10.1007@978 3 030 24314 2
10.1007@978 3 030 24314 2
10.1007@978 3 030 24314 2
International
Conference on
Emerging Trends in
Engineering (ICETE)
Emerging Trends in Smart Modelling
Systems and Design
Learning and Analytics in Intelligent Systems
Volume 2
Series Editors
George A. Tsihrintzis, University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece
Maria Virvou, University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece
Lakhmi C. Jain, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
Centre for Artificial Intelligence, University of Technology Sydney, NSW,
Australia; University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia; KES International,
Shoreham-by-Sea, UK; Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, UK
The main aim of the series is to make available a publication of books in hard copy
form and soft copy form on all aspects of learning, analytics and advanced
intelligent systems and related technologies. The mentioned disciplines are strongly
related and complement one another significantly. Thus, the series encourages
cross-fertilization highlighting research and knowledge of common interest. The
series allows a unified/integrated approach to themes and topics in these scientific
disciplines which will result in significant cross-fertilization and research dissem-
ination. To maximize dissemination of research results and knowledge in these
disciplines, the series publishes edited books, monographs, handbooks, textbooks
and conference proceedings.
Editors
International Conference
on Emerging Trends
in Engineering (ICETE)
Emerging Trends in Smart Modelling Systems
and Design
123
Editors
Suresh Chandra Satapathy K. Srujan Raju
Kalinga Institute of Industrial Department of CSE
Technology (KIIT) CMR Technical Campus
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Hyderabad, Telangana, India
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedicated to
Our Alma Mater & Eminent Professors who
taught us
for their inspiring vision, unwavering
conviction and tireless efforts that have
resulted in nurturing hundreds of eminent
global citizens and effective human beings.
“Once an Osmanian Always an Osmanian”
University College of Engineering,
Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
University College of Engineering (UCE) has the distinction of being the oldest and
the biggest among the engineering colleges of the State of Telangana, India. It was
established in the year 1929, eleven years after the formation of Osmania
University. The college was the sixth engineering college to be established in the
whole of British India. The college moved to its present permanent building in the
year 1947. Today, it is the biggest among the campus colleges of Osmania
University. The golden jubilee of the college was celebrated in 1979, the diamond
jubilee in 1989 and the platinum jubilee in 2004. The college was made autono-
mous in 1994. University Grants Commission of India conferred autonomy status to
the college for a period of 6 years (2016–2017 to 2021–2022). The college offers
four-year engineering degree courses leading to the award of Bachelor of
Engineering (B.E.) in biomedical engineering, civil engineering, computer science
engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, electronics and communi-
cations engineering and mechanical engineering. The college also offers graduate
programs and Ph.D. in the various branches of engineering. As of today, there is a
yearly intake of 320 undergraduate students (full-time) and 290 postgraduate stu-
dents (full-time and part-time). There are 143 teaching staff members, including 40
professors.
The UG programs offered have been accredited by the National Board of
Accreditation, New Delhi. Osmania University is accredited by NAAC with “A+”
Grade. UCE, OU, is the first engineering college to get ISO 9001 Certification in
Telangana State. University College of Engineering was awarded the Best
Engineering College by Indian Society for Technical Education (Telangana) in the
year 2010. UCE, OU, was adjudged as the Best Engineering College in the country
for the academic year 2003–2004 by Indian Society for Technical Education,
New Delhi, and by Star News for the years 2010–2011 and 2011–2012.
The college has successfully completed the Technical Education Quality
Improvement Programme (TEQIP-I) under the World Bank financial assistance of
Rs. 15.48 crores during the period 2003–2008. The outcome of the project has
resulted in: (i) increase in pass percentage of UG/PG students, (ii) enhancement of
research publications of staff by threefolds, (iii) introduction of six PG programs in
vii
viii University College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
niche areas, (iv) introduction of credit-based system and (v) substantial increase in
internal revenue generation.
The college has successfully completed Phase II of TEQIP program with a
financial assistance of Rs. 12.5 crores and additional grant of 5 crores under the
best-performing institution category. Recently, the college has been approved as a
minor center under QIP for full-time Ph.D. programs. The college has been selected
for TEQIP Phase III twinning program with a financial assistance Rs. 7 crores. The
college has been granted “Visvesvaraya Ph.D. Scheme for Electronics and IT” for
full-time Ph.D. program. The GIAN program of MHRD has sanctioned 7 programs
in specialized research area to the college. The college has been ranked 80 in NIRF
Engineering College Ranking Survey by MHRD Survey, New Delhi, India, for the
year 2017–2018.
Alumni Association University College
of Engineering, Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
ix
x Alumni Association University College of Engineering
In the past four years, the Executive Body set out to execute the above objectives
by taking up many initiatives like conducting global alumni meets, alumni talks,
funding student innovation, patent and research, facilitating student Internships,
industry interactions and career development programs, supporting student clubs
and other activities, facilitating in setting up the technology business incubator, etc.
To further the objectives of the Association to support the faculty and research
scholars, the Association has organized the First International Conference on
Emerging Trends in Engineering under its aegis.
Foreword
xi
Preface
George A. Tsihrintzis
Suresh Chandra Satapathy
Kumar Molugaram
A. Krishnaiah
K. Srujan Raju
xiii
Acknowledgements
We thank all the authors for their contributions and timely response. We also thank
all the reviewers who read the papers and made valuable suggestions for
improvement.
We would like to thank Prof. S. Ramachandram, Vice-Chancellor, Osmania
University, and Prof. M. Kumar, Principal, University College of Engineering, for
having faith in us. Dr. D. Rama Krishna and Prof. K, Shyamala of UCE, OU, for
leading from the front; the TPC team, for pulling off a brilliant job; Heads of all
departments and all learned faculty, for all the support. Also, last but not the least,
we convey our thanks to all the research scholars without whose relentless slogging
this conference and publication would not have seen light.
We thank our sponsors Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd., Defence Research
and Development Organization (DRDO), CCL Products (India) Ltd., The Singareni
Collieries Company Ltd., TEQIP-III and all other financial contributors.
We extend our thanks to all the Executive Body members of the Alumni
Association for their support and Sri. R. V. Rammohan Rao for the support when
needed.
Finally, we thank the Springer team comprising Prof. Suresh Chandra Satapathy,
Prof. K. Srujan Raju and Dr. M. Ramakrishna Murthy for guiding and helping us
throughout.
xv
ICETE Organizing Committee
Chief Patron
S. Ramachandram Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
(Vice-chancellor)
Patrons
Kumar Molugaram University College of Engineering (A),
(Principal) Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
P. Laxminarayana (Dean) Faculty of Engineering, Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
D. C. Reddy Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
(Former Vice-chancellor)
D. N. Reddy Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
(Former Vice-chancellor) Hyderabad, India
R. V. Rammohan Rao Alumni Association, University College
(Past President) of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
Chairpersons
P. Ram Reddy Alumni Association, University College
(President) of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
P. V. N. Prasad Department of Electrical Engineering, University
College of Engineering (A), Osmania
University, Hyderabad, India
xvii
xviii ICETE Organizing Committee
Conveners
D. Vijay Kumar Alumni Association, University College
(General Secretary) of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
D. Rama Krishna Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, University College
of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
Publication Committee
Suresh Chandra Satapathy School of Computer Engineering, Kalinga
(Chair) Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT),
Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha
Kumar Molugaram University College of Engineering,
(Co-chair, Principal) Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana
K. Srujan Raju Department of CSE, CMR Technical Campus,
(Co-chair) Hyderabad, Telangana
Sriram Venkatesh Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University College of Engineering,
Osmania University, Hyderabad
K. Shyamala Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, University College of
Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad
D. Vijay Kumar Alumni Association, University College
(General Secretary) of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
D. Rama Krishna Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, University College of
Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad
Finance Committee
Sriram Venkatesh ME, UCE, OU
A. Krishnaiah ME, UCE, OU
P. Ramesh Babu ME, UCE, OU
V. Bhikshma CE, UCE, OU
G. Mallesham EE, UCE, OU
M. Malini BME, UCE, OU
B. Rajendra Naik ECE, UCE, OU
V. Uma Maheshwar ME, UCE, OU
P. Naveen Kumar ECE, UCE, OU
D. N. Prasad SCCL
(Advisor (Coal))
M. Shyam Prasad Reddy TREA
(General Secretary)
T. Venkatesam AA UCE, OU
(Superintendent
Engineer (Retd.))
M. S. Venkatramayya Mining
Satish Naik AA UCE, OU
R. Thomas AA UCE, OU
Syed Basharath Ali AA UCE, OU
P. Narotham Reddy AA UCE, OU
Organizing Committee
E. Vidya Sagar UCE, OU
(Vice-principal)
K. Shyamala CSE, UCE, OU
P. Chandra Sekhar ECE, OU
M. Gopal Naik CE, UCE, OU
P. Usha Sri ME, UCE, OU
M. Venkateswara Rao BME, UCE, OU
M. V. Ramana Rao EED, UCE, OU
G. Yesuratnam EED, UCE, OU
P. Raja Sekhar CE, UCE, OU
B. Mangu EED, UCE, OU
M. Chandrashekhar Reddy ME, UCE, OU
Narsimhulu Sanke ME, UCE, OU
M. A. Hameed CSE, UCE, OU
B. Sujatha CSE, UCE, OU
L. Nirmala Devi ECE, UCE, OU
N. Susheela EED, UCE, OU
S. Prasanna CE, UCE, OU
ICETE Organizing Committee xxi
Technical Committee
K. Shyamala CSE, UCE, OU
P. V. Sudha CSE, UCE, OU
M. Manjula EED, UCE, OU
B. Mangu EED, UCE, OU
P. Satish Kumar EED, UCE, OU
J. Upendar EED, UCE, OU
M. Malini BME, UCE, OU
D. Suman BME, UCE, OU
K. L. Radhika CE, UCE, OU
K. Shashikanth CE, UCE, OU
L. Siva Rama Krishna ME, UCE, OU
E. Madhusudan Raju ME, UCE, OU
R. Hemalatha ECE, UCE, OU
M. Shyamsunder ECE, UCE, OU
xxiii
xxiv Contents
xxxi
xxxii About the Editors
He also won one of the Best Paper Awards of the 5th IEEE International
Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems, and Applications for
co-authoring a paper titled: “Genetic-AIRS: A Hybrid Classification Method based
on Genetic Algorithms and Artificial Immune Systems.”
He was Keynote Speaker on Software Personalization Using Machine Learning
with Imbalanced Samples at the IEEE International Conference on Computing,
Power and Communication Technologies (GUCON2018), Greater Noida, Uttar
Pradesh, India, September 28–29, 2018.
He was Keynote Speaker on Machine Learning Methodologies in Automated
Recommendation at the 12th Joint Conference on Knowledge-based Software
Engineering (JCKBSE2018), Corfu, Greece, August 27–30, 2018.
He was Keynote Speaker on Classification with Significant Class Imbalance and
Applications in Software Personalization at the 29th International Conference on
Tools with Artificial Intelligence (ICTAI2017), Boston, MA, USA, November 6–8,
2017.
He was Keynote Speaker on One Class Classification Problems – Applications
in Recommender Systems at the Multitheme Conference on Smart Digital
Futures (AMSTA, IDT, IIMSS & STET), Chania, Crete, Greece, June 18–20, 2014.
Prof. Kumar Molugaram obtained his bachelor’s degree in civil engineering from
Osmania University, Hyderabad; master’s degree in civil engineering from JNTU,
Hyderabad; and doctorate degree from Indian Institute of Technology Bombay. He
published over 100 research papers in various international and national journals and
conferences. He supervised 78 M.E. dissertations and 5 Ph.D. theses and 8 Ph.D.
students. He received “Best Teacher State Award” by the Government of
Telangana on September 05, 2018. He also received prestigious award “Engineer
of the year 2018” from the Institution of Engineers, India, and Government of
Telangana on September 15, 2018 on the occasion of Engineers Day. He received
the “National Integration Award-2019”, Health Care International, Hyderabad,
Telangana State, India, on January 26, 2019. He completed two research projects
About the Editors xxxiii
from UGC and Government of India. He played a key role in start of M.E. trans-
portation engineering course in civil engineering department, OU. He is a member in
several committees of Government. of Telangana, AP, and Government of India. He
was awarded for best paper in 2010 (national level) and 2014 (international level).
He served as Additional Controller of Examinations, Exam Branch, OU; Chairman,
Board of Studies in Civil Engineering (local and global), OU; Nodal Officer,
TEQIP-I, UCE; Director of Evaluation, Exam Cell, UCE; Director Infrastructure,
OU; Head of Civil Engineering Department, OU; and Vice-Principal, UCE, OU. He
is a coordinator (STA), PMGSY, NRRDA, Government of India. He is a member of
PEC, NRRDA, Government. of India; he is a life member of several research and
technical organizations such as FIE, IRC, IUT, CTRG, IIBE, WCTR, TRG and SRS.
He visited many international cities such as London (2005), Sydney (2006),
Singapore (2006), San Francisco and Chicago (2007), Rome and Capri (2009),
Melbourne (2011), Hong Kong (2011), Toronto (2013), Washington D.C. and New
York (2013), Bangkok (2010 and 2014), Beijing and Shanghai (2014), Germany,
Switzerland, Paris, Netherlands and Belgium (2014), Tokyo-Japan(2015) and Ho
Chi Min City—Vietnam (2017) to present his research papers in international
conferences/seminars. He delivered 20 keynote lectures at various national and
international platforms. He chaired sessions at various international and national
conferences. He was Conference Chair for the International Conference on
“Innovations in structural Engineering” held in the year 2015 at Katriya hotel by
Civil Engineering Department first time in 85 years of history. He organized a
national conference on “Civil Engineering Systems—2006” and another national
conference on “Recent Research Advances in Civil Engineering—2014”, five
workshops and one training program. He delivered more than 300 expert lectures in
the areas of transportation engineering, optimization techniques and engineering
research methodology on various national-/state-level platforms in India. He is the
author of three conference proceedings and two books (one in Elsevier publications
international). He has over 23 years of teaching, research, consultancy and industry
experience. He was Controller of Examinations (centenary year of OU), Osmania
University, for two-year period. He initiated many technology-based reforms in
Exam Branch, OU, during his tenure. Presently, He is Principal of University
College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, and Convener, PGECET
—2019, Telangana State.
e-mail: kumartrans@gmail.com
various international and national journals and international and national confer-
ences. He is Visitor’s nominee to Pondicherry University, Puducherry. He is also
a member in several selection committees of DRDO, Government of Telangana and
AP. He served as Additional Controller of Examinations, Exam Branch, OU,
during 2013–2015; Chairman, Board of Studies in Mechanical Engineering (local
and global), OU; Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
College of Engineering (Autonomous), OU, during 2015–2017; and Joint
Secretary, Osmania University Teachers’ Association (OUTA). He is Life Member
of Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE), Indian Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ISME) and Indian Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
(ISTAM). He visited many countries for technical paper presentations such as USA
(2005), Canada (2006), South Korea (2007–2008 for PDF), Australia (2010),
Thailand (2014), China (2014), France (2014) and Switzerland (2014). He was
Chairperson for the International Conference on Advances in Materials and
Manufacturing (ICAMM-2016) held during December 8–10, 2016, at Leonia
Convention Centre, Hyderabad, jointly organized by Department of Mechanical
Engineering, UCE, OU, and DRDL, Hyderabad. Also, he organized national
conferences, seminars and workshops in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering. He has 22 years of teaching, research and consultancy experience.
Presently, he is Director, Entrepreneurship Development Cell, Osmania University.
e-mail: kris_arakanti@yahoo.com
Dr. K. Srujan Raju is currently working as Dean Student Welfare and Heading
Department of Computer Science & Engineering at CMR Technical Campus.
He obtained his Doctorate in Computer Science in the area of Network Security. He
has more than 20 years of experience in academics and research. His research
interest areas include Computer Networks, Information Security, Data Mining,
Cognitive Radio Networks and Image Processing and other Programming
Languages. Dr. Raju is presently working on 2 projects funded by Government of
India, has filed 7 patents and 1 copyright at Indian Patent Office, edited more than
10 book proceedings published by Springer publications - AISC series, LAIS and
other which are indexed by Scopus also authored 4 books, contributed chapters in
various books and published more than 30 papers at reputed and peer-reviewed
Journals and International Conference. Dr. Raju was invited as Session Chair, Key
note Speaker, TPC and reviewer for many National and International conferences.
His involvement with students is very conducive for solving their day to day
problems. He has guided various student clubs for activities ranging from
photography to Hackathon. He mentored more than 100 students for incubating
cutting edge solutions. He has organized many conferences, FDPs, Workshops and
Symposiums. He has established the Centre of Excellence in IoT, Data Analytics.
Professor Raju has acted as reviewer and Technical Member for many conferences
and is editorial member for few journals. Raju received Significant Contributor and
Active Member awards by Computer Society of India - Hyderabad Chapter.
An Empirical Based Porous Flow Approach
to Modelling Heterogeneous Traffic
Seelam Srikanth(&)
Abstract. The data required for the study was collected from YMCA road in
Calicut city for frame based approach. Video-graphic technique was used for the
data collection by the advantage over other data collection technique. For frame
based approach video frames were taken approximately with a time lag of 3 s.
From extracted data calculate the speed of vehicles, porous area, areal density,
density and space headway of vehicles. From porous area data, pore space
distribution function was determined by using easyfit5.5 software. The difficult
was arises when extracting the traffic data from video frames. So for solving that
problem on screen versus on ground distance graph was prepared. Best
parameter to explaining the heterogeneous traffic system obtained as areal
density rather than density measurement based on R-square value. The speed,
areal-density model obtained was linearly decreasing relationship.
1 Introduction
Modelling of traffic flow provides the fundamental relationships between the macro-
scopic traffic stream characteristics and plays an important role in the planning, design
and operation of transportation facilities as it predicts the behaviour of the traffic flow.
Need for the study of traffic stream characteristics and the relationships between them
was recognized during the middle of the last century. The studies resulted in models
describing various aspects of traffic flow. Traffic flow may be described as homoge-
neous or heterogeneous traffic flow. Homogeneous traffic follows strict lane discipline
and the vehicles have similar static and dynamic characteristics whereas heterogeneous
traffic flow does not follow any lane discipline and the vehicles have varying static and
dynamic characteristics. The heterogeneous traffic flow maybe composed of both slow
moving and fast moving vehicles like trucks, buses, cars, three wheelers, two wheelers,
bicycles and hand drawn or animal drawn carts. In India heterogeneous traffic flow
conditions exists.
In Heterogeneous traffic, vehicles do not follow the lane discipline. Such traffic will
observe in developing countries like India. The traffic models developed in homoge-
neous traffic conditions are not applicable for heterogeneous traffic conditions. In
Heterogeneous traffic, vehicles can occupy any lateral positions based on lateral space
availability and also vehicles move low speed to higher speeds. Traffic stream char-
acteristics such as traffic volume and density is defined as a linear measurement and the
characteristics are dependent only headway, are insufficient when traffic is heteroge-
neous. Measures such as areal density will assessed for suitability. Areal density is
defined by “the sum of total area projected by vehicles on the ground per unit area of
roadway (vehicles per square meter)”.
Research studies on modeling of heterogeneous traffic are limited in developing
countries. Previous studies mainly focused on understanding the interaction between
vehicles in the case of heterogeneous traffic. A relation needs to be established between
the microscopic behavior and the macro performance of the flow. The porous flow
approach will conceptualizes such relationship. The aim of the present study is to
model the heterogeneous traffic by using an empirical based approach.
2 Literature Review
Lighthill and Whitham [1] developed the first dynamic traffic flow model to different
vehicle types. For each vehicle type developed the separate fundamental diagram.
Authors assumed the traffic flow is related to density and conservation law was used to
define LWR model.
Hoogendoorn and Bovy [2] developed the mesoscopic gas-kinetic models for
heterogeneous traffic. The termed multiple lanes as multi lane multiclass phase space
density model.
Heterogeneous traffic is explained by help of vehicular headway. The headway data
fits the exponential and log normal distribution to explain the mixed traffic [3].
For model the mixed traffic flow, traffic composition, driver behavior, roadway
geometry and maneuverability were considered [4].
Marwah and Singh [5] used the simulation analysis to model capacity of mixed
traffic. Authors divided the traffic flow into four level of services.
Heterogeneous traffic flow was explained with a help of speed and headway dis-
tribution of the different vehicle types. The developed model used to evaluate traffic
management measures like segregation of vehicles on major urban roads, provision of
exclusive lanes for buses/bicycles etc. [6]. This research was continued by to quanti-
fying the vehicular interactions in terms of PCU and considering the effect of road
width and traffic volume on PCU values of vehicles [7].
Nair and Mahmassani [8] have developed on heterogeneous traffic model based on
non lane based traffic flow. The model uses the concept of pores.
The main criteria considered for this approach was speed of the vehicle is not constant
throughout road section i.e., speed of vehicle is changing time to time.
An Empirical Based Porous Flow Approach to Modelling Heterogeneous Traffic 3
The speed in km/hr was plotted against areal density in vehicles/m2. and is shown in
Fig. 2 for frame based approach. The model equation and R2 value is shown in
Table 3. It can be observed from the plots that the speed varies linearly with density
and there is a considerable scatter in the plot. The average speed range is 50 kmph to
30 kmph and areal density range is 0.01 Veh/m2 to 0.24 Veh/m2.
An Empirical Based Porous Flow Approach to Modelling Heterogeneous Traffic 5
5 Speed-Density Analysis
The speed in km/hr was regressed against density in vehicles/km. The model equation
and R-square value are given in Table 4. The speed in km/hr was plotted against
density in PCU/km. The plot is shown is Fig. 3 for frame based approach. The model
equation and R2 value are shown in Table 5. It can be observed from the plots that the
speed linearly vary with density and there is a wide scatter in the plot. The average
speed range is 50 kmph to 30 kmph and density range is 20 Veh/km to 150 Veh/km.
Table 5. Development of speed-density models with density in PCU/km for frame based
approach
Type of model Model equation R-square value
Linear regression model SPEED = (−0.853 * DENSITY) + 46.43 0.489
6 Model Development
A linear relationship with speed and areal density for frame based approach was best
model equation and the R2 value obtained was moderately good value. Exponential
relationship between speed and areal density was also fitted and the models are shown
in Table 6. These relationships also have nearly same R2 value.
The speed in km/hr was plotted against porous area in m2 for frame based approach.
The plot is shown in Fig. 4 for frame based approach. It can be observed from the plot
that the speed values do not vary much with density and there is a wide scatter in the
plot. Average speed range is 30 kmph to 50 kmph and porous area range is 655 m2 to
An Empirical Based Porous Flow Approach to Modelling Heterogeneous Traffic 7
750 m2 for frame based approach. Average speed range is 30 kmph to 60 kmph and
porous area range is 655 m2 to 750 m2 for section based approach.
From data regarding porous area are fitted in the distribution. The distribution obtained
was GEV distribution. From data regarding space headway are fitted in the distribution.
The distribution obtained was log-normal distribution.
9 Conclusions
Data analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between speed, areal density
and density, speed and porous area and also pore space and headway distribution. After
data analysis speed-areal density and speed-density models were developed. The best
model obtained was linear regression model of speed-areal density of frame based
approach. The R squared value obtain for linear regression model was 0.507.
From the data analysis conclude that average speed is linearly decreasing with
increasing the areal density and speed of vehicles are increasing with more availability
of porous area on the road section. The speed density model obtained as linearly
decreasing relationship. Areal density parameter explains the heterogeneous disordered
traffic system better than the density parameter. The pore space distribution follows the
generalized extreme value distribution and headway distribution follows the log-normal
distribution. This work makes the contributions to the limited literature on traffic flow
theory.
