremely corrosive to this alloy, whereas ammonium, aluminum,
and zinc chlorides are relatively harmless. Alloy B has little resistance to
nitrates, chromates, and other oxidizing salts. Typical use of this nickel-
molybdenum alloy has been in connection with aluminum chloride-type
catalysts, such as those used in alkylation of bemzene during production of
styrene. Corrosion rates in strong, boiling magnesium chloride are >0.05 m/year
(2 mils/year). This alloy also is resistant to pitting attack in chloride solutions.
The resistance of alloy 600 to salts is very similar to that of Nickel 200 and alloy
400; however, in oxidizing acid salts, alloy 600 is superior. This resistance does
not apply to oxidizing acid chlorides. Alloy 600 has excellent resistance to silver
nitrate, as used in photographic processing, and to strong, hot magnesium
chloride. In nitrosyl chloride at temperatures above 43 ْ C (110 ْ F). this alloy is
preferred over Nickel 200 .
Alloy 800 is subject to pitting in strong chloride solutions. It is highly resistant,
although not immune. To SCC. In salts other than halides, alloy 800 exhibits
excellent resistance to a wide variety of both oxidizing and nonoxidizing media.
Alloys 625 and C-276 are resistant to all classes of salts, including oxidizing
chlorides.

Table 8 Critical pitting temperatures for nickel alloys evaluated in 6% FeCl3 for 24 h periods
Critical pitting tempperature
Alloy ْC ْF
27
825 0.0,0.0 32.0,32.0
904 L 2.5,5.0 36.5,41
Type 317 LK
Stainless steel 2.5,2.5 36.5,36.5
G 23.0,25.0 73.5,77
G-3 25.0,25.0 77,77
C-4 37.5,37.5 9.5,99.5
625 35.0,40.0 95,104
Allcorr 52.5,52.5 126.5,126.5
C-276 60.0,65.0 140,149
C-22 70.0,70.0 158,158

20Cb-3, alloy G, and alloy 825 are less resistant to pitting than the higher
molybdenum alloys, but much more resistant than alloy 800. These three alloys
have excellent resistance to all classes of salts except the oxidizing halides.
Corrosion by Fluorine, Chlorine, and Hydrogen Chloride. At room
temperature, fluorine forms protective fluoride films on nickel, copper,
magnesium and iron; thus, there metals are considered satisfactory for low-
temperatyre service in fluorine. Nickel 201 and alloy 400 are preferred to high-
temperature sevice in fluorine. All of the nickel-base alloys considered are
resistant to dry chlorine and hydrogen chloride at elevated temperatures.
The nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys, such as alloys C-276, 625, Allcorr,
and C-2, exhibit very high resistance to pitting in oxidizing chloride
environments. Table 8 shows the critical pitting temperatures of various Ni-Cr-
Mo alloys in an oxidizing chloride solution. Pitting corrosion is most prevalent
in chloride-containing environments, although other halides and sometimes
sulfides have been known to cause pitting.

Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

COBALT is a tough silvery-gray magnetic metal that resembles iron and nickel
28
in appearance and in some properties. For example, with an atomic number of
27, cobalt falls directly between iron and nickel on the periodic table. The
density of cobalt is 8,8 g/cm³ , similar to that of nickel (8,9 g/cm³). Its thermal
expansion coefficient lies between those of iron and nickel. Like iron, cobalt is
allotropic. At temperatures below 417 ْ C (783 ْ F), cobalt exhibits a hexagonal
close-packed (hcp) structure. Between 417 ْ C and its melting point of 1493 ْ C
(2719 ْ F), cobalt has a face-centered cubic (fee) structure.
Cobalt is useful in applications that utilize its magnetic properties, corrosion
resistance wear resistance, and/or its strength at elevated temperatures. Some
cobalt-base alloys are also biocompatible, which has prompted their use as
orthopedic implants.

Mining and Processing

Much of cobalt today derives from copper and copper-nickel rich sulfide
deposits in the African nations of Zambia and Zaire. Other countries where the
mining or refining of cobalt is significant include Norway, Canada, Russia, and
Finland.
The largest deposits are mined using both open pit and underground methods.
Here the ore is subjected to crushing, grinding, and flotation, prior to a magnetic
concentrating process. This concentrate is then leached in sulfurie acid and the
cobalt and copper extracted by electrolysis.
Alternative future sources of cobalt include the manganese-rich nodules
discovered on the floor of the Pacific Ocean.

