LESSON 1

LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC

FORENSIC comes from the Latin word forensis, meaning of the forum. It originally

applied to the marketplace areas within ancient Rome where many types of businesses
and public affairs, such as governmental debates and actions by courts of law, were
conducted.

Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on
their sides of the story. The case would be decided in favor of the individual with the
best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two modern usages of the
word forensic—as a form of legal evidence; and as a category of public presentation.

Forensic science, also known as criminalistics  - is the application

of science to criminal and civil laws, mainly—on the criminal side—during criminal
investigation, as governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal
procedure.

Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course

of an investigation. While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to
collect the evidence themselves, others occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis
on objects brought to them by other individuals.

Forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can
work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically
be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of
forensically related cases. Forensic science is a combination of two different Latin
words: forensis and science. The former, forensic, relates to a discussion or
examination performed in public. Because trials in the ancient world were typically held
in public, it carries a strong judicial connotation. The second is science, which is derived
from the Latin word for 'knowledge' and is today closely tied to the scientific method, a
systematic way of acquiring knowledge. Taken together forensic science means the use
of the scientific methods and processes for crime solving.

IDENTIFICATION is a method of determination of individuality or recognition of a

person. It may be complete or partial. Complete identification means the absolute
fixation of individuality and Partial identification is ascertainment of only some facts of
identity of a person while others remain unknown. Absolute personal identification is
essential broadly in the fields like, Forensic applications, Medical purposes, Legal
purposes and Civilian applications.

Early Method of Identification

            There were many ways in identifying a person during the primitive era such as
tattooing, branding, mutilating and other means. There were also applied to animals.
These means were also applied in marking suspects for the people to know that a
person was a menace to the community.

METHODS OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

A.    Anthropometry

B.     Odontology

C.     Fingerprinting

Anthropometry

Is the science of obtaining systematic measurements of the human body.

Anthropometry first developed in the 19th century as a method employed by physical
anthropologists for the study of human variation and evolution in both living and extinct
populations. In particular, such anthropometric measurements have been used
historically as a means to associate racial, cultural, and psychological attributes with
physical properties. Specifically, anthropomorphic measurements involve the size (e.g.,
height, weight, surface area, and volume), structure (e.g., sitting vs. standing height,
shoulder and hip width, arm/leg length, and neck circumference), and composition (e.g.,
percentage of body fat, water content, and lean body mass) of humans.

Is the first scientific method of personal identification which is done by measuring the
various bony structure of the human body.

Odontology

Is the study of teeth. Odontologists study their development and diseases and analyze
their structure. It is a specialty of dentistry that helps to identify unknown remains and
connect bite marks to a specific individual. Odontology can be used by the judicial
system to help to solve crimes or identify victims. Also called forensic odontology or
forensic dentistry, it is a branch of forensic science that involves the application of
dental science to assist in a criminal investigation.Odontology often involves
postmortem dental examinations that include charting cranial and dental features and
using digital imaging methods and x-ray documentation. It also requires the creation of
detailed reports. Odontologists can take dental impressions, x-rays, photographs and
cranial measurements from the remains to compare the samples to those of known
individuals. They can then match or exclude potential victims or aggressors. In the case
of the deceased, forensic odontology is part of the autopsy. Odontologists try to match
teeth with a known missing person, or trace the bite mark to a source and identify a
suspect.

What does a forensic odontologist do?

            Most odontologists work for local or state governments as part of the medical
examination team. They may travel to crime scenes or accident scenes and
occasionally work outdoors in different weather conditions. Here are some of the
responsibilities of odontologists:

 Evaluate the age of skeletal remains: A forensic odontologist can analyze a

skeletal denture and evaluate its age based on the status of the teeth in
comparison with typical dental development.
 Testify in court cases: Odontologists may testify in cases related to dental
malpractice or other criminal activity.
 Identify bodies: On accident scenes, forensic odontologists attempt to identify
victims' remains after disasters. Their help is crucial when facial recognition or
fingerprints is not possible. They recognize evidence, such as tooth fragments,
that may otherwise be overlooked by other medical professionals.
 Visit crime scenes: Forensic odontologists assist criminal justice in finding
suspects in various cases. Part of finding suspects involves visiting crime scenes
to find teeth and other clues.
 Attend autopsies: A forensic odontologist might attend autopsies. During this
process, tasks include taking measurements, plastic molds, x-rays and
photographs, and then comparing these to the dental records of missing persons
to identify remains.
 Analyze bites: Odontologists can identify a bite pattern on the food they find on
the crime scene, analyze it and compare it to the one found on the victim's skin.
They also examine bite marks to samples from suspects and identify the
assailant. Odontologists can interpret whether bite marks are offensive or
defensive.
 Collect and analyze dental evidence: An odontologist collects dental evidence
from different sources and uses it to identify suspects or victims. They might
extract saliva that can be used as evidence or to provide DNA. Odontologists can
also use bite impressions. These pieces of evidence can help to evaluate the age
of an individual and narrow a list of suspects.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

            Forensic scientists can use DNA profiles to identify criminals or determine
parentage. A DNA profile is like a genetic fingerprint. Every person has a unique DNA
profile, making it very useful for identifying people involved in a crime. The only
exception to this is identical twins
            The results from DNA profiles may be used in court. For example, the samples
collected from a crime scene might match the DNA of a suspect. This could be used as
evidence that the suspect had been present at the crime scene but it does not
necessarily prove that the suspect committed the crime.

DNA evidence is rarely the sole basis of a prosecution case. It is most useful when
placed alongside other evidence, such as fingerprints, footprints, crime scene
examination and eyewitness accounts. Other biological evidence may also be collected,
for example blood splash patterns (showing the direction of the injury)
and microbial information (which may give clues as to the time of death).

Fingerprint 

Is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of partial

fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method of forensic science. Moisture
and grease on a finger result in fingerprints on surfaces such as glass or metal.
Deliberate impressions of entire fingerprints can be obtained by ink or other substances
transferred from the peaks of friction ridges on the skin to a smooth surface such as
paper. Fingerprint records normally contain impressions from the pad on the last joint of
fingers and thumbs, though fingerprint cards also typically record portions of lower joint
areas of the fingers.

Human fingerprints are detailed, nearly unique, difficult to alter, and durable over the life
of an individual, making them suitable as long-term markers of human identity. They
may be employed by police or other authorities to identify individuals who wish to
conceal their identity, or to identify people who are incapacitated or deceased and thus
unable to identify themselves, as in the aftermath of a natural disaster.

LESSON 2
LESSON 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND PERSONALITIES

Historical Background and Personalities

Fingerprint was first used by the Chinese as a form of authentication in their

documents. Chinese records from the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) include details about
using handprints as evidence during burglary investigations. 

Alphonse Bertillon, (Father of Anthropometry), a clerk in the Prefecture of Police of

at Paris, France, devised a system of classification, known as anthropometry or the
Bertillon System, using measurements of parts of the body.  Bertillon's system included
measurements such as head length, head width, length of the middle finger, length of
the left foot;  and length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger.
Bertillon also established a system of photographing faces - what became known as
mugshots. In 1888 Bertillon was made Chief of the newly created Department of
Judicial Identity where he used anthropometry as the primary means of identification.
He later introduced Fingerprints, but relegated them to a secondary role in the category
of special marks.The anthropometric measurement system never recovered from the
events of 1903, when a man named Will West was sentenced to the US Penitentiary at
Leavenworth, Kansas. It was discovered there was already a prisoner at the
penitentiary, whose Bertillon measurements were nearly the same, and his name was
William West. Upon investigation, it was determined there were two men who looked
very similar. Their names were William and Will West. Their Bertillon measurements
were similar enough to identify them as the same person. However, fingerprint
comparisons quickly and correctly determined the biometrics (fingerprints and face)
were from two different people. (According to prison records made public years later,
the West men were apparently identical twins and each had a record of correspondence
with the same immediate family relatives.)

Nehemiah Grew is the first person to publish a study describing ridges and pores of the
hand and feet. (1600s)

Marcello Malpighi, an anatomy professor at the University of Bologna, (in Italy) noted
fingerprint ridges, spirals and loops in his treatise. A layer of skin was named after him;
the "Malpighi" layer, which is approximately 1.8 mm thick. Became known
as Grandfather of Fingerprint (1686)

Johann Christoph Andreas Mayer (1788) wrote the book Anatomical Copper-plates

with Appropriate Explanations containing drawings of friction ridge skin patterns. Mayer
was the first to declare friction ridge skin is unique.

Jan Evangelista Purkinje (1823), anatomy professor at the University of Breslau,

published his thesis discussing nine fingerprint patterns. Purkinje made no mention of
the value of fingerprints for personal identification. Purkinje is referred to in most English
language publications as John Evangelist Purkinje. Known as the Father of
Dactyloscopy.

Sir William James Herschel (1858), Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly District in
Jungipoor, India, first used fingerprints on native contracts. On a whim, and without
thought toward personal identification, Herschel had Rajyadhar Konai, a local
businessman, impress his hand print on a contract. First to advocate the use of
fingerprints as substitute for signature (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY)

Dr. Henry Faulds(1870-1880), the British Surgeon-Superintendent of Tsukiji Hospital in

Tokyo, Japan, took up the study of "skin-furrows" after noticing finger marks on
specimens of "prehistoric" pottery. A learned and industrious man, Faulds not only
recognized the importance of fingerprints as a means of identification, but devised a
method of classification as well. He discussed fingerprints as a means of personal
identification, and the use of printers ink as a method for recording such fingerprints. He
is also credited with the first latent print identification - a greasy fingerprint deposited on
an alcohol bottle.

Sir Francis Galton, British anthropologist and a cousin of Charles Darwin, began his
observations of fingerprints as a means of identification in the 1880's.  

1882-Gilbert Thompson, a U.S. geological surveyor in charge of a field project in New

Mexico used his own fingerprints in commissary orders to prevent forgery.

Sir Edward Richard Henry (1888), succeeded Sir William J. Herschel at his post in
India. He became interested in fingerprints and devised a classification of his own and
published his work in book form and titled it “Classification and Uses of
Fingerprints” was appointed assistant commissioner at Scotland Yard. His system was
so applicable that Henry emerged as the “Father of Fingerprints,” at least as the first
man to successfully apply fingerprints for identification. 1901 marked the official
introduction of fingerprinting for criminal identification in England and Wales.

Juan Vucetich (1891), an Argentine Police Official, began the first fingerprint files
based on Galton pattern types.

Rojas Case, At Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1892, Inspector Eduardo Alvarez made the

first criminal fingerprint identification. He was able to identify Francisca Rojas, a woman
who murdered her two sons and cut her own throat in an attempt to place blame on
another. Her bloody print was left on a door post, proving her identity as the murderer.
Alvarez was trained by Juan Vucetich.

People vs. Jennings, (Dec. 21, 1911) ,United States leading case wherein the first
conviction based on fingerprint was recognized by the judicial authorities.

MR. JONES (1900) was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the Phil.
Constabulary.

1918-THE BUREAU OF PRISONS records show that CARPETAS (commitment and

conviction records) already bear fingerprints.

 Under the management of LT. ASA N. DARBY during the American occupation in the
Philippines, a modern and complete fingerprint file has been established for the
Philippine commonwealth.

 1937-The FIRST FILIPINO FINGERPRINT TECHNICIAN employed by the Phil.

Constabulary was MR. GENEROSO REYES. CAPT. THOMAS DUGAN of New York
City Police Department and MR. FLAVIANO C. GURRERO of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) gave the first examinations in fingerprints (Agustin Patricio top the
exam).
1933-The FIRST CONVICTION based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme
Court of the Phil. in the case PEOPLE VS.MEDINA and this case is considered the
leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence concerning fingerprinting
(December 23).