8 S. Srikanth
References
1. Lighthill MH, Whitham GB (1955) On kinematic waves II: a theory of traffic flow on long,
crowded roads. Proc R Soc Lond Ser A 229:317–345
2. Hoogendoorn SP, Bovy P (1999) Gas-kinetic model for multilane hetererogeneous traffic
flow. Transp Res Rec 1678:150–159
3. Hossain D, Iqbal G (1999) Vehicular headway distribution and free speed characteristics on
two-lane two-way highways of Bangladesh. J Inst Eng India. Civ Eng Div 80(AOU):77–80
4. Khan SI, Maini P (2000) Modeling heterogeneous traffic flow. Transp Res Rec 1678:234–241
5. Marwah BR, Singh B (2000) Level of service classification for urban heterogeneous traffic: a
case study of Kanpur metropolis. In: Proceedings of the 4th international symposium on
highway capacity, transportation research circular E-C018, transportation
6. Arasan V, Koshy R (2005) Methodology for modelling highly heterogeneous traffic flow.
ASCE J Transp Eng 131:544–551
7. Krishnamurthy K, Arasan T (2012) Effect of road width and traffic volume on vehicular
interactions in heterogeneous traffic. J Adv Transp 2014(48):1–14
8. Nair R, Mahmassani HS (2011) Elise Miller-Hooks, a porous flow approach to modelling
heterogeneous traffic in disordered systems. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 17:611–627
Effect of Different Aggregates on Alkali Silica
Reaction of Geopolymer Concrete
1 Introduction
Ordinary Portland cement is the most abundantly used construction material in the
world. Production of OPC consumes large amount of natural resources and also a
reason for 5–8% of global CO2 emission [1, 2]. Geopolymer cement can be an alter-
native to the OPC and environmental friendly construction material [3]. Durability of
normal Portland cement is a problem in civil infrastructure industry; in which influence
of Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) on performance of concrete is one of the major issue
[4, 5]. ASR is a chemical reaction between hydroxyl ions in the pore pressure within
the concrete matrix and certain forms of silica present in the aggregate. This reaction
forms silica gel at the interface of the aggregate and the binder matrix. This silica gel
expands in volume and exerts stresses on the adjacent binder and aggregates as shown
in Fig. 1. It reduces the bond between aggregate and binder matrix. This reaction could
lead to strength loss, volume expansion, cracking and potential failure of the structure.
Limited research has done in this area especially in the geopolymer concrete [6]. It is
required to check the influence of alkali silica reaction in geopolymer concrete. Alkali
silica reaction is a slow reaction which takes lot of time to recognize the problem. In
India, there are two major dams which are affected by the alkali silica reaction. One is
Hirakud dam located in Odisha and the other is Rihand dam in Uttar Pradesh.
It is found that the locally available aggregate was used in the construction of these
structures in which some of the aggregates were potentially reactive in nature. These
aggregates have undergone alkali silica reaction and silica gel was formed in the
concrete. The volumetric expansion of the gel leads to formation of severe cracks in the
structures. In the present study, accelerated mortar bar test is done on geopolymer
mortar bars as per ASTM standards [7]. Petrographic analysis is carried out by using
scanning electron microscopic pictures to check the formation of alkali silica reactive
gel and its expansion. Three different types of aggregates i.e. Granite, Quartz and Black
trap have been used in the present investigation.
Conventional test as per IS 2386- Part-VII, 1963 [8] for alkali silica reaction is time
consuming, as it requires more than a year to assess the presence of silica gel in
concrete. Keeping this in view, the accelerated mortar bar test is selected for the present
study.
2 Experimental Investigation
Materials
In the present study, the materials used are Fly ash from Kakateeya thermal power plant
confirming to ASTM class F of specific gravity 2.08, GGBS from JSW steel plant,
Bellary, Karnataka of specific gravity 2.08, alkaline liquids (Sodium Hydroxide and
Sodium Silicate), and water. Aggregates used are Granite, Quartz and Black trap of
specific gravities 2.61, 2.52 and 2.93 respectively.
Preparation of Mortar Bar Specimens
Total 36 specimens of size 25 25 250 mm as shown in Fig. 2, having three
different types of aggregates each combines with various dosages of Geopolymer
binder of three variation dosages of GGBS and OPC were prepared.
Effect of Different Aggregates on ASR of GPC 11
As per ASTM C1260-07 standards, the test has to be done on fine aggregate which
shall be tested for a grading meeting the requirements of the specifications given by
code. As per the guidelines given by code, the quantities of dry materials to be mixed at
one time in the batch of mortars for making three specimens shall be 440 g of cement
and 990 g of aggregate made up by recombining the portions retained on the various
sieves in the grading as prescribed. Fly ash based Geopolymer is used with 10%, 30%
and 50% GGBS dosages. The proportion of the Fly ash and GGBS are mentioned in
Table 1.
Testing Procedure
The specimens were removed from the moulds after 24 h of casting and the initial
reading is noted down using length comparator as shown in Fig. 5. After taking the
initial reading, OPC specimens were stored in a container with sufficient tap water to
totally immerse them, and then the container is sealed and placed in an oven at 80 °C
for a period of 24 h.
GPC specimens are not immersed in water, but sealed in a container and placed in
oven at same temperature as OPC specimens. After the period of 24 h, the specimens
length were measured by using length comparator, and is recorded. Then all the
specimens are immersed in 1N NaOH at 80 °C in a steel box as shown in Fig. 6 and
kept in oven for 14 days continuously. Readings were taken on fifth day and tenth day
at nearly same time from the date of placing the container in the oven. The expansion is
calculated for fifth day, tenth day and fourteenth day after taking the respective
readings of all the specimens. Expansions are calculated using Eq. 1.
Where,
L = Change in length at an age of ‘x’ days,
Lx = Comparator reading of specimen at age ‘x’ days,
Li = Initial comparator reading of the specimen,
G = Nominal gauge length, i.e. 250 mm.
As per ASTM code guidelines, if the final expansion is less than 0.10%, then it is
indication of innocuous behavior. If the final expansion is in between 0.10 to 0.20%
then it is known to be innocuous and deleterious action and if the final expansion is
greater than 0.20%, then it is indicative of potentially deleterious expansion in the field
performance.
Fig. 5. Mortar bar specimen with comparator Fig. 6. Steel box in oven
reading
Effect of Different Aggregates on ASR of GPC 13
The expansions of all the specimens are calculated at fifth, tenth and fourteenth day
after placing in the oven. The results of quartz, granite and black trap are expressed
graphically as shown Figs. 7, 8 and 9.
Quartz with OPC and 30% GGBS samples exhibited 0.13 and 0.027% final
expansions, which indicates potentially deleterious expansion and innocuous behavior
respectively. Quartz with 10% GGBS sample exhibits 0.017% final expansion, which is
indication of innocuous action. 30% GGBS sample with Quartz also shows innocuous
behaviour. Granite with OPC have indicated deleterious behavior. Granite with 30%
GGBS and 50% GGBS Geopolymer binder shows higher elongations as that of quartz.
However, Granite with all Geopolymer binders has shown innocuous behavior.
Black trap with OPC also shows deleterious behavior. However Black trap with all
Geopolymer binders also proves to be innocuous. In all the type of reactive aggregates,
Geopolymer binder combinations shows higher elongations as GGBS dosages are
increasing.
During geoplymerization, the alkali content is utilized in the geopolymer reaction
and alkalis have reacted with the amorphous component in the Fly ash, and then
converted to strong cementitious binder. Very less amount of alkali and calcium is
present to react with silica present in the aggregate to form silica gel. The residual alkali
content after geopolymerization attacks silica present in the reactive aggregates. This
alkali silica reaction (ASR) forms silica gel in the mix, which expands with reaction of
calcium present in the binder. In the Fly ash based geopolymer binder, there is very less
amount of calcium to help the expansion of silica gel. However, in the present study,
Fly ash is replaced with GGBS in three different percentages to decrease the setting
time of the mix [10]. Calcium which is present in GGBS reacts with the silica gel
formation and silica gel expands, which creates micro cracks in the structure. Hence, as
the GGBS percentage increases in the mix, the expansion also increases. In most of the
cases 10% GGBS showed innocuous action, which means absence of alkali silica
reaction (ASR).
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis
Petrographic analysis is done on granite and quartz specimens using SEM, and the
same is shown in Fig. 10, 11 and 12.
Aggregateand binder
interface
(a) (b)
Fig. 10. (a) SEM picture of granite with OPC. (b) SEM picture of granite with 10% GGBS
Effect of Different Aggregates on ASR of GPC 15
Formation of crack due to the expansion of the alkali silica gel is found in granite
with OPC as shown in the Fig. 10(a). No ASR gel is formed in the case of granite with
10% GGBS at the interface of the aggregate and binder matrix as shown in Fig. 10(b).
A B
Little ASR gel formation and expansion is observed in granite with 20% and 30%
GGBS as shown in Fig. 11. Cracks were developed at the interface of the aggregate
and the binder matrix, which reduces the bond strength of the concrete and ultimately
leads to the failure of the structure.
ASR gel is observed in the case of quartz with OPC as shown in Fig. 12, and with
20% and 30% GGBS, reveals that the aggregate is reactive in nature. No alkali silica
reaction was found in the case of quartz with 10% GGBS and the same can be observed
through Fig. 10.
From the experimental and petrographic analysis, it can be observed that the alkali
silica reaction in OPC binder is substantially higher than the Geopolymer binder. ASR
gel formation is clearly observed in the case of quartz with OPC binder as shown in
16 D. Annapurna et al.
Fig. 13, which reveals it as a potentially reactive. With increase in the dosage of GGBS
in Geopolymer binder, the alkali silica reaction also increases due to the availability of
more calcium content in GGBS.
B
A C
(A) SEM picture of Quartz with 10% GGBS (B) 20% GGBS (C) 30% GGBS
4 Conclusions
Based on the experimental work and petrographic analysis, following conclusions are
drawn.
• Quartz with OPC exhibited final expansion of 0.13%, indicate innocuous and
potentially deleterious expansion thus ambiguous related to use as construction
material with OPC.
• Quartz with Geopolymer binder exhibiting less expansion compared with OPC.
Quartz with Geopolymer binder containing 10%, 20%, 30% GGBS has shown
innocuous behavior.
• No alkali silica gel formation is noticed in quartz with GPC.
• Black Trap and Granite with OPC is found to be deleterious in ASR. Granite with
GPC exhibiting less expansion compared with OPC.
• Black trap aggregates are suitable for construction when used in Geopolymer
binder.
References
1. Sanni SH, Khadiranaikar RB (2012) Performance of geopolymer concrete under severe
environmental condition. Int J Civ Struct Eng 3(2):396
2. Lloyd NA, Rangan BV (2010) Geopolymer concrete with fly ash: second international
conference on sustainable construction materials and technologies. Coventry University and
the University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Centre for by-Products Utilization, June 2010, ISBN
978-1-4507-1490-7
Effect of Different Aggregates on ASR of GPC 17
3. Rangan BV, Hardjito D, Wallah SE, Sumajouw DMJ (2006) Properties and applications of
fly ash-based concrete. Mater Forum 30:170–175
4. Abdul Aleem MI, Arumairaj PD (2012) Geopolymer concrete – a review. Int J Eng Sci
Emerg Technol 1(2):118–122
5. Kishore K (1992) Alkali silica reaction in concrete. Irrig Power J 49(4):29–30
6. Kupwade-Patil K, Allouche E (2011) Effect of alkali silica reaction (ASR) in geopolymer
concrete. In: World of coal ash (WOCA) conference, 9–12 May 2011, Denver, CO, USA
7. ASTM: C1260-07: Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Aggregates
8. IS: 2386 (Part VII)-1963: Indian Standard, Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete,
Alkali Aggregate Reactivity
9. Bachhaav SS (2016) Study of acid resistance properties of geopolymer concrete for different
molarities. SSRG Int J Civ Eng (SSRG-IJCE) 3(1):35–39
10. Ganapati Naidu P, Prasad ASSN, Adiseshu S, Satayanarayana PVV (2015) A study on
strength properties of geopolymer concrete with addition of G.G.B.S. Int J Eng Res Dev 2
(4):19–28
Assessment of Aquifer Vulnerability
of Nizamabad District, Telangana State, India
Using GIS and Drastic Method
Abstract. The precipitation falling on the surface earth, either it runoff over
land to the stream or some part of it infiltrates into the ground. The part which
moves into the ground either get transplanted by the plants and goes back to the
atmosphere or some part of it percolated deep down and contributes water
already inside the earth. The water which is existing below the ground surface is
commonly called as ground water or subsurface water. Countries like India,
most of the people use groundwater for drinking purpose. Due to increase of
waste on earth surface which can effect groundwater quality. It can leads to
contamination of groundwater. The present study is conducted to assess the
groundwater vulnerability and prepare vulnerability map for Nizamabad district,
Telangana state using DRASTIC model in ARC GIS 10.4.1 groundwater vul-
nerability map can be obtained by overlaying seven layers. Such as Depth of
water level, Net Recharge, Aquifer Media, Soil Permeability, Topography,
Impact of Vadose Zone and Hydraulic conductivity.
1 Introduction
Earth is very special because it has much amount of water, the total earth surface covers
71% water. In this 96.5% is salt water that is found in the ocean only just 3.5% of water
on the earth is freshwater. In most of this freshwater 68% is glaciers and icecaps. One
third is in groundwater and remaining 2% of water is in River, Lakes, Streams and very
small amount in atmosphere. From last few decades population is increasing drasti-
cally. Due to human activities such as construction of buildings, Industries, Defor-
estation, Urbanization ground water level is reducing and it is contaminated. The main
aim of the study is to evaluate the groundwater vulnerability and prepare vulnerability
map. Determine area where groundwater is contaminated. For that area proper man-
agement and protection techniques has to follow. This maps are very informative for
educating the public. Groundwater vulnerability maps are prepared using standard
method. Research and scientist they did lot of work on this and find out so many
variety of method for aquifer vulnerability assessment. Aller et al. (1987) proposed
DRASTIC method which is explained in this methodology. According to Al-Zabet
et al. (2002) Evaluation of aquifer vulnerability of contamination potential using the
DRASTIC method. Muhammad et al. (2014) describes that “Groundwater vulnerability
assessment shows an extreme sensitivity to in situ anthropogenic pollutants. A di-
chotomous assessment of geological and hydrological characteristics makes it possible
to determine the vulnerability of groundwater. You-Jailin et al. (2005) describes that
“The groundwater pollution in many regions is becoming more and more serious
because of over-exploiting and industrial activities”. Lathamani et al. (2015) describes
that this investigation was carried out to determine the aquifer vulnerability using
DRASTIC method which correlated well with then physicochemical characteristics of
groundwater in mysore city. This model was primarily developed by National Water
Well Association and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for different hydro-
geologic settings. Henceforth, the model has been modified according to geological or
hydro-geological setting such as pesticide DRASTIC, modified DRASTIC, modified
pesticide DRASTIC, DRASTIC-LU, DRASTIC-Fm and DRASTIC-AHP by different
researchers. DRASTIC model employs hydro-geological data in a Geographical
Information System (GIS) environment to compute aquifer vulnerability index.
DRASTIC is a shortening of seven physical parameters of hydro-geological which used
to define groundwater system and its susceptibility towards pollution. It considers
seven parameters, which taken together, provide the acronym such as Depth to
groundwater (D), Recharge (R), Aquifer type (A), Soil type (S), Topography (T),
Impact of the vadose zone (I), Hydraulic conductivity.
2 Methodology
In the above Eq. 1, w represents weight, r represents rate. The vulnerability index is
weighted sum of rate of all the evaluation factors given by Aller et al. 1987 is shown
Table 1 and schematic representation of methodology used in DRASTIC model is
shown in Fig. 2.
Assessment of Aquifer Vulnerability 21
Table 1. (continued)
Layer Range Rating Typical Weight
rating
Impact of the Karst Limestone 8–10 10 5
vadose media Basalt 2–10 9
Sand and Gravel 6–9 8
Metamorphic/Igneous 2–8 4
Sand and Gravel with significant 4–8 6
Silt
Bedded Standstone, Limestone and 4–8 6
Shale
Sandstone 4–8 6
Limestone 2–7 6
Shale 2–5 3
Silt/Clay 2–6 3
Confining Layer 1 1
Hydraulic 82< 10 3
conductivity (m/d) 41–82 8
29–41 6
12–29 4
4–12 2
0–4 1
Depth of water table data is obtained from Central Groundwater Board, Hyderabad.
Aquifer media, impact of the vadose zone, hydraulic conductivity data can be taken
from National Geographical Research Institute (NGRI), soil media data from the
Agricultural Department of Nizamabad, Topography map created the data extracted
from Bhuvan Portal and from rainfall data can be taken from Indian Meteorological
Department. The collected data was converted in to digital format and inserted into
Geographical Information System (GIS) using appropriate latitude and longitude.
Based on Aller et al. (1987) Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) were created by
adopting the hundred meter grid interval and value are assigned. Depth to water level,
Net Recharge, Aquifer Media, Soil Permeability, Topography Impact of Vadose Zone
and Hydraulic Conductivity Index map shown in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
respectively.
Using ARC GIS 10.4, aquifer assessment vulnerability map was prepared for this study
by overlapping 7 parameters. Study area was classified in to five vulnerability zones
such as <80 as very low vulnerability, 80–119 as low vulnerability, 120–159 as
moderate, 160–199 as high vulnerability and >199 as very high vulnerability. This
study revealed that the Nizamabad city is in the medium DRASTIC Index vulnerability
zone with the value of 159. The recommendation vulnerability zones of Nizamabad
City are obtained according to the indication of Index as shown in Fig. 10. For this area
proper management and protection techniques has to be needed.
References
Aller L, Bennet T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (1987) DRASTIC: A Standardized System for
Evaluating Ground Water Pollution Potential Using Hydrogeologic Settings. US EPA Report
600/287/035, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Al-Zabet T (2002) Evaluation of aquifer vulnerability of contamination potential using the
DRASTIC method. Environ Geol 43:203–208
Babiker IS, Mohamed MA, Hiyama T, Kato K (2005) A GIS-based DRASTIC model for
assessing aquifer vulnerability in Kakamigahara Heights, Gifu Prefecture, central Japan. Sci
Total Environ 345(1):127–140
Burow KR, Nolan BT, Rupert MG, Dubrovsky NM (2010) Nitrate in groundwater of the United
States, 1991–2003. Environ Sci Technol 44(13):4988–4997
Erxleben J, Elder K, Davis R (2002) Comparison of spatial interpolation methods for estimating
snow distribution in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. Hydrol Process 16(18):3627–3649
Mehrjardi RT, Jahromi MZ, Mahmodis Heidari A (2008) Spatial distribution of groundwater
quality with geostatistics (case study: Yazd-Ardakan plain). World Appl Sci J 4(1):9–17
26 B. Ramakrishna et al.
Oliver MA, Webster R (1990) Kriging: a method of interpolation for geographical information
systems. Int J Geograph Inf Syst 4(3):313–332
Ramakrishnaiah CR, Sadashivaiah C, Ranganna G (2009) Assessment of water quality index for
the groundwater in Tumkur Taluk, Karnataka State, India. J Chem 6(2):523–530
Jamrah A, Al-Futaisi A, Rajmohan N, Al-Yaroubi S (2007) Assessment of groundwater
vulnerability in the coastal region of Oman using DRASTIC index method in GIS
environment. Environ Monit Assess 147(1–3):125–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-
0104-6
Javadi S, Kavehkar N, Mousavizadeh MH, Mohammadi K (2010) Modification of DRASTIC
model to map groundwater vulnerability to pollution using nitrate measurements in
agricultural areas. J Agric Sci Technol 13:239–249
Effect of Baffle Wall Parameters on the Modal
Responses of Elevated Rectangular
Water Tank
1 Introduction
During earthquake, elevated storage tanks are subjected to earthquake excitations with
sloshing of impounded liquid. To reduce the sloshing phenomenon, use of baffles is
considered by many researchers in the past.
Sloshing effects due to earthquakes with the introduction of baffle walls in the
cylindrical tanks are studied by Shaaban et al. using Finite Element technique in 1977
[1]. Authors studied the behaviour of the tank with perforated cylindrical baffles and
without baffle walls with modal analysis and earthquake excitation. Gedikli and
Erguven [2] studied the effects of a rigid baffle walls on the seismic response of liquid
in a rigid cylindrical tank. Superposition method of modes has been used find the
seismic response. Authors used, boundary element method to extract natural modes of
the liquid considering linearized free surface conditions.
Biswal and others [3] compared the natural frequencies of liquid with and without
baffle plates for a cylindrical tank. The liquid and the tank are discretized using Finite
elements. Authors computed frequencies of the sloshing liquid for various dimensions,
position of the baffle plates for rigid and flexible tanks considering the circumferential
wave number. The coupled vibration frequencies of the tank-flexible-baffle system are
computed considering the effect of sloshing of liquid.
Hosseini and Farshadmanesh [4] studied the effect of multiple vertical baffles in
rectangular tanks by Finite Element Analysis. Studies are carried out to find the
effective submerged depth of the baffles, to decrease the sloshing height of the liquid.
Authors concluded that optimal number of baffles to minimize the sloshing height for
each series of earthquakes. The research also focuses on the possibility of finding the
optimal submerged depth of baffles for each number of baffle set.
Goudarzi, Sabbagh-Yazdi and Marx [5] developed an analytical model to estimate
hydro dynamic damping ratio of sloshing liquid. In this research, baffles bound to the
tank walls is considered to estimate the hydrodynamic damping ratio of sloshing liquid
using linear wave theory and velocity potential formulation. The results are validated
for analytical solution and experimental investigations are conducted for describing the
hydrodynamic damping for vertical and horizontal baffles in partially filled rectangular
liquid tanks. Many other researchers [6–14] have conducted studies on dynamic
response of elevated tanks with baffles.
However, to the authors knowledge very few researchers have dealt with rectan-
gular water tanks with baffles in different directions and their effect on modal char-
acteristics. In the present study an attempt is made to study the influence of baffle walls
in various sizes, orientation and number on the modal characteristics of the tank.
2 Numerical Study
2.1 General
For the present work, a rectangular elevated water tank with and without baffle wall is
considered. Modal analysis is performed to extract Natural frequencies. The effect of
internal baffle walls on the modal responses of the tank for various liquid levels is
investigated and presented. ANSYS 18.1 is used for modelling and analysis of tank.
2.3 Geometry
A RC rectangular water container of 9 m 6 m in plan and height of 6.3 m (including
freeboard of 0.3 m) with 0.3 m wall thickness is supported on base slab of 0.3 m thick.
RC staging consisting of 4 columns of 0.6 0.6 m, 16 m height with horizontal
bracings of 0.6 0.6 m at three levels. First set of bracings are located at 4.45 m from
the base slab and second, third set of bracings are located at 8.3 m, 12.15 m respec-
tively from base slab.
Effect of Baffle Wall Parameters on the Modal Responses 29
Case1
(Tank without baffle -- --
walls)
Case2
(Tank with 5.4 x 0.3 x 5.4 x 0.3 x 6.0
longitudinal baffle 3.0
wall)
Case3
(Tank with 7.2 x 0.3 x 7.2 x 0.3 x 6.0
longitudinal baffle 3.0
wall)
Case4
(Tank with
longitudinal baffle
walls (2 nos.)) 2.4 x 0.3 x 2.4 x 0.3 x 6.0
3.0
Case5
(Tank with
longitudinal baffle 2.4 x 0.3 x 2.4 x 0.3 x 6.0
wall in zig-zag 3.0
pattern)
(continued)
30 M. Minnekanti and M. Alapati
Table 1. (continued)
Case6
(Tank with 0.3 x 2.4 x 0.3 x 2.4 x 6.0
transverse baffle 3.0
wall)
Case7
(Tank with transvers 0.3 x 2.4 x 0.3 x 2.4 x 6.0
baffle walls (3 nos.)) 3.0
Modelling
The tank is modelled in ANSYS software using key points, areas and volumes.
SOLID45 element is used to discretize tank i.e. container walls, base slab, columns,
bracings and baffle walls. FLUID80 element is used to discretize the fluid. Length of
container walls in X-direction are discretized into 30 elements and the container walls
in Z-direction are discretized into 20 elements. Similarly, Fluid element is discretized
into 504 elements. Different fluid levels i.e. Tank full (6 m height water), Tank half full
(3 m height water), Tank quarter full (1.5 m height water) and tank empty condition are
considered with various baffle wall cases as discussed in Sect. 2.2. The material
properties of tank and water are given in Table 2.
nodes in normal direction i.e. at the interface, the fluid and wall nodes are constrained
to move together in normal direction and free to move in vertical and tangential
directions. Similarly, at the base the fluid and base slab nodes are coupled in vertical
direction so that, the common nodes are constrained to move together in vertical
direction and free to move in horizontal and tangential directions.