Uses of Cobalt
The largest use of cobalt is in superalloys, which are used to make parts for gas
turbine aircraft engines. Cobalt is also used to make magnets; corrosion and
29
wear-resistant alloys; high-speed steels; cemented carbides and diamond tools;
catalysts for the petroleum and chemical industries; drying agents for paints,
varnishes, and inks; ground coats for porcelain enamels; pigments; battery
electrodes; steel-belted radial tires; and magnetic recording media. A breakdown
of the end uses of cobalt in the United States is presented in Table 1. As these
data indicate, about 46% of all cobalt consumed in the United States is used in
superalloys. Worldwide, however, superalloys constitute about 26% of cobalt
consumed. One of the fastest growing endues sectors for cobalt is that of LiCoO2
rechargeable batteries used for portable electronic devices such as mobile
phones, camcorders, computers, and so forth. In 1996, more than 1200 metric
tones of cobalt (5% of total usage) was used in battery applications. This total
could increase with the successful development of electric vehicles combined
with environmental concerns over nickel-cadmium battery systems.

Cobalt-Base Alloys. As a group, the cobalt-base alloys may be generally

described as wear resistant, corrosion resistant, and heat resistant (strong even at
high temperatures). The single largest use for cobalt-base alloys in the area of
wear-resistant components/applications. In heat-resistant applications, cobalt is
more widely used as an alloying element in nickel-base alloys with cobalt
tonnages in excess of those used in cobalt-base heat-resistant alloys.
Many of the properties of the alloys arise from the crystallographic nature of
cobalt (in particular its response to stress), The solid-solution-strengthening

effects of chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum, the formation of metal

carbides, and the corrosion resistance imparted by chromium. Generally, the
softer and tougher compositions are used for higl,-temperature applications such
as gas turbine vanes and buckets. The harder grades are used for resistance to
30
wear.

Cobalt in superalloys. In nickel-base superalloys, cobalt (which is presently

typically in the range 10 to 15 wt%) piovides solid-solution strengthening and
decreases the solubility of aluminum and titanium, thereby increasing the
volume fracture of Y' precipitate. Cobalt in nickel-base superalloys also reduces
the tendency for grain boundary carbide precipitation, thus reducing chromium
depletion at the grain boundaries.
Cobalt is also an important alloying element in some iron-base superalloys. For
example, Haynes 556 (UNS R30556) is an Fe-Ni-Cr-Co used extensively in
sulfur-bearing environments. The resistance of the alloy to sulfidation is due to
its comparatively low nickel content (20 wt%) coupled with the addition of
cobalt (18 wt%) and the high chromium level (22 wt%).
More detailed information on cobalt-conting high-performance alloys can be
found in Section "Superalloys" in this Handbook.

Cobalt in Cemented Carbides. The role cobalt in cemented carbides is to

provide a etile bonding matrix for tungsten-carbide pacles. Coball is used as a
bonding matrix tungsten carbide because its wetting or capillaction during liquid
phase sintering allows achievement of high densities. The commerei significant
cemented carbides contain cobal the range of 3 to 25 wt%. As cutting tool
metals, cemented carbides with 3 to 12 wt% Co commonly used (see the Section
"Cemented(bides" his Handbook for more details).

Cobalt in Magnetic Materials. Cobalt, wt is naturally ferromagnetic, provides

demagn zation in several groups of magnet materials, soft magnetic materials,
cobalt is alloyed v iron (49Co-49Fe-2V and Fe-27Co-0.6Cr).
Table 1 Consumption by end use of cobal in the United States
31
 Metric tones (a)
Use 1995 199
Steels
Tool Steels 146 95
Other 38 38
Superalloys 2940 323
Alloys (excludes steels and superalloys)
Magnetic al'oys 757 72
Welding materials © 287 28
Other alloysid 75 65
Cemented carbides(e) 748 72
Chemicals and eeramies
Catalysts 732 65
Driers in paints or related usage 770 73
Ground coat frirt 196 15
Pigments 172 19
Miseellaneous (f) 164 114
Total 7030 701