The science of fingerprinting was first offered as a subject in the Philippines through the
effort of the PLARIDEL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION.

Isabela Bernales – first Filipina Fingerprint Technician

LESSON 3
LESSON 3 FINGERPRINT

Fingerprint 

Is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of partial

fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method of forensic science. Moisture
and grease on a finger result in fingerprints on surfaces such as glass or metal.
Deliberate impressions of entire fingerprints can be obtained by ink or other substances
transferred from the peaks of friction ridges on the skin to a smooth surface such as
paper. Fingerprint records normally contain impressions from the pad on the last joint of
fingers and thumbs, though fingerprint cards also typically record portions of lower joint
areas of the fingers.

Human fingerprints are detailed, nearly unique, difficult to alter, and durable over the life
of an individual, making them suitable as long-term markers of human identity. They
may be employed by police or other authorities to identify individuals who wish to
conceal their identity, or to identify people who are incapacitated or deceased and thus
unable to identify themselves, as in the aftermath of a natural disaster.

Uses of Fingerprint

1.     Identifying suspects

2.     Provide identify for unidentified dead person

3.     Identifying of missing person

4.     Detecting a criminal identify through fingerprints collected at the scene and

determining recidivism or habitual delinquency

5.     Verification or confirmation of public documents

6.     Issuing clearance
7.     Use in opening volts or doors

8.     Checking or verifying entry of authorized personnel

Division of Phalanges of Fingers

Is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is made up of three bones.

a.     Basal or proximal phalange – it is located at the base of the finger nearest the
palm.

b.     Middle phalange - the next and above the basal done.

c.      Terminal phalange - the bone covered with friction skin, having all the different
types of fingerprint patterns and it is located near the tip of the finger.

A normal person has 10 fingers namely: THUMB, INDEX, MIDDLE,

RING and LITTLE fingers. The tips of each of the finger is called BULB that contains
the elevated portion of the skin call RIDGES

Friction Skin

 Is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface of the hands and
feet covered with ridges and furrows. It is also called as papillary skin.

            Ninety five percent (95%) of the body skin is smooth and relatively featureless,
apart from hairs, pores and creases. The remaining five percent (5%) covering the
palms of the hands and soles of feet is markedly different.

Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin

1.     Epidermis – the outermost layer

a.     Stratum Corneum - outer layer of the skin (epidermis). It serves as the primary
barrier between the body and the environment.

b.     Stratum mucosum - is composed of several layers of cells; those of the deepest
layer are columnar in shape and placed perpendicularly on the surface of the basement
membrane, to which they are attached by toothed extremities; this deepest layer is
sometimes

c.      termed the stratum germinativum

d.     Stratum lucidum – is present in thick skin such as lips, soles of feet and palms.
2.     Dermis – the inner layer containing the blood vessel, dermal papillae, various
glands and nerves.

3.     Subcutaneous Layer/ Hypodermis – is the innermost layer of the skin that also

contains blood vessels, connective tissue, nerves and fat lobules (a rounded division or
projection of an organ or part of the body, especially in the lungs, brain and nerves.

Components of Friction Skin

1.     Ridges Surfaces is the component of the skin that actually forms the fingerprint
impression.

a.     Ridges are tiny elevation or hill like structures found on the epidermis layer of the
skin containing sweat pores. They appear as black line with tiny DOTS called pores in
an inked impression.

b.     Furrows are actual canal-like impression called or a depression found between the
ridges which may be compared with the low area in a tire thread. They appear as awhile
lines in an inked impression.

2.     Sweat pores are small opening found anywhere across the ridge surface but it is
usually found near the centre. They are sometimes called ISLANDS with colour white
plain impression.

3.     Sweat Ducts is a long-host structure that serves as the passage way for the
sweat.

4.     Sweat Glands is found in the dermis layer of the  skin which is responsible for the
production of sweat.

LESSON 4
LESSON 4  USES OF FINGERPRINT

State the principal uses of fingerprints - Some of the uses of fingerprinting include:

1.     Identification of criminals whose fingerprints are found at the scene of the crime

2.     Identification of fugitive through a comparison of fingerprints

3.     Assistance to prosecutors in presenting their cases in the light of defendants’

previous records

4.     Imposition of more equitable sentence by the courts

5.     Furnishing identification data to probation and parole officers and to parole boards
for their enlightenment in decision making

6.     Exchanging of criminal-identifying information with identification bureaus of foreign

countries in cases of mutual interest

7.     Means of personal identification

8.     Recognition by the government of honored dead

9.     Identification of unknown deceased

10.                        Prevention of hospital mistakes in the identification of infants

11.                        Identification of persons suffering from amnesia where fingerprints

are on file

12.                        Identification of missing person

13.                        Personal identification of victims of disaster works

14.                        Identification of unconscious persons; and

15.                        Licensing procedures for automobile, firearms, aircraft and other

equipment.

Law of Multiplicity of Evidence - The greater number of similarities or dissimilarities;

the greater is the probability for the conclusion to be correct

Admissibility of Fingerprint Testimony

            Expert’s testimony as to the identity of thumb marks or fingerprints is

admissible.  The method of identifying fingerprints is a science requiring close study. 
Where thumb impressions are blurred and many of the characteristic marks far from
clear, thus rendering it difficult to trace the features enumerated by experts as showing
the identity of the impressions, the court is justified in refusing to accept the opinion that
a distinct similarity in some respects between the admittedly genuine thumb mark and
the questioned thumb mark is evident.

            This method of identification of persons has become a fixed part of our
“SYSTEM OF JURISPRUDENCE”.  Proof of the accused found in the place where the
crime was committed under such circumstances that they could only have been
impressed at the time when the crime was committed may be sufficient proof of identity
to sustain conviction.
 

Number of Ridge Characteristics as Basis for Absolute Identity

            There are no national or international rules or laws that fix the number of ridge
characteristics that must be present in both the questioned and standard prints that
should be used as a basis for establishing absolute identity.  Experts of different
countries differ in the requirements of the minimum number.  In England, the minimum
is 16 and in USA, the minimum requirement is 12.  However, fingerprint experts in these
countries believe that identity can be established in lower number of guidelines laid
down by the famous French Criminalist Dr. Edmond Locard:

1.     Clearness of the pattern.

2.     Rarity of the type

3.     Presence of core or delta in the decipherable part

4.     Presence of pores

5.     The perfect and clear identity of the width of ridges and furrows, of the direction of
the lines, and the angular value of the furrows.

Weight of Fingerprint

            The weight to be given to evidence of correspondence of fingerprint when

offered to prove identity of the accused as the person committing a crime is for the
determination of the court in the light of all the surrounding facts and circumstances.

To warrant a conviction the fingerprints corresponding to those of the accused must

have been found in the place where the crime was committed under such
circumstances that they could only have been impressed at the time when the crime
was committed.

Can Fingerprint be destroyed?

            John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character, attempted to erase

his fingerprints by burning them with acid but as time went by the ridges were again
restored to their “natural” feature.  The acid he applied temporarily destroyed the
epidermis of the bulbs of his fingers but re occur later.

Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons, who performed rather painful experiments on

themselves by burning their fingertips with boiling water, hot oil and hot metal had
shown that after the healing of the epidermis (outer skin), the original patterns of
fingerprints reappeared.

Can Fingerprints be forged?

            The authorities conducted various experiments and although they could almost
make an accurate reproduction’s till there is no case on record known or have been
written that forgery of fingerprints has been a complete success. 

Give the reasons why Fingerprints is one of the most Infallible Means of Personal
Identification

1.     Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of intra-uterine life and will
remain unchanged throughout life until the final decomposition of the body.

2.     The pattern formation formed by the papillary ridges contains peculiar

characteristics upon which a person can always be identified by fingerprint examiners.

3.     Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world accept,
adopt and utilize the fingerprint system as a means of absolute identification of a
person.

4.     The court and other authorities had taken cognizance of its importance and
reliability as a means of identification.

5.     That fingerprint will speak for itself as it shows the owner thereof in accordance
with the principle of re ipso liquitor (a thing will speak for itself).

LESSON 6
                    FIELD STUDIES OF PRINTS

Field Study regarding Prints

            There are cases where fingerprints are not available as evidence against the
accused. Hence, other science like chiroscopy, podoscopy, poroscopy and edgeoscopy
may be used to provide evidencein the identification of the accused.

1.     Chiroscopy – is the science of PALM PRINT identification. The term was derived

from two Greek word cheir which means hand and skopien which means examine.
(Tubid, 1997 p.197)

a.     Thenar zone – is the largest cushion area at the base of the thumb
b.     Hypothernar zone – refers to the large cushion area just below the base of the
little finger.

c.      Palmar zone – is the area at the base of the fingers.

d.     Carpal delta zone – is the area about to the center of the palm, down near the
wrist where the delta is frequently present.

Level of Palm

a.     Distal side – is towards the fingertips.

b.     Proximal side – is towards the wrist.

c.      Radial side – is the study of fingerprint pattern where a loop is shown having a
ridges flowing towards the radius bone or thumb side.

d.     Ulnar side – is towards the side of ulna bone where little fingers rests.

2.     Podoscopy – is the science of footprints identification. Derived from the Greek

words podo which means the foot and skopien which means to examine.

a.     Ball pattern zone – is found below the base of the big toe.

b.     Plantar pattern zone – is the space below the base of the four little toes beside the
ball zone.

c.      Calcar pattern – is the area located at the heel.

d.     Tibial side – is an area in the tibial bone side of the foot where the big toe is also
located.

e.     Fibular side – is located on the little toe side of the foot just below the plantar zone.

f.       Tread area – is an area which includes that portion of the foot lying between the
ball plantar zone and calcar zone.

Cases on footprint identification

            Commonwealth vs. Bartolini 13 NE (2nd) 382, Massachusetts 1938. This was
about a murder case where a women victim was killed and dismembered. This was
known as the “Boston Legs Mystery”.

a.     Because parts of torso were found floating in the Boston harbour. The investigators
were able to discover a print of a bare foot in the blood on the bathroom floor or the
victim’s home.
b.     William Gourley case. This was a robbery/ burglary case commited in bakery of
Bellshill, Lanarkshire, England on 29 june 1952. A british detective discovered on a
bakery safe two impressions of the left sole.

c.      James Walker Adams  case. This was another robbery/burglary committed. The
foot impressions from the crime scene allegedly left by the culprit were photographed
and were compared to the food foot prints of the suspect and were found to have
matched.

3.     Poroscopy – is the science of fingerprinting which deals with the study of pore
structure found in the papillary or friction ridges of the skin on the purpose of
identification. The term was derived the Greek words poros which means
a pore and skopien which means to examine.

4.     Edgeoscopy – is the study of the edges of the ridges and the various shapes
found therein.

Characteristics of Edgeoscopy

a.     Straight. The edge is straight.

b.     Concave. The edge is concave, generally joining two other ridges characteristics.

c.      Convex. The edge is convex.

d.     Table. The edge is protruding with a narrow base and broad flat top.

e.     Peak. The edge is protruding with a broad base and a pointed flat top

f.       Pocket. The edge looks like a pocket with a seat pore having one side poem.

g.     Angle. The edge is an angle joining two other edge characteristics.

5.     Ridgeology – is a new term that combines the related sciences of poroscopy,

edgeoscopy and ridge characteristics for the purpose of positive identification of
fingerprint. (Tubid 1996 p.225)

6.     Dermatoglyphics – is the study of the lines, tracing, ridges of the skin of fingers,
palms and hands. Derived from the words “derma” which
means skin and glyphien which means to study. (Cummins,1992).

 Fingerprints in other Species

            The Koala one of the few mammals (other than primates) that has fingerprints
are remarkably similar to human fingerprints; even with an electron of microscope it can
be quite difficult to distinguish the difference between the two.