2.5 Analysis
Modal Analysis is performed using Block Lanczos mode extraction method in ANSYS.
Five modes are extracted in the present study.
It is observed that tank with 3 transverse baffles of 3 m height has shown low fre-
quencies as compared to other cases. Maximum reduction found is 3.8%.
32 M. Minnekanti and M. Alapati
Table 4. 3 m height baffle wall for tank quarter full water level
Mode Natural frequency (Hz)
number Case1 Case2 Case3 Case4 Case5 Case6 Case7
1 1.3804 1.3454 1.3356 1.3439 1.3469 1.3620 1.3060
2 1.5212 1.4620 1.4450 1.4542 1.4694 1.3624 1.4650
3 2.1702 2.1560 2.1388 2.1434 2.1466 2.0873 2.1429
4 6.8163 6.8002 6.7947 6.7969 6.8009 6.6626 6.7738
5 7.0007 6.9897 6.9845 6.9841 6.9911 6.8747 6.9865
The minimum sloshing frequency is observed in the case7 i.e. tank with 3 trans-
verse baffles of 3 m height with the percentage reduction as 7.1%.
For Tank Full Condition
From Table 6, in tanks with full water condition case 6 is showing lesser values of
natural frequencies compared to other cases.
In case of water tank with orthogonal baffle wall of 3 m height (Case6), funda-
mental frequencies are observed to be minimum. The maximum percentage reduction
being 2.4% (Table 6).
Effect of Baffle Wall Parameters on the Modal Responses 33
In all the above cases of liquid levels, the tank with three baffle walls offer more
stiffness to the container and hence less frequencies are observed.
3.90E-03
3.60E-03
Case1
3.30E-03
SLOSHING HEIGHT(m) Case2
3.00E-03
Case3
2.70E-03
Case4
2.40E-03
Case5
2.10E-03
Case6
1.80E-03
Case7
1.50E-03
Quarter Full Half Full Tank Full
LIQUID LEVELS
Fig. 1. Sloshing heights of free liquid surface for different water levels in 3 m baffles height
3.90E-03
SLOSHING HEIGHT(m) 3.60E-03
Case2
3.30E-03
Case1
3.00E-03
Case3
2.70E-03
Case4
2.40E-03
Case5
2.10E-03
Case6
1.80E-03
Case7
1.50E-03
Quarter Full Half Full Tank Full
LIQUID LEVELS
Fig. 2. Sloshing heights of free liquid surface for different water levels in 6 m baffles height
3.22
3.01
3.04
3.04
2.99
3.06
3.14
2.9
2.69
2.68
2.62
2.57
2.53
2.45
2.36
2.25
2.15
SLOSHING HEIGHT(mm)
2.06
2.01
1.95
1.92
Fig. 3. Comparison of all 7cases for 3 liquid levels for 3 m height baffle walls.
Effect of Baffle Wall Parameters on the Modal Responses 37
From the above graph it is inferred that, sloshing heights are reduced in all cases of
three different liquid levels except in Case4 of Quarter full and half tank full conditions.
From the above graph it is inferred that, sloshing heights are reduced in all cases of
three different liquid levels except in Case4 of half tank full condition (Fig. 4).
3.04
3.14
3.04
3.09
3.06
2.79
2.74
2.79
2.64
2.57
2.51
2.36
2.39
2.4
2.25
2.13
SLOSHING HEIGHT(mm)
2.08
2.11
2.04
1.81
1.9
Fig. 4. Comparison of all 7cases for 3 liquid levels for 6 m height baffle walls.
4 Conclusions
6 Cases of baffled water tanks are studied and compared with tank without baffles.
From that studies, it is concluded that,
• For all liquid conditions for 3 m height of baffles, transverse baffles 3 in number
showed better results with respect to modal responses and sloshing heights.
• For 6 m height of baffle walls, staggered pattern in longitudinal direction showed
better sloshing performance for quarter full and half-full water levels. But for tank
full condition tank with 3 number of baffles in transverse direction showed better
performance.
• The sloshing height of free surface is reduced as the baffle wall height is increased
from 3 m to 6 m for all the cases and for all the liquid levels.
• For the considered capacity of the elevated rectangular water tank, from the
investigated cases, it is found that baffle walls provided along the transverse
direction showed the better sloshing performance and modal response.
References
1. Shaaban SH, Nash WA (1977) Effect of a baffle on response of a liquid storage tank to
seismic excitation. In: Proceedings of Canadian congress of applied mechanics. Universite
Laval, Quebec, pp 695–696
2. Gedikli A, Ergüven ME (1999) Seismic analysis of a liquid storage tank with a baffle.
J Sound Vib 223(1):141–155
38 M. Minnekanti and M. Alapati
3. Biswal KC, Bhattacharyya SK, Sinha PK (2003) Free-vibration analysis of liquid-filled tank
with baffles. J Sound Vib 259(1):177–192
4. Hosseini M, Farshadmanesh P (2011) The effects of multiple vertical baffles on sloshing
phenomenon in rectangular tanks. Built Environ 120:287–298 Earthquake Resistant
Engineering Structures VIII
5. Goudarzi MA, Sabbagh-Yazdi SR, Marx W (2010) Investigation of sloshing damping in
baffled rectangular tanks subjected to the dynamic excitation. Bull Earthq Eng 8:1055–1072
6. Maity D, Satya Narayana T, Saha UK (2009) Dynamic response of liquid storage elastic
tanks with baffle. J Struct Eng 36(3):172–181
7. Hosseini M, Farshadmanesh P (2011) Simplified dynamic analysis of sloshing phenomenon
in tanks with multiple baffles subjected to earthquake. In: Proceedings of COMPDYN 2011,
III ECCOMAS thematic conference on computer methods in structural dynamics and
earthquake engineering, Greece, 26–28 May 2011
8. Wu C-H (2010) Nonlinear liquid sloshing in a 3D tank with baffles, Ph.D. thesis submitted to
Department of Marine Environment and Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University
(NSYSU), Taiwan
9. Farshadmanesh P (2011) Optimizing the use of baffles in rectangular liquid storage tanks
subjected to earthquakes. M.Sc. thesis under supervision of professor Mahmood Hosseini,
submitted to Civil Engineering Department of the South Tehran Branch of the Islamic
University, Tehran, Iran
10. Chaudhari K, Bhilare SL, Patil GR (2017) A study of dynamic response of circular water
tank with baffle walls. Int Res J Eng Technol 4
11. Dhumal P, Suryawanshi SR (2016) A study of effect of baffle wall on dynamic response of
elevated water tank using ansys 16. Int J Innov Res Sci Technol
12. Maity D, Naveen Raj C, Gogoi I (2010) Dynamic response of elevated liquid storage elastic
tanks with baffles. Int J Civ Eng Technol 1
13. Avval IT (2012) Dynamic response of concrete rectangular liquid tanks in three-dimensional
space. Thesis presented to Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
14. George RR, Joseph A (2016) Dynamic analysis of elevated cement concrete water tank. Int J
Innov Res Sci Technol 3
Bearing Capacity of Strip Footing
on Reinforced Foundation Beds with Inclined
Reinforcement
1 Introduction
of safety against pull out due to increase in the normal stress of reinforcement to pull
out of reinforcement. It is proposed to study the increase in bond resistance of inclined
reinforcement due to increase in normal stress of reinforcement to pull out of rein-
forcement. Hence, in this paper a parametric study has been carried out to study the
effect of inclination of reinforcement in sand bed in improving bearing capacity.
A strip footing having width, B supporting on top of a replaced sand bed of thickness H
overlying soft homogeneous clay whose undrained shear strength is c. The unit weight
and angle of internal friction of sand bed is taken as c and / respectively. A single layer
of geotextile reinforcement is placed in the sand bed at a distance u from the bottom of
the footing and it is inclined at an angle a with horizontal as shown in Fig. 1. The
interface bond resistance and tension developed in the reinforcement are /r and Tr
respectively. A uniform surcharge pressure of w will be acting on reinforced foundation
bed. Reinforcement is subjected to overburden pressure increasing from cu at the edge
of footing to cH at the free end. The bottom of the footing is assumed as rough and
reinforcement does not fail by rupture (i.e., bond resistance due to pull out is less than
the rupture failure). Failure is initiated by the punching mode in the top sand layer.
Rigid Base
3 Method of Analysis
3.1 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Sand Bed on Soft Clay
Meyerhof (1974), presented bearing capacity solution for strip footing on dense sand
bed resting over homogeneous soft clay is
Bearing Capacity of Strip Footing on Reinforced Foundation Beds 41
cH 2
qus ¼ cNc þ Ks tan/ cDNq þ 0:5cBNc ð1Þ
B
Limited to the bearing capacity of a sand layer of infinite thickness.
Where, Ks = Punching shear coefficient and is obtained from figure given by
Meyerhof and Hanna 1978 which depends on angle of shearing resistance of sand, /,
undrained cohesion of clay, c and bearing capacity ratio q2/q1, where q1, q2 are ultimate
bearing capacities of footing on surface of sand bed and soft homogeneous clay
respectively. Nc, Nq, Nc are bearing capacity factors and for /u = 0, Nc = 5.14.
Normalizing Eq. (1) with undrained cohesion of clay,
2
cB H
qus ¼ Nc þ Ks tan/ ð2Þ
c B
qus is the combination of strength contribution of upper sand layer and lower homo-
geneous clay layer to the bearing capacity of footing, where cB/c = sand bed density
gradient, H/B = Normalized sand bed thickness.
q
Load intensity
GL STRIP FOOTING G
u B/2 Reinforcement
H
(Lr-B)/2 sinα Sand [γ, ϕ]
Rigid Base
(a)
q
T B/2
q
τ τ
α
Reinforcement
quc
(b) (c)
Fig. 2. (a) Punching shear failure of footing, (b) stresses on sand column and (c) reinforcement
alignment.
Total mobilized resistance to pull out, Tr ¼ ðqn Lei tan;r Þ þ ðqt Lei Þ ð5Þ
Where Lei = effective length of inclined reinforcement, beyond the edge of footing.
For the reinforcement layer placed in the sand bed, axial tensile force developed in
the reinforcement layer for an effective length of, Lei beyond the edge of the footing,
due to mobilization of interface shear resistance.
Taking in to consideration the effective length of geotextile reinforcement Lei on
either side of the footing, axial stresses will be developed in geotextile reinforcement
layer due to development of shear stress on either side (Top and Bottom) of sand-
reinforcement interface, Tr by considering unit width of footing
Tr u 1 Lr 1 w Lr 1
¼ c þ sina þ 2 ðtan/r cosa þ sinaÞ ð6Þ
B B 2 2B 2 B 2B 2
Bearing capacity of reinforced sand bed on soft homogeneous clay with inclined
reinforcement is given by
cH 2 u 1 Lr 1 w Lr 1
quir ¼ cNc þ Ks tan/ þ 2 c þ sina þ ðtan/r cosa þ sinaÞ ð7Þ
B B 2 2B 2 B 2B 2
Bearing Capacity of Strip Footing on Reinforced Foundation Beds 43
Normalizing the above Eq. (7) with undrained cohesion of clay c, gives
2
cB H cB u 1 Lr 1 w Lr 1
quir ¼ Nc þ Ks tan/ þ 2 þ sina þ ðtan/r cosa þ sinaÞ
c B c B 2 2B 2 c 2B 2
ð8Þ
The beneficial effect of geotextile reinforcement for increasing the ultimate bearing
capacity is quantified through a non-dimensional parameter, the normalized bearing
capacity ratio.
The normalized bearing capacity ratio quc is the ratio of bearing capacity of footing
on homogeneous clay layer to the undrained shear strength of clay. Similarly, qus is the
ratio of bearing capacity of sand bed overlying homogeneous clay layer to the
undrained shear strength of clay.
quir is the ratio of bearing capacity of geotextile reinforced sand bed with rein-
forcement placed inclinedly considering axial tension in reinforcement overlying clay
to that of undrained shear strength of clay. This ratio quantifies the contributions of
sand bed and axial tension mobilised in the inclined reinforcement to the overall
bearing capacity of the footing.
Bearing capacity of strip footing resting on sand bed with reinforcement placed
inclined on soft homogeneous clay depends on non-dimensional parameters u/B, /, H/
B, cB/c related to sand bed on clay. /r, (Lr − B)/2 related to interface shear resistance
between geotextile and sand. Results are illustrated in graphical form for the following
range of non-dimensional parameters, H/B (0 to 0.5), cB/c (2 to 16) in addition to that a
(0 to 10°). Calculations are made for Lr/B (2.5 to 4.0), /r// of 0.75 Effect of these
parameters on bearing capacity is quantified in this paper for different a values and
compared with normalised bearing capacity factors of horizontally placed reinforce-
ment in the sand bed.
10.10
H/B= 0.5, ϕ=30 , ϕr/ϕ=0.75 α=10
w/c=0, γB/c=8, u/B=0.125
5
quir*
8.60
7.10
2.5 3.25 4
Lr/B
11.50
w/c=0, ϕ=30°, ϕr/ϕ=0.75 γB/c= 16
H/B= 0.5, u/B= 0.125
8.70
quir*
2
5.90
0 5 10
α in degrees
35
30
α in degrees
5 Conclusions
The proposed bearing capacity equation for the strip footing on sand bed reinforced
with inclined reinforcement over soft clay layer, considers the sum of undrained
cohesion of clay, mobilized shearing resistance in the sand bed and pull out resistance
of inclined reinforcement, normalized bearing capacity ratio incorporates the above
mechanics. Parametric study evaluates contribution of angle of inclination of rein-
forcement, a, relative thickness of sand bed, H/B, cB/c, u/B on normalized bearing
capacity values for u/B = 0.125, cB/c = 2 to 16, a = 0 to 10°. Computations are made
for Lr/B = 2.5 to 4.0, / = 30° to 40° on the basis of results and discussion following
conclusions are made
46 P. Rajashekar Reddy et al.
References
Bonaparte R, Christopher BR (1987) Design and construction of reinforced embankments over
weak foundation. Transp Res Rec 1153:26–39
Kumar PVSN, Madhav MR (2011) Pullout of inclined reinforcement in reinforced earth wall.
Indian Geotech J 41(2):95–99
Meyerhof GG (1974) Ultimate bearing capacity of footings on sand layer overlying clay. Can
Geotech J 2:223–229
Quast P (1983) Polyester reinforcing fabric mats for the improvement of embankment stability.
In: Proceedings of 8th international conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering,
vol 2, pp 531–534
Meyerhof GG, Hanna AM (1978) Ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on layered soils
under inclined load. Can Geotech J 15:565–572
Precise Survey Assistance for Civil Structures
Using Survey Assist
Abstract. Civil structures like bridges, railway tracks, dams, high rise build-
ings and even public facilities need regular surveys and reporting so as to timely
address potential threats to avoid serious loss of life and property. Every
organization performs survey of related structures from time to time. However,
due to manual errors, corruption and other factors, inaccurate responses lead to
delay or neglect of critical repairs leading to unfavorable events and loss of life
and property. This paper presents a novel mobile app based framework to crowd
source survey information from qualified individuals to act as an indicator for
concerned authorities to take timely action. The app provides an informative
dashboard with color coded geo locations dynamically driven from crowd
sourced information. Authors envision that such an app in public domain will
help concerned authorities to take time action against potential threats.
1 Introduction
Every organization performs a survey of related civil structures like bridges, roads,
buildings etc., from time to time to timely address potential threats avoiding serious
loss of life and property [1]. This process of assessing and tracking structural integrity
and nature of the damage is called health monitoring [2]. The monitoring process is
labor intensive and incurs significant costs. In general, these tasks are done by visual
inspection, traditional methods like tap tests, and in recent times by smart tools like
sensors, smart structures etc. Manual methods are also prone to human error.
Health monitoring of civil infrastructure is measured by several parameters that
determine the location and severity of damage as they happen and as they are recorded
by visual inspection. Precise assessment of the extent of damage may require intensive
labor and investment. Just knowing that damage has occurred is often more important
as then the necessary action can be taken. Doing so in a cost-effective manner is
therefore important.
Authors in [3] present a review of several methods used for structural health
monitoring. There are several sensor based methods like sensor-based damage moni-
toring system [4]. Authors in [5] present overview of smart materials, sensors,
actuators, signal processors, communication networks, etc. for structural health mon-
itoring, structural vibration control, self-repairing, energy harvesting etc. However
employing sensors in all existing structures is time consuming and costly bots in initial
setup as well as maintenance.
In the modern day, mobile devices have become ubiquitous and easily accessible to
every person. Moreover, people have become used to online social activity on sites like
WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter etc. A lot of information can now be crowdsourced
through indirect data analysis or direct surveys from people, in general, using mobile
based applications. Crowd-Sourcing is one very effective method to gather real-time
insights of phenomenon happening around us [6]. For example analysis of twitter feeds
provides an effective way to detect and analyze events [7]. For example, authors in [8]
use crowdsourcing via Android Application to detect damaged roads. They further
propose a warning system to alert vehicle drivers of any abrupt discontinuities on the
road. This paper seeks inspiration from work in [8] to present an App based framework
to Crowd-Source data about damage to civil infrastructure alerting authorities of
possible damage that need to be attended.
In the context of this paper, rather than precise measurements and automatic sur-
veys using advanced technological tools like sensors etc. the authors use crowd
sourcing to collect relevant information about a civil structure that can drive automatic
timely notifications for concerned authorities to take appropriate action. Figure 1 shows
the overview of the system. A qualified user when registered on the portal will get geo-
fence based notifications as and when she is in vicinity of a structure that is marked for
public survey. If user accepts to survey, she can navigate to the location via the app and
answer objective questions preset by qualified individuals. A novel scoring system
evaluates the severity of the status as reported. A final dashboard displays cumulative
scored survey results for each location with color coded threat levels. The intent of this
paper is not to provide technically accurate measurements, rather to indicate potential
threats in a trustworthy and timely manner.
Precise Survey Assistance for Civil Structures Using Survey Assist 49
2 Methodology
4. Accumulate the results gathered from crowd sourcing and storing them into a secure
location so that the author can retrieve them again in a different flow for higher
officials to review and act accordingly.
5. Communicate to relevant officials via MAIL, PHONE, SMS regarding the current
condition of construction based on severity.
A mobile application with integrated Google maps for navigation allows users to
reach a location and answer the questionnaire which eventually leads to authentic
results. PHP based web application with MySQL database allows backend connectivity
to the mobile application. The application makes REST calls to the remote cloud and
fetch the results on the fly based on the selected location. JAVA based come on mobile
device consolidates the user’s responses and saves the result via a POST request to
PHP backend. A web frontend written in HTML, CSS and JavaScript drives the
dashboard that displays cumulative results. Surveyed locations are shown as colored
markers (green, yellow, red) based on the severity on the Google maps. Admin has
controls to add new survey locations and questionnaire in the system. An integrated
email service on backend sends relevant message to concerned officials. Figure 2
describes this architecture as a block diagram.
general question can be, Are there cracks on the wall? with options “no – 10”,
“multiple long cracks – 3”, “few small cracks – 6”, etc. The number at the end shows
the score. The user does not see the score. Based on the response user can be asked to
upload a pic.
3 Results
Figure 3 shows the app in action. The survey assist app provides
1. Better Governance. Authorities can easily get consolidated public opinion about
the concerned structure, products, and services.
2. Timely Action. Public reaction may drive necessary action in a timely manner,
before internal resource allotment to detect the problem.
3. Lower Costs and Ease of Use. Phone call-based surveys require more investment.
Moreover, people, in general, do not like to be disturbed by a phone call. Such a
method may prove more effective in time.
4. Analytics. Real-time analytics and alerts help get a broad and clear picture while
the app allows to drill down into details and visualize survey results at various
levels
Author’s main strategy and monitoring concern about global fluctuations based on the
dynamic characteristics of bridge damages, concrete cracking, yielding of steel, dete-
rioration of the materials used in the construction can generate the responses based on
the status of the structure. This will provide timely aid to prevent future accidents
because of lack of maintenance. To make this possible, authors also developed a
desktop application or even in mobile application to allow data entry.
52 K. Surya Prakash et al.
Authors plan to use Machine Learning strategies to analyze uploaded images for
structural damage severity. This can significantly reduce the amount of questionnaire
and also make the survey process more interactive and reliable.
References
1. Chang PC, Flatau A, Liu SC (2003) Review paper: health monitoring of civil infrastructure.
Struct Health Monit: Int J 2(3):257–267
2. Mix D, Kijewski-Correa T, Taflanidis AA (2011) Assessment of residential housing in
Leogane, Haiti after the January 2010 earthquake and identification of needs for rebuilding.
Earthq Spectra 27:S299–S322
3. Kaur V, Tyagi A, Kritika M, Kumari P, Salvi S (2017) Crowd-sourcing based Android
application for structural health monitoring and data analytics of roads using cloud
computing. In: 2017 international conference on innovative mechanisms for industry
applications (ICIMIA)
4. Rytter A (1993) Vibration-based inspection of civil engineering structures. Ph.D. dissertation,
Department of Building Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg University,
Denmark
5. Daniel F, Kucherbaev P, Cappiello C, Benatallah B, Allahbakhsh M (2018) Quality control in
crowdsourcing: a survey of quality attributes, assessment techniques, and assurance actions.
ACM Comput Surv 51(1), Article 7
6. Zhai Z, Hachen D, Kijewski-Correa T, Shen F, Madey G (2012) Citizen engineering: methods
for “crowdsourcing” highly trustworthy results. IEEE
7. Li R, Lei KH, Khadiwala R, Chang KC (2012) TEDAS: a twitter-based event detection and
analysis system. In: 2012 IEEE 28th international conference on data engineering,
Washington, DC, pp 1273–1276. https://doi.org/10.1109/icde.2012.125
8. El-Wakeel AS, Li J, Noureldin A, Hassanein HS, Zorba N (2018) Towards a practical
crowdsensing system for road surface conditions monitoring. IEEE Internet Things J 5
(6):4672–4685
Ground Improvement Using Band Drains
at Onshore Gas Terminal Near
Kakinada (AP), India
1 Introduction
structures to come up at the Facility are Storage Tanks, Power Generator, Flare Tower
and Administrative Building.
Long term settlement of about 1000 mm was expected under the proposed loads. In
order to accelerate the settlement, and limit it to 1 to 2 year-period, Preloading and Band
drains were applied, enabling the construction to commence in less than two years [1].
2 Site Conditions
The site consists of top four layers of soft clay and fine sand of total thickness of about
51 m (Fig. 1).
Drain body is a Prefabricated Vertical Drain (PVD), tightly wrapped in a Geo textile
filter jacket of nonwoven spun-bonded polypropylene, with very high permeability but
retaining fine soil particles. The band is 100 mm wide, 4 mm thick, weighing 81 g/m
length. All the mechanical properties such as tensile, tear and bursting strengths are
approved as per ASTM Standards [2].
Ground Improvement Using Band Drains at Onshore Gas Terminal 55
The purpose of band drains is to accelerate the consolidation period. Typically, the
fine grained soils (such as clay) have low permeability in vertical direction and high
permeability in radial direction. The inclusion of band drains provides additional
drainage path with shorter travel distance, and hastens the time of consolidation. Thus,
specified settlement can be achieved in short duration.
For the present project, the total settlement of 12 m thick clay layer was estimated
to be 914 mm, under a pressure increment of 94 kN/m2. Without treatment, time
required for 90% settlement was about 25 years. With triangular grid pattern of bands
of spacing 1.5 m, the time required was drastically reduced to about 250 days.
3.1 Preloading
To achieve the expected settlements to occur before the actual construction, preload
equivalent to the extra stress is to be placed on the natural soil. The average preload
height was 1 m, with a waiting period of 60 days. Three stages of loading were
required.
The process of reclamation was achieved by sand-fill with hydraulic transportation. The
quantity of sand required was approximately 1.5 million cu m. This was pumped from
a distance of 4 km, by dredging in the River Godavari–Gautami (Fig. 2).
Maximum dredging depth was 25 m with a discharge pipe of diameter 750 mm.
