Sa,ial Wh ail, Grar# Cwg and Shk 169

.'Ihe
funetional approach defines leadetstripas oc' I Etpqrt (sersing as the s*urce of readily railable
*tenever one rner*ber in a Broup inflr.grces informadon and skills).
rnembers to help rhe group rdach itc goals, Be' r'rke$lal gra,up replew*ta$ve (b*irtg &e o$cial
at times all group mernbers influence o*ter spokesn'lan for the group).
members, each member in a group exens lead' r d*n**!lEr *f i*terctal relatrcr* iccrxrollir:g t!:e
A difference exists irr mo$t group: bern'een
s{ru$ure *sa qff!: {$ csarcl ingroup,rslarions)'
q*designated leader {such as * preidenr tn chair-
isii) *nd engaging in ieadership behavior. A desr*
r &:r,!ser of re*ards arrd punishmen* (determin-
furg pron:otions, denmrons, and assigningpleas'
{@hxceruin responsibilitles (suc* as call-
ant or unpieasant nskst
meetings and ieading *te discussion). while the
@dqr*{l r*eau cnp *re*ber is inllieeacing *drEr r .{*itr*tcr and rmdiat*riactinga* bcrh iudge and
mernbex'rc h*ip &e gr*up reach i*'goals. conciliator wirh rhe power to reduce or to in'
irthe fui:ai**al app'r+ach arse*s *at leadershg is a crease foctionalism within the grcup)
ed *et {}f skillS thx a$?me with c*rtain miaim*! . Esell$lsr {serving as a mod*l *f kharrior to
rernenx cat acquire. Resp+nsiirie rae*tbersl*p is shorv :*:h*r rh* $leulhers shotrid be **d e1*)
rhi6 ss tespo*sible l*a$ershlp as bsth i*- r Ideologis (serving as the source of che beliett
ing x&at needs to be d**e to hetp &e gryup
aadrrl*es cf the mexbex}
UBiniweltane accomplish irs g*ais. This approrcl:
*,ttur puple ea* be *ugh: &a skilb and b+hau:
r Scapqgoat(seruirg as the rargei for rtndlating
&epAher$' firntratbrrs aad disappo-it:tmenxir
heip *egrcup a*c*rnpli*h iu tc${$ at?d ffsltr"
,gffi' r*'orH*g relatior:shipc- The imglica$ons of
theon'ior a social work pr*ctice course is that
e*rff**€ in the clxs ca* leern lo be an ef-
bader.
e*r- mer*ber of a ggoCIp, &e d+ig*arcd leeder SSCIAT POWER.&4SE$
called upoa or r*a1, be fureed,to adss orle *r
thc txsk spxiatist or $!ail#ri*{}cr speeialist rN Gn*{lp$
futhare kn d*5eus6{d *r}ier irl this ch*oler.
&* leder'ha* a*p*elat:obligation ta k cl€x Frerrch and Rawr {1968} her* de-ve}o$ed * k*r*ryr:rk
*& occasirxr *nd €sa*.$r$E€ *r tr: as**$t oafuers to fer ur:ders*r:ding rtrc mecl* l* r{hi€h etre rr}gmber of
s.kirharer rsles arr timelf eod epprspriete. a group has influence poner over ancdrer. File bases
13 c**ttibution l* tbe group is qu* Iilnilad, oipo#t are i&orl*e*r F€re?rd, {Qfrciv€, legiumfif,
ussur*Btior': *f speci$ed rales. Sach
h* the referq*, *nde$p€{L fs{h *i'rhe*e.p*w*r baseswilt be
tr:ts retp*aslbtre f*r a ltrieq',sf fun*ioas th*t m*re fully described" This frsfiwxork allaryru lsaders of
s;&h{ti r&e perfurr*iag *f itr$kr't* t*a elsa$irlg grCIups t* aaalyze the gc$cre *f th*ir Ps,Yr alld *ss
thc rwe* *rld daagleptff$Bl xage *f prewn* $t}g8fitfiers to leaders on u&ea, sfl6 qi6en
*r&',a! differegt $*tes req$ire * I*a&r'xlto ftG, Lo us€ rheir po*er rc iniluence others,
+rry'r# the piryr*u$lf'des*ibed r*les *s hrver is'o&gn *rraue*u.*i.r, viewed n*garirci* in
$se rhar.ffitw: lr$mq0i$e{acli&r$. Bur all h*nslr interac*on$ irrv*lrc
pqqf. i*group it is $*trira, ffid generalfu!derirable
{krflg the rup eorxdi**lorof the ae"
rh*let'e*,**nibe { seck t+ i**,;**ee other *rernkrs ro
r,S. !e$ *f,c grsxsi
hNtr ger$i:n*tr S#*ts,and gr**p g*aie.
{**uhlish!qg: g1.sup gsals'6*d , "x dpawry i*,haseel *n the percepi*n cf B
{CIrc,rli tfu*t ,t {arlc*tret s*mbe*. or ttie elsire
{decidixtg tfoe n**ne b **idt the grexp S.r,,qrt$'..-$,$e spa{iry *o ditps,n*e rEsar& *r rerno'ae