            The Monkeys have fingerprints which are almost the same with human beings.
It is proven that fingerprint of monkeys are mistakenly identified as human fingerprints.

LESSON 7
                       RIDGE FORMATION

FOUR BASIC RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS

1.     Ridge Ending

2.     Bifurcation

3.     Dot (Island)

4.     Enclosure

Proper identification of ridge characteristics are very important in court presentation

wherein the latent print found at the crime scene will be compared to the standard
fingerprint. In case the two specimens has exact or the same characteristics then it can
least he had been into the crime.

            A single fingerprint pattern consists of several ridge characteristics. These ridge
formations are very useful in classification of fingerprint and in naming or interpreting
the fingerprint. Some of the ridges are as follows:

Types of Ridge Formation

1. Recurving ridge – is a ridge that curves back in the direction in which it started.

2. Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end
is angular and serves as a point of convergence.

3. Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one
ridge going one way and the other ridge, another way.
4. Bifurcating ridges – A single ridge which splits into two ridges forming a “Y” shape
formation or structure.

5. Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye – it is a single ridge which bifurcates where the
bifurcating ridges converge at a certain point to form again into a single ridge.

 6. Dot or Series of Dots – They are fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or dots.

7. Short or Series of Short Ridges – they are fragmentary ridges formed by short or
series of short ridges.

8. Ridge Ending - It is a termination or ending of ridge or ridges.

9. Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of disconnected sequences of short ridges

embodied intensely. These ridges are considered in the classification of fingerprints if
they appear as dark and as thick as the surrounded ridges within the pattern area.

10. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter in length
than the main ridge.

11. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge between two ridges.

12. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is madly formed, thin,
short or broken which appears in the depressions between two well formed ridges.

13. Sufficient Recurve – The space between shoulders of a loop, free of any

appendage, and a butting at right angle.

14. Appendage – A short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.

15. Core – It is a point on a ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of a

pattern.

16. Delta or Triradial Point – It a point on the first ridge formation at or directly in front
or near the center of the divergence of the type lines.

17. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.

18. Friction ridges – Are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our fingers and
thumbs by which fingerprints are made. They are also called papillary ridges or
epidermal ridges.

19. Furrows – Are depressions or canals between the ridges which maybe compared
with the low area in a tire tread.
20. Rod or Bar – is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop
pattern.

21. Up thrust - Is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from a
horizontal place.

22. Dissociated ridges – are unusual ridge structures having no well defined patterns;
the ridges are extremely short, appear like a series of “patches” caused by a
disturbance of developmental process at early fetal life of the individuals.

23. Shoulder of a loop – It is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely turns or
curves.

24. Puckering – As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curl slightly.

25. Creases – Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or
formed side to side, across the print, causing the puckering of the ridges.

26. Staple – Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.

27. Spike – an ending ridge at the center of a pattern which forms the up thrust

LESSON 8
LESSON 8 TYPELINES, DELTA AND CORE
 

TYPLE LINES – are the two innermost ridges that start or go parallel.  Diverge and
surround or tend to surround the pattern area: (a) core, (b) delta and ridges which are
used in the classification of a loop.

RULES IN CHOOSING TYLINES

a.     Typelines are not always two continuous ridges, but are often broken. When there
is a definite break in a typeline, the ridge immediately outside of it is considered as its
continuation.

b.     When locating typelines, it is necessary to keep in mind the difference between a

divergence and a bifurcation.

c.      The arms of a bifurcation on which the delta is located cannot be used for
typelines.

d.     Angles cannot be considered for typelines.

DELTA - point on a ridge at or nearest to the point of divergence of two typelines, and
(2) is located at or directly in front of the point of divergence.
 

RULES IN CHOOSING DELTA

a.     When there are two or more possible bifurcation deltas that conform to the
definition, the one nearest the core should be chosen.

b.     The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between type lines
towards the core, but at the end nearest to the core.

c.      A dot may be used as a delta. A dot has no direction.

d.     The delta may not be located at a bifurcation that does not open toward the core.

e.     When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the
bifurcation is selected.

A DELTA MAY BE:

a.     DOT

b.     BIFURCATION

c.      SHORT RIDGE

d.     CONVERGING RIGDE

e.     MEETING OF TWO RIDGES

f.       ENDING RIDGE

THE CORE - Approximate center of the pattern. It is placed upon or within the
innermost sufficient recurve.

a.     The core is located on the shoulder of the innermost loop farthest from the delta.
b.     The core is located on the spike or rod in the center of the innermost recurve,
provided the spike or rod rises high as the shoulders.

c.      If there is an even number of spikes or rods shoulder-high, the core is located on
the end of the farthest of the innermost spikes from the delta, whether or not the spike
or rod touches the inside of the recurve.

d.     If there is an odd number of spikes or rods at shoulder-height, the core is located
on the end of the center spike, whether or not it touches the inside of the recurve.

e.     Interlocking loops: Join the two loops with an imaginary recurve, making one loop
with a rod or rod inside. Count the rod(s) shoulder-high and then fix the core.

 
LESSON9
LESSON 9 FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

FINGERPRINT PATTERS INTERPRETATION

1. Arches – 5%

2. Loops – 60%

3. Whorls – 35%

Divisions of Fingerprint Patterns

A. LOOPS

1. Ulnar

2. Radial

B. ARCHES

1. Tented

2. Plain

C. WHORLS

1. Plain whorl

2. Central pocket loop whorl

3. Double loop whorl

 4. Accidental whorl

 
 

RULES ON FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

ARCHES (5%) OF FINGERPRINT PATTERN

            The arch pattern is made up of ridges lying one above the other in a general
arching formation. No core and no delta. Type of arches are as follows:

Plain Arch - Symbolized by letter “A” in the classification. It is a fingerprint pattern in

which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern and flow towards the other side with a
rise at the center with not more than one of the four (4) essential requisites for loop
pattern and with no recurving ridge, no angular formation and no upward thrust.
Tented Arches - Symbolized by letter “T” in the classification. It is a variety of arch
family, but their ridge formations are not simple as those of the plain arch, also
considered TRANSITIONAL PATTERN between a plain arch and a loop. There
is sharp up thrust or spike ridges meet at an angle less than 90 degrees.

WHORL PATTERN OF FINGERPRINT (35%)

            A whorl is a type of spiral or circular pattern that makes about 35% of total of
population. Types of whorl are as follows:

PLAIN WHORL – Fingerprint pattern that has two deltas and at least one ridge making
a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle.
  

Requisites of Plain whorl

a.     It must be a complete circuit

b.     It must have at least two deltas

c.      At least one circuit ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary line traversing two
deltas 

Central Pocket Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “C “in the classification. It is a

fingerprint pattern which for the most part of a loop, but which has a small whorl inside
the loop ridges, sometimes called a composite pattern, which means that it is made up
of two (2) patterns in one, a whorl inside a loop. It has two (2) deltas, one of which
appears as the edge of the pattern area, as in plain loop. And one shows inside the
pattern area just below the counterpart ridges.

 
Requisites of Central Pocket Loop Whorl

a.     There must be at least one recurving ridge that rises at right angle

b.     It must have two deltas

c.      There must be no recurving ridge within the pattern area touched or crossed by an
imaginary line drawn between two deltas.

Double Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “D” in the classification. A double loop

whorl is a pattern consisting of two (2) separate and distinct loop formations. One of the
loops surrounds or overlaps the other, also called COMPOSITE PATTERN, like the
central pocket loop whorl. It arises from the fact that these patterns are a composite or
combination of two 92) patterns in one, with two cores and two deltas.

Accidental Whorl - Symbolized by letter “X” in the classification. It is a pattern which is

a combination of two or more different types of pattern except in the PLAIN ARCH. It is
a pattern which is a combination of two or more different types of pattern except in
the PLAIN ARCH. It can be a combination of a loop and a whorl, a loop and a central
pocket loop whorl, or any combination of two or more different loops and whorl type
patterns.

LOOP FINGERPRINT PATTERN (60%)

            Fingerprint pattern wherein one or more of the ridges enther either side of
impression, recurve or pass an imaginary line drawn between the delta and the core
and terminate or tend to terminate on or toward same side of the impression from where
such ridges entered.

Radial Loop - “R” - derived its name from the radius bone of the forearm; it is one type
of fingerprint patterns in which the ridges run its direction to the radius bone or to the
thumb.

Ulnar Loop is one type of fingerprint pattern in which the ridges flow toward the ulnar
bone or little finger. Ulnar loop therefore derived its name from the ulna bone of the
forearm, or little finger. Its symbol is letter “U” in classification purposes.
REQUISITES OF A LOOP PATTERN

a.     There must be a delta

b.     There must be a core

c.      There must be a sufficient recurve

d.     There must have a ridge count of at least one.

OTHER TYPES OF LOOPS

a.     PLAIN LOOP – the ridges make a backward turn arranging themselves in the form
of hairpin or staple

b.     COVERGING LOOP - the ridges of this pattern converge sharply to give the
pattern possible whorl like appearance. Same as a plain loop but with the ridges at the
core, coming together.

 
c.      NUTANT LOOP – ridges of this pattern conform an explanation of the plain loop
but in addition, the loop is bent over and drops usually towards the delta.

LESSON 10
LESSON 10 FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

REAL FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

Real Impressions - Impressions of the finger bulbs with the use of the printing ink on
the surface of the paper.  Any other coloring materials may be used but less visible and
indelible.

Methods of Producing Real Impressions

1.     Plain Method of Impression – is one made by pressing an inked finger directly

down upon a fingerprint card without any rolling motion done. It records only the center
portion of the friction ridge pattern. These are usual prints found in the crime scene
which are usually blurred, cut and not clear. In a fingerprint card, a plain impression is
made to record two thumbs below the ten boxes intended for finger of right and left
hands.

2.     Rolled Method of Impression – is one made by rolling an inked finger from one
side of the finger nail to the other. It will record the entire ridge pattern of the nail joint of
the finger. Both of the prints shown are of the same finger. This impression gives a
much greater area of the pattern to study and for classifying. Furthermore, it provide a
larger number of points for comparison when examining two fingerprints to determine
whether or not they were made by the same finger. In order to make a good rooled
impression, the tip of each finger should be impressed from tip of the fingernail to other
side making a 180 degree turn.

  

Types of Fingerprint Card

1.     Criminal fingerprint Card – used to record fingerprints of suspects and criminals

and other identities of the person being fingerprinted.

2.     Civilian fingerprint Card – used in recording fingerprints of civilian for various

purposes such as requirement for employment, clearances, etc. In this card, there is a
place to list the name and addresses of several relatives who could be notified in case
of emergency. There is also space for the purpose of fingerprint.

Methods of Recording real Fingerprints

            Step 1- Ink the roller.  Apply a small amount (about ¼ inch long stream) of
fingerprint ink on the right side of the slab, toward the back.  Roll out a two to three inch
wide layer of ink on the back portion of the slab-lifting the roller off the slab after each
stroke and return to the starting point (do not use a back-and-forth motion with the
roller).  Repeat several times until a thin film of ink forms on the roller.

            Step 2 - Next, using the same roller motion (without rolling back and forth),
spread the layer toward the front edge of the slab, until a smooth, uniform coating of ink
forms.  The front edge is where the fingerprints are rolled.  When the ink on the front
edge becomes too thin, replenish the ink roller on the back edge of the slab and repeat
step two.

Porelon Pad Method - No advance preparation is needed to use the Porelon pad. 
However, the pad surface should be cleaned occasionally to remove oil and dirt
deposits by wiping the surface lightly with a soft, dry, lint-free cloth.
Print Matic Method - Like the slab and roller method, the Print matic method requires
that the ink is embedded within the Print Matic roller, and coating the slab requires only
a few passes of the roller in the same direction to apply a thin, even layer of ink.