Cutter Section Dredger (CSD) with overall length of 84 m was used. Backwash water
management activities during sand filling are required for site preparation, maximizing
the retention of suspended solids and dewatering of dredged material (Fig. 3).
56 D. Babu Rao and D. Nageswara Rao
At the end of each stage of lift, controlled compaction of filled area was performed by
conducting relevant field and laboratory tests. To monitor the efficacy of compaction
and study long-term effects, settlement plates were installed at the reclamation site.
Large number of Static Cone Penetration Tests were conducted in the field (Fig. 4).
It is noted that Cone Resistance of 75 kg/cm2 was achieved in the top 4 m of fill.
This enables the construction of light structures and plant roads. Foundations of
structures with heavy loads are carried deeper.
6 Closure
An Onshore Terminal was constructed near Kakinada, A.P., for Gujarat State Petro-
chemical Corporation, at a cost of about Rs. 20,000 millions. An area of 15 ha was
reclaimed through Ground Improvement, using the latest technology of Prefabricated
Vertical Drains and Preloading. All the major works of Gas Processing facility such as
Storage Tanks, Flare Tower, Administration Building, have been constructed over a
clay layer of 12 m thickness, adjoining the Bay of Bengal.
The Project demonstrates the application of modern techniques of construction,
using the principles of Geo Technical Engineering, to reclaim weak land. This is the
essence of Ground Improvement in Civil Engineering.
Acknowledgments. The corresponding author was Consulting Geotechnical Engineer for M/s
Dharti Dredging and Infrastructure Limited, Hyderabad, during some stages of the Project. The
58 D. Babu Rao and D. Nageswara Rao
co-author provided the inputs, and organized field visits. Thanks are extended to M/s Dharti
Dredging & Infrastructure Limited, Hyderabad, for providing utmost cooperation.
References
1. Conte E, Troncone A (2009) Radial Consolidation with vertical drains and general time-
dependent loading. Can Geotech J 46(1):25–36
2. ASTM D 6917-16: Standard guide for selection of test methods for prefabricated vertical
drains (PVD)
New Light Weight Mortar for Structural
Application: Assessment of Porosity, Strength
and Morphology Properties
1 Introduction
The demand for affordable materials for building construction is on the increase in
developing and underdeveloped countries. The natural aggregate sources are over
explored, and this is resulting into high cost of the materials [1], and coupled with
instability in economy [2, 3].
However, incessant exploration of these sources creates a number of environmental
problems in form of pollution and emission of toxic substance into the environment.
On the other hand, numerous solid wastes resulting from industrial and construction
activities are investigated for potential reuse for construction [4]. Many of the discarded
materials have also been found suitable for solving durability issues in concrete [5].
Despite the advancement in research relating to the recycling of waste materials,
ceramic waste has been identified as non- recyclable, yet improper management of this
kind of materials could result into serious environmental challenges. It has been
reported that about 30% of ceramic content ends up as wastes during its production,
and this portion of the material is stockpiled and landfilled [6–9]. This is certainly a
reason to consider reusing the ceramic wastes.
There are two categories of ceramic wastes, based on the raw material sources [10].
One covers those involving the use of red pastes for product manufacture. While there
are also those in form of stoneware.
In recent years, studies have shown that ceramics and other silica rich materials are
suitable for making mortars and concrete [11–14], when used as a replacement of the
conventional aggregates.
Laterite, on the other hand, has been a famous construction material, mostly used
for production of earth blocks [15]. In some sub-Saharan African countries, laterite has
been used for building low cost houses, and as earthwork filling material for road
pavement and earth dams. However, advancement in research has shown that laterite is
a suitable material for making concrete, when it is used as a partial replacement of sand
in concrete [16, 17].
On the other hand, Awoyera et al. [18] recently explored the strength properties of
concrete containing laterite and ceramic aggregates, the study reported that the new
concrete possessed somewhat similar characteristics as the conventional concrete. This
is an indication that incorporation of ceramics and laterite as replacement of natural
aggregates can be a viable construction innovation.
However, in the current study, an overview on the strength and microstructural
properties of modified mortars made with laterite soil and fine ceramics is presented.
The strength and microstructural properties of the modified mortars are analyzed.
Ceramic wastes resulting from construction and demolition activities was used in this
study. It is comprised mainly of floor and wall tiles. The ceramics were cleaned to
remove dirt on them, before they were crushed using a hammer mill into granular sizes
(2–4.75 mm), thus reflecting the sizes of natural fine aggregates. While, certain portion
of the ceramics was further grinded and sieved through 50 l aperture size.
A laterite soil, belong to A-7-6(7) group, of sizes finer than 4.75 mm aperture, was
used as part of the fine aggregates. It was sourced within the precinct of Ota, south-
western Nigeria. Other materials used include grade 32.5 cement, river sand and
potable water. Table 1 presents the physical properties of the aggregates used. The
chemical oxide contents of the cement and ceramics (measured by X-ray fluorescence)
were determined in a preliminary investigation [19].
Mortar samples, produced with binder-sand ratio of 1:3, and sizes 40 40
160 mm were investigated. Table 2 shows the mix design for the mortar samples.
Curing of mortars commenced immediately after final setting for a 28 days regime.
Afterwards, the compressive strengths were determined in line with procedures in BS
1015-11 [20]. However, prior to mechanical tests, void distribution in the samples was
measured with the aid of a 2D X-ray CT machine. Also, the morphology of samples
having higher compressive strength, and the reference samples were further evaluated
New Light Weight Mortar for Structural Application 61
using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). This was done to aid understanding and
interpretation of the strength development (Table 3).
Table 2. Chemical composition and physical properties of cement and ceramic powder [16]
Chemical composition MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3
Ceramic powder (%) 2.04 15.07 64.56 1.05 2.132 4.148 0.745 6.014
Cement (%) 3.19 19.48 24.09 1.14 0.847 74.211 0.619 6.273
Figure 1 shows the compressive strength of mortars obtained at 28 days curing. The
results showed that samples dominated with more fine ceramics (N10, N20, and N30)
and mix F75, produced better strength than the control samples. The addition of
ceramics to these mixtures contributed to the strength development, in that, ceramics
enhanced the compactness of the matrix, and also resulted in less pore structure of the
mortars. The mixture with higher composition of ceramics (N10) gave the higher
strength. As a result, mix N10 and reference mix was selected for the micro scale
evaluation. Also, the appreciable strength developed in the mix N10 could be attributed
to possible pozzolanic activities and filler action induced by ceramic powder. Jamil
et al. [21] and Chindaprasirt and Rukzon [22], in a related studies, attributed filler
62 P. Awoyera et al.
(a) (b)
C-S-H
Ca(OH) 2
The internal structures of both N10 and reference mortars were evaluated using X-
ray CT scans, and the images obtained were analyzed using an imaging software,
ImageJ. The air void distribution along the heights of the mortars is presented in Fig. 3.
From the analysis, it can be deduced that the inherent air void content distribution
across the mortars was not homogenous for the samples. In the N10 mortar, the air void
distribution appears uniform, however, in the reference mortar three different regions
with respect to the void distribution can be measured along the height of the mortars. In
the reference samples, there were relatively low void content at the bottom region, high
void content at the middle, and low at the top region.
The air void content in this mix is higher than in the N10 sample. This kind of
defect can contribute to the failure pattern in cement based material. Yuan & Harrison
[23] inferred that the heterogeneous microstructure in a material could influence a
significant improvement in the destructive transverse tensile strains when the material
is subjected to loading, in which stress concentrations around the pore areas could
provide a weakness zone for failure to take place.
4 Conclusion
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morphology assessment. Aust J Civ Eng 16:122–128
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with fine recycled ceramic aggregates. Constr Build Mater 64(2014):103–113
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termite-hill stabilized lateritic bricks. Int J Eng Sci 3(2):37–43
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compressive and tensile strengths of laterized concrete. Build Environ 37(2002):491–496
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Computing Redistribution Moments
of Concrete Members in the Plastic Stage Using
Linear Analysis: Short Review
Abstract. Reinforced concrete members can utilize their load carrying capacity
by the redistribution of moments. When sufficient rotation takes place in a
reinforced concrete member a plastic hinge forms and the rotational capacity of
this hinge determines the amount of redistribution that can occur in the member.
Reinforced concrete exhibits different behaviours (elastic, elastoplastic and
plastic) at different instances of load and this informs the different approaches in
the analysis of reinforced concrete members. Of the different methods of anal-
ysis, linear elastic analysis with moment redistribution is the most used method
in practice. Various studies on moment redistribution in reinforced concrete
beams, hinge formation, linear analysis and code provisions have been
reviewed, discussed and key findings have been presented in this study.
A continuous beam was also analysed using linear elastic analysis and a moment
redistribution of 20% from support to the beam spans was considered. The beam
was also analysed considering the various loading combinations that gave the
maximum effects at different beam segments.
1 Introduction
A beam subject to bending moment will curve and will result in a rotation of a segment
of the beam in respect to another [1]. Concrete obeys Hooke’s law before it reaches its
yield point and after which it exhibits a plastic behaviour. When a yield point occurs in
a section of an indeterminate beam, it reaches the full plastic moment and at that point,
there is inelastic rotation, any further increase in load will result to an increase in the
moment of the less stressed sections; this is known as the redistribution of moments [2].
This redistribution of moment occurs when a section has sufficient plastic rotation
capacity [3] and the plastic nature of reinforced concrete makes this redistribution of
moments possible [4].
Researchers over the years have tried to establish concise methods of evaluating the
extent of moment redistribution that occurs in both steel and reinforced concrete
members. In concrete elements, the exact redistribution of moments that occurs from
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 66–72, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_10
Computing Redistribution Moments of Concrete Members in the Plastic Stage 67
really stressed members to less stressed members are difficult to verify [5] and there is
also difficulty in determining this redistribution in steel beams once the section has
reached its maximum moment of resistance [2].
The various methods used to idealize structural behaviour include: two and three-
dimensional elastic behaviour, elastic behaviour considering moment distribution,
plastic behaviour and non-linear behaviour [6]. Various codes employ linear elastic
analysis to simplify design and if certain criterion is met, a percentage of redistribution
is allowed from the support to span of a reinforced concrete beam.
While there are numerous studies relating to the concept of moment redistribution
in structural member, this study, therefore, provides a summary of moment redistri-
bution with focus on reinforced concrete beams, hinge formation, linear analysis and
code provisions. Thus, this short review would be a guide book for structural design
practitioners, tutors and students.
2 Formation of Hinges
Concrete cracking and the yielding of steel reinforcement in reinforced concrete ele-
ments causes a substantial decrease of the section stiffness; this modifies the moment
diagram and in turn utilizes the cross section of the concrete member [7]. Since
Redistribution of moments utilizes the full load carrying capacity of reinforced concrete
and steel structures, its effective application in design will depend on the knowledge of
the rotational capacity of plastic hinges formed [8].
When or if the steel reinforcement in a reinforced concrete beam yields before
failure, tells if the beam failure will be ductile or brittle. A ductile beam can take a
significant amount of plastic deformation which may not amount to a loss of strength in
the member [7]. For rotation to take place, the concrete element has to be sufficiently
ductile for plastic hinges to form [5]. When the reinforcement yields before concrete
cracks, the magnitude of the compressive strain does not significantly affect the
moment redistribution [4, 7]. Studied the redistribution in high strength concrete beams
and found that the plastic rotation capacity, as well as the variance of the stiffness along
the length of a concrete member, determines the amount of moment redistribution.
In reinforced concrete members, the inelastic action is concentrated at hinges, the
reinforced concrete beam gradually contracts the length that rotation occurs; hence, an
exact collapse load can be defined [2]. Steel beams on the contrary have no definite
collapse load due to the progressive lengthening of hinges along the length of a
member because of strain hardening; a deflection criterion has to be met to define
collapse [2].
3 Rotational Capacity
determinate beam while in an indeterminate beam, stability can be maintained after the
formation of more than one plastic hinge [1]. In considering the failure of reinforced
concrete frames it is crucial to determine the rotation capacity of the members. This
rotational capacity determines the energy absorption of the member and also controls the
redistribution of moments that occur in a reinforced concrete member [9].
The rotation capacity of the plastic hinge formed in a reinforced concrete beam
limits the extent of moment redistribution that can occur in the beam [7, 10]. The
rotation capacity of a hinge is the difference between the rotation at ultimate load and
the rotation when the reinforcement starts to yield [7]. Various evaluation of the hinge
rotational capacity exists; some account for the difference in yield at ultimate load and
at the start of the reinforcement yielding [7], some others account for the length and
flexural rigidity of the member [10]. A lot of researchers have sort to find the hinge
rotation capabilities of members but because of the complexity of reinforced concrete
materials, they do not perform well beyond the bounds that they were derived [4].
Shown in Table 1 above is the expression for the moment rotation capacity of a
beam, KMR which is the limit to which the beam can redistribute moment. KMR
depends on the rotational capacity of the hinges, hh . Theoretical and experimental
studies have been adopted in trying to compute plastic rotation capacity, hp but these
formulations do not cover the wide range of complexities (varying distributed loads and
nonsymmetrical and unique structural configurations) that occur on a beam [11]. The
expression for the moment after redistribution, (Mr)r reveals that the percentage of the
moment redistribution in a beam is directly proportional to the flexural rigidity and
inversely proportional to the length of the beam [10]. The moment distribution capacity
in reinforced concrete beams also increases with the diameter and fracture strain of the
reinforcement and decreases with the bond strengths of the reinforcement [10].
Several theoretical, empirical and experimental relationships have been developed
by various researchers to determine the plastic rotation capacity of reinforced concrete
beams [3]. Various codes have focused on empirical solutions based on the neutral axis
depth factor, and these vary widely between codes [10].
The behaviour of the two constituent materials of reinforced concrete (concrete and
steel) is nonlinear and this makes the analysis complex [12]. Even though concrete
exhibits a nonlinear stress-strain relationship, this relationship is usually neglected in
design using linear elastic method [5]. The methods used for structural analysis do not
Computing Redistribution Moments of Concrete Members in the Plastic Stage 69
allow for the formation of plastic hinges, they simply suggest safety factors or depend
on the plastic reserve of statically indeterminate construction [5].
To simplify calculations linear elastic method is used whilst allowing for limited
redistribution (also known as the plastic balancing of moment method). It takes account
of the plastic properties of concrete [5] and it is the most commonly used method in the
design of structures [3]. Linear elastic analysis is used for analyzing a concrete
structure and moment redistribution is carried out under code provisions which
decrease or increase the sections’ stress within certain limits [3]. Usually, the degree of
moment redistribution is controlled by a coefficient of redistribution, d while the static
equilibrium conditions are maintained [7]. The use of the coefficient, d aims to mimic
the plastic nature of the materials, and it depends on the ductility of the section to be
considered [7].
The Table 2 above show the expressions for the coefficient of redistribution, d by
Eurocode 2. d according to Eurocode 2 is limited by the ultimate compressive strain of
concrete, the concrete strength and the ductility of the reinforcing steel [7].
The American concrete institute code (ASI381-94), ensures the ductility of the
plastic hinge region by limiting the tensile reinforcement ratio, q (or q – q’ where there
is compressive reinforcement) to 0:5qb . Where q’ is the compressive reinforcement
ratio and qb is the reinforcement ratio at balanced condition [7]. All possible mecha-
nisms and the rotation requirements at all possible hinge locations in reinforced con-
crete beams need to be analysed to maximize the plastic capacity of reinforced concrete
members [1] and these calculations become cumbersome. The ACI code also limits the
amount of redistribution to <1000et (to a maximum of 20%) without the rigor of
calculating rotation requirements [1]. This modification of the negative moment
redistribution will occur when the net tensile strain, et 0:0075 [1].
In the British standards, the three conditions as follows have to be satisfied for
redistribution to take place; (i) Equilibrium must be maintained between the internal
and external forces. (ii) After the ultimate moment of resistance for a cross-section is
reduced, the depth of the neutral axis, x should be limited to ðbb 0:4Þd. Where, d is
the effective depth and bb is the ratio of the moment at the section after redistribution to
the ratio of the moment before redistribution ðbb 1Þ. (iii) The value of the redis-
tributed moment should be at least 70% of the moment obtained from elastic analysis
accounting for the appropriate ultimate design load combinations [13].
The use of computers in structural analysis makes the expansion of the bending
moment envelope for design less cumbersome and these larger moments can be
reduced because of moment redistribution [11]. The beam in Fig. 1 below supports a
dead load, Gk of 25 kN/m and a live load, Qk of 10 kN/m and it has been analysed
using linear elastic analysis.
70 P. Awoyera et al.
Figure 2 shows the combination that gives the maximum effects in the end spans,
Fig. 3 shows the combination that gives the maximum mid-span moment and Fig. 4
shows the combination that gives the maximum support moments. 20% redistribution
of support moments was allowed in all cases and equilibrium conditions were satisfied
to obtain the moments on the other beam sections. The final design bending moment
diagram taking account the three combinations is shown in the Fig. 5 below.
Fig. 5. Final design moments (kN/m) – using linear analysis with 20% moment redistribution of
support moments
5 Discussion
6 Conclusions
The amount of tensile reinforcement and the concrete strength of a reinforced concrete
member determine its ductility which controls the redistribution of moments and with
appropriate tensile reinforcement ratios, sections can be utilized more effectively.
Linear analysis with moment redistribution can be used to analyse reinforced
concrete members in the plastic stage. It is the method of analysis widely used in
practice but these calculations give a wide margin and may not tell what occurs in the
member as it is loaded.
References
1. Nilson AH, Darwin D, Dolan CW (2004) Design of Concrete Structures, 13th edn. Mc
Graw-Hill, New York. Elizabeth A. Jones
2. Barnard RP (1964) The collapse of reinforced concrete beams. In Proceedings of the ASCE-
ACI international symposium on flexural mechanics of reinforced concrete, Miami
3. Marefat M, Farzanian M (2008) Evaluation of moment distribution demand in continuous
constructions under gravity and seismic loads. In: 14th world conference on earthquake
engineering, Beijing, China
4. Visintin P, Ali MM, Xie T, Sturm AB (2018) Experimental investigation of moment
redistribution in ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete beams. Constr Build Mater
166(2018):433–444
5. Piotr D, Krzysztof K (2017) Research in redistribution of bending moments in the beams of
reinforced concrete early loaded. Procedia Eng 172(2017):883–890
6. McKenzie WM (2004) Design of Structural Elements. Palgrave Macmillan, New York
7. Carmo RN, Lopes SM (2005) Ductility and linear analysis with moment redistribution in
reinforced high-strenght concrete beams. Can J Civ Eng 32:194–230
8. Eligehausen R, Langer P (1986) The rotation capacity of plastic hinges in reinforced
concrete beams and slabs. In: International symposium on fundamental theory of reinforced
and prestressed concrete, Nanjing, China
9. Oehlers DJ, Liu IS, Seracino R (2005) The gradual formation of hinges throughout
reinforced concrete beams. Mech Based Design Struct Mach Int J 33:373–398
10. Oehlers DJ, Haskett M, Ali M, Griffith MC (2010) Moment redistribution in reinforced
concrete beams. Struct Build 163:165–176 SB3
11. Shakir A, Rogowsky DM (2000) Evaluation of ductility and allowable moment redistri-
bution in reinforced concrete structures. Can J Civ Eng 27:1286–1299
12. Kostić SM, Deretić-Stojanović B, Stošić S (2011) Redistribution effects in linear elastic
analysis of continuous composite steel-concrete beams according to Eurocode 4. Archit Civ
Eng 9:133–145
13. British Standard (2002) British Standard - BS 8110-1:1997, BSI
14. Allen AH (1988) Reinforced concrete design to BS8110. E. & F. N. Spon, London
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
Rai, Thakkar and Ramesh [1]- The relative hysteretic performance of two models of
reinforced concrete portal frames were tested under slow cyclic loads. Conventional
non-seismic detailing as per IS 456: 2000 and seismic ductility provisions as per IS
13920: 1993 was done. Both frames showed stable hysteretic behavior, but the beam-
column joints exhibited inelastic activities. The need for adequate seismic detailing of
beam-column joints was emphasized.
Shinozuka, Feng, Lee and Naganuma [3]- Study of fragility curves using a statis-
tical analysis was presented. The curves considered empirical as well as analytical
fragility. For empirical fragility curves bridge damage data obtained from the 1995
Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake was utilises. For analytical fragility curves the
basis used was of the nonlinear dynamic analysis. To represent the fragility curves two-
parameter lognormal distribution functions were used.
Vamvatsikos and Cornell [5]- To estimate structural performance of a structure
under seismic loads the method incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) was proposed. It
is divided into two parts; one to subject a structural model to ground motions which is
scaled to multiple levels of intensity, and to produce curves of response parameterized
versus intensity level.
3 Objectives of IDA
All earthquake motions are scaled and applied to the frame under consideration. The
scale factors used range between 0.02 to 2 and increment used is 0.005 to 0.1. For each
ground motion maximum inter storey drift is calculated. Using the results of simula-
tion, 10 curves are plotted for 10 ground motions. Due to space limitations only two
curves and a combined plot of all 10 curves are presented here (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
76 A. A. Waghmare and U. R. Kawade
Fig. 1. Incremental Dynamic Curve for E3 (Maximum inter storey drift on x-axis and Peak
ground acceleration on y-axis)
Fig. 2. Incremental Dynamic Curve for E8 (Maximum inter storey drift on x-axis and Peak
ground acceleration on y-axis)
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis 77
Fig. 3. Incremental Dynamic Curve for all ground motions (Peak ground acceleration on x-axis
and Maximum inter storey drift on y-axis)
Incremental dynamic analysis curves are further converted to fragility curves. Based on
dynamic instability or excessive lateral displacements collapse is predicted. Using yield
data obtained from IDA results, a yielding fragility is defined with the help of a
cumulative distribution function (CDF). This function gives relation between the
ground motion intensity and probability of yielding. This cumulative distribution is
assumed to be log normally distributed. Figure shows a cumulative distribution plot is
obtained by fitting a lognormal distribution to the yield values as well as collapse
values. Log normal distributions are defined by a median value and a dispersion
parameter (Figs. 4 and 5).
Fig. 4. Fragility curve for yield versus to peak ground acceleration (Peak ground acceleration
on x-axis and Probability of yielding on y-axis)
78 A. A. Waghmare and U. R. Kawade
Fig. 5. Fragility curve for collapse versus peak ground acceleration (Peak ground acceleration
on x-axis and Probability of collapse on y-axis)
7 Conclusion
In this study, the seismic yield and collapse capacities for a non-seismic RC frame
building are obtained using a methodology known as incremental dynamic analysis.
One representative building is subjected to ten ground motions. IDA curves are plotted
to get the yield and collapse capacities of the frame under consideration. The IDA
curve contains the necessary information to assess Performance levels. The yield
capacity of the structure is defined as the peak ground acceleration point at which the
IDA curve nonlinear. The peak ground acceleration point at which the IDA curve
becomes horizontal is defined as the collapse capacity. Fragility curves are plotted for
yielding damage levels, defined using intensity measures. Thus it is observed that for a
ten storied structure there is 10% probability of yielding the structure when it is
subjected to an earthquake of PGA 0.2. This probability becomes equal to 20%, when
the PGA is 2.75. If the value of PGA increases to 0.475, yielding probability exceeds
40%. For the ground motion of PGA 0.7, the structure will yield with more than 60%
probability. When the PGA reaches to 1, there are more than 80% chances of yielding
of the frame. Similar conclusions can be drawn from fragility curve for collapse.
In this way the method can be used to predict the response of any frame when
subjected to a series of ground motion.
Acknowledgements. I express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide, Dr. U.R. Kawde for
supporting and encouraging me time to time. I am grateful to Mr. Mahesh Shah, Associate
Director, CAE, C-DAC, Pune for his kind support and guidance. I also extend my sincere sense
of gratefulness to Miss. Pallavi Gawali and Gauri Kadam, C-DAC, Pune for giving me proper
direction and for providing the required data and documents needed.