(a) Data are rounded to three significant digits; may not at totals shown. (b) Includes estimates. (c) Structural and I
facing welding maerials; includes wear-resistant alloys Includes nonterrous alloys. (e) Includes diamond bit mat and
cemented carbides used for cutting and metal working plcations. (f) Incldes feed or nutritive additive, glass de orizer,
batteries, anodizing, and mill produets made from at powder. Source: U.S. Geological Survey-Mine Information-1996
iron-cobalt alloys exhibit a high positive magnetostrictive coefficient, making
them useful in transducers (sonar) and in extremely accurate positioning devices.
In permanent magnets, cobalt increases the Curie temperature and saturation
inagnetism. Permanent magnet materials utilizing cobalt include 17 and 36% Co
steels, Fe-Ni-Al alloys (Alnico alloys) containing from 5 to 35 wt% Co,
platinum-cobalt alloys containing approximately 23 wt% Co, and powder
metallurgy P/M) materials based on combinations of cobalt and rare earth metals
such as samarium (SmCo5 and Sm2Co17).

More detailed information on both soft and permanent magnent materials can be
found in the Section "Special-Purpose Materials" in this Handbook.

Cobalt in low-Expansion Alloys, Low expansion or controlled-expansion alloys

32
are materials whose dimensions do not change appreciably with temperature.
Cobalt-containing low expansior alloys include Fe-Ni-Co alloys containing 5 wt
% Co (Super-Invar), and high-strength Fe-Ni-Co alloys containing 13 to 16 wt%
Co e.g. Incoloys 903, 907, and 909). Low-expansion alloys are described in
greater detail in the Section "Special-Purpose Materials " in this Handbook.

Wear-Resistant Alloys
The cobalt-base wear alloys used currently aye changed little since the
development of coalt-chromium-tungsten and cobalt-chromiumloly bdenum
alloys (Stellites) by Elwood Haynes the eurn of the century. The most important
fferences relate to the control of carbon and licon (which were impurities in the
early alleys).Indeed, the main differences and tungsten con-nts (hence the
amount and type of carbide for-ation in the microstructure during solidificaon).
Table 2 lists the nominal compositions of variis cobalt-base wear-resistant alloys
The type of ear, or erosive wear) in a particular application an important factor
that influences the selecen of these alloys. More detailed information the
selection of cobalt-base alloys for wearsistant applications can be found in Ref 1
to 10 d in the Selected References listed at the end this Section.

The Stellite alloys listed in Table 2 are gener-y used in the form of castings or
weld overlays ardfacing alloys). However, P/M versions of elite alloys (typically
containing <1% B to ennce sintering) are available for applications where the

P/M process is cost effective (i.e., high volumes of relatively small components).
As indicated in Table 2, the Stellites are based on the following ternary and
quaternary systems:
• Co-Cr-W (alloys 1,4,6,12, and 190)
33
 • Co-Ni-Cr (alloy 27)
• Co-Cr-Ni-W (alloy F)
• Co-Cr-Mo-Ni (alloy 21)
• Co-Cr-W-Ni (alloy 23)
• Co-Cr-Ni-Mo (alloy 31)
• Co-Cr-Nb-Ni (alloy 306)
Four of the more commonly used alloys are described below.
Stellite alloys 1,6, and 12 derivatives of the original Co-Cr-W alloys developed
by Haynes. These alloys are characterized by their carbon and tungsten contents,
with Stellite alloy 1 being the hardest, most abrasion resistant, and least ductile.
The carbides in the Co-Cr-W-base Stellites are generally of the chromium-rich
M7C3 type, although in high-tungsten alloys (such as Stellite alloy) tungsten-rich
M6C carbides usually are present also.
Stellite alloy 21 differs from the first three alloys in that it employs
molybdenum, rather than tungsten, to strengthen the solid solution. Stellite alloy
21 also contains considerably less carbon. By virtue of the high molybdenum
content, and the fact that most of the chromium is in solution (rater than in Cr7C3
crabides), the alloy is more resistant to corrosion than Stellite alloys 1, 6, and 12.