Equipment Used in Preparation for Taking Fingerprint using Slab and Roller
Method

1.     INKING PLATE – A 12 inches plate is long enough for most set of 0 fingers. The
width of the plate should not be less than 8 inches, ten (10) is a better width.  A 10 inch
plate is also wide enough to ink a complete palm in one operation whenever it becomes
necessary.

2.     CARD HOLDER – The simplest is a U-shaped spring clamp.  Made of spring steel,
stainless steel or brass of gauge sufficient to hold its shape in heavy usage.

3.     ROLLER – 6 inches long, and 2 inches in diameter.  The handle should have
supporting posts or legs to suspend the rubber roller from developing flat sides and to
keep unused portions of the plate and table top from being smeared with ink.

4.     INK - black printers ink is the most commonly used for taking fingerprint
impression.  It is a consistency suitable for rolling into a thin film and it is quick drying
when transferred to a card as an inked impression.  Yet it does not dry too fast.  Usable
for several hours after a film has been rolled.

What are the reasons why FOUNTAIN PEN INK, COLORED INK AND STAMP PAD
INK are objectionable to be used as fingerprint ink?

a.     They are too thin

b.     Dry too quickly

c.      Stamp pad smears easily

d.     Impressions using stamp pad reproduce ‘weave” of the pad stamp covering the
inked impression.

e.     Unsatisfactory for comparison purposes.

 
5.     FINGERPRINT STAND – 32 inches high, the inking surface of a fingerprint stand
should be approximately 12 inches above the top of an ordinary desk making the
printing surface approximately 44 inches from the floor for the average person.

6.     STANDARD EIGHT BY EIGHT INCHES FINGERPRINT CARD – It is found to be

adequate for receiving five rolled impressions across the card the size convenient for
handling and filing.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN TAKING LEGIBLE FINGERPRINTS

1.     Cleanliness of equipment

2.     The right kind and correct amount of ink.

3.     Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab or inking plate.

4.     The distance of the subject from the inking on the fingerprint card.

5.     The advice of the operator to the subject to relax and never to aid in the operation.

6.     The pressure exerted must be slight and even the rolling be continuous  movement
including lifting.

7.     The nail of the fingers should be at rights angle to the slab or to the card before
starting the rolling and always roll the fingers until the other side of the nail is reached
(180 degrees).

8.     The inking and printing must always reach below the first of the fingers.

9.     The thumbs should be rolled towards the subject’s body and all other fingers away
from the subject’s body.

STEPS IN TAKING FINGERPRINTS

1.     The first and most important step is clear the plate thoroughly.

2.     A daub of printer’s ink is deposited near the edge of the plate away from the
operator.

3.     The subject’s hand and fingers must be relaxed.

 
STANCE FOR TAKING PRINTS

Most operators stand on the left side of the person  whose prints are being taken for the
simple reason that more people are right handed and then normally work more
efficiently and do better advantage toward the right.  Therefore, most fingerprint stands
are made so that the printing is done on the left front corner.

            Take Note:

Rolled Impression – the subject must be relaxed

Plain Impression – the subject may not be relaxed

FINGER DISABILITIES THAT NEED EXTRA-ATTENTION IN TAKING PRINTS

1.     Temporary Disabilities

a.     fresh cuts or wounds or bandaged fingers

b.     Occupational marks (dry skin) – carpenters, bricklayers, etc.

c.      Excessive perspiration

2.     Permanent Disabilities

a.     lack of fingers – in-born or amputated

b.     crippled fingers – bent or broken

c.      deformities – webbed, extra fingers (poly dactyl)

d.     old age

e.     split fingers/thumbs

EXTRAORDINARY TAKING OF REAL FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

1.     Excessively sweating fingers - Impressing shall be made after temporarily

suppressing sweating by wiping fingers with a lightly squeezed piece of gauze to which
formalin alcohol liquid (100 ml. of ethyl alcohol liquid containing 1-3 ml. of formalin
pharmacopoeia) is applied.

2.     Fingers with stiff joints - Impressing shall be made after shaking a subject’s hand
grasped by the wrist up and down several times to smoothen the joint movement.  In
this case, if the impressing plate and the glass plate are placed somewhat higher while
having the subject stand somewhat away from the table, handling would be easier.

3.     Fingers with stiff surface skin, coarse fingers and fingers suffering from
dermatophytosis - Wrap fingers in a steamed towel for several minutes then impress.
In this case, somewhat denser ink and somewhat weaker impressing will be better.

FINGERPRINT IMPRESSING TECHNIQUE FOR A DEAD BODY

1.     Fingers soon after death - Wipe out fingers with a piece of gauze containing
alcohol if they are stained.  In case where satisfactory roll impressions are not
obtainable by the ordinary impressing technique, the impression paper shall be cut to a
proper size, and impressing shall be made onto it using such aids as a fingerprint taking
pallet from a dead body.

2.     Stiff fingers of a clenched fist - Impressing shall be made using an aid such as a
spatula for taking fingerprints from a dead body.

3.     Blanched and wrinkled fingers

Take Note:

Finger without percolate - Wipe them with a piece of alcohol – containing gauze,
soften them thoroughly with your finger tips, stretch wrinkles, and then impress.

Fingers with percolate - Take their mold with silicon after drying with lycopodium
powder.  In order to obtain fingerprint impressions from silicon molds, strippable paint or
cortex shall be used this technique is as follows:
 

Fingers with peeled-off surfaced skin - Wind that surface skin around the operator’s
finger.  Apply ink to it and impress.  When the true skin is exposed, take photo after
applying ink to the true skin or drying it with an aqueous marker in water or alcohol.

Finger of Charred Body - In case where it is feared that they will disintegrate by even
the slightest, their photo shall be taken as they are.

Mummified fingers.  Take their mould with silicon, make films with strippable paint or
cortex, and impress

LESSON 11
 CHANCE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

Chance Impressions - These are fingerprints which are imprinted by mere chance or
without any intention to produce the print.  Chance print may be

1.     Plastic impression – impressions made by chance on cellophane tapes or any

plastic materials.

2.     Visible prints – impressions made by chance and visible without chemical

treatment.

3.     Latent prints – impressions which are visible grossly but made visible by the
addition of some substances. These are fingerprints found at the scene of a crime.

Search for Scene of Fingerprint Impressions

            In order to collect scene fingerprints, it is necessary to clarify where they were
impressed. Most scene fingerprints are usually found at the points of entry, and
departure, places ransacked, etc.  Therefore, searching for scene fingerprints should be
made with emphasis on such places but be thoroughly made on their surroundings.
Further, there may be cases where a suspect uses gloves, wipes out his fingerprint after
committing a crime, or makes other actions in connection with fingerprints.  Thus, even
when glove impressions or other traces of actions have been found as result of a
fingerprint search, it is necessary not to give up but to make a thorough search all over
the scene of the crime.

SOLID METHOD (POWDER METHOD)

            This solid method is also called the powder method since powder is used, and is
the most basic method. 

            The kinds and properties of powders commonly used are as follows:

Name              color             adhesiveness         composition

Aluminum           silver              extremely                crushed

Powder (gray)      white             strong                     aluminum foil

Highnium            silver              moderately              chargeproof                             

Grayish              strong                    processed gray

Ultranium          grayish                weak                    resin and areic

                                                                                  Acid processed

                                                                              Aluminum powder

Black                black                    weak               mixture of Powder                                 

carbon black and graphite

Lead                 pure               weak                 Basic lead carbonate

Carbonate         white                                                

Lycopodium       light                extremely                 spores of club

Powder               yellow            weak                moss (lycopodium)

Red lead             vermilion        weak                        trilead  

            Each powder has its own properties of color, adhesiveness, grain size,
delineability, etc.  A suitable powder is selected and used according to the conditions of
impression and object.  Sometimes, two or more kidns of powder are used in mixture. 
This is called mixture powder.  By using mixture powder, color and adhesiveness can
be adjusted.  For example, by mixing lead carbonate with indigo, the disappearance of
fingerprints lifted to gelatin paper can be prevented, while by mixing aluminum powder
(gray) with lycopodium, the excessive adhesion of aluminum powder (gray) can be
prevented.

 
POWDERING METHODS

Powdering methods include the brushing method, rolling method, spraying method and
light hitting method

1.     The brushing method is a method where, after affixing powder to an object to be

examined with a brush (developing brush) to whose tip a small quantity of powder has
been affixed a fingerprint is developed by lightly sweeping it with another, powder less
brush (finishing brush) to remove excessive powder.

2.     The rolling method is method where, after placing a proper quantity of powder on
an object to be examined, lightly moving it by bending and tilting, spreading out powder
all over the object to have powder adhere to the fingerprint, the fingerprint is developed
by flipping the back side of the object to remove excess powder.

3.     Also, there is another method called the sprinkling or tapping method where, after
having powder adhere to a fingerprint by lightly tapping the object to be examined, the
fingerprint is developed by lightly tapping a part of the object with one’s fist, etc. to
remove excess powder.

4.     The spraying method is a method where, after evenly spraying powder over the
object to be examined from a distance of approximately 30 cm, the fingerprint is
developed by removing excess powder by an air spray or with a brush, etc.  This
method is suitable for cases where development is made from a porous or solid object
using lowly adhesive powder.

5.     In cases where development has been made by using fluorescent powder, the
effect is doubled if observed by utilizing an ultra-violet ray emitter.

6.     The light-striking method is a method where, after having powder adhere to a

fingerprint by, say, lightly striking the object to be examined with a brush tip to which
powder has been applied, the fingerprint is developed with another brush to which no
powder is applied or by air blowing with a blower-brush or a spray to remove excess
powder.  This method is suitable for development from an object with a porous or
adhesive surface.

LIFTING METHOD

Collecting method by lifting fingerprint developed with powder include methods

employing cellophane tape, vinyl tape or other adhesive tape, and methods employing
silicon rubber.

1.       The lifting technique with gelatin paper or lifter is as follows:

2.       Cut gelatin paper or lifter to proper size.

3.       Pull off the backing.

4.       Direct the adhesive face toward the fingerprint.

5.       Press on corner to the paper firmly to the object.

6.       Press the rest of the paper to the object in stages, from the point already affixed
towards the fingerprint.

7.       Press it lightly and evenly with your palm, etc.  Less air should be trapped.

8.       Peel it off after lifting.

9.       Stick it to the backing in the same manner of lifting.

The lifting method using silicon rubber follows the following:

1.       Stretch the above thinly and evenly onto a proper-sized piece of paper or cloth.

2.       Add 5-10% by volume of hardener to silicon base.

3.       Mix them thoroughly.

4.       Stretch the above thinly and evenly onto a proper-sized piece of paper or cloth.

5.       Apply above to a fingerprint to be lifted.

6.       Press lightly and evenly with a palm, etc. to prevent bubbles from being trapped.

7.       Pull off after silicon has hardened.

Take Note: Method of Restoration - When the fingerprint collection by solid method is
over, the object should be restored to its original state by removing powder which has
been affixed to it.  This is called “restoration.” Wipe the object lightly with a piece of
cloth or a brush which contains 0.5-1% synthetic cleanser liquid or 2-5% soap liquid.

LIQUID METHOD

1.     Affix some chemicals to latent or visible fingerprint to cause a chemical change in

the excreta elements.
2.     Develop or clarify it.

3.     Record the print by photographing it.

This method is effective for developing a latent print from an object such as paper, wood
or metal and to collect a visible fingerprint such as a blood fingerprint.  This is a
chemical collecting method whose principle is that the element of the chemical liquid
reacts to the element in excreta or blood by changing color.

1.     Reagent (chemical liquid) - Reagents commonly used are ninhydrin, silver

nitrate, etc.