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis 79
References
1. Rai DC, Thakkar SK, Ramesh U (2006) Behavior of seismic and non-seismic RC frames
under cyclic loads. Indian Concrete J 80:46–52
2. Murty CVR, Rai DV, Bajpai KK, Jain SK (2001) Anchorage details and joint design in
seismic RC frames. Indian Concr J 75:274–280
3. Shinozuka M, Feng MQ, Lee J, Naganuma T (2000) Statistical analysis of fragility curves.
J Eng Mech 126(12):1224–1231
4. Mahashabde AV, Dasgupta K, Murty CV (2003) Seismic strengthening of gravity load
designed RC frame buildings. In Fourth international conference of earthquake engineering
and seismology, Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
5. Vamvatsikos D, Cornell AC (2002) Incremental dynamic analysis. Earthquake Eng Struct
Dyn 31(3):491–514
Evaluation of Coir Geotextile Mats to Enhance
the Poor Subgrade Under Repeated Load
for Low-Volume Roads
Abstract. The construction of Low-volume roads (LVRs) roads over the poor
subgrade soil is a challenging task. The poor subgrade is revealed as Black
Cotton soil (BC). The presence of the clay and silt particular of BC soil possess
seasonal changing behavior such as swelling, shrinkage, and settlement.
Resulting in higher rut depth, fatigue, and settlement in LVRs. To arrest these
problems many of the conventional techniques were adopted. But these tech-
niques are neither economical nor eco-friendly. In the present study, an attempt
was made with the two types of the coir geotextile mats to the reinforcement of
BC soil under the repeated loading condition. This study is concluded that the
use of coir geotextile mats is effective to reduce the deformation and more
significant with morrum soil. And also indicate that the incorporation of the coir
geotextile improved the performance and serviceability of the LVRs.
1 Introduction
India is the second largest road network country in the world. Among them, around
85% of the roads are built as LVRs. The LVRs are plays a key role in developing
country like India. From the last few decades’ rapid constructions of LVRs are takes
places in India. Simultaneously, there a problem of scarcity of natural material such as
aggregate, gravel, and morrum. And also the lower cost of construction and mainte-
nance. Apart from the above, many of the LVRs are subjected to several problems such
as poor subgrade, low strength of sub-base material. Resulting in a higher deformation
and settlement occur in the pavement layer. The construction of the LVRs possesses
several problems to the pavement such as rutting, fatigue, depression and high set-
tlement. To minimize this problem of the pavement many of the conventional tech-
niques were adopted in pavement engineering. But these conventional techniques are
not easy to adopt, economical and also involve the higher machinery during the con-
struction of LVRs.
In another way, form the last few decades an alternate material such as geotextile
was introduced in the construction of the LVRs. The utilization of the geotextile is
improved the bearing capacity, enhance the poor subgrade and also the cost-effective
method in pavement engineering. In view of the above consideration, the present study
was aimed to evaluate the potential benefits of the coir geotextile mats.
A systematic laboratory study was planned to conduct with fabricated assembled
mould with two types of the coir geotextile mats. The test was performed as a two-layer
pavement model system such as subgrade and sub-base with and without coir geo-
textile. The subgrade soil was taken as BC (CBR < 2) along with the two types of sub-
base material such as morrum (GW) and gravel (SP). The prepared test samples are
performed under WTT apparatus.
2 Literatures Review
The expansive soil poses the several problems to the pavement in the form of rutting,
fatigue and reflection due its high swelling, shrinkage and volume change behavior
upon wetting and drying condition [1–3] to prevent this problem many of the con-
ventional technics were adopted and reported their benefits, due to its high cost and the
difficulties in application in field. The geosynthetics are chosen as alternate material in
pavements. In addition strength to the pavement, the geosynthetics are gaining
importance in the pavement in term of Reinforcement, separation, and drainage, they
proved to be cost effective especially for low volume roads [4]. The author described
that the entire world having 80% of LVR, which are subjected to failures like rutting
and fatigue cracks lack of maintenance problem [5]. The geotextile acts as a tension
member and reduce the deformation and the vertical stress over the subgrade [6] and
improve the performance of the roads. The test was conducted to determine the per-
formance of the Geosynthetics in the flexible pavement. The results of the study
indicate that the placement of Geosynthetics at top of base course is performance better
than the other places [7]. To evaluated the reinforcement character of geogrid and
geotextile in terms of anti-reflecting cracks, concluded that the provision of geotextile
at the sub-base level reduce the anti-reflecting cracks of the flexible pavement [8].
Investigate the effectiveness of geosynthetics in term of reflecting cracking; conclude
that the reduction of cracking proportion depends on the suitable position of the
Geosynthetic [9]. Study the performance of the locally available material with the
determination of pavement thickness and concluded that the locally available materials
are effectively utilized for the construction of the LVRs [10]. To evaluate the geo-grid
and geotextile application in pavement construction, it was revealed that the Geosyn-
thetics stabilized pavement section significantly increases the pavement life and reduce
the rutting of the pavement [11]. The performance of the new materials for subgrade
improvement under cyclic loading and concluded that there is a reduction in the per-
manent deformation and vertical stress between the base and sub-base [12]. The author
described the shear strength of clay soil reinforced with the randomly distributed coir
fiber by using the Tri-axil test [13]. This study concluded that the incorporation of the
coir fiber improves the shear strength of the clay soil.
82 D. Harinder and S. Shankar
The study was conducted with subgrade as BC soil (CBR < 2) was borrowed from the
lake. The basic test on the BC soil is performed in the laboratory and listed in the below
Table 1.
In the present study, two types of sub-base soil are taken as sub-base material such
as morrum (GW) and gravel (SP). The basic properties of the sub-base material are
evaluated in the laboratory and listed in the below Table 2.
The coir geotextile is naturally available material extracted from the husk of
coconuts. It is strong in nature and high durability as compared with other natural
material. The basic properties of coir geotextile are presented in Table 3.
In the present study, two types of coir geotextile mats are used as reinforcement
material such as coir composite (CC) and Woven coir mats (WCM). The coir com-
posite material was manufactured with a combination of the woven coir mats along
with geogrid material. Figure 1 shown the types of geotextile mats used in the present
study.
Evaluation of Coir Geotextile Mats to Enhance the Poor Subgrade 83
Experimental Setup: The wheel tracking test apparatus (WTT) are used for this
investigation with the varying contact pressure of moving load to simulate the filed
condition. The WTT apparatus height of the loading lever has been raised using the
fabricated angle sections. The fabricated angles are controlling the enable to the loading
onto the pavement model section. The maximum load applied on to the pavement has
55 kg, through the moving wheel of diameter 200 mm, the width of 50 mm made of
solid rubber. Figure 2 shown the Experimental setup used in the study.
In the laboratory, an attempt is made in the form of a two-layer pavement model system
using the fabricated mould of size 300 300 400 mm. The fabricated mould was
prepared as a two-layer model system as subgrade and sub-base. The coir geotextile
mats are incorporated in the fabricated mould at a different position.
Form the above Fig. 3 the placement position of coir mats at sub-base thickness of
200 mm shown the higher number of wheel passes such as 850 with coir composite
(CC) mats. The un-reinforcement pavement model obtained the lower deformation due
to the sandy gravel sub-base material. Which is occurred due to the lower shear
strength of the sub-base soil with the presence of the non-cohesive particles. The rut
depth along with the number of wheel passes at the sub-base layer I shown in Fig. 3.
40
Rut depth (40mm)
30
20
BC soil + sandy Gravel
BC soil + WCM + Sandy Gravel
BC Soil + CC + Sandy gravel
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Number of wheel passes
Fig. 3. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer I with 400 mm
40
30
Rut depth (40mm)
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Number of wheel passes
Fig. 4. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer II with 400 mm
Evaluation of Coir Geotextile Mats to Enhance the Poor Subgrade 85
In Fig. 4 the incorporation of coir geotextile mats at sub-base layer II (134 mm)
shown the lower number of passes at same rut depth. In this case, the provision of coir
mats at sub-base layer II with sandy gravel soil having the lower passes in the un-
reinforcement model. The maximum number of wheel passes at this position was
obtained as 580 repetitions with CC. The rut depth and the number of wheel passes at
the sub-base layer II position are showed in Fig. 4. The coir composite mats were
shown the better performance. Its serve as reinforcement and separation function to the
pavement model and extend the service life of the LVRs. The NWC mats serve only
the reinforcement to the poor subgrade. The finer soil particles are moved from the
opening size of the woven coir mats.
40
Rut depth (40mm)
30
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Number of wheel passes
Fig. 5. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer III with 400 mm
Form the Fig. 5 show the number of passes at sub-base layer III (thickness of
100 mm) with gravel sandy soil. While reducing the sub-base thickness the number of
passes are shown higher with composite material than the WCM. The obtained num-
bers of wheel passes with CC and WCM are noticed as are 780 and 560 respectively.
The coir composite mats were shown more effective at every position to improving the
number of passes at the same rut depth.
10
Rut Depth in mm
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Number of Wheel Passses
Fig. 6. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer I with 200 mm
86 D. Harinder and S. Shankar
From the above Fig. 6 the rut depth and the number of passes are shown at sub-
base thickness of 100 mm with gravel soil. The rut depth of the prepared sample is
noticed the noticed for T1 traffic categories (T1 = 30,000) as per the IRC SP: 72-2015.
During the study, it was noticed that the provision of coir mats with morrum (GW) soil
improves the number of passes. The deformation or rut depth of the un-reinforced
sample is 15 mm and the reinforced sample 4 mm was noticed. The provided CC mats
reduce the deformation up to 13 mm to 5 mm.
25
Rut depth in mm
20
15
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Number of Wheel Passes
Fig. 7. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer II with 200 mm
In the above Fig. 7 it was observed that the maximum and minimum rutting of the
un-reinforcement at sub-base thickness of 66 mm has occurred at a position of 27 mm
and 8 mm respectively. The higher the deformation occurred with reinforcement of coir
mats. The 17 mm deformation was obtained with WCM at the same position under T1
traffic category. In this case, the provision of CC, WCM, and NWCM mats are shown
the smaller rutting when compared with sandy gravel soil. The rut depth and the
number of wheel passes at sub-base layer II is shown in Fig. 7.
35
30
Rut depth in mm
25
20
15
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Number of Wheel Passes
Fig. 8. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer III with 200 mm
Evaluation of Coir Geotextile Mats to Enhance the Poor Subgrade 87
The above Fig. 8 describes the two-layer pavement system in order to reduce the
thickness of the sub-base soil and the coir mats are provided at sub-base layer III. The
maximum and the minimum rut depth of reinforced and un-reinforced model layer
deformation are noted as 37 mm and 11 mm respectively. The un-reinforced model
layer rut depth at a 50 mm thickness of sub-base is shown in Fig. 8. The inclusion of
coir mats with sub-base as a morrum soil showed better performance than the sandy
gravel soil. From the study, it was noticed that the cohesive fine content sub-base soil
enhance the performance due to its confinement. The placement of the coir geotextile
mats with morrum soil shown more significant results. The CC mats increase the
performance and service life of the pavement structure.
6 Conclusions
The following are the conclusion are drawn from the laboratory study.
1. The maximum rut depth was noticed as 37 mm without the reinforcement of the
coir geotextile. It can reduce up to 8 mm with coir composite mats.
2. The lower the deformation has occurred as 5 mm at sub-base layer III with morrum
soil with CC material. The CC mats are performed effectively to possess the
reinforcement and separation function in both types of sub-base soil.
3. In case of gravel as sub-base material, the maximum number of passes are obtained
with the incorporation of CC mats. The higher the passes are noticed with a lower
thickness of the sub-layer thickness (100 mm) such as 780 passes.
4. The provision of coir mats is more significant with the morrum (GW) soil than the
gravel (SP) soil.
References
1. Subba Rao KS (2000) Swell-shrink behavior of expansive soils - geotechnical challenges.
Indian Geotech J 30(1)
2. Brian Albrecht A, Benson CH (2001) Effect of desiccation on compact natural clays.
J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 127:67–75
3. Rama Rao M, Srirama Rao A (2010) Swell-shrink behavior of expansive soils under fly ash
cushions. In: Indian geotechnical conference. Geotrendz, IIT Bombay
4. Yang SH, Al-Qadi IL (2007) Cost-effectiveness of using geotextiles in flexible pavements.
Geosynth Int. 14:2–12
5. Pokharel SK, Han J, Manandhar C, Yang X, Leshinsky D, Halahmi I, Robert LP (2011)
Accelerated pavement testing of geocell-reinforced unpaved roads over the weak subgrade.
J Trans Res B 2204:67–75
6. Giroud JP, Noiray L (1981) Geotextile reinforced unpaved road design. J Geotech
Eng ASCE 107(9):1233–1254
7. Chen J, Shiuh, Lin C, Shiah M-S (2001) Evaluation of Geosynthetic applied to flexible
pavements. J East Asia Soc Trans Stud 4:381–395
88 D. Harinder and S. Shankar
1 Introduction
Earthquakes are one of the devastating natural disaster that occur in the world affecting
mostly by damaging property and life. It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of
earthquake but with the help of seismic hazard studies, the effect of earthquake on
infrastructure and life can be reduced significantly. Keeping in view of some of the
earthquakes occurred in peninsular India such as the Bhuj earthquake, Koyna earth-
quake, Latur earthquake, it is necessary to access the earthquake potential of a par-
ticular region. It is certain from the peninsular earthquakes that intraplate region is also
prone to catastrophic earthquake. The potential earthquakes in peninsular India com-
pelled us to estimate the seismic hazard for different source zones to reduce the effect
earthquake risk on human life and property damage.
The study includes the peninsular India (PI), which is known for its moderate level
of seismicity. The region has experience earthquakes with magnitude Mw > 6 which
has caused huge loss to properties and human life in PI. The region consists of zone II
and zone III level of seismicity as per seismic zonation map of India [1]. The seismic
scenario and the amount of destruction caused by earthquake to property and human
life shows that PI region is seismically active with moderate magnitude of earthquakes.
The knowledge of mmax is essential in many engineering application. Hence, the
seismic hazard assessment in terms of maximum magnitude mmax for the PI is essential.
The maximum magnitude can be estimated mostly using probabilistic and deter-
ministic approaches. The deterministic approach requires various tectonic features and
fault parameters such as fault rupture length, slip rate etc. to estimate the maximum
magnitude. However, the uncertainty of mmax estimated using deterministic approach is
large, upto unity. The probabilistic approach uses the earthquake catalogue, statistical
procedure and seismological history of the area. A simple incremental method has also
been developed in which the observed maximum magnitude will be increased by a
certain value. In this study, the maximum magnitude mmax have been calculated using
the probabilistic method and incremental method for four seismotectonic zones.
The present study area considered is a circle of radius 500 km with centre as NIT
Warangal. The study area cover a major portion of peninsular India (PI). The PI
consists of very old rock formations such as schists and gneiss. The Archaean system
and the Dharwar system are the two main divisions of the Precambrian rocks of India.
The Dharwar system rocks are mainly sedimentary and found in the Aravalis of Raj-
putana and Mysore. The Peninsular Shield is divided into three main regions the
Singhbhum the Dharwar and the Aravalli which are separated by Proterozoic rifts. The
Son-Narmada Tapti lineament which is a combination of the Narmada Son Lineament
and the Tapti lineament separates the northern and southern blocks of the Peninsular
Shield. The other rift basins are the Cuddapah, Godavari, Cambay, Kutch, etc. Pale-
orifting regions comprising of big faults has experienced deformations in their most
active phase, which are Mahanadi, Cambay and Narmada grabens.
The study area consists of many active faults and lineaments. The linear sources
such as faults and lineaments have been identified from the Seismotectonic Atlas of
India and have been digitized using ArcGIS software. Some of the major faults present
in the study region are the Kaddam fault, Purna fault and Tapti fault.
Ramachandran [5], Jaiswal and Sinha [6] and Nath et al. [7] has also been considered
for the preparation of the catalogue. The different sources reported the earthquake in
different magnitude scales such as the body wave magnitude, surface wave magnitude,
local scale magnitude, moment magnitude and intensity scale. The earthquakes
reported in different magnitude scale have been converted to a homogeneous moment
magnitude scale using the empirical equations suggested by Scordilis [8], Heaton et al.
[9] and Gutenberg-Richter [10]. Scordilis [8] have given the relationship to convert
body wave magnitude and surface wave magnitude to moment magnitude. Heaton et al.
[9] have given the relationship to convert local magnitude scale whereas Gutenberg-
Richter [10] has given for intensity scale. The above equations were used to achieve a
homogeneous earthquake catalogue in moment magnitude scale for the study region.
The earthquake catalogue consists of 325 events including foreshocks and aftershocks.
The foreshocks and aftershocks have to be removed from the earthquake catalogue to
have a Poisson’s distribution. The foreshocks and aftershocks have been removed using
the windowing technique suggested by Uhrhammer [11]. After declustering, a total of
296 events were available with magnitude greater than 3.0 from 1800 to 2016.
The seismic hazard assessment requires the identification of probable seismic zones
that are capable of generating future earthquakes by understanding the seismicity
pattern, recent and historical seismicity, fault activities and tectonic evidences. The
study region has been divided into four seismic zones based on the seismicity pattern
and fault orientation as shown in Fig. 1.
The recurrence relationship suggested by Gutenberg and Richter [14] has been
estimated using the data after completeness analysis. In the present study, the seis-
micity parameters are assumed to be constant in a zone. The Gutenberg-Richter (G-R)
recurrence relationship is given in Eq. 1.
The maximum magnitude mmax of the study region was estimated using the proba-
bilistic approach suggested by Kijko et al. [3] which was initially developed by Kijko
and Sellevol [15]. This method considers the uncertainty of magnitude, completeness
of earthquake catalogue and earthquake-occurrence model. The model requires the
information of the mean seismic activity rate k and the parameter b. The detailed
procedure to estimate the values were given by Kijko et al. [3]. A computer program
(HA3) written by Kijko et al. [3] was used to estimate mmax and the value are given in
Table 2.
The second method considered to estimate maximum magnitude mmax has been
proposed by Gupta [2]. This method is based on adding an incremental unit to the
observed maximum magnitude earthquake. This is a simple method in which the
observed maximum magnitude in the considered region is increased by a magnitude of
0.5 unit. This incremental method has been adopted in various seismic hazard studies
[16, 17]. The maximum magnitude mmax for different zones calculated using the Gupta
[2] method was given in Table 3.
In this paper, the maximum possible earthquake magnitude mmax for four seismic
source zones around NIT Warangal was estimated using two different methods. The
study region is a part of peninsular India which is an intraplate region. The region has
experienced some of the catastrophic earthquakes in the past. The earthquake data was
collected for the region from different sources and homogenized to a convenient scale.
The earthquake catalogue was declustered for foreshocks and aftershocks. The linear
sources such as faults and lineaments have been recognized from the Seismotectonic
Atlas of India. The faults and earthquake epicenter was digitized using ArcGIS soft-
ware. The study region was divided into four zone based on the seismicity pattern. The
maximum possible earthquake in each zone has been calculated using two different
methods. The zone 1 has the maximum value whereas zone 4 has the minimum value
of possible earthquake magnitude. It is evident from the study that the region con-
sidered is moderately vulnerable due to earthquake hazard.
References
1. IS-1893 (2002) Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures
2. Gupta ID (2002) The state of the art in seismic hazard analysis. ISET J Earthq Technol 39
(4):311–346
3. Kijko A, Smit A, Sellevoll MA (2016) Estimation of earthquake hazard parameters from
incomplete data files. Part III. Incorporation of uncertainty of earthquake-occurrence model.
Bull Seismol Soc Am 106(3):1210–1222
4. Rao BR, Rao PS (1984) Historical seismicity of peninsular India. Bull Seismol Soc Am 74
(6):2519–2533
5. Srivastava HN, Ramachandran K (1985) New catalogue of earthquakes for peninsular India
during 1839–1900. Mausam 36(3):351–358
6. Jaiswal K, Sinha R (2007) Probabilistic seismic-hazard estimation for peninsular India. Bull
Seismol Soc Am 97(1B):318–330
7. Nath SK, Thingbaijam KKS, Ghosh SK (2010) Earthquake catalogue of South Asia - a
generic MW scale framework. www.earthqhaz.net/sacat
8. Scordilis EM (2006) Empirical global relations converting Ms and mb to moment
magnitude. J Seismolog 10(2):225–236
9. Heaton TH, Tajima F, Mori AW (1986) Estimating ground motions using recorded
accelerograms. Surv Geophys 8(1):25–83
10. Gutenberg B, Richter CF (1956) Earthquake magnitude, intensity, energy, and acceleration.
Bull Seismol Soc Am 46(2):105–145
11. Uhrhammer RA (1986) Characteristics of northern and central California seismicity. Earthq
Notes 57(1):21
12. Khan MM, Kumar GK (2018) Statistical completeness analysis of seismic data. J Geol Soc
India 91(6):749–753
13. Stepp JC (1972) Analysis of completeness of the earthquake sample in the Puget Sound area
and its effect on statistical estimates of earthquake hazard. In: Proceedings of the 1st
international conference on microzonazion, Seattle, vol 2, pp 897–910
14. Gutenberg B, Richter CF (1944) Frequency of earthquakes in California. Bull Seismol Soc
Am 34(4):185–188
Estimation of Maximum Magnitude (mmax) Considering Different Seismic Zones 95
15. Kijko A, Sellevoll MA (1989) Estimation of earthquake hazard parameters from incomplete
data files. Part I. Utilization of extreme and complete catalogs with different threshold
magnitudes. Bull Seismol Soc Am 79(3):645–654
16. Bahuguna A, Sil A (2018) Comprehensive seismicity, seismic sources and seismic hazard
assessment of Assam, North East India. J Earthq Eng 1–44
17. Bashir A, Basu D (2018) Revisiting probabilistic seismic hazard analysis of Gujarat: an
assessment of Indian design spectra. Nat Hazards 91(3):1127–1164
Necessity of New Look for Equitable Water
Sharing Among Basin States - Krishna Basin
Abstract. Water is a vital basic human resource and essential for all activities
right from drinking to Industrial needs. Being a scarce natural resource, the
stress is more evident with increasing population and priorities. The evolution of
law in water sharing began with absolute territorial sovereignty and shifted
towards equitable utilization which is more divergent and complex. The earlier
arrangements in river water sharing had traces of imperialistic and colonialistic
perspective. The changes in the recent past are more in the nature of
improvements in these approaches towards equitable utilization. The approach
of various Water Dispute Tribunals constituted in India is unique to each Tri-
bunal, leading to a variety of asymmetries and anomalies in resolution of dis-
putes among States. The composition of Tribunals with involvement of
Technical Experts and adopting uniformity in its adjudication are indispensable
for better appreciation and acceptance the award. An attempt has been to dwell
upon these aspects with a concern to address pertinent issues like migration of
people and cause of health hazards with poor quality water resources etc., with
practicable solution in the field of Irrigation engineering in a pragmatic manner.
1 Introduction
Water is a vital resource for basic human needs. It is an important resource in all
activities of the society, more particularly drinking and agriculture. In view of
increasing water demands in other sectors such as industry, recreation, power etc., there
is a more stress on limited water resources. Its scarcity is more evident with increasing
population. Further, water availability is highly uneven with time and space due to
irregular monsoon. Precipitation is the main source of water and average annual pre-
cipitation in India is around 1.4 lakh TMC. The surface water resources available in
rivers are 66 Thousand TMC. But, the net available water beneficial use is around 40
Thousand TMC due various geographical constraints. Out of 40 Thousand TMC
around 24 Thousand TMC can be tapped through surface in rivers.
The availability of water resources required are dwindling and competitive needs
by States are rising day by day resulting in disputes. A River which originates in the
high mountain travels up to the Sea. Geographical borders have been created for ease of
administration, language & culture. This has resulted in formation of different States in
our country. Each State has its own needs and priorities. The States are depending on
the river flows passing through its territory to manage its demand. Near the origin of
river due to mountainous region river flows are high but the needs are low while down
below the needs are high but due to abstractions of flows in the upper reaches, resulting
in reduction flows in lower reaches. The dispute arises due to conflicting demands of
different States. It is an imperative to have rules for proper management of water
sources and its utility. The distribution of available water must be equal, equitable and
justifiable as per the reasonable requirements within the river basin. Constitutional
provisions pertaining to the river waters are mainly of legislative and executive nature
in the use, distribution and control of waters resources in India. Existing local customs
prevailed over Centuries and Laws and Acts framed by British administrators before
Independence in 1892, 1919 and in 1935 had impact in Provisions incorporated in
Indian Constitution, 1950.