,futlaetrle#irs g$*h)" aegalive co*seg{xrlecs in re p<rnse ts 8b khavior'

t?0 M* &eid'M

Tle FqBr q'ill be greiter th€ msre the EITIp ry/l' hd:oioil fm osera ,+muparfc d, ,$i* ,

ber 'ltiee d:le r,ry d. *nd {'re more *tat nrmtbers be. is msberhss fo'r lAir*nme pcmrer',

}i*rdq,' g4t:*r# *cnt'm ,,k- sitimare bosref in a fwna! offir-iffi

qar&ind*&$uflt{hir g*s {ry,'incn$rc'
*ffi*f,. *tqi**6ir;xrpw* #*$,.t*s'*urt
ftsid lor ,ttlh+.fu @$' ' sitl
uslr*ll11.}i dre pqq*4. *tl$.xl*Le+tr: @' 'h@. r * al q$-s$i

iiw*:i;t*fritli*rrcffind'eerr'qs.$ssr'txrB d1si ' t

ryr*rU*ri'feui,duyr*re beir,* ce or bri@:rinto of * :txigk
going alorg,:*hieh cafi is*d't* d *f tlre 'hrgfi-r* *lw, xtur *. it ;n e,o1,P
,uaarapqrss*, lf pmcris-.@BiAia**onflta associaed with iL
sin *rloa wit* I,B l* *6 t* {et.'fuc'$ hxibed a$d ' T.* ,*ttasir+*s:&r b*
ue general['specified (e.g., in a iob dmcriptircri) ;

CO egqqsrts pry$..*li',*5 Fe Sa e !,ii thedgsBlr*E$tt.nf ltlr

ca* di a&*vse r*$5eq$r?ttse5'Sr rel*ue pmi' *fpwerl**{si# thr, ,S lqg$!ry *orver
*re eom;squeqees. sqer-{h€ prytr. xe$s*cm'tke ec(- de{r*ng &* :qiti$I*ir pryryr {}f *Ir aa&rh'
fe.*eri*n*f* &*t.heEeil}'kp*xh $;* tfh*&ik ro cnd xtraech€*e$**.f-Seauho*q:fu*r*. :

ionfor* *o*'trn+snee :*l* abtll*:to fire a qeln r if Ire .. isM&dsfl,S i&rl$*c*!i4n$ii'tt:

hlls below a glren letel of production is a mrnnron $&rlti*gligql i*,ttrie qffit. rmns ehher a :feeling
wmple. :tt *i*ti*ai*:: hi:t*ee* rts*Brd *tld @rcht or}ei!m. rltit,* or a &sir,c fcr srch **,id*ri*rr.
p@'t--t is #pqna4r as rrerreh *nci @* n*te &al re- tlre id*Wfietiee sf S.sith & the gre*tr
ixd pot*'er'*ill {rtrd rs $ufffi$e the e**erl*acf B r&I8.{tie.lr ts S.a.xd rlle Sfea$r the r$ereur po.:xtr
tcq*:d.4" q*rib c${rcive pqqt'qr rs'j-E'cl creme'this at- &'v of r*r*ne g6qcr is'-I eil] iike *t
craeri*rl. f cCIereive i'is u*e4'h1'& t+mer*|$ ro dre r*:I,$dtribeliore*rbehaWa$A@i",er,':1
renle'* consicl. h oftet] laetti 'fi'shmi r ent' 1
l*.b€ trikr A. and I g'iltr be ,srorc * if I brt$qi
menqend anger. **en }eadto
a*d @irq*sd*em:tlnasrblgt Eslq: g,u'.'gi

soulx*fihreffi. thus. m*rriw po'wcr'm*"v...ew!ece rqisra*H'hi$ €hes. il*€q$[

&e carrfiia b-v le*dir:g @!:1,*. acd I to t1uq1 eaeh other A.tiiifr&"bE}ie'*&*nd ri4s,to igtltHrs-

Iess sftd'g* seek t*'rtta&ae *8aifis'eschsqh*r. lher* {*s}!s*'rls@t*@,thc' 'helie*;

*,re. pry*i l*.eori,tsne,p eholi-*a*&e &e lrditidil*tr *l gtsr$ xirhqtlii:'ir * iderlii6s"
usi'm a sr::rflictlsi*i*t'iot: #*fa it s*efi is *ad Balen nnte rhat E is sften **r corrsci*usl1' rllas
*irh tlre rt*utrt:#at dre *onfiia is exatc$ated. For ry rhe referent pomer that A erem.
s$pl*,mllitarytlr t$ea increqsecimffi*bs*een f;Serfpo{{ry.r is based sn the pl*eptio* t}:*t A
ri1"l counries.) solne spe*al knwledge $r rys$ise. .A{eptkg a
legitirnae panw r-" based on the bt B sicimi a&iee i$ rnedi{*lfiwer$ is e corn&&1 esa4.1$
ryleption
thari hx c te$*ffsrrtighirap .trelt4'lor for pie ofexpen influence. Ano*l$ rrould be accepdng,
fuisr, arldttnt'B hx t* cbligalcx te ssffipt this infl*' d3teei*rrg fro:n a seri'ice,$ation siq{ler *'hen io$
erme. l,qitfun*e po*er ispr
r*e'rnost-eomqtoi $ran8e ciql For €a?en idluence to ocalr l[ $ nece&'
oftlre fire pmer b*s*s:t*ffiar*pclx€r is b*d on rxl: far- B to d:irrh drat l has the rigfu answer. a*d for ffi
snme inteinalieed v'al** or aorgr-'?here are se-leral to'irll$r dr4 & i$ irltirlg the trurh. A cliem acceping'*l
'brses far iegitiraate p . *$xlrtl'rt m*$mte s$sestion by * eounselor is anoth* exaraple of expe+{
one csmmon bas* f*r a* inehde pmrer.'fire 'r*figq ofe6pefi powe{is more trimited r
*tj
suth'thir4p x1ntetlip*ce age,' r'and'p!rysical rh*t of,reftrent pgsr€r, a$ the €rpefi is s€en as havl61
*umcteriiti,ee*or ,in- errltuf€sitr,Sged superior knonrle*e ,or abil8 in verl'specific arq:,.
are highly rcrye*ed **d gralrrd S,ra ri$tls €$ccibe Frenctr and Rar.en (tg6g) nue fiat the atempted exer',
, :'l
t:
:tWtur 7 Social W* uiilt €rouP hnq drrd ffik 17i