2.     Method to affix reagent - Method to affix reagent include the painting method,
soaking method and spraying method.

a.     The painting method is a method where an object is painted evenly with a brush
9flat brush for liquid) with ample reagent to affix the reagent to the fingerprints.  This
method is suitable for a large or solid object to be examined.

b.     The soaking method is a method to affix reagent to fingerprints by soaking an

object to be examined into regent in a tray or other vessel.  This method is suitable for
cases where a small object is to be examined for development.

The spraying method is as follows:

1.     Fill a sprayer for liquid with reagent.

2.     Spray evenly over the object to be examined about 30 cm. From the nozzle for
affixing the reagent to the object.

a.     This method is applicable to three-dimensional as well as flat-surfaced objects

either large or small.

b.     The sprayer used for the thin method should be capable of spraying as fine as mist
as possible.

c.      A ninhydrin sprayer is an aerosol-type sprayer exclusively for fingerprints which

sprays the reagent (0.5% acetone solution of ninhydrin) by means of pressurized gas. 
Meanwhile, since silver nitrate reagent corrodes the metallic portions of a sprayer, it
should not be used in development by spraying method.

Take Note: Method of Restoration - When  the fingerprint collecting work by the liquid
method is complete, the article should be restored to its original state by removing
fingerprints impressed thereon and stains produced by development, this is called
restoration.  Restoration methods vary according to types of reagent used for
development.  For restoration of a case using silver nitrate reagent, the object shall be
washed in water after being soaked in 2% alcohol liquid of corrosive sublimate.  There
is another method of soaking in saturated solution of sodium thiosulphate after soaking
in saturated solution of iodine or of potassium ferry cyanide.

For restoration of a case using ninhydrin reagent, the object shall either be applied with
“Osyfull” oxygenated water) and be warmed, or be applied with 3% solution of
ammonium, or be soaked in hot water at 80 degrees or over.

GAS METHOD

This is a method where a latent fingerprint is developed by means of coloring by affixing

gasified reagent or by causing chemical change in elements of excreta, and then
collected by photographing or by lifting onto lifting material.  This method is suitable for
developing fingerprints from papers, unpainted wood and textiles.

            Iodine is exclusively used as a reagent.  The developed pattern disappears with

in a few minutes.  Therefore, reduction is unnecessary.

a.     The methods of affixing the reagent include a method where gas is blown on to an
object to be examined using an iodine gas generator or a method where gas is filled up
into a box in which an object has been placed.  Also, there is another method where gas
is blown into a vinyl bag in which an object has been placed.

b.     Since the fingerprint developed disappears within a few minutes, it is collected by

being photographed.

c.      One of the recently developed method is to develop a fingerprint in white by

affixing gas generated from cyan acrylic instant adhesive.  It proves effective for
developing fingerprints from a blackish object, especially the adhesive face of adhesive
tape.

 
This method follows the following:

1.     Apply cyanoacrylate to a plastic or similar plate. 

2.     The place on which a fingerprint is supposedly impressed shall be placed and fixed
face to face about 3 mm above the plate. 

3.     Leave it under a cover. 

4.     The fingerprint is developed about 3 minutes later at the earliest. 

5.     The developed fingerprint shall be collected by being photographed.

LIFTING METHOD

This method includes a method where a visible fingerprint is directly lifted to lifting
material, a method where a fingerprint which has been directly lifted is processed with
powder, chemical liquid, etc., and a method where a fingerprint is lifted using lifting
material processed in  advance with chemical liquid, etc., and then preserved as it is or
photographed.  These are effective for collecting dust fingerprints, oil/grease
fingerprints, and blood fingerprints.

Lifting material - All lifting materials used for lifting under the solid method, gelatin
paper, lifter, cellophane tape, transparent vinyl tape, and other adhesive tapes can be
used; but in most cases, gelatin paper is used.

Lifting method - The method of lifting directly to the lifting material is mostly used for
collecting a dust fingerprint or oil/grease fingerprints.

            The method using processed lifting material is to lift the material to whose
surface chemical liquid etc. has been applied in advance.  This method is used for
collecting an oil/grease fingerprint and a just fingerprint.

Major collecting methods by tape of visible fingerprint are as follows:

a.     Dust fingerprint - In cases where dust quantity is small, a fingerprint shall be lifted
directly to gelatin paper (black).  Whenever the fingerprint has become unclear after
lifting, the transparent plate shall be peeled off and photograph shall be taken by lighting
from the rear side, or the fingerprint shall be developed by having lycopodium stick to
the peeled backing by rolling method 7-9 days after lifting.  Also if the transparent plate
is peeled off after lifting, its impressed face is turned upwards, and the plate is soaked in
ethyl alcohol for 1-3 minutes, its gelatin film hardens and further change is prevented.

b.     Blood fingerprint - In cases where a blood fingerprint has just been impressed on
an unabsorptive object, it shall be directly lifted on gelatin paper.  In cases whir lifting is
difficult as it has become slightly dryer, it is better to apply gelatin paper to and lightly
press the blood fingerprint following the technique of lifting, to peel off the paper after
moistening the blood, to stick aluminum powder or gray to the blood fingerprint by
brushing, and to lift it onto other gelatin paper.

c.      Oil/grease fingerprint - When the surface is dry, it shall be collected by lifting it

onto Binio roll lifter as it is.  If not dry, it shall be lifted after drying in the shade. 
Meanwhile, in cases of fluid oil/grease, a fingerprint cannot be collected by this method.

FLAME METHOD

 This is a method of developing or clarifying by affixing soot to a latent or unclear

fingerprint.  The developed fingerprint shall be collected by lifting in onto lifting material
or by photographing.  This method is suitable for collection from metal or other object
with a porous surface.

Soot-generating materials (burning material) include magnesium (photo flash powder),

camphor, pine resin, benzene, kerosene, edible oil, paraffin and candles.

MOLDING METHOD

            This is a method of collecting visible fingerprints with a molding material, and is
suitable for collecting from an object with so complicated and uneven a surface that
lifting with lifting material is unfeasible.  This is also suitable for collecting a latent
fingerprint developed from a heated object.

            The molding materials include silicon rubber, plaster, “Aljix”, strippable paint,
paraffin was, and plastic liquid.  Collection shall be made by taking a photograph or just
preserving the mold.

PROTOGRAPHING METHOD

 Space age technology is being used to enhance latent prints that heretofore were of
insufficient quality to be used.  While image processing has been used for some time,
the high cost of computers precluded the use of such technology in most crime
laboratories.  Major advances in the “microchip” industry and the resulting proliferation
of relatively inexpensive microcomputers have placed this technology within the budgets
of many laboratories.

DEVELOPMENT WITH LASERS

Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.  The use of lasers for detection
of latent fingerprint is relatively new and dates from 1976.  By 1985, approximately 50
forensic science laboratories, or approximately 15 percent of the crime laboratories in
North America, used lasers.

            With nonporous items (e.g., plastic bags, glass, and so forth), the evidence is
first fumed with cyanoacrylate.  If prints are not visible by means of normal techniques
employed, the material is washed with a methanol solution of rhodamine.  Excess
rhodamine is washed off with methanol, using a laboratory plastic wash bottle.  If prints
are present, the small amount of excess rhodamine will adhere to them and show up
under laser illumination can be used.  A zinc chloride solution is used to change the
Ruheman’s purple coloration, caused by the reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids
present in the prints, to a yellow-orange color.  The color change is luminescent in laser
light, and visible prints may be photographed.

            On porous items of evidence (e.g., paper, cardboard, and the like), evidence is
treated in the usual way with ninhydrin.  If prints are visible but have insufficient ridge
detail, laser illumination can be used.  A zinc chloride solution is used to change the
Ruhemann’s purple coloration, caused by the reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids
present in the prints, to a yellow-orange color.  The color change is luminescent in laser
light, and visible prints may be photographed.

            At this time there are three types of lasers used in latent print work: the argon
ion laser, copper vapor laser, and neodymium: YAG laser.

LATENT FINGERPRINTS ON HUMAN SKIN

 Techniques for developing latent fingerprints on human skin have been devised, but
have been successful only in rare instances.  They may be attempted in certain cases. 
The procedures are simple to use, inexpensive, and can be accomplished by evidence
technicians.  The procedures work on both living and deceased subjects.

            The Kromekote card is used to lift the print from the skin surface by placing the
card over the skin in the suspected area and applying pressure for about 3 seconds. 
The card is carefully removed and then dusted with black fingerprint powder to develop
the print transferred onto the card.  The fingerprint obtained is the mirror image of a
normal print, which can be reversed through photography.     After the Kromekote
technique is used, fingerprint powder can be applied directly to the skin to develop
prints.  The literature reports that the Magna-Brush gives results superior to a fiberglass
filament brush.  If a print is developed by this method, it must be photographed and then
may be lifted using cellophane lifting tape.

            Fingerprints on skin surfaces appear to last about 1-1/2 hours on living victims. 
Deceased victims should be examined for latent prints on the skin as soon as possible. 
The technique is still somewhat experimental, but the simplicity and ease of use of the
methods will result in greater use through experience on the part of investigators.

LESSON 12
 FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

EVIDENCE PRESERVATION OF CHANCE FINGERPRINTS

1.     Whenever scene fingerprints have been found, confirmation by a witness shall be

made prior to collection.

2.     Whenever scene fingerprints have been found, they shall be developed and
photographed prior to collection in order to clarify the position of an object and positions
of fingerprint impressions.  Picture taking shall be made by providing the fingerprinted
object with a label containing the name of incident, date and hour taken, place,
witnesses, signatures, collector’s affiliation and name, etc.

3.     Whenever fingerprints are collected by lifting (printing0 then the grain of wood,
pattern, or other characteristics original to the object near the fingerprints shall be lifted
at the same time with lifting tape, etc. to clarify the place where the fingerprints are
impressed.  In addition, the name of incident, date and hour collected, object of
collection, place of collection, signature of witness, and collector’s affiliation and name
shall also be entered on the back of the lifting paper.

a.     A scene fingerprint collection report shall be prepared to clarify the relationship
between the incident and the place of collection.

b.     On the scene fingerprints collection report, all scene fingerprints collected should
be numbered in serial order, and be entered so as to clarify which fingerprint was
collected at which place by attaching a scene sketch.
c.      Meanwhile, for those fingerprints collected without taking photographs, it
necessary to clarify the impressed positions and directions by solidly illustrating objects
of collection portions thereof, etc.

PRESERVATION BY PHOTOGRAPHY - Prints found at the scene of a crime

preferably should be preserved by photography.  This procedure has many advantages,
including its leaving the object intact so that further photographs can be taken if the first
are unsuccessful.  It also makes it easier to produce the evidence before a court of law
if the print has been recorded since parts of the object that carry the print will be seen in
the picture.

PRESERVATION OF PLASTIC FINGERPINTS - When a fingerprint has been left in

material that has hardened or is able to withstand transport, and when it is on an object
that is small and easily transportable, it may be sent directly to the crime laboratory.  If
removing the plastic print poses some special problem, it should be photographed using
oblique light to bring out as much detail as possible.  The fingerprint impression may
then be preserved by an appropriate casting material.

PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTERS - Frequently, curved surfaces, such as

doorknobs, with latent fingerprints present are difficult to photograph or do not lend
themselves to the use of cellophane lifting tape.  For such surfaces, elastic or rubber
lifter material works well.  Rubber lifters are commercially available items made of thin,
rubbery material coated with an adhesive.  The adhesive is protected by a transparent
celluloid material removed prior to use and replace onto with different fingerprint
powders.

PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTING TAPE - The most common method of

collecting latent fingerprint evidence today is by special transparent cellophane tape. 
The material is supplied in rolls and is usually 1 or 2 inches wide.  After the surface is
dusted with fingerprint powder, the tape is placed over the print.  Care must be taken to
prevent any air pockets.  The tape is smoothed down over the print with the aid of a
signer and then drawn off.  Particles of fingerprint powder adhere to the sticky surface of
the tape and thereby transfer the fingerprint pattern.  The tape is finally placed onto a
card of suitable color, contrasting with the powder used.

How long does a Fingerprint remain on an object?

Plastic prints remain for any length of time provided that the object on which they are
left or the substance in which they are formed is itself stable.  In investigations, it
sometimes happens that police officers find fingerprints that give the impression of
having been made in dust, but on closer examination are found to be dust-filled plastic
prints in oil paint made years earlier. 
Prints that have resulted from contaminated with blood, pigments, ink, and oil are more
resistant and can be kept for a long time under favorable conditions.  Latent prints on
glass china, and other smooth objects can remain for years if they are in a well-
protected location.  On objects in the open air, a print can be developed several months
after it is made.  Fingerprints on paper are very stable and will last for years provided
the paper does not become wet and deteriorate. 

What is the effect of temperature on the possibility of developing fingerprints?

            When objects on which there may be fingerprints are found outdoors in ice or
snow, they must be thawed slowly and placed so that the thawed water does not run
over and destroy the prints.  A suitable method of treating is to scrape away as much
snow and ice as possible, with the greatest care, before the object is brought to a warm
place.  Only when the object is dry should the print be developed.

            When plastic fingerprints are present in oil or grease, the thawing must be
allowed to proceed slowly and under close scrutiny since the print may easily be
destroyed by heat.  Such prints should be photographed when they appear.

Damp objects should be dried in a room at ordinary room temperature.  As a general

rule, never examine cold objects, especially metal, until they have been kept for at least
some hours at room temperature.  In indoor investigations in a cold house, the rooms
should first be heated.  The heating should be done slowly so that water from thawing
does not run off frosted objects of places.

What is the concept of fingerprint identification?

The identification of a fingerprint is to compare two fingerprints with each other, to

indicate their characteristics, and to determine whether they match or do not.

Since latent fingerprints are often partial and unclear, their identification often
encounters difficulties.  Therefore, those who are engaged in identification should make
a correct identification.  This also applies to the identification of palm prints, middle
phalange prints, basic phalange prints and footprints.

What is the method of identification?

Method of identification include those for comparing characteristics (type and position)
of friction ridges, of sweat pores (sweat gland outlets appearing on friction ridges like
eyes of needles) and of friction ridge edges (straight, projecting, arch, pocket, table,
etc.).  In general, however, a method by characteristics of friction ridge which are
understandable easily and objectively is used.
 

In identification, the following matters should b examined with the identification material:

1.     Conditions of collection (method of collection, situation of both the object

impressed and the fingerprint left on the scene, time elapsed, etc.).

2.     Kind of pattern, position impressed.

3.     Kind of finger.

4.     Situation of impression (whether slipped, twisted, duplicated or not; either surface

or true skin; and reversal fingerprint).

In comparison and pointing out of characteristics, the characteristics of a latent

fingerprint and of the formally impressed fingerprint shall be compared, and matching
points of  characteristics shall both be noted by indication lines with numbers for
referencing.  The indication lines and numbers shall be entered in red.

A letter of identification shall be prepared bye entering therein such necessary matters
as the kind (latent fingerprints, finger seal, formally impressed fingerprints, or so) and
number of pieces of identification material, identification item, identification process,
identification result, identification date and identifier.

Meanwhile, in general, a photograph showing the identification material enlarged three

times is attached indicating on the photograph matching characteristics by indication
lines and numbers for easy comprehension.

LESSON 13
HENRY CLASSIFICATION OF FINGERPRINT

FINGERPRINT                      PATTERN INDEX FINGER                          OTHER

FINGERS

Arches (Plain)                                              A                                                         a

Arches (tented)                                           T                                                          t

Radial loops                                                 R or /                                                 r or /

Ulnar loops                                                  U or \                                                 u or \

Plain Whorls                                                W                                                        w

Central Pocket Loop Whorl                     C                                                          c

Double Loop Whorl                                   D                                                         d

Accidental Whorl                                       X                                                          x

PROPER ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSFICATION

 KEY MAJOR PRIMARY SECONDARY SUB-SECON FINAL

22 M 17 rW    tr OO- 10
  S 4 Dr     a MOI -
 

What is the Pure Henry System of Classification?

1.     Primary

2.     Secondary and small letter groups

3.     Sub-secondary

4.     Final

5.     Major

6.     Key

PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION

Procedure to be followed in obtaining primary classification:

Numbering in natural sequence.  The first step in classifying fingerprints is the
numbering of the finger and thumbs.  The natural sequence, starting with the right
thumb as one and ending at the left little finger as ten is followed:

           

Right hand 1 2 3 4  5

                        Left hand   6 7 8 9 10

ODD FINGERS:  The odd fingers are 1 (right thumb) 3 (right middle finger) 5 (right little
finger) 7 (left index finger) 9 (left ring finger).

EVEN FINGERS:  The even fingers are 2 (right index finger) 4 (right ring finger) 6 (left
thumb) 8 (left middle finger) 10 (left little finger).

Numerical Value of Whorls - Designated Value of Each Finger with Whorls

The Henry system designated the value of whorl according to the finger or thumb on
which they appear, and in the following sequences.

            Right hand:  16       16       8          8          4

            Left hand  :   4         2          2          1          1

Total Whorl for Primary - In a set of prints, the numerical value is represented by two
(2) distinct totals.  First: all whorls appearing on the odd fingers; and second, all whorls
appearing on the even fingers.  The two totals obtained constitute the primary
classification. ODD and EVEN finger must never total together.  The ODD numbered
fingers shall constitute as the denominator and the EVEN numbered fingers as the
numerator.

Arbitrary count of one (1) ADDED - To each total, an arbitrary count of one is added.
The purpose of the arbitrary count of one is to avoid a classification of zero over zero in
a set of print in which no whorls appear; this might be mistaken for the letter “O” which
has another specific meaning in the classification.

Number of Possible Combinations in the Primary - There are one thousand and
twenty four (1,024) possible combinations of primaries, beginning with “one over one”
and ending with “thirty-two over thirty-two”

            Take Note: After getting the Primary Classification, you must file the fingerprint
in the following manner:
1/1                 - Lowest Classification

                                    32/32            - Highest Classification

SECONDARY CLASSIFICTION

Rank – The secondary classification follows the primary classification.

Position of Secondary – The secondary classification appears just to the right of the
fraction which represents the primary.

Meaning of Secondary – The numerator (WRITTEN ABOVE) indicates the type of

pattern appearing on the index finger of the right hand.

Denominator Meaning – The denominator (WRITTEN BELOW) Indicate the type

pattern appearing on the index finger of the left hand.

            Basic Types of Pattern that can Appear

1.     Arch (A)

2.     Tented Arch (T)

3.     Radial loop (R)

4.     Ulnar loop (U)

5.     Whorl (W)

6.     Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C)

7.     Double Loop Whorl (D)

8.     Accidental Whorl (X)

Sequence - Just as in the sequence of the primary classification, in filing, the

denominator does not change until the numerator has exhausted all the changes of
pattern in their orderly sequence.
Small Letter Groups - The small letter group of the primary classification includes
prints having plain arches, tented arches and radial loops on fingers other than the
indexes.

What constitute a small letter? For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints, the

patterns of the index fingers are designated by a capital letter and the patterns on other
fingers and thumbs are designated by small letter.

Blocking - For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints, the patterns of the index
fingers are designated by a capital letter and the patterns on other fingers and thumbs
are designated by small letter.  These are placed in their respective blocks.

Writing the Formula - For the purpose of writing the classification formula, the same
rule held true the capital letters designated on index fingers and the small letters
designated other fingers.  The classification formula is written at the top of the
fingerprint card.

Sequence in writing letter into Formula - The small letters are written into the
classification formula in their natural sequences as they appear on the hands.

A small letter in the thumb will produce the writing of the classification of the index
fingers.  Small letters in the middle, ring, and little fingers will follow the writing of the
classification of the index fingers.

This aRa would mean a thumb arch, and index radial, and a middle finger arch on
the tUr right hand, and thumb tented arch, and index ulnar, and a middle finger radial on
the left hand

Importance of small letters - The absence of small letter groups are of vital
importance to the classification system as the small letter occurs relatively infrequently.

Frequency - The small letter groups, after the index fingers have been grouped (small)
in the following sequence:

1st: The denominator by count (the lesser number of small letters proceeding the
greater).

2nd: By position (small letter to the left of the index finger proceeding these at the right).

3rd: By type (a,t, r).

SUB-SECONDARY AND FINAL CLASSIFICATION

Sub-Secondary – The sub-secondary classification is the grouping of prints according
to the ridge count of loops and ridge tracing on whorls.

Reason fort Subdivision – The sub-secondary classification is the group of print within
the secondary classification, thus facilitating searches since it limits the search to
smaller groups of the fingerprint cards.

Position of Formula – The sub-secondary classification is placed on the classification

line immediately to the right of the secondary classification

Recording Ridge Count – The ridge count of the loops are recorded as “I” (inner) and
“O” (outer).

Recording Whorl Tracing – The whorl tracing are recorded as follows:          

INNER (I)

            MEETING (M)

            OUTER (O)

Ridge Counting and Ridge Tracing

Ridge Counting is the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross the line of
count drawn between the delta and core of loop patterns. A white space must always
intervene between the delta and the first ridge to be counted.

Ridge Count is the number of ridges intervening between the delta and core.

Rules in Ridge Counting:

·        Locate the exact point of the core and delta

·        Count all the ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the
core and delta

·        Never include the core and delta in counting. Count only those ridges which
intervene or pass the imaginary line of count of line

·        Incipient ridges are never counted no matter where they appear. The general rule
is that in order to be counted, the width of a ridge must be equal to the width of the other
ridge in the pattern under consideration.

Rules included in ridge counting and their numerical value:

·        An island ridge or dot ridge is given one ridge count

·        A short ridge is given one ridge count

·        A long ridge is given one ridge count

·        An abrupt ending ridge is given one ridge count

·        If a ridge bifurcates into two across the imaginary line, the ridge count is two

·        If the point of origin of a bifurcating ridge is on the line of count, the ridge count is
two

·        If the legs of enclose or eyelet ridge is on the line of count, the ridge is two

·        If the intersection of two enclosures is on the line of count, then the ridge count is
four

·        When the core is located on ending ridge which touches the inside of the
innermost re-curving ridge, the recurve is included is included in counting only when the
delta is located below a line drawn at right angle to the end or tip of such ending ridge

Ridge counting in Whorl Patterns

Whorl patters are counted only if they appear in the little finger of both hands. If there is
no loop in the eight fingers (little fingers not included), the first whorl is to be counted to
obtain the key classification formula.

·        A plain whorl and central pocket loop are treated as an Ulnar Loop

·        A double loop (twinned loop) is counted to an Upright loop

·        An accidental whorl is counted from the extreme corresponding delta ti the
nearest core (least number or ridge count)

·        The counting in a lateral loop is made between the lower delta and the nearer loop
regardless of whether the print is found on the left or right hand

Ridge Tracing is the process of coursing or tracing the ridges that originates from the
left delta following toward the right delta or near the point and determining the ridge and
right delta to constitute the three (3) subdivisions such
as INNER, MEETING and OUTER presented by capital I, M, O.

Rules in Ridge Tracing

·        When the deltas have been located, the tracing starts on the ridge emanating from
the lower side or point of the left delta until the point nearest or opposite the right delta
us reached. Then the number of ridges intervening between the traced ridge and the
right are counted to determine whether it is inner (I), meeting (M) or outer (O).