Laves-phase alloys include the Tribaloy family of wear-resistant materials. Two

cobalt-base Laves-type alloy compositions (T-400 and T-800) are listed in Table
2. In these materials, molybdenum and silicon are added at levels in excess of
their solubility limit with the objective of inducing the precipitation of the hard

(and corrosion-resistant) Laves phase (an intermetallic compound). Carbon is

held as low as possible in these alloys to discourage carbide formation.
Because the Laves intermetallic phase is so abundant in these alloys, its presence
governs all the material properties. Accordingly, the effects of the matrix
34
composition in these alloys are less pronounced than in the case for the cobalt-
base carbide-type alloys (Stellite), for example. The Laves phase is specifically
responsible for out-standing abrasion resistance, but it severely limits the
material ductility and the impact strength. In fact, it is difficult to attain crack-
free overlays on all but the smallest components given adequate preheat. For this
reason, these alloys have been more successful as thermal (plasma) spray
coatings.

Wrought Alloys. The high-carbon alloys, such as alloy 6B and alloy 6K in

Table 2, are essentially wrought versions of the hardfacing (Stellite) alloys
described above. Wrought processing improves chemical homogeneity
(important in a corrosion sense), markedly increases ductility, and modifies
substantially the geometry of the carbide precipitates within the alloys (blocky
carbides within the microstructure enhance abrasion resistance). In terms of
composition (Table 2).

Table 2 Compositions of various cobalt-base alloys

Alloy Nominal composition, wt %
Tradertame UNS No. Co Cr w Mo C Fe Ni Si Mn Others

Stellite wear-resistant alloys

Stellite 1 R 3001 Bal 30 13 0.5 2.5 3 1.5 1.3 0.5
Stellite 4 ……. Bal 30 14 1 (max) 0.57 3 (max) 3 (max) 2 (max) 1 (max)
Stellite 6 R3006 Bal 29 4.5 1.5 (max) 1.2 3 (max) 3 (max) 1.5 (max) 1 (max)

35
Stellite 12 R30012 Bal 30 8.3 ……. 1.4 3 (min) 1.5 0.7 2.5
Stellite 21 R30021 Bal 27 ….. 5.5 0.25 3 (max) 2.75 1 (max) 1 (max)

Stellite 23 R30023 Bal 24 5 …… 0.4 1 2 0.6 0.3

Stellite 27 R30027 Bal 25 ….. 5.5 0.4 1 32 0.6 0.3
Stellite 31 R30031 Bal 25.5 7.5 …… 0.5 2 (max) 10.5 1 (max) 1 (max)
Stellite 190 ……… Bal 26 14.5 1 (max) 3.3 3 (max) 3 (max) 2 (max) 1 (max)
Stellite 306 …….. Bal 25 2 …….. 0.4 …… 5 …….. ……
Stellite F R3002 Bal 25 12.3 1 (max) 1.75 3 (max) 22 2 (max) 1 (max)

Laves-phase wear-resistant
alloys R30400 Bal 9 …… 29 ….. ……. …… 2.5 ……
T-400 ….. Bal 18 ……. 29 ….. …… ……. 3.5 ……..
T-800

Wrought wear-resistant alloys

6B ……. Bal 30 4 1.5 max 1 3 (max) 2.5 0.7 1.4
6K …… Bal 30 4.5 1.5 max 1.6 3 (max) 3 (max) 2 (max) 2 (max)

Wrought heat-resistant alloys

25 (L605) R30605 Bal 20 15 …… 0.1 3 (max) 10 0.4 (max) 1.5
188 R30188 Bal 22 14 ……. 0.1 3 (max) 22 0.35 1.25

Cast heat-resistant alloys

MAR-M 509 ……. Bal 23.5 7 …… 0.6 …… 1.0 …… …….

FSX-414 ……. Bal 29 7.5 ……. 0.25 1.0 10 …….. …….