tion of erpen pon€r ouuide the perceived range of rheir personal goals for ioining the group become a
*w po*er nill reduce iq as an undermining of confi- component of the group goals. (2) have an increased
,,dence seems to uke place. a*areness of the imponance of choosing these goals,
i r'French and Raven (1958) theorize that for all firc and (3) feel a greater commirment to providing their
;Ipes, the stronger the basis of power, the greaer rhe resourcei Io achieve thegoals as ther hare had input in
;povrer. Referent poner is thought to hare the broadest :;eleaing dre goals.
,,1411gg 9f pOner. Anv aBemF to use po$Er outside the Ttre more congruerlce there is beroeen the per'
Fescribed range is hrpothesized to reduce the po*'er. sonal gcals of members and the goals of the group, the
more attacrcd to the group the members are likelr- to
be and the more willing rhe rnembers are apt ro be in
prc*'iding their resources arrd et:ergies to achieve the
PERSONAL GOAI,S goalsof rhe group. Tire persunalgoais oigroup mem-
bers can be heterogeneous tdiffete*t1 or horaoge'
ffiD GROUP GOAIS neous (ahie} The more honogeneow prsonai goals
are, rhe rnore apr a-lernbels are to agree on group geals

,Aggal strich an irdividtral or a group

is an end urward and ro nork together tonard achielirrg them. Thqr; also
,l ,people are rl'orking. h is an ideel or a desked end tead to be happier with the group n'hen personal goals
ii,polfit thfi people r*ue. A personal grxl is a goal held are homogenzuus.
i:.,,$y a member. A group goal is oae held bc enough shen meznbers have heterrtgapr:ur penonai gutls,
-
li,,prernUers of a group that the Sroup sm be said to be
the more likeiv hiddeo agertda" *re to derelup. Abid'
$iqoorking rorqard irs *chierrement. den agmda is a personalgual held bv ar nTenrber thar is
i. .tllgroups have goals, and ere4'person s'ho pins unknclwn to the rxher grr;up members and that inter'
group has personal goals. Groups generalll hare feres with the group s acc,:mplishing irs group goals.
iit
hoth short-rarrge and iong'range goals. The short- Hidcien agendas, at ilme-r. cart be ven'dellructlre' for
',
goals should be srcppiag stone$ to reaching the erample, I have panicipated in some groups where an
rh_ng:range gsais, individual sought to obsene the comments arrd at'
,.There are sercral reasfils rhat it is ven'imponant dons of o*ters ia order to obrain evidence to bring
!-0 tet group S0als. Thc effecdrreness and efficietl$'of legal harusment eharges. Lsusllr. hontt?r, hidden
& group iand group pra-edures) can be measured e For es:lmpie. a iolielr per'
ageadas *re less desaruttir
'$: the esteru ro *'irich goals are achie'd. G*als are sein wir+ ealqs taikrng i:-lar siorr- rJotvn a gn-rup in
tfiar gire direaio* to gtoupr and to members of reachingia gaali b: raon*poliring the "ail ri*e" with
groups. Goals direa the programs and e$ortc G- the iruignificanr smali talk.
Corrfiicts of c,pinions betq,een grerp members Because hidden agend::s cln sertreli' hamper t
often resohed bv making juftmenu is to r*'hrch poup, it is irnSnrranr &ar a group seeli to $et group
upinion is mo$ h€lpful in dtiertnggrupgoais- Group goals tha incorpr:rare the pers*nai go*ls of tht menr"
are a rnoilratillg force rirat sdrnuiates members to bers. \I'ith such a tbcus. hrdden agendas are apt to be
torrard achi*ing &ese goals. Once members minimized.
rnake a corn:nitmeru to achier,e a cenain goal, these Srill, itshould be remernbered thatailgrorrps *'ork
,mpmbers *rli psinhologicalll'feel an oblignion ro put on two lerrels: the surtace ix;k ard the hidden neerJs
their abiii$es. effons, 'and resources to attain and motiltsdons. Ahhtrugh hidden agendas siphon off
&is end. ffiff$,, tha' are a reflectir.n of indiridual needs arrd
, The motir?tion oi members to *grk toqtrd ac" rna! (or mar: not) eten he known io the person wha
oornplishing group goals is increased $r' inrnh'ing holds fienn..arll members icin groups wirh the inten'
membeis in sa*ng the goals, Throqh inrohe dotr of meCIing treir personal needs- Srrmedmes after
nrmbers will ( 1 ) ha*'e a gremr c*,:anoe of luvirtg initial needs are nret, o*ter, iess obrious needs surfrce
 ,&*@
172