The Evolution of water law in India is incorporated in the report of B.N. Rao Com-
mission on Indus River basin by adopting various prevailing theories worldwide in
sharing and also relied on general principles in the adjudication of various disputes in
sharing river waters and from the lakes.
The theory of absolute sovereignty attributes to exercise of sovereign powers of
nation enjoying its right over natural resources within its territory. It is conceived along
with the imperialistic and colonial practices existing in 19th century for sharing of Reo
Grande water between USA and Mexico. However, the deficiencies and difficulties
were realized in this practice, for sharing of river waters in other parts. An Attempt was
made to have more flexible approach with the theories of Equitable and Reasonable
utilization of river waters with emphasis to compromise and fairness.
The concept of equality which does not mean equal share and is very complex,
complicated and also does not have any direct formulae to arrive at. In fact it has to be
assessed by taking into the relevant parameters such as extent of drainage area, con-
tribution of water from this drainage area, the dependent population for its needs, the
existing pattern of use and rising demands of ecology, recreation and environmental
and possibility in harnessing of available alternative resources. The proposed equitable
shares of riparian States with fairness and compromise in such a manner it would have
to be appreciable, acceptable and rational in usage of waters for the needs of
inhabitants.
The theory of equitable shares in river basin is evolved mainly from the adjudi-
cations before US Supreme Court since 1902. However, International Law Association
(ILA) met in Helsinki in 1966 and formed guidelines for the equitable usage of river
waters which are primarily advisory in nature and popularly known as “Helsinki
Rules”. Further, UN General Assembly insisted International Law Commission to
come out with guidelines on equitable use of water based on Helsinki rules in 1970.
These guidelines on non-navigational uses of water included both surface and ground
water. The Guidelines of Helsinki rules and that of UN Convention were updated for
clear cogent and coherent approach with the experience put up with the Helsinki rules
for decades and these updated guidelines are known as Berlin Rules. The decisions of
other Federal Courts across the globe adopted the similar approach.
98 S. Narasimha Rao et al.
The evolution water law in India is mainly because of promotion of large irrigation
works by the Colonial Government in India to mitigate the recurring famines at that
time. The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873 is brought out to regulate
irrigation, navigation and drainage. It introduced the right of Government to use and
control water course for public purpose.
The widespread suffering caused by famines in the later part of 19th century led to
setting up of Famine Commission in 1878. Before, the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms
introduced by the colonial government in British India in 1921 (Act 1919), irrigation
works under the control of Central Government and no major works could be taken up
without sanction from Crown and these sanctions from Crown were classified as
productive. However, Government of India and provincial Government were given
powers to sanction minor or unproductive works costing less than 10 lakhs and these
were known as Imperial or Provincial works according to their sanction. After 1921,
Provincial Government were allowed to raise loan for works upto 50 lakh, Government
of India Act 1935 made radical changes in the administration of irrigation projects,
delegating powers to Provinces.
In fact, the first major head works proposed was Godavari anicut during 1847–52
besides their earlier attempts since 1820 to improve old indigenous existing works
namely Western Yamuna Canal, Eastern Yamuna Canal, Cauvery Delta and Inundation
canals in Indus System. Further, Govt of India embarked upon large irrigation projects
like Upper Yamuna Canal, Upper Bari Doab canal in Punjab which has been styled as
“capital works”. In India, the issue of water sharing is significantly evident since 1892.
Madras Presidency and Princely State of Mysore had entered in to an agreement in
1892 over sharing of Tungabhadra and Cauvery waters for better utilization and infact
it is first of its kind in river sharing.
Before the agreement of 1892 on Krishna river, Madras Presidency complained to
the Colonial Government for its prescriptive rights based existing use of waters over
the decades in Legal parlance and drew the attention to the provisions of acts enacted
by British Provincial or the Government of India in British India which are applicable
in their respective jurisdictions but not applicable to the Princely States. Thus, these
asymmetrical power relations internalized in negotiations of 1892 agreement remains a
source of contention. These prejudiced agreements have bearing in adjudication of
water disputes after 1947. Other, around 15 rivers namely Pennar, Chitravati, Papagni,
Palar and South Pinakini etc., shared by the two entities, province and princely States,
are also included in the agreements which are not part of Krishna basin.
The Griffin’s arbitration on the issues in Cauvery basin based on 1892 agreement
exemplifies the politics of inter-State water disputes resolution under the colonial rule.
Attempts to correct these asymmetries by law were simply obliterated by imperial
powers. These internalized asymmetries have remained a perpetual source for recurring
of disputes much more so in the Cauvery water dispute. The dispute was not settled by
appropriation of law but through the authoritative decision of the sovereign powers of
the British.
Necessity of New Look for Equitable Water Sharing Among Basin States 99
Indian water law affected due to the absence of perfect umbrella to regulate for use,
distribution and control of river waters. The complexity of law is more with the
existence of provisions from different acts brought out and adopted during colonial rule
and also adoption of latest concepts with the adoption of fairness and compromise in
the shared sovereignties and equality of rights. After Independence in 1947, Demo-
cratic pattern of Government and federal system was accepted for administration.
Democracy is a rule of law. Indian Constitution is our fundamental law. All other laws
passed by the Central or State legislative authorities as well as all subordinate legis-
lations have to conform to the constitutional provisions. Accordingly, there is distri-
bution of legislative and executive powers between the States and the centre. As such
there is possibility of disputes between states and/or the centre.
Article-246 of the Constitution of India consists of Union List, States list and
Concurrent list for the control on the subject by the Central and State Governments.
River Board Acts of 1956 was enacted under Entry-56 of List-I of the Constitution. The
Centre could not exercise its powers under entry 56 fully and preferred instead to led
the States to take larger responsibility in the water disputes is mainly due to the
presence of water subject in the State’s list and to accommodate the princely States to
accede to Indian Union. In fact MoWR couldn’t get River Boards Act like Forest
conservation act and Environmental Protection Act which allow the Centre to exercise
a reasonable control. The Centre compromised in drafting River Boards Act
(RBA) may be due to the strong centre existing under Nehru and may be due to fear of
States for the diminution of their powers by setting up of a Board. Thus, the States were
not either cooperative or enthusiastic about setting up of river Boards under RBA.
However, some river Boards like Brahmaputra, Tungabhadra Boards were constituted
from drawing legislative force from various other acts and not from RBA.
100 S. Narasimha Rao et al.
Further, Inter States River Water Disputes Act (ISRWD), which was also enacted in
1956 (Act 33 of 1956) under Article-262 to deal with water disputes in use, distribution
and control of river waters is also may be the one of the reason for the compromise to
keep River Boards Act as an advisory nature. The Act provides for constitution of
water disputes Tribunal if any riparian States files a complaint raising water disputes in
the use, distribution and control of river waters.
Priority for irrigation projects in the first five year plan encouraged the competition and
also emergence of conflicts over the utilization of river waters. The Bachawat Tribunal
after conducting prolonged deliberations on the issue of sharing of Krishna river waters
based on 1951 agreement made between the riparian States at the instance of Planning
Commission was concluded that the said agreement is invalid and void and questioned
the clearance of projects cleared by Planning Commission based on these agreement.
Further, the allocation of water resources in a basin is vested only with the Tribunals
and even the jurisdiction of the Supreme court is also barred on inter-State water issues.
It is felt that allocation made by Planning Commission in 1951 inter-State conference
may be with imperialistic style of function inherited form the colonial government. The
re-organization of State boundaries by the State Re-organization Committee in 1956
led to the consolidation of linguistic based homogenous geo-political identities in the
form of distinct territorial entities of the States. Thus, the Krishna river dispute emerged
first for which one of the three river water disputes Tribunal were constituted for
adjudication along with Godavari and Narmada.
The Tribunals have adopted the principles of equitable principles in the adjudica-
tion of river water disputes. The Tribunal hires two or more “assessors” who provide a
range of scientific, engineering and other technical advice. So far, the Union
Government has set up the following Tribunals under the Act: (i) The Narmada Water
Disputes Tribunal; (ii) The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-I & II; (iii) The Godavari
Water Disputes Tribunal, (iv) The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal, (v) The Ravi-
Beas Water Disputes Tribunal, (vi) Vamshadhara Water Disputes Tribunal and
(vii) Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal.
Politics and Politicization played a disruptive role in the resolution of water dis-
putes by the Tribunals which are already erred in legal ambiguities and constitutional
anomalies. Formation of governments in south Indian States by the regional parties
ensured the reconstruction of Indian Federalism and emergence of Coalition politics in
the Centre. A common occurrence for the States to pass bills or resolutions of Leg-
islature against Tribunal decisions or Supreme Court orders were found in Cauvery and
Ravi-Beas disputes due to the absence of the sanctions against non-complaint States led
to persistence recurrence of disputes. The following issues are associated with the
functioning of the Tribunals led to the degeneration of their effectiveness over the time.
No specified procedures for the functioning of the Tribunals
• Extended proceedings with extreme delays and Lack of clarity and guidelines in the
institutional framework.
Necessity of New Look for Equitable Water Sharing Among Basin States 101
• Time lost with the Tribunal proceedings proved to be costly affair in terms of loss of
production and cost run of irrigation projects.
• No incentives for the expediting the completion of the Tribunals.
• Deliberations before Tribunals at the discretion of Judges.
• Presence of layered process in the setting up of Tribunal itself like mediation by the
Centre at first, setting up of the Tribunal second, third referring the Complaint to the
Tribunals and absence of stipulated timeframe due to several extensions.
• Absence of technical experts in the decision making during adjudication of disputes
for ensuring a decision duly taking care of unique nature of water disputes which
are quite different from the civil/property disputes are different from the decision by
judicial process before the Hon’ble Supreme Court.
• After an Award is given, there is no proper mechanism to interpret, implement and
to enforce. Even though the Courts are barred in review of water disputes under
Article 262, the matters were posed before the Hon’ble Supreme Court under
Article 131 of the Constitution.
The Krishna river originates in the Western ghats and flows for 1400 km eastwards
before joining the Bay of Bengal. The rivers pass through the States of Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Krishna basin receives 90% of its annual
rain rainfall during the South-West monsoon season (July to October). The Krishna
basin area extends over arid areas to semi arid areas with large tracts of drought prone
areas.
The water sharing arrangements was arrived at first in 1892, again in 1933, 1944
and 1946 for the needs of inhabitants. After Independence in inter-State Conference of
1951 for the needs, basin States came to an agreement on water sharing but the same
was declared invalid due to non ratification of Mysore State. Further, new State of
Andhra was created under Act of 1953 and the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
and Maharashtra formed under State Reorganization Act of 1956 with changed the
territorial boundaries in the Krishna River basin. Due to these changes in the territorial
boundaries, the region of Telangana was denied the benefits from the proposals of
many irrigation projects for irrigating drought prone areas in the region which were
planned by erstwhile Hyderabad State. These projects were shelved due to the indif-
ferent attitude and non-pursuance before Tribunal by combined State of Andhra Pra-
desh led to perpetual injustice.
The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-I was constituted by the Central Government
in 1969 for the first time by the legislation of the ISRWD Act, 1956 after receiving the
Complaints from respective States. The Krishna Tribunal-I gave its final awards in
1976.
102 S. Narasimha Rao et al.
• The Tribunal did not include the groundwater potential in the adjudication for
equitable shares.
• The previous agreements signed by States namely 1892, 1933, 1944 and 1946 were
superseded by the KWDT-I order.
• The Tribunal apportioned only 75% dependability water as 2,060 TMC.
• The Tribunal allowed outside diversion to an extent of around 450 TMC for uses in
the outside basin ignoring large draught prone areas within the basin.
• The Tribunal did not consider alternative sources of water availability to meet the
demands of the States to ensure equality.
• The Tribunal over emphasized protection of existing uses than equality in the basin.
• The Tribunal avoided an authority for enforcement of its Order and left it to the
cooperation of the co-basin States.
• The Tribunal did not assess scientific irrigation water requirement against the need
of extensive requirement.
• The Tribunal included a clause for review of its Order after May 31, 2000.
All the three basin States before had their own fractured histories and hybrid
sovereignties in their making. It led to distinct regional identities. The uneven devel-
opment is due to irrigation development in the parts under direct colonial rule as
compared with the parts under Princely States. This disparity development was also the
source for emergence of inter-State disputes. Due to the ambiguities in the interpre-
tation of the orders after Tribunal decision, party States approached Hon’ble Supreme
Court under Article 131 involved Hon’ble Supreme Court. After the provisions of
review clause in the Award of KWDT-I, second round of adjudication began with the
constitution of second Krishna River Water Disputes Tribunal-II (KWDT-II) under the
chairmanship of Justice Brijesh Kumar in 2004. The KWDT-II gave its final Award in
2013 but the publication of Award couldn’t be made due to the stay orders from the
Hon’ble Supreme Court.
Salient Features of the Decision of Brijesh Kumar Tribunal
the decision of KWDT-II of 2010 and 2013 before Hon’ble Supreme Court and also
filed a Complaint before Central Government by raising water disputes to refer the
same to a Water Disputes Tribunal to safe guard the interests of inhabitants of the State
in July 2014. The Central Government did not act and kept pending the Complaint
without referring it to a Tribunal as requested till date.
The State of Telangana sought relief in the contagious Krishna issues including on
the colonial agreements of 1944, 1945 and 1946, effect on water utilization in its
territory due to post-independence territorial reorganizations. It also requested for
equitable allocation of water in Krishna basin as it’s more than 80% culturable area is
without irrigation facilities. But, due to legal and constitutional ambiguities, political
ecology of the dispute, it is finding difficulty in settling these asymmetries entered in
KWDT-II Award. Further, the ambiguity in the amendment to the ISRWD Act in 2002
for way of introducing a proviso not to open the closed issues is throwing a challenge
in the adjudicatory process before Brijesh Kumar Tribunal. The State of Telangana
insisting for the scientific assessment of scientific irrigation water requirement for
providing extensive irrigation by covering more than 80% of its culturable in-basin
areas which are denied irrigation for more than 5 to 6 decades. Telangana is also
contesting the issue of outside basin diversion by the State of Andhra Pradesh before
KWDT-II.
For illustration, the Telugu Ganga Project, which is the offshoot of one of the finest
examples of interstate co-operation and itself an outcome of political expediencies. The
hard fact is that the above said agreement was made without considering the water
requirements of inhabitants within Krishna basin in Telangana territory, which are
highly drought stricken and affected with severe fluoride content areas, diverting water
to a tune of one lakh cusecs in the combined State to the outside basin areas.
7 Conclusions
In examining equitable shares to the riparian States, the enshrined principles of the
federal setup in the constitution with the presence of Article 262 baring the jurisdiction
of Supreme Court over River Water Disputes must be enforced. The constitution of
water disputes Tribunal is essential to resolve the water disputes through legislative and
political process based on higher grounds of public welfare and prosperity and by
avoiding judicial decisions and strictures of the Hon’ble Supreme Court and other
Courts. The proposal of Union Government to setup a permanent Tribunal for various
river water disputes to function continuously on the lines of Hon’ble Supreme Court
with required benches for providing quick relief to the inhabitants should be expedited
with the inclusion of technical experts in the decision making, as water disputes are not
like other entities involving civil/property disputes.
As a meager assured one TMC of water will benefit lakhs of population including
agriculture farmers and contribute for the upliftment of farmers socially, economically
and will also contribute in averting migration of people for sustenance and eschew
major health hazards with better quality of drinking water, the need for practical and
feasible solution in arriving at equitable shares to the basin States will be necessary for
providing better irrigation facilities by the State for the overall development. The
104 S. Narasimha Rao et al.
existence of cartographical territorial boundaries with the colonial footprint and hybrid
linguistic barriers with the States Reorganization Commission of 1956 ought to be
corrected with the concept of single hydrological units as proposed in the form of River
Boards Act, 1956 by the Union Government. A set of guidelines from the Union
Government is required for adopting uniformity in the procedures by the Tribunal in
adjudication of water disputes for better acceptance and appreciation of the Award by
the basin States.
Delay in constituting Tribunal, referring the Complaints of the riparian States to the
Tribunal, obtaining the final order by the Tribunal and for the implementation of these
awards by notifying by the GoI need to be checked and completely avoided. In order to
appreciate the spirit behind the provision of Article 262 in the constitution which bars
Supreme Courts and other courts to exercise jurisdiction in respect of inter-State river
water disputes, implementing mechanisms should be effectively enforced.
Since Article 262 of the Constitution provides that neither the Supreme Court nor
any other Court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of inter-State river disputes, it is
necessary that the spirit behind this provision is fully appreciated and there is every
need to evolve enforcement mechanism to implement the awards given by the Tri-
bunals. The GoI needs to be more prompt. Proactive and decisive in dealing with cases
of inter-State river disputes. As a measure of conflict resolution in case of inter-State
rivers, the GoI along with the States should take up the task of resource planning
considering single hydrological unit harmonizing the geographies to achieve equity and
to avoid recurring of disputes.
References
1. Central Water Commission (2015) Water and Related Statistics, pp 4–5
2. The Report and Further Report of Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-I with the Decision
(1973, 1976)
3. Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-II Report/Decision & Further Report (2010, 2013)
4. Bakshi PM – The Constitution of India
5. Inter State River Water Disputes Act (1956). (Act 33)
6. Andhra Pradesh Re-organization Act (2014). (Act 6 of 2014)
7. Colorado River commission (2008) Wold Major Rivers - an introduction to international
water law with case studies, pp 105–120
8. Second Administrative Reforms Commission report on capacity building for conflict
resolution, February 2008
9. Chokkakula S (2017) Interstate Water Disputes Emerge and Recur - an anatomy of
ambiguities, antagonisms and asymmetries
10. Lahiri KK (2016) Inter-State River Water Disputes Act Genesis, Evolution and Analysis
11. Indus Water Treaty (1960)
A Comparative Study on the Performance
of ANN, MLR and MNR in the Assessment
of Slope Stability for Kalla - Coonoor Hill Road
Stretch of Nilgiris
1 Introduction
Kallar - Coonoor hill road stretch is located in the Western Ghats. In Western Ghats,
many places are having slope instability problems. These instability problems are
causing severe damage to infrastructure and loss of human life every year (Jha et al.
2000). To minimize this problem, a critical slope stability analysis is necessary.
Analyzing slope stability using convention slope stability is time taking for modeling
and design of slopes. In case of hilly regions large number of slopes will be there to
analyze. So, it is difficult to analyze these large numbers of slopes using convectional
limit equilibrium method (LEM). To minimize this effect an alternative tool to con-
ventional slope stability methods is multiple linear regressions (MLR), multiple non-
liner regression (MNR) and artificial neural network (ANN). The main purpose of
MLR and MNR are to learn more about the relationship between several independent
parameters and a dependent parameter. Several authors used this MLR in estimation of
slope stability (Sah et al. 1994; Erzin and Cetin 2013), where as MNR applications are
very limited. Several researches like (Khanlari et al. 2012) used MLR in other geo-
technical applications like Prediction of shear strength parameters of soils. ANN can
also be applied to various geotechnical problems (Shahin et al. 2008). ANN applica-
tions in slope stability was done by many researchers (Sakellariou and Ferentinou
2005; Erzin and Cetin 2012). In this study, slope stability assessment is carried out for
the considered study region using MLR, MNR as well as ANN and the results are
compared in terms of regression coefficient and mean square error.
Kallar-Coonoor road network is located in the Western Ghats, in the Nilgiris District of
Tamil Nadu, Southern India. In Western Ghats, many places are having slope insta-
bility problems (Manimaran et al. 2012). This road stretch is part of NH 67. It plays
very important role in region of Nilgiris hills connecting many power stations and hill
stations. It is necessary to carry out slope stability analysis for this road stretch. Nalina
et al. (2014) have carried out stability assessment of Kallar - Coonoor road stretch
between 76.806–76.874 E longitude and 11.334–11.351 N latitude (i.e. total length of
the road studied is 27 km). They had collected soil samples from 32 locations along the
road stretch and their slope stability is assessed. FOS for these locations was calculated
using Mohr coulomb theory with the infinite formula given in the Eq. 1. The exact
latitude and longitude of the locations along with respective soil properties and cal-
culated factor of safety are presented in Table 1. This data is considered as a training
data for MLR, MNR as well as ANN. Out of these 32 cases, 25 cases were used in
training MLR, MNR and ANN and remaining 7 cases were used in validating results.
C tan /
FOS ¼ þ ð1Þ
cH cos2 b tan b tan b
An artificial neural network is composed of many artificial neurons that are linked
according to specific network architecture. The objective of the neural network is to
transform the inputs into meaningful outputs. The basic principal of ANN is similar to
the human brain’s neurons principal. ANN needs training like human brain. ANN
possesses a large number of processing elements called nodes/neurons which operate in
parallel. Neurons are connected to each other by connection link. Each link is asso-
ciated with weights which contain information about the input signal. Each neuron has
an internal state of its own which is a function of the inputs that neuron receives.
(Sakellariou and Ferentinou 2005; Gelisli et al. 2015) has also applied ANN for pre-
diction of slope stability.
Table 1. (continued)
Sr. Degree Degree Density Angle of Angle of c FOS
no (N) (E) (c) g/cc internal inclination g/cm2
friction (/) (b)
26* 11.334 76.819 1.94 37.9 52 73 1.09
27* 11.335 76.817 1.57 23.9 19 29 1.86
28* 11.335 76.819 1.52 38.9 63.5 0 0.4
29* 11.334 76.813 1.37 20.3 32 27 0.96
30* 11.335 76.815 1.54 51.5 42 12 1.52
31* 11.348 76.809 1.63 41.8 54 0 0.65
32* 11.345 76.806 1.65 46.6 68 0 0.43
Multiple linear regression method was first proposed in the year 1908 by Pearson
(Yilmaz and Kaynar 2011). Recently MLR has been used by many geo-technical
engineering for various geo-technical problems (Erzin and Cetin 2013). This method
was generally used to find the relationship between several independent variable and
dependent variables. It was in the form of (Y = aX1 + bX2 + cX3 + ------ + K) here Y
is dependent variable whereas X1, X2, X3… are independent variables, and a, b, c. etc.
are regression coefficients. Using this MLR an attempt is made to find the relation
between dependent parameter (i.e. Factor of safety) and independent parameters (i.e. c,
/, b, c) for stability assessment of slopes.
Fig. 3. Regression plot for MLR model learning data (25 cases).
Y ¼ a þ b1 Xi þ b2 Xj þ b3 Xi2 þ b4 Xj2 þ þ bn Xi Xj
here Y is dependent variable whereas Xi, Xj, Xk… are independent variables, and b1,
b2, b3, etc. are regression coefficients. MNR model is to find the relation between
dependent parameter (i.e. Factor of safety) and independent parameters (i.e. c, /, b, c)
for stability assessment of slopes.
developed MNR model is presented in Eq. 3. For verifying the developed MNR model
learned date is checked with this model and observed correlation coefficient R2, it was
0.967, shown in Fig. 4 which is almost showing good correlation which can be applied
to unlearned data.
6 Results
After developing MLR, MNR, ANN models successfully, these methods are applied to
untrained data of 7 cases from the Table 1 and their performances are evaluated in
terms of MSE and R2 and these are evaluated using Eqs. 4 and 5. Results of these are
compared and presented in the Table 2.