Corrosion-resistant alloys
Ultimet (1233) R31233 Bal 26 2 5 0.06 3 9 0.3 0.8
MP 159 R30159 Bal 19 …. 7 ….. 9 25.5 ……. ……

MP35N R30035 bal 20 …… 10 ……. …… 35 …….. ……

Bal, balance

the alloys are essentially Co-Cr-W-C quaternaries with chromium providing

strength and corrosion resistance to the solid solution in addition to functioning
as the chief carbide former (during alloy solidification). Tungsten provides
additional solid-solution strength. Alloy 6B contains approximately 12.5 wt%
carbides of the M7C3 and M33C6 types in the ratio 9 to 1, Alloy 6K exhibits an
even greater carbide volume fraction, again with the M7C3 as the predominant
type.

Property Data. The physical and mechanical properties of six commonly used
cobalt wear alloys are presented in Table 3. In the case of the Stellite and
Tribaloy alloys, this information pertains to sand castings. Notable are the
moderately high yield strengths and hardnesses of the alloys, the inverse
36
relationship between carbon content and ductility (in the case of the Stellite
alloys), and the enhanced ductility imparted to alloy 6B by wrought processing.
Generally, the wear-resistant alloys are used in moderately corrosive and/or
elevated-temperature environments.
Abrasion data are presented for the six popular wear alloy compositions in Fig.
1, along with data for 316L stainless steel and D2 tool steel (60HRC) for
comparison. These data were generated using the ASTM G 65B (dry sand/rubber
wheel) test and, except in the case of Haynes alloy 6B (samples of which were
prepared from solution annealed plates with a thickness of 13 anm, or ½ in.),
samples were prepared from two-layer gas tungsten arc (GTA) deposits. Within
the Stellite alloy family, it is evident from Fig. 1 that abrasion resistance is a
function of carbon and tungsten content. As the carbon content increases in the
chromium-tungsten Stellite alloys, so does the tungsten content. This results in
an increase in carbide content and thus hardness. In Fig. 1, the benefits of
wrought processing in alloy 6B and the effectiveness of the Laves phase in T-
800 are also evident.
The outstanding cavitation erosion properties of the cobalt-base wear alloys as
compared with Hastelloy alloy C-276 and 316L stainless steel are illustrated in
Fig. 2. This information was generated using ASTM G 32 procedures. The

samples were prepared from solution-annealed plates (in the case of Haynes
alloy 6B, Hastelloy alloy C-276, and 316L stainless steel) or from twolayer GTA
deposits (in the case of Stellite alloys 6 and 21).

37
High-Temperature Alloys
Although cobalt-base alloys are not as widely used as nickel and nickel-iron
superalloys in high-temerature applications, cobalt-base high-temperature alloys
nevertheless play an important role, by virtue of their excellent resistance to
sulfidation (Fig.3) and their strength at temperatures exceeding those at which
the Y' and Y precipitates in the nickel and nickel-iron alloy dissolve. Cobalt is
also used as an alloying element in many nickel-base high-temperature a loys.
The various types of iron-, nickel-, and cebalt-base alloys for high-temperature
application are discussed in the Section "Superalloys" in the Handbook.
Typical wrought and cast cobalt alloy compos tions developed for high-
temperature use are presented in Table 2. Wrought alloys 25 and 188 at
considerably more ductile, oxidation resistan and microstructurally stable than
the wear-resi tant wrought cobalt alloys. Both alloys containg approximately 0.1
wt% C (about one-tenth that in alloy 6B), which is sufficient to proving carbide
strengthening, yet low enough to maintain ductility Carbide precipitation, which
is predominately of the M6C type, is important to high-temperature properties of
these material partially because it restricts grain growth durh heat treatment and
service. Structural stability enhanced in these alloys by nickel, which d creases
the fee/hcp transformation temperature cobalt-base alloys.
Alloys 25 (also known as L605) and 188 a available in the form of sheets, plates,

bat pipes, and tubes (together with a range of matcing welding products for
joining purposes). Bo alloys are well established in the gas turbine