.: .: ]

: : : .,.,.,::,,:'.:,,

sue& rrq6&rxe.sry, sffish bur ut noryql ry . 'ffi*lle$?-i

..he ,i *r.the efuWt@.8
ee:,* i*st Stt fits,' , m

m ,xx**e'r Xl {S
g,t}i4,ffi ry"boin
,

&rrd,, a-x,lc..E:nn' m kgA;rnim *h*,*nds$t+}

qar,*dlat'alllwi'g*r'@ft4 !s -,nm&
.--.'
'hidw6.
.rld*ed$gtl ,id :anjffirufs*rern
;&dptxl ia.effiert
"**
**io ulr* Conpr*sr lifies
ro *gl**r6ee,, ,,*r}{I:: ,mi8}q iq-mk the
i&*s's. ,"r if;€ saidtul o***i
ehut'g*c'rdmk*ffi*ts}muld8*arCIrnd ron#l
ence !*48 *d,$er
q&e&-er,ry h*s,ei,q4h&ry to r6sh {1$95}dso erwrrimd co,&rmipg'
*dd1 Ar' *{e: sama,rinCIe; ffi I $aehi*'se+Hg , ffi@t*s* *n
*wm*,atr*re 6 ffie tl*&- 4en& misht M tu xc*r*1ics@$re'F-* tmdshrr
be 1€& fiiddell Frequerdv it i*r@( *ot,to eri*iqiae rne**krs. Ttle ri*leiw sffie'd€si$td s fi
a rniernber for h*i'ng a.rhidderr agertda *inre,doilg **r*,*.gsgq,n*o *e$ d{srd6, stt& s$ rrt in
s$:*fteri'cteatts, deft*sirertess a*d ilthibirs pr*b' ?.1. Subi*e* .Pry €$*s$es\P+I*
lem sohing for &e exprri'me*rlffire in groupc ad'#{'l
t-o qine-1}l*rysclessreiilita ea*dadsd'tsst*te:
ru!*,sta$iBgcrthdt€*,ryh*tl'{inewd6 rifi tcf
m thest*ndlrd, In the ecntml sroups cal!1''aXl
C0!ilf'0R,MITY subie*xs rtrase ltue ryq, T&e'qxp€rir*el$*l Srw!
irr:*gver" nrere'the'arres od gr*e* iffiert;l trfi
Tlrere lrave,hrqeg ***ne sl*gsi*' udirs'th& hfrw. w periuenrai 6,orqps all of *re,gr,aup leqbets'
amined confort!4g lgbqiqL5bffii936) el<affined foronesutfecr. *ere accom$ices of the
ffi-hrgsG,i] *lled *'re sr.*eHnqtc eff*cr &t &ia q: ttresrrhiaclrffi **rcd'artfte'elr*c#tfeli*e
perha**:t suh;pq' are,ffrst pJaeed''iar* dbr*eaed'room rr**r rk'end of tlre !t$e) for$*try hi* ts erlt
*ns 't* Fr farra'ffi'6f.*ghr$xmq rq!- **ee*pfiee *ltr ,grme **re c-ffle*nrqnmt trine; Whnrr'
'luep:
*ough ths tlghr *ppears t* are*re {rhc autokisetie ef' smdro *e srb*cti *nn, lte res IlGn &ced w*h'rel
fe.s)-irac*r*lii dos *or Ead: sllbieet ffe$'&e.dot sf irg on his indivirJual iu@mem or conform.ing to
rrghr'en* makb, a,serie* of indi$id$l iu$g x as rc the group was erroneousl-v sa.vrng. In a rarien'of
n&,At ** W sro***, Ttrc. sub*ea* ara then breught ies sislilarto,&k,Sseh,,funlrld rharwr om:third of
togetl'$Jitl Srnups of sbut thr{'e ta ;q@ €$$ h!ry subi,eeti epnfor*ed *o dre,glmp iudgnrent- Sueh
faittre tighilh6/es.'Ill thix sitir.*rioq their nm i large'co*fbrr*irr is *iltfz]llg as &ere !&$ $s'CIl€
tend ta t*$rrn$€ $ a,*rsup:$*@rd-:arq,uhm tbel' group prr*stre to eor:f+rm, ttte siruario* eli tlst d
bg:CI.rs. **d,the rub{eas did tpt lslffi' €tch ofu{-
qain viewrhe'llght alone, the$ry.d o rruin F f*p addi*ea; rhere:q,?$ no pronds€ of fuure ftror of '
xln&rd'ar:d gtre &st'**rnrt' ltre eqen*ai$ading is
tbci q&en * situatiot:ix *arbiglrow sad there $ n+ otr rzncernenl nor \t?s drere any threat of ostracism
p*irc rra1 of d*rermirlisg &e'?i$t1tl *tts!&r, ta€m'
ix* *t*m** groo$'rs help dqE{E rsliry. }l y.llfe Ce*formiry is rire lieldftl$:ta gfotip'ttf€$li,ttie-
this:meals,rirea$erstrlB ia agr*rp derermineg for rn: k cor:fornritv rhere lnlrx be conffict
rlre.re m -
A*OreX'r-rqqry sf the'thir S$ ttr*'tfii see" Iears, drink bemeen the l*fluences:beitg $ed bythe
about, and do. and thme forms in anritdividual tlut tend to
,W7 WIWulitb@ot$.Wdffis 173