1 XN
MSE ¼ ðY Y 0 Þ2 ð4Þ
n 1
2 32
P P P
6 N Y Y 0 ð YÞð Y 0 Þ 7
R2 ¼ 6r ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
4 h P iffih i
7
5 ð5Þ
P P P
N Y 2 ð YÞ N Y 02 ð Y 0 Þ 2 2
Table 2. FOS estimated by MLR, MNR and ANN for untrained cases
Sr. no Calculated FOS MLR FOS MNR FOS ANN FOS
1 1.09 1.419 1.108 1.086
2 1.86 1.639 0.048 1.842
3 0.4 0.195 0.464 0.402
4 0.96 0.983 0.948 0.974
5 1.52 1.597 1.488 1.516
6 0.65 0.666 0.685 0.603
7 0.43 0.317 0.408 0.423
MSE 0.031 0.005 0.0003
Fig. 5. Comparison of ANN predicted FOS Fig. 6. Comparison of MLR predicted FOS
with calculated FOS with calculated FOS
Potential of MLR, MNR and ANN in the estimation of FOS of slopes is studied in this
study. Stability assessment carried out by Nalina et al. (2014) for Kallar - Coonoor road
stretch is used in our analysis. ANN is initially trained with first 25 cases presented in
Table 1 and then applied to last 7 cases presented in the table. ANN estimated FOS is
presented in Table 2. Similarly, MLR, MNR equation is developed using first 25 cases
from the Table 1 and then the developed equation is used to predict FOS of remaining
7 cases. Estimated FOS of last 7 cases is presented in the Table 2.
Accuracy of FOS estimation by all the methods are compared in terms of Mean
square error (MSE). Predicted FOS of both MLR, MNR and ANN are shown in terms
of regression plot shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7 Mean square error is calculated using
Eq. (4) Results from MLR, MNR and ANN are well compared. MSE of ANN is very
low, this imply s ANN performance is almost close to actual FOS values. After ANN
MNR is providing second best result, this method can also be used in field for rapid
assessment of stability. MSE performances of MLR little more when compared to
ANN and MNR, this is due to some non-linearity is there in between depending
variable and independent variable. R2 shown in Figs. 5 and 7 for ANN, MNR are much
better than R2 for MLS shown in Fig. 6.
This study clearly showed that the soft computing analysis is an effective tool for
accurate slope stability analysis. From the results of this study, it is found that both
MNR and ANN are able to predict the FOS reasonably. Hence, artificial neural network
and multiple non linear regression analysis can be used to analyze slope stability.
However, one should thoroughly understand their procedures before applying. For
instance, for MNR requires date should satisfy all the assumptions. Similarly, ANN
requires sufficient data for its training. This study also explains the modeling procedure
and mechanisms of the two methods.
However, there are certain limitations of the current study. The MNR equation
developed here is purely regional specific, this can be valid and limited to this par-
ticular for this study region only, for new areas one has to develop new MNR equation.
Even though, both MNR and ANN provides similar levels of accuracy in the current
study, ANN accuracy can be further improved with the more data training. Huge data
training for ANN is required to well establish the nonlinear relationships between
various causative factors and FOS.
References
Erzin Y, Cetin T (2012) The use of neural networks for the prediction of the critical factor of
safety of an artificial slope subjected to earthquake forces. Scientia Iranica 19:188–194
Erzin Y, Cetin T (2013) The prediction of the critical factor of safety of homogeneous finite
slopes using neural networks and multiple regressions. Comput Geosci 51:305–313
114 B. M. Marrapu and R. S. Jakka
Gelisli K, Kaya T, Babacan AE (2015) Assessing the factor of safety using an artificial neural
network: case studies on landslides in Giresun, Turkey. Environ Earth Sci 73:8639–8646
Jha C, Dutt C, Bawa KS (2000) Deforestation and land use changes in Western Ghats, India.
Curr Sci-Bangalore 79:231–237
Khanlari G, Heidari M, Momeni A, Abdilor Y (2012) Prediction of shear strength parameters of
soils using artificial neural networks and multivariate regression methods. Eng Geol 131:11–18
Manimaran G, Ravindaran AA, Selvam S, Manimaran D, Sugan M (2012) Characterization and
disaster management of landslides in the Nilgiris mountainous terrain of Tamil Nadu, India.
Int J Geomatics Geosci 3:1
Nalina P, Meenambal T, Sridhar RS (2014) Slope stability analysis of Kallar-Coonoor hill road
stretch of the Nilgiris. J Comput Sci 10:1107
Pallant J (2013) SPSS survival manual. McGraw-Hill Education (UK), London
Sah N, Sheorey P, Upadhyaya L (1994) Maximum likelihood estimation of slope stability. Int J
Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 31:47–53
Sakellariou M, Ferentinou M (2005) A study of slope stability prediction using neural networks.
Geotech Geol Eng 23:419–445
Shahin MA, Jaksa MB, Maier HR (2008) State of the art of artificial neural networks in
geotechnical engineering. Electron J Geotech Eng 8(1):1–26
Yilmaz I, Kaynar O (2011) Multiple regression, ANN (RBF, MLP) and ANFIS models for
prediction of swell potential of clayey soils. Expert Syst Appl 38:5958–5966
Hydrologic Modeling with Transfer Function
Based Approach: A Comparative Study
over Godavari River Basin
1 Introduction
Hydrologic modeling (HM) is a method to assess and quantify the basin’s response to
the rainfall. It tries to capture the link between two important components of hydrologic
cycle viz. rainfall and runoff. However, the hydrologic cycle is an epitome of com-
plexity, involving different processes such as evaporation, infiltration. These processes
are difficult to model mathematically. To add to this, the response of basin is heavily
dependent on the local factors such as land use and land cover. Changes in the land use
(e.g. urbanization) alter the response of basin to the rainfall. Despite these odds,
quantification of runoff is extremely important to have a fair idea about available
surface water. Hence, HM is extremely important.
Rainfall–runoff models may be categorized into two groups: conceptual and
empirical models (Machado et al. 2011). The conceptual models portray the processes
of the hydrological cycle based on physical laws governing each of these processes
with the help of mathematics. However, physical processes such as infiltration, evap-
oration are difficult to model. Also, these methods are data intensive, which is difficult
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 115–122, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_16
116 C. Lakeshri and K. Salvi
to get at time. Unit hydrograph (Sherman 1932) is one of the most popular state of the
art methodologies, which fits in this category. This methodology is no exception and
requires a lot of data. Further the assumptions involved with this theory are likely to get
violated under changing climatic and land use conditions. These characteristics often
render the implementation of the conceptual model difficult. Under such conditions,
empirical models involving data-driven approaches and soft computing techniques play
a crucial role in estimating the runoff with minimal data availability.
Empirical models form suitable alternative to the conceptual models. The main
characteristic of this type of model consists of establishing a stable relationship
between input and output variables without accounting to the physical laws that govern
the natural processes. These models are easy to apply and supposedly cheaper.
Examples of these models are transfer function based approaches, artificial neural
networks (Hsu et al. 1995; Elshorbagy et al. 2000; Anmala et al. 2000; Tokar and
Markus 2000; Rajurkar et al. 2002). Usually, these models use gridded datasets and
hence, are not affected by human interventions pertaining to the discharge releases over
control structures. Even with these advantages, empirical approaches require calibra-
tion and validation and are affected by non-stationarity in the system.
With this assertion, we undertake the study of HM over Godavari river basin. Here,
we use two transfer function based approaches viz. linear regression and kernel
regression for establishing statistical relationship between gridded rainfall and runoff
data over the Godavari river basin. This study is more of a comparative nature with an
intention of identifying the suitable transfer function based approach for HM over the
Godavari river basin. The results are compared over first two moments of data to
evaluate the credibility of these models in capturing long term properties.
The manuscript is organized in the following manner. Section 2 provides infor-
mation about the study region and the data used. Section 3 describes the transfer
function based approaches. In Sect. 4, we illustrate and discuss the results that are
obtained after the application of methodology and we conclude with summary and
concluding remarks in Sect. 5.
We choose Godavari river basin for the current analysis. Originating in Trimbakeshwar
(Maharashtra), Godavari is the second longest river in India navigating through almost
seven states before connecting to the Bay of Bengal. Figure 1 (the embedded plot)
shows the location of Godavari river basin. Basin area of Godavari River is
302065.10 km2. Real motive behind selection of Godavari river basin for the present
analysis is extreme heterogeneity in terms of spatial variations in the rainfall pattern,
leading to similar complexities in runoff. Main plot in Fig. 1 shows the average runoff
in gridded format. The runoff data is taken from Climate Forecast System Reanalysis
(CFSR) and the details about the data are mentioned in the subsequent section. The
spatial heterogeneity in runoff, which is illustrated in Fig. 1, can be replicated only by a
Hydrologic Modeling with Transfer Function Based Approach 117
robust model, which understands causal relationship between the two components of
hydrologic system. Hence, it would be a real test for the data driven approaches to
capture this variability and prove their credibility.
0.0 0.2
2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 1. Location of Godavari river basin shown by red polygon (in the embedded plot) and
spatial variation of average runoff during 1970–2000
3 Methodology
We use two transfer function based approaches viz. linear regression based approach
(LR) and kernel regression based approach (KR) for establishing the statistical rela-
tionship between the rainfall and runoff data. Overall data used in this study is from
1970 to 2000 (31 years). We had dual intentions in selecting the time slice. Thirty one
year time slice provides sufficient data required for calibration and validation. Also,
India encountered major boom in industrialization post 1975. We wanted to have a
period showing signatures of both pre and post industrial years. We choose first 16
years (1970–1985) for calibration and next 15 years (1986–200) for validation. Since
India received most of the rainfall during monsoon (June, July, August, September i.e.
JJAS), we use the data for monsoon period for this study. This implies that for each
year the data will be of 122 days (JJAS). The approaches are described as below.
3.1 LR Approach
LR approach, in mathematical terms, is conditional expectation. In statistics, linear
regression is a linear approach to modelling the relationship between a scalar response
(or dependent variable) and one or more explanatory variables (or independent vari-
ables). The case of one explanatory variable is called simple linear regression. LR is a
parametric approach, which can be used to fit a predictive model. The parameters of LR
are established usually with least square approach. LR approach is extensively used for
downscaling (Kannan et al. 2014; Salvi et al. 2017a, b) and shows capability of
capturing linear variations among different variables.
3.2 KR Approach
Kernel regression is a non-parametric form of conditional expectation. This approach is
used to link two variables, which share a non linear relationship. Nadaraya and Watson,
both in 1964, proposed the mathematical form of KR as shown in Eq. 1.
Pn
i¼1 kh ððx xi Þyi Þ
by ð xÞ ¼ P n ð1Þ
j¼1 kh ðx xi Þ
Consider nine points with co-ordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2),..(x9, y9) as shown in
Fig. 2 and we need to find y for X = x. For finding ‘y’ corresponding to x, we subtract
x from x co-ordinates of all the points (such as x1 − x, x2 − x). The differences that we
get are basically the distances of x from all other points (e.g. D1, D2.. D9). These
differences are used as weights in kernel regression. Here, we leverage the fact that the
points close to the line X = x, will get more weight.
For the application of these approaches, we take inspiration from the gridded
approach of VIC model. Here, we assume that the runoff at a particular grid is a
function of rainfall at the same grid. Hence, over each grid, the calibration and vali-
dation is performed separately and skill results over entire basin are shown and dis-
cussed in the results section.
This section describes the skills illustrated by both the approaches in capturing long
terms statistical properties of evidentiary target runoff dataset over the validation
period.
KR based approach (d) is able to capture the spatial pattern of observed runoff,
however, significantly underestimates the magnitude. This is revealed in the error plot
(e), which shows the positive difference in mean all over the basin. KR approach
basically fails in capturing mean runoff, especially in the southern part of basin.
Fig. 3. Comparison of mean runoff obtained with LR (b) and KR (d) based approaches with
observed data (a), along with quantification of errors (c) and (e)
Fig. 4. Comparison of standard deviation of runoff obtained with LR (b) and KR (d) based
approaches with observed data (a), along with quantification of errors (c) and (e)
Hydrologic Modeling with Transfer Function Based Approach 121
difference plot (c). Except for the downstream side of the basin, the model’s perfor-
mance is reasonable. Simulations with KR approach (d) again capture the spatial
pattern of observed standard deviation (higher variation in northern part and lower in
southern). However, it completely under predicts the magnitude of this variation, which
is again evident from the difference plot (e).
Rainfall runoff relationship is a classic problem, which hydrologist across the globe try
to resolve. Here, an attempt is made to assess the skills of two data driven approaches
(LR and d KR based) over the Godavari river basin with a motive to comment upon the
skills imparted by these approaches, which can work under data deficient conditions.
LR based approach seems to outperform KR based approach in every field. This is
slightly astonishing mainly because we do not expect rainfall and runoff to vary lin-
early. However, that might be the case here. Also, the simplest weighted average
approach used in KR might have affected the skills. A future scope of this study would
be to use complicated kernels (such as Gaussian kernel) and verify is there is any
improvement in skills. Nevertheless, the skills shown by LR approach are good enough
to get overall picture of runoff and hence, in a data deficient conditions and hence, can
be used for understanding the response of basin to the rainfall.
References
Machado F, Mine M, Kaviski E, Fill H (2011) Monthly rainfall–runoff modelling using artificial
neural networks. Hydrol Sci J (J des Sci Hydrol) 56(3):349–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/
02626667.2011.559949
Sherman LK (1932) Streamflow from rainfall by unit hydrograph method. Eng News-Recod
108:501–505
Hsu KL, Gupta HV, Sorroshian S (1995) Artificial neural network modelling of the rainfall –
runoff process. Water Resour Res 31(10):2517–2530
Elshorbagy A, Simonovic SP, Panu US (2000) Performance evaluation of artificial neural
networks for runoff prediction. J Hydrol Eng 5(4):424–427
Anmala J, Zhang B, Govindaraju RS (2000) Comparison of ANNs and empirical approaches for
predicting watershed runoff. J Water Resour Plan Manag 126(3):156–166
Tokar AS, Markus M (2000) Precipitation – runoff modelling using artificial neural networks and
conceptual models. J Hydrol Eng 5(2):156–161
Rajurkar MP, Kothyari UC, Chaube UC (2002) Artificial neural network for daily rainfall–runoff
modelling. Hydrol Sci J 47(6):865–877
Pai DS, Sridhar L, Rajeevan M, Sreejith OP, Satbhai NS, Mukhopadhyay B (2014) Development
of a new high spatial resolution (0.25° 0.25°) long period (1901–2010) daily gridded
rainfall data set over India and its comparison with existing data sets over the region. Mausam
65(1):1–18
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Kannan S, Ghosh S, Mishra V, Salvi K (2014) Uncertainty resulting from multiple data usage in
statistical downscaling. Geophys Res Lett 41:4013–4019. https://doi.org/10.1002/
2014GL060089
Salvi K, Villarini G, Vecchi G, Ghosh S (2017) Decadal temperature predictions over the
continental United States: analysis and enhancement. Clim Dyn https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-017-3532-1
Salvi K, Villarini G, Vecchi G (2017b) High resolution decadal precipitation predictions over the
continental United States for impacts assessment. J Hydrol 553:559–573. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jhydrol.2017.07.043
Salvi K, Kannan S, Ghosh S (2013) High-resolution multisite daily rainfall projections in India
with statistical downscaling for climate change impacts assessment. J Geophys Res Atmos
118:3557–3578. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50280
Salvi K, Ghosh S, Ganguly AR (2015) Credibility of statistical downscaling under nonstationary
climate. Clim Dyn https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2688-9
Study on Interaction of Reinforcing Strips
Embedded in Cement Modified
Marginal Backfill
1 Introduction
MSE walls gained prominence in place of conventional retaining walls in view of the
inherent advantages of such systems. These walls consist of free draining frictional
backfills reinforced with suitable materials connected to facing units. Though the cri-
terion for standard backfill is specified, at several work sites, such materials are not
available in abundance and hence, the use of locally available marginal backfills is
reported by various investigators [2, 12]. With this shift from standard backfills, few
failures of reinforced soil structures were reported [1, 14]. It is reported that majority of
failures were attributed to the use of poor quality backfills with high plasticity and low
permeability [2, 8]. Few attempts were also made by investigators to overcome the ill-
effects of marginal backfills by the use of electro-kinetic dewatering [5], prestressing
and preloading and the use of cementitious materials [15]. The researchers have also
studied the efficacy of cement modification of marginal soils for their use in reinforced
soil structures [13] by conducting load tests on model embankments. In order to evolve
the design parameters for internal stability in case of cement modified backfills, an
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 123–130, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_17
124 P. Kurre et al.
2.2 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of 53 grade is used to modify the collected upland
soil.
2.3 Soil-Cement
The upland soil was mixed with different proportions of cement and tested for the
Atterberg limits and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) values which were
Study on Interaction of Reinforcing Strips Embedded 125
presented in Table 2. It was observed that the soil shown non-plastic (NP) behaviour at
2% cement content and in the present pull-out tests 3% cement content was used to
avoid non uniform mixing of cement to soil.
2.4 Reinforcement
The properties of different reinforcing materials used were determined as per the
standard procedures [9] and given in Table 3. These reinforcements were chosen with
variable tensile strength to distinguish the failure mechanisms in pull-out resistance of
reinforced cement modified marginal soil.
3 Pull-Out Testing
The pull-out test apparatus consists of a square box of size 0.30 m 0.30 m
0.30 m, made of 8 mm thick mild steel plates. The schematic illustration of experi-
mental set up is shown in Fig. 1. The size of the box is so chosen that the pull-out tests
would be done on smaller length of reinforcing strips such that they tend to slip rather
than anchor themselves within their tensile strength. On one side of the box, a hori-
zontal sleeve was made to allow the reinforcing strip to be pulled through.
The reinforcing strips of 10 cm wide with different embedment lengths (10, 20 and
30 cm) were placed over the compacted surface of the fill and an overhanging of the
strip was left for connection (Fig. 1). The upper portion of the box was also filled with
backfill and compacted in 5 cm thick layers at its optimum moisture content to its
maximum dry density using a hand rammer. To minimize the wall friction, grease was
applied on the internal sides of the test box [7]. The friction between the strips and the
front wall of pull-out box was assumed to be negligible due to sufficient clearance
while no soil escapes through it [11]. The protruding part of the respective reinforcing
strip was clamped at the end by steel plates with nut and bolt arrangement and then
connected to a tension proving ring attached to motorized movable ram of specially
fabricated pull-out testing unit (Fig. 1).
A series of pull-out tests were carried out under varied normal stresses (7.5, 15 and
22.5 kPa) using different types of reinforcing strips embedded in upland soil without
and with 3% cement modification. The pull-out load was recorded using a tension
proving ring while the displacement was obtained from dial gauge readings. The pull-
out resistance vs. normal stress plots were drawn to get the pull-out interaction
parameters (ca and d, the adhesion value and apparent friction angle respectively).
However, these parameters cannot be directly used in design calculations especially for
flexible reinforcing strips due to their extensibility [6] and hence, pull-out design
factors, namely, F (pull-out resistance factor) and a (scale effect correction factor)
were introduced in calculations [2–4, 10]. Pull-out resistance (Pr ) is calculated using
the above factors per unit width using the following equation.
Study on Interaction of Reinforcing Strips Embedded 127
Pr ¼ F a r n Le C ð1Þ
rn tand þ ca
F o a is given by Ci tanu; Where; Ci ¼
rn tanu þ c
The tests were carried out on different reinforcing strips embedded in a pull-out box
and at different normal stresses. Typical pull-out load versus pull-out deformation plot
is shown in Fig. 2 for Polyfelt (non-woven) geotextile strip. It can be seen that the pull-
out load is steadily increased with pull-out deformation beyond the initial extension of
the strip and thereafter, it is decreased. In case of metallic strips, the pull-out load is
steadily increased with deformation up to peak value and then decreased. Similar plots
were drawn for all the strips under different normal stresses and peak pull-out loads
were obtained.
Fig. 3. A typical plot between peak pull—out stress and normal stress.
Among the geotextiles, higher values of pull-out design factors (F and a) were
obtained for polyfelt compared to other fabrics. This could be supported by its higher
tensile strength and rough surface due to longitudinal laces. The descending order of
values of F and a are observed for polyfelt followed by PD381 and Q425D. The value
of F bears a good relationship with tensile strength of fabric reinforcement, whereas a
values are not significantly influenced by tensile strength. For any fabric type, the F
value is slightly decreased with normal stress. Similar observations were also made by
others [2, 3, 10].
Study on Interaction of Reinforcing Strips Embedded 129
In case of mesh and geogrid, the F and a values are significantly lower than those
of fabrics due to their higher extensibility as observed during testing. The lower d
values also indicate their inadequate pulling out of the fill. This could be supported by
their ready slippage during pull-out testing.
those reported in the literature when marginal soil is modified by 3% cement. In case of
virgin marginal soil, the pull-out resistance is reduced to about one-third of its value at
optimum moisture content.
References
1. Farrag K (1995) Evaluation of the effects of moisture content on the interface properties of
geosynthetics. In: Proceedings of geosynthetics 1995, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A.,
pp 1031–1041
2. Fanag K (2004) Evaluation of interaction properties of geosynthetics in cohesive soils: lab
and field pull—out tests. Report no. FHWA/LA 03/380, Louisiana Transportation Research
Center, LA, pp 1–95
3. Abu-Farsakh MY, Almohd I, Farrag K (2006) Comparison of field and laboratory pullout
tests on geosynthetics in marginal soils. Transp Res Rec 1975(1):124–136
4. FHWA (1998) Geosynthetics Design and Construction Guidelines, FHWA report no.
FHWA HI-95-038
5. Glendinning S, Jones CJFP, Pugh RC (2005) Reinforced soil using cohesive fill and electro
kinetic geosynthetics. Int J Geomech 5(2):138–146
6. Hayashi S, Shahu JT, Watanabe K (1999) Changes in interface stresses during pull—out
tests on geogid strip reinforcement. Geotech Test J 22(1):32–38
7. Johnston RS, Romstad, KM (1989) Dilation and boundary effects in large scale pull—out
tests. In: Proceedings of 12th international conference on soil mechanics and foundation
engineering, vol 2. A.A. Balkema, pp 1263–1266
8. Long PV, Bergado DT, Naga HMA (2007) Geosynthetics reinforcement application for
Tsunami reconstruction: evaluation of interface parameters with silty sand and weathered
clay. Geotext Geomembr 25:311–323
9. Mandal JN, Divshikar DG (2002) A Guide to Geotextiles Testing. New Age International
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi ISBN 81-224-1396-X
10. Mohiuddin A (2003) Analysis of laboratory and field pullout tests of geosynthetics in clayey
soils. M.S. thesis submitted to LSU, U.S.A
11. Palmeira EM (2004) Bearing force mobilization in pull—out tests on geogrids. Geotext
Geomembr 22:481–509
12. Palmeira EM (2007) Soil—geosynthetics interaction: modelling and analysis mercer lecture
2007–2008. In: Proceedings of 13th asian regional conference on soil mechanics and
geotechnical engineering, Kolkata
13. Praveen GV, Murty VR (2009) Cement modified backfills for mechanically stabilized earth
walls with built—in facing. J Mater Civil Eng 21(7):343–348
14. Subramanian R (1995) Large scale pull-out and shear tests on geogrid reinforced lightweight
aggregates. In: Proceedings of geosynthetics 1995, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A., pp 1179–
1193
15. Tatsuoka F, Tateyama M, Uchimura T, Koseki J (1997) Geosynthetic-reinforced soil
retaining walls as important permanent structures 1996–1997 mercer lecture. Geosynth Int 4
(2):81–136
Experimental Study on Interfacial Frictional
Properties of Geogrid Reinforced Pond Ash
1 Introduction
Since 1970’s the “Reinforced Earth” technology has gained worldwide acceptance and
constructed many reinforced earth structures all over the world. The advantages of this
technology are simplicity in the construction phase, cost-effective and flexible in nature
as compared to conventional classical structures like gravity retaining structures. The
structures constructed by using this technology has the ability to tolerate large defor-
mations in vertical as well as horizontal directions without excessive structural distress
under static and dynamic loads [1]. Further, with the great advent in and wide appli-
cations of geosynthetics in civil engineering practice, a new era started in reinforced
earth structures such as walls, slopes, embankments etc. Although the design and per-
formance of these structures appear simple like gravity retaining wall, its internal
mechanism development for stability and serviceability point of view is unique and
which mainly depends on interaction mechanism developed between soil and rein-
forcement and which further relies on type of backfill soil, reinforcement characteristics,
and its elemental interaction [2, 3]. For any reinforced soil structure, the
instability/failure within is caused by sliding failure (direct shear) and/or pullout of
reinforcement (pullout failure), which are commonly considered in the design of rein-
forced soil structures. Hence, for the design of any reinforced earth structure, it is very
significant to identify the mode of failure so that the optimized design can be carried out.