Table 3 Mechanical and physical properties of cobalt-base wear-resistant alloys

38
 Alloy
Property 1 6 12 21 6B T-800
Hardness, HRC 55 40 48 32 37 (a) 58
Yield strength, MPa (Ksi) …. 541 (78.5) 649 (94.1) 494 (71.6) 619 (89.8) (a) ….
Ultimate tensile strength, MPa (Ksi) 618 (89.6) 896 (130) 834 (135.5) 694 (100) 998 (145) (a) …..
Elongation, % <1 1 <1 9 11 ….
Thermal expansion coefficient,
Um/m. ْC
From 20-100 ْC (68-212 ْF) 10.5 11.4 11.5 11.0 13.9 (b) …..
From 20-500 ْC (68-930 ْF) 12.5 14.2 13.3 13.1 15.0 (b) 12.6
From 20-1000 ْC (68-1830 ْF) 14.8 …. 15.6 …. 17.4 (b) 15.1
Thermal conductivity, W/m. K ….. …. ….. ….. 14.8 14.3
Specific gravity 8.69 8.46 8.56 8.34 8.39 8.64
Electrical resistivity, µ m 0.94 0.84 0.88 ….. 0.91 ……
Melting range, . ْC (ْF)
Solidus 1255 (2291) 1285 (2345) 1280 (2336) 1186 (2167) 1265 (2309) 1288 (2350)
Liquidus 1290 (2354) 1395 (2543) 1315 (2400) 1383 (2521) 1354 (2470) 1352 (2465)
(a) 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) thick sheet. (b) Starting temperatue of 0 ْC (32 ْF)

Fig. 1 Abrasion data of various cobalt-base alloys tested per ASTM G 65B

Fig. 2 Cavitation erosion data on various cobalt-base alloys, Hastelloy alloy C-276, and 316L
stainless steel

39
Fig. 3 Sulfidation data of cobalt-base alloys 25 and 188 relative to selected nickel-base alloys
at 980 ْ C (1800 ْ ) F

dustry where they are used for fabricated assemblies and ductwork. In particular,
alloy 188 is the alloy of choice for combustor cans and afterburner liners in high-
performarce aircraft gas turbines. Alloy 25 has also been used successfuliy in a

variety of industrial furnace applications (for examplw, muffles and liners).

Representative property data are given in Table 4.
Cast cobalt-base heat-resistant alloys, such as alloys MAR-M 509 and FSX-414
40
in Table 2, are designed around a cobalt-chromium matrix with chromium
contents ranging from 18 to 30 wt%.

Table 4 Mechanical and physical properties of selected cobalt-base high-temperature

alloys
Alloy
Property 25 188 MAR-M 509
Yield stnength. MPa (ksi)
At 21 ْC (70 ْFD) 445 (64.5)(a) 464 (67.3)(b) 585 (85)©
At 540 ْC (1000 ْF) …… 305 (44)(d) 400 (58)©
Tensile strength, MPa (kis)
At 21 ْC (70 ْF) 970 (141)(a) 945 (137)(b) 780 (113)©
At 540 ْC (1000 ْF) 800 (116)(e) 740 (107)(d) 570 (83)©
1000 h rupture strength. MPa (kis)
At 870 ْC (1600 ْF) 75 (11) 70 (10) 140 (20)
At 980 ْC (1800 ْF) 30 (4) 30 (4) 90 (13)
Elongation, % 62 (a) 53 (b) 3.5 ©
Thermal expansion coefficient, um/m.K
21-93 ْC (70-200 ْF) 12.3 11.9 …..
21-540 ْC (70-1000 ْF) 14.4 14.8 …..
21-1090 ْC (70-2000 ْF) 17.7 18.5 …..
Thermal conductivity, W/m.K
At 20 ْC (68 ْF) 9.8 (f) 10.8 …..
At 500 ْC (930 ْF) 18.5 (g) 19.9 …..
At 900 ْC (1650 ْF) 26.5 (h) 25.1 …..
Speeific gravity 9.13 8.98 8.86
Electrical resistivity, u . m 0.89 1.01 …..
Melting range, ْC (ْF)
Sotidus 1329 (2424) 1302 (2375) 1290 (2350)
Liquidus 140 (2570) 1330 (2426) 1400 (2550)