tf'
il:'

]geqon o value, beliac, and act in sqnedreruray" For persoo b opposed by a singie uher person, there
it rnember experiencing such conflia there are two is rery llele yietding.

,,,Egnpf opdons: announce hii or.ln ineferdeff de 7. Yieldiry is markedly,reduced when a person has
'dsion, or conform b,vannoun@ryeemd$with *te dre suppon of one qher person (a garner) in the
group's posirion. Conforming can alte mo fonm: The gtroup..{pparend.v a dissident opinion has a re'
lap6dient conformer ourwzrdly agrees but inwardlv frerdois e6ea in xrenghening *rc independence
The true conformer both otrwardl,vand in- of like-minded people.
Cl,v comes to agree with dte group.
In a dramatic studv involving conformiry Milgfam
Anumber of condusions hne arisen fromconfor- (1963) dmnstrared tha subiecs in an eryerirnenal
research (Krech et al., 1962, pp. 509-12),
situadon nould administer elecric shocls of danger'
Considerable amounts of vielding are produced bv ous strelgth to another person when iostructed to do
Sroup pressure, er,€rl when the bogus grouP con- so by *re experimenter" (The other Person unktown
$en$us to whidr rlre person conforms is obviorsly to the suk{ect did not actuallr receive the electrical
wrong. In one rudv, for examplg a sample of fiftv strods.) }St of the su$cu complied wi& the aryeri'
ttiliran" officers qere asH m indicate which of menrer's comrnands, e$en *fieo *re1 were instructed
tco ngpres. a sur and a circle presentcd side b to give increasiogl.v stro*g shocls [o the viaila, in spile
side, were larger in area The circle Eas cteady of the viairnEpruests and cries of anguish This series
about one third larger, btrt unfu group pttssure of srdiesoa obedience demonsrated that people will
d6 perceat of dr nen ryeed wi& *r bogus group vield to *auttpriutire' commands elren qrhcn the be'
consensus. havior is inmcrparible ryidr their ourn moral, $ormal
,r;&Iarry people a:t
be pressured into ,*eldirg oo at- sarrdards of cooduet Milgrafii suggesrd his studies
. titude and qoinioo ilems, e\efi tlu;q lsviEg slgnifi- help us '.xrksand'r*'tr,r rhe 6*naan pe-aple mmplied
:, c*n: persoaal implicatiors for them For errmple, with *re unetried cooara:ids of flider. 6roup pres-
.' .ft&y milita*"officers r*ere askrd priraei.v aad *ren sur€s,€speciallywh€rl viesed as aurhorigrire, hac a
.:l*er under bogus group consensus &e quexion: tremetrdous effect on A personb actions, atdtudes,
,,
"l &uh n{rsher I snsuld make a good le&ri' Ia and betie&,
,,primre none 0f *tedrce* .*prdeO agreemenl Sanley Sc{u$er {1919) has develapd a theory o{
but under unanimous group p{esBre,37 percent sccial comparisoo. Schacter usungd that ererya*e
expressed agre€me&t has a ned CI eyaluare *r
"righrness" of his or her