·        If the traced ridge ends without reaching the right side, it is necessary to drop
perpendicularly to a point on a ridge directly below and continue the tracing up to the
relative point nearest the right delta.

·        If traced ridge is a bifurcation, follow the lower branch and if this branch ends
abruptly, drop on the next ridge until tracing is completed.

Subdivisions of Whorls according to Tracing

·        Inner Whorl (I)

If the traced ridge reached the relative point nearest the right delta and goes above or
inside it and there are 3 or more intervening ridges between the traced ridge and the
right delta, it is considered as inner whorl.

·        Meet or Meeting Whorl (M)

A whorl pattern is considered meet or meeting if the traced ridge reached the relative
point nearest the right delta and goes above/inside; or below/outside with 1 or 2
intervenig ridges between such delta and traced ridge, or if the traced ridge started from
the left and runs directly to the right delta.

·        Outer Whorl (O)

A whorl pattern is considered outer if the traced ridge reached the relative point near the
right delta and goes below or outside such delta with 3 or more ridges intervening
between such delta and traced ridge.

Fingers Considered - In the sub-secondary classification, six fingers are considered
they are:

1.     Right index finger

2.     Right middle finger

3.     Right ring finger

4.     Left index finger

5.     Left middle finger

6.     Left ring finger

Loops and Whorls in Sub-Secondary - In a set of prints having loops and whorl only
the sub-secondary classification may include two (2), but not more than three (3) fingers
of each hand.

“M SYMBOL” - The symbol (M) meeting appearing in a sub-secondary classification,

indicates a whorl in the figures being considered, since only a whorl can have a meeting
tracing.

“I” and “O” SYMBOL - The symbols “I” and “O” in a sub-secondary classification may
relate to a set of prints having loops and whorls or all loops or whorls.  Whether the
prints are loops, whorls or loops and whorls may be ascertained from the primary
classification since “one” over “one” indicates no whorls, thirty-two indicates all whorls
and other primaries indicates both loops and whorls.

Filing: The filing of prints within the sub-secondary classification is done according to

the following sequences:

First – I (inner) in loops

            Second – O (outer) in loops

            First: I (Inner) in whorls

            Second: M (meeting) in whorls

            Third: O (outer) in whorls

As in all other components set of the classification formula, the denominator does not
change until the numerator has exhausted the entire sequence.

For loops (Ridge Counting)

·        Index Finger

            1-9 ridge count…………………………………………………     I (Inner)

            10 or more……………………………………………………..       0 (outer)

·        Middle Finger

1-10 ridge count………………………………………………      I (Inner)

11 or more…………………………………………………….        0 (outer)

·        Ring Finger

1-13 ridge count……………………………………………….     1(Inner)

14 or more ridge count…………………………………………            0 (outer)

For Arches

·        Use small letter (t) for tented arch.

·        Use small letter (a) for plain arch

If the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger are all plain arches just put three
dashes in the sub secondary classification and A2a in the Secondary Classification. 
(Same is true when both index and middle fingers are the same).

If the index finger, middle finger and ring finger are all tented arches just put three
dashes in the sub secondary classification and T2t in the Secondary Classification.
(Same is true when index and middle finger are the same).

For Whorl Tracing

·        Meeting (M) – 2 or less
intervening ridges whether
inside/in front or outside/below
the right delta
·        Outer (O) = 3 or more
intervening ridges below or
outside the right delta.
·        Inner (I) = 3 or more
intervening ridges inside or
above the right delta.
 

FINAL CLASSIFICATION

The final classification is the ridge count on the loop (ulnar and radial) appearing in the
right little finger.

Position - The final classification is indicated at the extreme right of the numerator.

No Loop in the Right Little Finger - If a loop does not appear in the right little finger, a
loop in the left little finger may be used.  The little finger position in the formula remains
unchanged, except that the ridge count is noted as a denominator rather than as a
numerator.
Arch or Tented Arch - If an arch or tented arch appears in the little finger, it is indicated
in the classification formula by a small dash (-).  If such a formation appears in both little
fingers, final classification is not obtainable. The Arch or Tented Arch appearing in either
or both little fingers is not ignored in the classification formula since it is incorporated
and designated as a small letter in the secondary classification.

Both Little Fingers are used - Both little fingers are considered by some bureaus and
the ridge counts of both are recorded.  However, the count of the right little finger
governs the sequence for filing within the final classification.

Whorl - If no loops appear in the little fingers but a whorl appears instead.  A final
classification may be obtained by a ridge count of the whorl.  Making a ridge count of
whorls (in either or both little fingers) is required in connection with a large collection or
group of prints, such as prints having a primary classification of thirty two over thirty 
two.

a.     Plain Whorl and Central Pocket Loop Whorl shall be treated as ULNAR LOOP from
the hand of the origin.

b.     A Double Loop Whorl is ridge counted to an Upright Loop

c.      An Accidental Whorl will be ridge counted in all but the least ridge count will be
used.

Search - When a search is made within a group of cards, and when the final is
designated, only prints having the same final count or count are examined.  Some
bureaus allow a count of three on either side of the final classification.

Little Fingers used only for Final Classification - The ridge of the little finger is used
exclusively for the final classification.

Little Fingers not used for Key Classification - At no time can the ridge count of
either of the little fingers be used for the key classification.

Importance of Final Classification - The final and the key classifications may be
considered the CONTROL FINGERS for filing and searching.  They limit the number of
the prints to be examined each group.

Final not Possible - If the type pattern of either little finger is an arch, as a tented arch,
no final classification is obtained. This is indicated by a small dash (-).

MAJOR CLASSIFICATION
The major classification represents only the thumb of each hand.  It is the ridge count of
the loop and/or the tracing of the whorl appearing in the thumb of each hand (if such
whorls appear).

Position - The major classification is placed immediately to the left of the primary in the
classification formula.

Right and Left Thumbs: Numerator and Denominator - The thumb of the right hand
appears in the classification formula as the numerator, and the thumb of the left hand as
the denominator.

Symbol for Major Classification - The major classification is written with specific
symbols, which indicates the respective patterns of the thumb as being either whorls or
loops.

Ridge Tracing or Ridge Counting - These symbols are governed by the ridge tracing
for whorls or the ridge counts for the loops.

Symbols for Loops:  S (small) in loops (ridge count); M (medium) in loops (ridge count);
L (large) in loops (ridge count).

Loops Pattern in Both Thumbs - In a set of prints having loop patterns in both hands,
the ridge count of the left thumb governs the symbol for the right thumb.

TABLE 1

1 to 11 ridge count – (SMALL)

12 to 16 ridge count – (MEDIUM)

17 and above – (LARGE)

TABLE 2

1 to 17 – (SMALL)

18 to 22 – (MEDIUM)

23 and above – (LARGE)

REMEMBER: The number of LEFT THUMB must be considered in selecting formula to
be used for RIGHT THUMB. (Use Table 1 if the Left thumb has 16 or less ridge count.
Use Table 2 if the Left thumb have more that 16 ridge counts)

Either Thumb Missing - When the thumb is missing, the missing one acquires the
same pattern, ridge count, or ridge tracing as the thumb of the opposite hand.  On this
assumption, the classification proceeds as usual.  Since the left thumb, real or
assumed, is the denominator, it governs the classification, filing and searching.

Grouping the Prints - Because specific symbols have been given for loops and others
for whorls appearing on the thumb, the prints are grouped according to their respective
patterns.

Sequence - The filing for prints follows definite within each group.

Denominator governs the sequence - As in all other groups, the denominator governs
the sequence and remains unchanged until the numerator has exhausted the entire
sequence.

Sequence for Loops - Since the loops in the thumbs are indicated as small (S),
medium (M), and large (L), the sequence is as follows:

NUMERATOR                       SML                SML                SML

            DENOMINATOR                  SSS                 SSS                 SSS

Sequence for Whorls - For the whorls in the thumbs indicated as Inner (I), meeting
(M), and outer (O), the sequence is as follows:

NUMERATOR                       IMO                IMO                IMO

            DENOMINATOR                    III                    III                    III

Loop and Whorl in Major - When the whorl appears in one thumb and a loop in the
other, a specific sequence is used.

Reference: One Thumb Missing - Although a classification was obtained for one
missing thumb, (as described above), it is necessary to continue the search in all
possible references. The original pattern of the missing thumb might be different from
the thumb of the opposite hand.

Both Thumbs Missing - If both thumbs are missing, they arbitrarily acquire the
classification of meeting whorls, and no other reference searches are necessary.  No
major classification is obtainable if one thumb pattern is plain arch or tented arch.  Such
print will pertain to the small letter group (referring to the secondary classification).

Radial Loop on Either or Both Thumbs - The major classification is obtained if a

radial loop is present on either or both thumbs because a ridge count is possible.  
However, the print will be filed with the small letter group.

KEY CLASSIFICATION

The key classification represents the ridge count of the right first loop appearing in a set
of prints, beginning with the thumb of the right hand but excluding the little finger.

Little Fingers Disregarded - The little fingers are totally disregarded in obtaining a key
classification, for they are exclusively used in the final classification.

Position - The key, no matter where it is found is always written at the extreme left of
the numerator.

Importance of the Key and Final Classification - The key and final maybe considered
the control figures for filing and searching.  To limit the number of prints, it is necessary
to examine within a group.

Take Note: All answers obtained must be put/placed on the numerator of the key
classification.  Write the Key at the Left of the entire formula, preceding all other
components of the Classification Formula.

Little Fingers not used - If not used, the little fingers (regardless of their type patterns
or ridge count) as shown by the key for which they represent, are reserved for the final.

Key no loops - Make ridge count of whorl appearing in the thumb of the right at the
extreme left delta.   This may be used as a key.

Key not possible - If the entire set of prints is composed of plain arches and tented
arches, the key cannot be obtained.

CLASSIFICATION OF SCARRED PATTERNS

Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing all scarred patterns. 
In connection with their proper classification, the following rules should be observed:

·        When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the
ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression
should be given both the general type value and the sub classification value of the
corresponding finger of the other hand.

·        When an impression is partially scarred, i.e. large scars about the core so that the
general type cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow
reasonably accurate sub classification by ridge tracings or counting, the impression
should be given the primary value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the sub
classification value as indicated by ridges of partially scarred impressions.

·        When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be
determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as
to fall within the proper sub secondary classification, the impression should be given the
ridge count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other hand, if the
corresponding finger is of the same general type.  The scarred impression should be
given the probable value and reference to all other possibilities.

·        When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the
ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so happens
that the corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, corresponding finger
of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the arbitrary value of
whorls with meeting tracings.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND FINGERS MISSING AT BIRTH

When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be filed
separately from those having no amputations in order to facilitate searching.  It is to be
noted that before it may be filed in the amputating group, the card must contain a
definite and unequivocal statement or marking by the contributor to the effect that a
certain finger or fingers have been amputated but which in reality were merely injured
and bandaged when previous prints were submitted.

·        If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the
opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count, or tracing, and referenced to every
other possible classification.

·        If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical with
the fingers opposite, with no additional references.

·        If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the classification
of whorls with meeting tracings.

 
When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth is classified, the
missing fingers should be treated as amputations in that they are given the identical
classifications in that they are given the identical classifications of the opposite fingers
and are filed in the amputation group.  As these fingers are missing from a prenatal
cause, they would bane always receive the identical classification of the opposite finger
on any previous occasion.

·        If all 10 fIngers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will be:

M 32 W MMM. 

M 32 W MMM

If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints should be taken as they,
too, bear friction ridges with definite patterns.  A footprints file is maintained by the FBI
for identification purposes in instances where the subject has all fingers amputated or
missing at birth.