(a) Sheet 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) thick. (b) Sheet 0.75-1.33 mm (0.03-0.05 in.) thick, (c) As-cast. (d) Sheet beat treated at 1175 ْC (2150 ْF) for h with rapid air cool. (e) Sheet, heat treated at 1230 ْC (2250 ْF) for h with repid
air cool. (f) At 38 ْC (100 ْF). (g) At 540 ْC (1000 ْF) .(h) At 815 ْC (1500 ْF)

Table 5 Comparison of corrosion rates for selected cobalt-,iron-, and nickel-base alloys
in various solutions
Corrosion rate, mm/year
Boiling Boiling Boiling Boiling
99% 65% Boiling 1% Boiling 2% 54% P2O5 at Boiling 10% ASTM-G28A ASTM-G28B
acetie acid nitric acid Hydrochloric acid hydrocloricaid 116 ْC (240 ْF) Sulfuric acid solution sohition
Alloy
Ultimet <0.01 0.15 0.01 13.49 0.19 2.52 0.20 0.02
C-276 <0.01 21.51 0.52 1.90 0.58 0.51 8.05 0.86
62.5 0.01 0.51 0.03 14.15 0.30 0.64 0.43 71.08
41
 20Cb-3 0.11 0.19 1.80 5.77 0.92 0.40 0.25 69.08
316L 0.19 0.24 13.31 25.15 5.11 47.46 0.94 80.51

The high chromium content contributes to oxidation and sulfidation resistace,

but also participates in carbide formation (Cr7C3 and M23C6) and solid-solution
strengthening. Carbon content generally ranges from 0.25 to 1.0%, with nitrogen
occasionally substituting for carbon.
These alloys also contain significant levels of both nickel and tungsten. The
addition of nickel helps to stabilize the desired fee matrix, while tungsten
provides solid-solution strengthening and promotes carbide formation. Other
alloying elements contributing to the solid solution and/or carbide formation are
tantalum, niobium, zirconium, vanadium, and titanium.
Investment-cast cobalt alloys are generally used for complex shapes such as
nozzle guide vanes in gas turbine engines. Representative property data for these
alloys are given in Table 4.

Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
Although the cobalt-base wear-resistant alloys possess some resistance to
aqueous corrosion, they are limited by grain boundary carbide precipitation, the
lack of vital alloying elements in the matrix (after formation of the carbides or
Laves precipitates), and, in the case of the cast and hardfacing materials, by
chemical segregation in the microstructure.

By virtue of their homogeneous microstructures and lower carbon contents, the

wrought cobalt-bse high-temperature alloys (which typically contain tungsten
rather than molybdenum) are even more resistant to aqueous corrosion, but still
fall well short of the Ni-Cr-Mo alloys in corrosion performance.

42
To satisfy the industrial need for alloys that exhibit outstanding resistance to
aqueous corrosion, yet share the attributes of cobalt as an alloy base (resistance
to various forms of wear and high strength over a wide range of temperatures),
several low-carbon, wrought Co-Ni-Cr-Mo alloys are produced. Molybdenum
additions in these alloys (in preference to tungsten) impart a greater degree of
resistance to a variety of wet corrosive media. N addition, carbon contents in
these alloys are held within the soluble range to improve resistance to heat-
affected-zone sensitization during welding.
Wrought corrosion-resistant cobalt alloys are available in a variety of product
forms (sheet, plate, strip, rod/bar, and tube). Table 5 compares the corrosion of
Ultimet alloy with that of nickel-and iron-base alloys. The higher nickel-content
alloys (MP 159 and MP35N) exhibit improved resistance to stress-corrosion
cracking. Table 6 lists representative data for two grades. These alloys are often
used in the work-hardened or work-hardened- and –aged conditions.