Yielding is fx greater on difficult, subieairc items feelirgs, opinions, values, and aaiudes. It sras al$o as"
than on easr', obiective ones. sumed thaereryone has a need ro eraluane *u antent
dhis or her abili&s. Schacrer rhen rheorized and con"
llhere are e.nremelylarge indindual differences in
duaed sildies to demonsrate ttrat in *e absence of
yielding. A fetr- people deld on almo$ ell ftenu; a
obiectirc, oonsocial means of et'aluation, a person will
i ftw l'ield on no*el most people vield on some and
,
rely on otrer people as comparison po'ints of refer-
nor on others.
ence. To a large e)treat, the groupsna belong to define
When people are rere$ed individuall,v and pri- soc'ul reality for us. For most of our opinions, lalue$,
,rately on the same items scrne $rne lger, a m{or beUeb, and abilities, there is no obiecrire, rnnsocial
f,pan of &e lielding d'ec dlsrypears as de person way ro efitltlee ourseh,rgs, so nt rel!'on others,
::Iends ro relErt to his onrn unchanged prime;udg"
$lent. YeL a small pcn of the yielding eEefi does
i,.f.snain, indirning groqp pJessure doq ha'e a last- Idiosyrrcratic Cr€dits
*, lAg effm on ctra4gicg auin&.
,.& a grcup irrtcases in siae, the ptesure for 1*eld- Eyery oeuber af a groqp $ifis cfedigs (aAd riSes in
l hg incrmts, and mere fhld$E ssurs, Stst a sarus):br strwiru ctr:pffi$r and by ryforsning to
 Mifl WalWkek:.

:: ... :