Partially amputated fingers often present very complex problems and careful
consideration should be given to them.  The question often arises as to the appropriate
groups in which they should be filed, i.e., amputations or non amputations.  As no
definite rule may be applied, it is a matter of experience and judgment as to their
preferred classification.

In those instances in which a partially amputated finger has half or more than half of the
pattern area missing, it is given the classification of the opposite finger.  It will be filed in
the amputation group under those conducted in all possible classifications  of the
opposite fingers only and are governed by the rules concerning amputations.

Generally, a “tip amputation,” or one which has less than half of the first joint amputated,
will always be printed in the future.  Therefore, a partially amputated finger, with less
than half of the pattern area missing is classified as it appears and is referenced to the
opposite finger.  It will be field in the non amputation group and reference searches
should be conducted under the classification of the opposite finger, and in the
amputation group.  It must be referenced this way even though it never could have
originally had the classification of the opposite finger.

CLASSIFICATION OF BANDAGED OR UNPRINTED FINGERS

·        If fingers are injured to the extent that it is impossible to secure inked impressions
by special inking devices, the unprinted fingers are given classification identical with the
classifications of the finger opposite.  If only one finger is lacking, reference searches
should be conducted in every possible classification. 
·        If more than one finger is lacking, they should be given the classification of the
opposite fingers, but no be given the classification of the opposite fingers, but no
reference searches should be conducted.  If there are two lacking, opposite each other,
they should be classified as whorls with meeting racings.

·        If, however, in the case of an injured finger, observation is made of the ridges of
the finger itself and indicated on the print, this classification should be, insofar as it is
possible, utilized.  For example, a missing impression labeled “ulnar loop of about 8
counts” by the individual taking the prints, should be searched in the sub-secondary as
both I and 0 but should not  be referenced as a pattern other than a loop.  If the finger is
used as the final, or key, it should be searched enough counts on each side of 8 to
allow for possible error in the counting by the contributor using his naked eye.

LESSON 13
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)

The automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS) is the modern and most
expensive equipment acquisition in the Crime Laboratory. It is the answer to the long
process of manually comparing crime scene latent prints with collected fingerprints. The
machine electronically captures fingerprint images and textual information to form a
database of fingerprints enabling faster identification of suspects and resolution of
crimes.

Criminal identification by means of fingerprints is one of the potent factors in

apprehending crime perpetrators who might otherwise escape arrest and continue
perpetuating crimes indefinitely. The analysis/identification of fingerprints gathered in
crime scene is regarded as one of the principal tool for crime investigation. An AFIS
scan fingerprint impressions and extracts identifying characteristics in sufficient detail to
allow a single fingerprint to be distinguished from millions of file prints that have been
similarly scanned and stored in digital form. Without AFIS, ten print (Standard Ten
Prints) and Latent (Questioned print from the crime scene) fingerprints searches are
expensive and time consuming. It is virtually impossible to manually search for a match
of a single latent print to a million standard prints, but with the help of AFIS, this become
possible and the search is only with that of minutes. In order countries, AFIS has been
instrumental in solving serious crimes that has evaded solution for many years.

The Philippine through a grant-aid program from the Japanese Government has
recently set up its own AFIS to modernize the capability and equipment of the PNP.
This is expected to enable the PNP to respond to domestic crimes as well as global
crimes.it is aimed to improve the investigative capability of the PNP which has the
responsibility of providing national security. It is expected that AFIS will contribute to
crime protection and keep peace and order in the country.

What is an AFIS?
An Automated Fingerprint Identification System is effectively a storage, search and
retrieval system for finger and palm print electronic images and demographic data. AFIS
is a high speed, high capacity image processing system that enhances the ability of the
latent fingerprint and ten print technicians to search arrest prints against ever increasing
pool of fingerprint records.

AFIS systems have and continue to replace outdated manual methods of fingerprint
classification employed by law enforcement agencies over the past century.

AFIS system utilizes specialized software and powerful computer hardware

configurations to create unique mathematical maps (algorithms) based upon
relationships between the characteristics present within the finger or palm friction ridge
skin structures. Modern AFIS system rapidly extracts information from the fingerprint to
establish the pattern type, minutiae points and the axis of the image. The use of the
mathematical algorithms enables a fingerprint to be compared with millions of file prints
within a matter of seconds.

AFIS software utilizes the impressions obtained from the rolled index fingers or thumbs
to search and match against existing ten print records within the database. This
matching process is used in proving identity in the recording of criminal convictions
(criminal history).

The AFIS may use the rolled impressions or a combination of the rolled and flat
impressions of all fingers to compare against the unsolved crime latent database. This
process is used when comparing new arrest finger and palm images against the
unsolved crime database or when comparing new crime scene latent ten print database.

The AFIS database contains several separate databases, each with its own specific
purpose and storage scheme, to facilitate efficient overall system performance. These
include the ten print, latent print and unsolved crime case image database.

TERMS TO PONDER

TI –     Tenprint to Tenprint Inquiry

AFIS initial function that performs a technical search by matching one finger form each
hand (normally the thumbs) against the RDB-T database

TLI -    Tenprint to Latent Print Inquiry

AFIS initial function that performs a match of all ten fingers input against the LDB

 
LI -      Latent Inquiry

AFIS initial function used to search an input latent fingerprint of an unsolved crime
against the RDB-L database

LLI -    Latent-to-Latent Inquiry

AFIS initial function used to search an input latent fingerprint of an unsolved crime
against the LDB

RDB-T – Rolled Database-Tenprint

The database containing one or more fingers from each hand as scanned in from a
Tenprint fingerprint card. (Used for running the TI function)

RDB-L – Rolled Database-Latent

Database containing all fingers scanned from a Tenprint fingerprint card. (Used for
running the LI function)

LDB -  Latent Database

Storage scheme for latent fingerprints from unsolved crimes to be used for AFIS
matching.

AFIS CHARACTERISTICS

Partial Fingerprint Inquires – in addition to clear fingerprint that have been rolled on
the fingerprint cards, partial fingerprints can also be searched.

Automatic Extraction and Registration of Minutiae – the minutiae of Ten print and
latent prints are automatically extracted and registered in the tenprint and latent
database respectively.
Reading Speed – AFIS conducts more than 1,600 searches per seconds. Eight million
fingerprints can be searched in 75 minutes only, which would take over 40 years for a
fingerprint examiner to conduct the search manually.

Verification using Fingerprint images – the image of tenprint and latent print are
stored on storage disk. Candidate images resulting from an inquiry are automatically
retrieved from these storage disks and displayed on the fingerprint workstation.

AFIS FILE FUNCTION

The Tenprint Database is used for Tenprint to Tenprint Inquires (TI) and Latent to
Tenprint Inquiries (LI), The Latent Database is used to check if the arrested suspect has
committed a previous crime (TLI) and also check if the collected Latent print matches
with another unsolved crime (LLI). The images of the candidate fingerprints are
retrieved from the Fingerprint Image Database and displayed on the fingerprint
workstation.

a.     Ten print Inquiry

This inquiry compares the Ten print of an arrested suspect with the fingerprints of
criminals on file to verify the identity and criminal history of the suspect

b.     Latent Inquiry

This inquiry compares a latent print from a crime scene with the fingerprints that is
stored in the databse to identify the perpetrator of the crime.

c.      Offence Inquiry

This inquiry compares the Ten print of an arrested suspect with the fingerprint of
criminals on file to verify the identity and criminal history of the suspect.

d.     Serial Crime

This inquiry compares the latent print from the crime scene with the fingerprints of
criminals on file to verify the identity from unsolved crimes to determine of the same
person has committed other crimes.

Fingerprint identification System Configuration

TC (TRANSACTION CONTROLLER) – the main host processing backbone of the AFIS

system which manages all the job operations launches via Fingerprint workstation.

IAS (IMAGES ARCHIVE SYSTEM) – mange all archive registration, retrieval, update
and deletions.
SMS (SEARCH MATCH SUPERVISER) – responsible for the supervising of fingerprint
matching jobs carried out by Fingerprint Matching Processor (FMP).

IPC (IMAGE PROCESSING CONTROLLER) – receives fingerprint image from the

Global Transaction Controller (GTC) and performs their pattern classification

GTC (GLOBAL TRANSACTION CONTROLLER) – front end of the AFIS that controls
all the workstation connected to the system. T serves as the bridge between the
workstation and the image archives as well as the sever that contains the IPC.

FW (Fingerprint Workstation) – the main entry point of transaction to the system and
the final destination of results for each transaction. After a fingerprint is scanned through
the flat-bed scanner the workstation is responsible of performing Feature Extraction
(FE). Pre-classification of fingerprint patterns types (APC). Fingerprint Sequence Check
and also the Quality.

FINGERPRINT INQUIRY

Procedure in Fingerprint inquiry and Image

1.     Ten print and Latent print images are read via scanner and stored in a storage
disk. When the workstation issues an inquiry, the Fingerprint Marching Processor
gathers data from the storage and compare with the search print

2.     The Fingerprint Matching Processor compare minutiae data detected from search
print to minutiae data of registered print. Those prints that have resemblance in minutiae
are selected as candidate match.

3.     The position, directions and relations (number of ridge lines between adjacent
minutiae) of the minutiae of the search print and file print are compared. If any minutiae
resemble to one other, those are selected as pair minutiae. If the numbers of pair
minutiae exceed set value, the degree of resemblance (inquiry score) is calculated by
rotating the search print axis around the file print axis until the most minutiae pairs are
found.

4.     Those fingerprints with high degree of (inquiry score) are selected as candidates.

5.     Candidate fingerprint images for fingerprint selected by the Fingerprint Matching

Processor are automatically retrieved from the Database

6.     The search print image and candidate fingerprint are displayed side-by-side and
are verified on the Fingerprint Workstation. The fingerprint images can be magnified
rotated to show the pair minutiae by charting.
 

FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION THROUGH AFIS

Tenprint identification Procedure

1.     Police makes a fingerprinting of the suspect together with important demographic

data information.

2.     The fingerprint card is sent to PNP Crime laboratory AFIS to confirm the identity
and criminal history of the suspect. After which is sent to the Fingerprint Workstation for
Tenprint (FW-T Terminal with Scanner)

3.     The operator conducts a verification of “Near Hit” Candidates through the

Fingerprint matching processor by entering the search fingerprint on the processor a
result of which is a candidate fingerprint.

4.     Once the candidate fingerprint is a Hit Candidate a Tenprint Card is registered for
future criminal history at the same time shows the suspect’s identity and criminal
history. While, if a candidate fingerprint is considered a No Hit Candidate, Tenprints are
registered to database.

Latent print Identification procedure

1.     Police gathers fingerprint evidences at the crime scene.

2.     The fingerprint evidence is sent to the PNP Crime laboratory AFIS to identify
suspect and other crimes committed by the same suspect. After which is sent to the
Fingerprint Workstation for Latent Print (FW-L terminal with Scanner)

3.     The operator conducts a verification of “Near Hit” candidates through the

fingerprint matching processor by entering the search fingerprint on the processor a
result of which is a candidate fingerprint.

4.     Once the candidate fingerprint is a Hit Candidate responses are the suspect’s
verification, other crimes committed by the same suspects and serial crimes. While, if a
candidate fingerprint is considered a No Hit Candidate, Latent prints are registered to
the Database.

COURT PRESENTATION OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

In testifying to fingerprint identification, the expert often prepares charts to visually aid
the court and jury in understanding the nature of his testimony.  Many times it is
undoubtedly difficult for the laymen to perceive, from a vocal explanation alone, the full
import of an expert’s testimony, due to its technical nature; consequently, some graphic
representation of the facts presented is amply justified and rewarded. 

The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole responsibility of the expert using
them.  As matter of interest to law enforcement personnel engaged in fingerprint work, a
brief explanation of such charts follows, along with suggestions and remarks based on
long experience in these matters.