Table 6 Mechanical and physical properties of selected cobalt-base corrosion-resistant

Property Ultimet MP35N
Hardness 28 HRC 90 HRB (b)
Yield strength, MPa (ksi) 558 (81) 380 (55)
Ultimate tensile strength, MPa (ksi) 1020 (148) 890 (130) (b)
Elongation. % 33 65 (b)
43
Thermal expansion coefficient, um/m.K
21-93 ْC (70-200 ْF) ….. 12.8 ©
21-315 ْC (70-600 ْF) ….. 14.8 ©
21-540 ْC (70-1000 ْF) ….. 15.7 ©
termal conductivity, W/m. K ….. 11.2 ©
Electrical resistivity, µ ' m ….. 1.03 ©
Melting range. ْC (ْF)
Solidus 1333 (2431) 1315 (2400)
Liquidus 1355 (2471) 1440 (2625)

(a) 13 mm (½ in.) plate, solution annealed. (b) Cold-drawn bar, solution annealed. (c) Work-strengthened and aged

Special-Purpose Alloys
Orthopedic Implants. Cobalt-base alloys are widely used for the fabrication of

various devices that are surgically implanted in the body. Applications include
hip replacements, knee replacements, and implants that fix bone fractures (bone
screws, staples, and plates). The support structures for heart valves are often
fabricated from cobalt alloys. A variety of dental implants have also been
produced from cobalt alloys.
Most of the cobalt-base alloys currently in use as implants meet the requirements
of ASTM F75, F 799, F 90, and F 560, Standards F 75 and F 799 describe
requirements for cast and thermo-mechanically processed Co-Cr-Mo,
respectively, F 90 describes wrought Co-Cr-W-Ni, and F 562 describes wrouht

Co-Ni-Cr. Composiceons of these alloys are given in Table 7. The properties of

interest for orthopedic implants include biocompatibility, corrosion resistance,
wear resistance, and such mechanical properties as strength, ductility, and high-
cycle fatigue behavior. As shown in Table 8, the properties of cobalt-base
implant alloys are highly sensitive to processing history.
44
 Table 7 Compositions of cobalt-base surgical implant alloys
TSTM Composition, wt %
specification Co Cr Ni Mo Fe C Mn Si Other
F75 bal 27.0-30.0 1.0 5.0-7.0 0.75 0.35 1.0 1.0 ……
F90 bal 19.0-21.0 9.0-11.0 ….. 3 (max) 0.05-0.15 1.0-2.0 0.4 14.0-16.0 W
F562 bal 19.0-21.0 33.0-37.0 9.0-10.5 1 (max) 0.025 (max) 0.15 (max) 0.15 (max) 1.0 Ti (max)

Table 8 Mechanical properties of cobalt-base surgical implant alloys

ASTM Yield strength Tensils strength Elastic modulus
apecification Alloy system Coudition MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation,% GPa 106 psi
F75 Co-Cr-Mo Cast 450 65 655 95 8 248 36
F799 Co-Cr-Mo Thermomechanically 827 120 1172 170 12 ….. …..
Processed
F90 Co-Cr-W-Ni Wrought 379 55 896 130 ….. 242 35
F562 Co-Ni-Cr-Mo Annealed 241-448 35-65 793-1000 115-145 50 228 33
Cold wrked and aged 1586 230 1793 260 8 …. …..

Age-Hardening Alloys. Some complex cobalt-base alloys are capable of being ags

(precipitation) hardened to a limited extent in a manner analogous to some

nickel-base alloys. One such alloy, Duratherm 600 (UNS R30600), has the

following composition:
Element Composition, wt %
Cobalt 41.0-42.0
Nickel bal
Chromium 11.7-12.3
Iron 8.5-8.9
Molybdenum 3.7-4.3
Tungsten 3.4-4.2
45
Titanium 1.8-2.2
Aluminum 0.6-0.8
Manganese 0.4-1.1
Silicon 0.2-0.6
Copper 0.3 max
Niobium 0.1 max
Berylium 0.05 max
Carbon 0.05 max

bal balance

Through combinations of cold working and heat treatment, age-hardened cobalt

alloys can achieve yield strengths in excess of 2000 MPa (290 ksi) and
hardnesses of 600 HV. High strength, combined with excellent corrosion
resistance and thermal stability, are the reasons these alloys are used for springs
exposed to extreme mechanical and thermal loads (e.g., switeh springs in baking
ovens), membranes for pressure gages, plate springs (especially for use in
corrosive media encountered in the petrochemical industry), and very thin
nonmagnetic and wear-resistant spacer foils for mangnetic heads. Other age-
hardening cobalt alloys include Havar (UNS R30004) and Arnavar (UNS
R3007).

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