the oryefiatiob$ rpptlcablt m her rir-aer.@16 ' Ii'l contilrst,"a cqnrpaffi alfaoaphere in a group";
these credim allory a person mbrea!1ft0iln**fid,,rules curbe rrcry detiimontaiand desruairc. A competitirtr
o rtre glqup wi*oufUring chasrised. To sosf,s e,fisr1, atrnosphere exlsts *t€n the members perceire their
aftercredls hs\a been occumuleted, norrcorformitv tu ffiMd gpals ro be,inuon*pafrbtc, differcnl confhct.ii
general procedures urexpecarions senes as a con' ingror rnwrial$ er*rrre" ln a hiffi' cqnpetitiw group, j
firming fearure of one's sutus. Yet therc is a limit on the a'me*bercaxl achirtr her gml onlf if the other grru*,4!
number of earned idioq'ncratic credits Nonconfor- merribers fail ts otrain their gads (kuuch. 1X$. Anj
rnitrrbqffifld this liflit will rrst*t lR ardfer$4fie:M* ea:nm$s of agrouprhatis e4rctr.rred to be competiriltii
in xaars and perlmpu mren r*f*criau*y &e odrer grory is a grouB inten'ieur ttat is held for several appli
mernbers (Hollander. 1958 ). for a position r"cafiq'. In a comperftir.e grCIirp eacr$
n:ember se€k$ to accompli*h her gmls, u.tile seekingi
ro bl*ck ofier gro$p members from accomplishinq*
theirgoals.'lhe consequen*s 6f ctrrlpetitiofi lnprc{> i
lem*olting groups are nurnerous. Compethion de-.
COMPETITIVE cre$es crgarif ini coordinadon of effon, dir,ision of la".,l
AND COOP'ERATIVE bor, helpirg and sharilg, and mtresion. Compedtion'j
prom o(es ioeffective communication, suspici on a$d*
GROUPS rnisuusl high anxietv about goal accomplishmerm*i$
csffipetidre values End attitudes, negatil'e self-ffi
Groups baskallv hale eilher a coryeralfi€ or a com- rudes. distike among group members. and negadre *.
petidve Sroup annosphere. In a cooperatire group ilrudes tm'ardthegroup and its asls. Competition efl-;
there is open ard harest eorrrnuniicadon. mrst, pocl- courages rcieetionof dif&rences o{opinion, di.'erpffi
ing of rercurees,,end {ohe}ion, Research has fcund a rhinking. and cultural arrd individual differences. Ai
number ofpositive {onsfquences for a cooperatht comperitive nmc*Srere leads ro losr effefiheness #
group *trnryhere in problem+ohing groups. Coop solving cornplex problems (Johnson and .lohnson,
erarion among rnembers increrses creativin- ctordina- t9Ti. p. 9a).
tion of effon, dhision of labor, emotion*l ior'oh,lgment [t]l],and Smhelshi (]9?0) osamined rhe
in gmup aocomplishroenr, helping and sharing inter- of wtrar happens rfien a competitive person ioins
personal skills, cooprratirc attitudes and Blues. posi- group that ha-c a 66epg,*tirae atmoSphere. Since
{ve self.anirudes, llklng nrr1ong gfoup frrpfrrt'ers. posi- er.ltiw group$ sre much morr n{ectire in
tive artitudes torrnrd rhe grcrup und taslu, divergent soli'ing than competi*rc Sroup$, the question is
thinking, arcrprailce of ixldi*Jual'and culnrral di$er. ca,rl Tkee coosequeoces rvere forrnd to occur.
ences, and probkm-sohing skills {Johnrcn andJohn- comperi[r'e beharior of rhe new mernber lead$
soa 19?5, p.'88). $her merflbers to beh*re competitituh: The
rt coopemtive gr+up amos$rere rrsuhs n"hen the ilr'e person uisns the former coopratirt nrembers
petsonal goals of group members are perceired ro be haring aluzrs been conrpettir,r. The former
compatible, idendcal. or complemenu4'. An evmple dre rnernbers are generdlr a\sare their
of a highlv cooperarirls grCIup is a sucs,essfitl baskerball beharior is largelr a consequeflce of the nen
team ins'hich the main gpal of ea& rnernb6r is to s'in, ber's competid\,eness. Thus, it appears thar one
and the main goal of rhe team is to $'in. In a coopera- petitirt person car changp a cooperatire group
tire group each member seeks to coordirrate her ef- cornpeilti!'e 8roup. Shv does a competidl,e
fo.rg with those of ,rther group men:bers in order to hare such a $rong, destrucrirre effea?.lpparendl'r
ilhibr€ *rc goals of the gpoup, In esablishing a coop happens is that the cooperatire members ral:r:e
eradrc tnmphere, it is imponafi that renards to merrr- competithe person *{ll, if given a chance, uke
bers be based upon ttre quantitv and qualiw ofgroup tage of their cooperairnnss and use it u his oqn
perfiormance rather *un upon individual performarre. sonal adrantage. In manv situarions rheir onlr