Numerous investigators have studied the interface friction mechanism successfully by
conducting shear strength tests and pullout tests with various type of conventional
granular backfill soils and geosynthetic inclusions reported the development of interface
friction mechanism and its significant contribution between fill and reinforcement in the
performance of reinforced soil [4, 5]. However, at many construction sites due to non-
availability of conventional soils, people have been used locally available soils like
clayey soils, marginal soils as backfill materials behind the reinforced structures. During
the lifespan of the structures, these soils lead to undesirable engineering behaviour in the
form of pore water pressure development, insufficient frictional stresses and corrosion of
reinforcement [1–3, 6]. Hence, to overcome the above problems researchers intended to
find new sustainable materials. One such most commonly available material is pond ash
(a mixture of fly ash and bottom ash stored in ash ponds), which is generating from coal-
based thermal power plants as a waste material at an alarming rate (180MMT/year),
occupying huge valuable land for disposal and causing environmental hazards thereby
creating an ecological imbalance [7]. Therefore utilization of pond ash in huge quantity
has become a primary concern. In several investigations, researches have confirmed the
suitability of coal ash as a construction material because of its low specific gravity, good
drainage property, insensitive to water during compaction, low compressibility, and
good frictional characteristics. Some investigations have studied the use of coal ash in
civil engineering practices either by itself or blend it with other soils/admixtures or
inclusions and reported the improvement in strength and stiffness characteristics [8–10].
Some people have studied the interfacial frictional characteristics of coal ashes espe-
cially fly ash and bottom ash with various types of geosynthetic reinforcing elements by
conducting triaxial, direct shear and pull-out tests to use them as structural backfill [11,
12]. However, limited research work has been reported on the use of pond ash. Hence,
the present work is aimed to study the interface frictional characteristics of pond ash
reinforced with biaxial geogrid type reinforcement.
2 Materials Used
2.2 Reinforcement
Two geogrid type reinforcements shown in Fig. 1, called as GG1 and GG2 were used
in the present experiments having rectangular mesh configuration with 26.5 25 mm;
30 30 mm internal openings with a thickness of 1.0 mm. The tensile strength of
GG1 and GG2 were 26 kN/m and 14 kN/m with the maximum elongation at break of
15% and 9.8% as per ASTM D5035. Tensile strength and elongation of the geogrids
have been determined by wide width specimens at a pulling rate of 5 mm/min.
3 Experimental Program
In the present work, large scale direct shear test and pullout test apparatus were used to
measure the interface frictional characteristics of pond ash and pond ash-geogrid
reinforcement (GG1 and GG2) in terms of interface friction coefficient (Ci ) and pullout
resistance frictional factor (f ).
134 M. Sudhakar et al.
equipped with the necessary measuring devices. The methodology followed in each
tests are as per ASTM D6707. Figure 3 shows the large direct shear setup used in the
study.
(a) Shear stress vs Horizontal deformation (b) Shear stress envelops at peak and critical condition
Fig. 5. Large direct shear test on Pond ash reinforced with GG1
Further, there was an increase in the stiffness of reinforced pond ash with increase
of normal stresses as it was observed by the steep slope of stress-strain curves.
However, the mobilized interaction between pond ash and reinforcement was lower
than the internal friction of pond ash alone and which was almost in the range of 68 to
80% of the angle of internal friction of pond ash.
Fig. 6. Large direct shear test on Pond ash reinforced with GG2
The interface friction coefficient of pond ash with geogrid reinforcement GG1 and GG2
were evaluated using Eq. (1). Table 2 summarizes the interfacial friction coefficient
values of pond ash reinforced with geogrids at three normal stresses. Figure 7(a) and
(b) shows the variation of interface friction coefficient with respect to normal stresses.
The interaction coefficient values obtained from the direct shear test were in the range
of 0.98 to 0.78 & 0.85 to 0.78 for GG1; 0.82 to 0.74 & 0.76 to 0.71 for GG2 under both
peak and critical conditions for corresponding normal stresses of 50 kPa to 150 kPa,
respectively. From the test results, it is seen that the interface friction coefficient of a
pondash–geogrid decreased with the increase of normal stresses. Further, it was
observed that the interfacial frictional strength of GG1 was found to be higher than
GG2. This is attributed to the type of polymer characteristics, grid dimensional
structure (availability of transverse ribs which offers passive resistance against shear-
ing), surface roughness and stiffness characteristics [10, 11].
5 Conclusions
The objective of the present study is to find the interfacial frictional characteristics in
terms of shear and pullout between pond ash and geogrid reinforcement by conducting
large direct shear test and pullout test. From experimental works, the following con-
clusions were drawn.
• In both direct shear test and pullout tests, the resisting load against shear and pullout
failures increased with applied normal stresses.
• From the direct shear test, the interface friction coefficients (Ci) found to be in the
range of 0.86 to 0.74 in a detrimental way with applied normal stresses of 50 to
150 kPa. The higher interface coefficient for GG1 as compared to GG2 is attributed
to the type of polymer, surface roughness, and stiffness characteristics.
• The mobilized interfacial frictional angles are almost 68 to 80% of the angle of
internal friction of pond ash.
140 M. Sudhakar et al.
• The pullout test results showed that the pullout resistance for both geogrids was
increased with the increase of normal stresses from 37 to 110 kPa, whereas pullout
resistance factor (f ) was decreased from 0.43 to 0.35 for GG1 and 0.42 to 0.28 for
GG2.
• The interface frictional shear strength characteristics between pond ash particles
alone are higher than the pond ash-geogrid reinforcement.
References
1. Holtz RD (2017) 46th Terzaghi lecture: geosynthetic reinforced soil: from the experimental
to the familiar (Doctoral dissertation, ASCE)
2. Berg, R. R., Christopher, B. R., Samtani, N. C.: Design and construction of mechanically
stabilized earth walls and reinforced soil slopes. US Department of Transportation (FHWA)
(2009)
3. BSI (2010) Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and others fills. BSI Standards
Publication
4. Liu CN, Zornberg JG, Chen TC, Ho YH, Lin BH (2009) Behavior of geogrid- sand interface
in direct shear mode. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(12):1863–1871
5. Hegde A, Roy R (2018) A comparative numerical study on soil-geosynthetic interactions
using large scale direct shear and pullout test. Int J Geosynth Ground Eng 4(1):2
6. Mallick S, Zhai H, Adanur S, Elton D (1996) Pullout and direct shear testing of geosynthetic
reinforcement: a state-of-the-art report. J Transp Res Board (1534):80–90
7. CEA (2017) Fly ash generation at coal/lignite based thermal power stations and its utilization
in the country for the year 2016–2017. Central Electricity Authority, New Delhi. http://www.
cea.nic.in/reports/others/thermal/tcd/flyash_201718.pdf
8. Indraratna B, Nutalaya P, Koo K, Kuganenthira N (1991) Engineering behaviour of a low
carbon, pozzolanic fly ash and its potential as a construction fill. Can Geotech J 28(4):542–
555
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mixtures. Geotech Geol Eng 31(4):1059–1072
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pp 316–325
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IJGE 3(2):131–148
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construction guidelines, FHWA-NHI-0043
Resilient Modulus of Unsaturated
Soil – A Comprehensive Review
Abstract. Unsaturated soils are predominant in semi-arid regions which has the
property to show moisture changes. Compacted pavement soil is in the unsat-
urated state thus exhibiting the tendency to weaken or strengthen with varying
water content. With ever-changing vehicular loading condition, the necessity to
utilize the dynamic behavior of pavement materials in the design of pavements
have been validated in numerous research works. Thus the elastic moduli of
pavement material have been incorporated as a key parameter in MEPDG. In-
service condition all the compacted soil possess the ability to exhibit changes in
strength with seasonal moisture variation. This paper is intended to summarize
the findings and the necessity to understand the post-compaction moisture
variation and their influence on the mechanical property of pavement materials.
Furthermore, the importance to correlate suction and resilient modulus have not
been into practice in many developing countries due to inadequate information.
Hence, the present work aims to be a comprehensive reference to be updated on
available correlation models.
1 Introduction
With the rapid progress of cities, the areas further inland is developed to accommodate
the increasing population. The behavior of soil in areas of low or moderate rainfall fall
in the category of unsaturated or partially saturated soils. The soil is represented as a
two-phase system with solid and liquid, whereas the unsaturated soil mechanics con-
siders the soil as a four-phase system in most of the cases with air and air-water
interface in count [2]. The geotechnical engineering practice dealing with these soils is
still ingrained in conventional soil mechanics [1]. Pavement infrastructure is pre-
dominantly found on unsaturated soils and the compacted subgrade soil also resembles
that of unsaturated soil. Thus the viability of soil to saturate or desaturate with varying
moisture content tends to alter the property of the pavement material which in turn
influences their mechanical behavior.
As soil suction is defined as the free energy of soil water is with two components:
(1) Osmotic suction (2) Matric suction. Matric suction results from a combination of
capillary tension and short term adsorption that exists between individual particles.
Osmotic suction is a function of the salt concentration in the water and it is not a
dominant factor in influencing the geotechnical aspects of pavement. As matric suction
adds to the material stress state, it is recognized as the primary stress state variable in
constitutive relations for unsaturated soils [3]. The variation of matric suction with
respect to moisture content is depicted using the Soil Water Characteristics Curve
(SWCC). This curve is useful in constitutive modelling of unsaturated soil properties
[4–8].
Compacted pavement layer materials usually remain in unsaturated condition. The
strength and stiffness are the mechanical properties represented as permanent defor-
mation and resilient modulus (MR). The computation and prediction of mechanical
properties of unsaturated pavement materials should be done considering soil suction
ðWÞ variations [9–13]. In this paper, various predictive models proposed in the liter-
ature based on the research works conducted in various parts of the world are cate-
gorized for use by the practicing geotechnical and transportation engineers to
understand and use them for the computation of mechanical property of pavement to be
used as an reliable design input parameter considering the effect of suction and
moisture variation is presented.
Fully saturated soils are those with all their pores filled with water. This leads to
predictable behavior of soil quantified in coherence with effective stress. With a change
in environmental factors, desaturation begins from the largest pore diameters followed
by those from smaller pores. These partly or unsaturated soil tends to exhibit higher
strength compared to its saturated counterpart. The increase in shear strength of
unsaturated soil is attributed to the increased contact stress in the occurrence of neg-
ative pore water pressure (i.e. suction).
The elastic modulus of unbound or compacted unsaturated pavement materials is
represented by the resilient modulus. It is defined as a ratio exhibited between the
deviator stress and the corresponding recoverable strain [17, 21].
As resilient modulus or the elastic modulus is the key parameter to study the
mechanical behavior of pavement materials [2–4, 6–8] it is necessary to analyze the
same in dynamic traffic load conditions [14, 15, 16] and [18].
In many validated studies to test the pavement response in terms of its mechanical
properties has been focusing on the soil specimens prepared close to or at optimum
moisture content [58]. In draining saturated pavement layers, the influence of applied
stress and internal stress has to be considered rather than the conventional practice of
observing only the external loading stresses. Resilient Modulus (MR) of pavement
materials in the unsaturated state is found to be inconsistent in-service life. So the
effective stress principle should be extending assuming it to be valid with the inclusion
of matric suction [14, 18, 20, 22, 25].
Resilient Modulus of Unsaturated Soil – A Comprehensive Review 143
Equation by Bishop [27] to represent the effective stress considering the negative
pore pressure and pore air pressure is as follows:
r 0 ¼ ð r u a Þ vð u a u w Þ ð1Þ
Resilient modulus prediction models considering the matric suction, moisture variation
and degree of saturation as the environmental variation factors that are developed in the
past decade is discussed for understanding the influencing effect of matric suction on
the mechanical behavior.
Lytton et al. in 1995 measured the changes in the properties of pavements on
unsaturated soils in eight locations and developed a constitutive model to be applied in
analysis at six locations for use as granular base materials.
k2 k3
hb f hW 3 soct
M R ¼ k1 P a ð2Þ
Pr Pr
hb = Bulk stress; soct = octahedral shear stress; k1, k2 and k3 represents the model
parameters.
Parreira and Gonçalves [21] conducted experimental tests on lateritic soil sample
classified as A-7-6 from Brazil to predict the resilient modulus when subjected to the
suction value in the range of 0–87, 500 kPa.
MR ¼ 14:10 r0:782
d W0:076 ð3Þ
In Eq. (4), degree of saturation at optimum moisture content and parameters such as
a = −0.5934 & −0.3123, b = 0.4 & 0.3 and Km = 6.1324 & 6.8157 to be used in case
144 A. G. Sharanya et al.
of fine – grained soils & coarse- grained soils respectively. MROPT is the resilient
modulus determined at optimum moisture content.
Doucet and Dore [30] In Quebec province of Canada, partially crushed and crushed
granular materials to be used as pavement base material was tested to predict resilient
modulus considering the internal and applied stress is expressed as
Yang et al. [18] tested two samples of residual soil and pulverized mud soil clas-
sified as cohesive (A-7-5 and A-7-6) as per AASHTO T 292-91 from China consid-
ering the suction range of 0–10,000 kPa.
Liang et al. [7] developed the following new resilient modulus prediction equation
considering the concept of soil suction. The prediction results were validated with the
experimental results conducted on two samples classified as A-4 and A-6.
k3
hb þ vw k2 soct
M R ¼ k1 P a þ1 ð9Þ
Pa Pa
Khoury et al. [6] evaluated the variation of resilient modulus of undisturbed sub-
grade soil samples collected from Oklahoma over the suction variation of 0 kPa–
6,000 kPa.
k2
hb soct k3
MR ¼ k1 Pa k4 þ þ a 1 W b1 ð10Þ
Pa Pa
Khoury et al. [24] conducted experimental analysis for a manufactured soil with in
unsaturated condition. The influence of soil suction hysteresis on the resilient modulus
was analyzed and the proposed the following model.
" k2 k3 1n #
hb soct hd hd
MR ¼ k1 Pa þ1 þ ðW W 0 Þ ð11Þ
Pa Pa hs hw
Resilient Modulus of Unsaturated Soil – A Comprehensive Review 145
Cary and Zapata [5] assessed the suitability of the MR prediction model of
NCHRP 1-28A for a granular soil sample and clayey soil sample collected from
Arizona, USA. It is suggested to consider matric suction as independent stress variable
to predict MR.
" k3 k4 #
hnet3Duwsat k2 soct W0 D W
M R ¼ k1 P a þ1 þ þ1 ð12Þ
Pa Pa Pa
Oh et al. [31] derived for granular base and subgrade soils from Florida considering
the effect of moisture content with suction (S) and volumetric water content (Vw).
k2 k3
hb þ 3k4 SVw soct
MR ¼ k1 Pa 1þ ð13Þ
Pa Pa
Ng et al. [8] conducted suction – controlled triaxial test to calculate the deviation of
resilient modulus for a subgrade soil sample and derived the following semi-empirical
relationship.
k1
P 1 þ qcyc k2 W k3
MR ¼ M0 1þ ð14Þ
Pr Pr P
Han and Vanapalli [32] conducted extensive experimental test on 11 fine grained
soil samples to be used as compacted subgrade material. In his prediction model, a
model parameter n is introduced to be in the range of 1.0 to 3.0.
k1 n
MR MRSAT W S
¼ ð15Þ
MROPT MRSAT WOPT SOPT
Naji [23] considered the post - compaction moisture contents of soil in the seven
soil samples classified as cohesive and silty were tested and the new M-EPDG rec-
ommended analytical model to predict the variations of resilient modulus of subgrade
soils with fluctuations in moisture content (NCHRP 1-37A) is calibrated considering
km as a function of Plasticity Index (PI).
MR ba
log ¼ aþ b ð16Þ
MROPT 1 þ exp ln a þ km ðS SOPT Þ
4 Conclusion
To ensure a pavement to achieve its design life, changes in the property of pavement
materials induced by moisture ingress should be prevented from the beginning. Infil-
tration of water, capillary rise or suction of moisture from the adjacent ground or the
diffusion of water present within the soil can cause slow deterioration or sudden
damage to a pavement [4, 5, 7, 17, 21]. In unsaturated soils suction has an important
role to alter the mechanical behavior of pavement materials and it works on two
mechanism; (i) due to water meniscus, suction imparts bonding force between soil
particles (ii) suction induced changes in the soil skeleton stress as a result of the change
in pore fluid pressure. In –service life of the pavement, due to the increase of saturation
level, particularly under repeated traffic load, negative pore-pressure increases to
positive. Idyllically, soil suction holds the particles together and an increase of pore
pressure resilient modulus tends to decrease. [17, 19, 26, 29]. Measurement of suction
and its variation with dynamic traffic load is a laborious and challenging task. However,
the necessity to relate the behavior of unsaturated soils and pavement mechanical
behavior is to be understood and adequate research works to develop constitutive
resilient modulus prediction models is needed.
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22. Von Quintus HL, Rao C, Stubstad RN et al (2004) Nondestructive testing technology for
quality control and acceptance of flexible pavement construction. Draft interim report
NCHRP 10-65. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, pp 10–65
23. Naji K (2018) Resilient modulus–moisture content relationships for pavement engineering
applications. Int J Pavement Eng 19(7):651–660
24. Khoury C, Khoury N, Miller G (2011) Effect of cyclic suction history (hydraulic hysteresis)
on resilient modulus of unsaturated fine-grained soil. Transp Res Rec: J Transp Res Board
2232:68–75. https://doi.org/10.3141/2232-07
25. Yuan D, Nazarian S (2003) Variation in moduli of base and subgrade with moisture, 12–16
January 2003, Washington, DC
26. NCHRP (2004) Guide for mechanistic-empirical design of new and rehabilitated pavement
structures. Final rep. no. NCHRP 1-37A. National Research Council, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, DC
27. Bishop AW (1959) The principle of effective stress. Tecknish Ukebland 106(39):859–863
28. Ceratti JA, Gehling WYY, Núñez WP (2004) Seasonal variations of a subgrade soil resilient
modulus in southern Brazil. Transportation Research Record 1874, Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC, pp 165–173
29. Mehrotra A, Abu-Farsakh M, Gaspard K (2016) Development of subgrade Mr constitutive
models based on physical soil properties. Road Mater Pavement Des 19(1):56–70
148 A. G. Sharanya et al.
30. Doucet F, Doré G (2004) Resilient modulus and resilient Poisson coefficient of the C-LTTP
granular materials. In: Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Geotechnical
Society, Quebec City, Que. Canadian Geotechnical Society
31. Oh JH, Fernando EG, Holzschuher C, Horhota D (2012) Comparison of resilient modulus
values for Florida flexible mechanistic-empirical pavement design. Int J Pavement Eng 13
(5):472–484
32. Vanapalli S, Han Z (2015) Model for predicting resilient modulus of unsaturated subgrade
soil using soil-water characteristic curve. Can Geotech J 52(10):1605–1619. https://doi.org/
10.1139/cgj-2014-0339
Effect of Eccentric Load on Footing Resting
on Planar Geosynthetic Reinforcement
Abstract. A structural foundation transmits all the loads from the super
structure to the soil underneath safely. Due to earthquake or wind loading, the
line of action of total load from the superstructure does not pass through the
center of gravity of the footing resulting in eccentric loading. The compensation
for reduction of the bearing capacity by increasing the size of footing is
uneconomical. Geosynthetics can be used to improve the bearing capacity of the
footing. In the present study a series of tests were conducted and comparative
study is made when Geotextile (Fibertex G-100) is used as planar reinforcement
to improve the bearing capacity of sand. Also the improvement of bearing
capacity in accordance to eccentricity was studied. The test results indicate that
there is significant improvement in the bearing capacity and reduction in the
settlement by providing planar reinforcement until the eccentricity is 0.1 times
the width of footing.
1 Introduction
Earth provides the ultimate bearing support for all the civil engineering structures like
buildings, bridges, reinforced fills, earthen embankments and concrete dams. Hence the
behaviour of the bearing ground defines the stability of whole structure. Hence the
structural foundation should be able to transfer the load from super structure such that
the overstressing of soil underneath is avoided besides preventing the excessive set-
tlement of structure. If line of action of the load does not pass through the center of
loaded area, the contact area decreases. The reduction in contact area results in the
reduction of effective width of footing resulting in decrease in bearing capacity of
supporting soil [3]. Eccentric loading of footing can occur in extreme column footing or
due to earthquake or wind loading.
Several studies conducted on eccentrically loaded footing and bearing capacity
improvement using geosynthetics and found that significant bearing capacity
improvement can be achieved using geosynthetics so that the reduction of load carrying
capacity due to the eccentricity of the footing can be compensated [1, 3, 4]. Geosyn-
thetics can be used to improve the load carrying capacity [5, 6]. Though there are many
types of geosynthetics, a non-woven geotextile is used in this study to find the effect of
In the study, locally available poorly graded sand (SP) and a non-woven geotextile
(Fibertex G-100) were used and their properties were presented respectively in
Tables 1 and 2.
Experiments were conducted in a specially fabricated test box made of steel with plan
dimensions 0.5 m 0.5 m and 0.6 m height. The tank was mounted on a loading
frame consisting of a hand-operated hydraulic jack provided with a proving ring of
capacity 5000 kg having a proving ring constant of 4.6 kg/division. The arrangement
of test tank on the rigid platform of loading frame was shown in Fig. 1.
Three planar geotextile layers of size 375 mm 375 mm were used to reinforce
the consecutive sand layers. The size of the geotextile is selected based on the ratio of
width of geotextile to the width of footing (L/b) which is equal to 5 [2]. For achieving
the maximum improvement, the ratios u/b, x/b and L/b of 0.3, 0.5 and 5 respectively
were chosen from literature where u, x and L being the depth of top layer, vertical
spacing of two fabrics and layer width respectively (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Experimental set up for plate Fig. 2. Planar reinforcement under the footing.
load test with planar reinforcement.
A pre-calibrated proving ring is placed in between the hydraulic jack and the ball
bearing to measure the load coming on the footing. Settlements of footing were
measured by placing two dial gauges each of sensitivity 0.01 mm on the either side of
center line of footing and the average is reported.
The tests were performed and the typical load vs. settlement curve for e/b value of 0.1
with and without the provision of reinforcement was plotted as shown in Fig. 4. The
results of various tests were presented in Table 4 which involves the calculation of U.
Effect of Eccentric Load on Footing Resting 153
B.C. and the corresponding settlement. The improvement in U.B.C. was found in terms
of Bearing Capacity Ratio (B.C.R.) which is the ratio of the improved strength to the
original strength without reinforcement. It was observed that the reduction of U.B.C. of
the foundation bed due to eccentricity can be increased by providing planar geosyn-
thetic reinforcement.
A series of tests are conducted in the model test tank arrangement with a square footing
of size 0.75 m resting on the sand bed for finding the effect of eccentricity of the
footing. The effect of variation in eccentricity (e/b = 0, 0.1, 0.2) on the U.B.C of the
sand is studied. Due to eccentricity the ultimate bearing pressure decreases. To improve
the bearing capacity, geosynthetic reinforcement is used. In this study, planar geotextile
is used to improve the bearing capacity of sand bed and the effect with respect to
eccentricity is studied. It is found out that by placing the geotextile as planar rein-
forcement, bearing capacity was found to be more than 2 times the bearing capacity of
154 P. Kurre et al.
unreinforced sand (B.C.R > 2). The improvement in bearing capacity was found to
increase up to an eccentricity of 0.1 tunes the width of footing (e/b = 0.1), above which
there is no improvement is noticed. For unreinforced sand when the eccentricity
exceeds beyond 0.1 times the width of footing (e > 0.1b) there is marked reduction in
bearing capacity.
References
1. Patra CR, Das BM, Bhoi M, Shin EC (2006) Eccentrically loaded strip foundation on geogrid-
reinforced sand. Geotext Geomembr 24:254–259
2. Das BM, Puri VK, Omar MT, Evgin E (1996) Bearing capacity of strip foundation on
geogrid-reinforced sand-scale effects in model tests. In: The sixth international offshore and
polar engineering conference. International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers
3. El Sawwaf M (2009) Experimental and numerical study of eccentrically loaded strip footings
resting on reinforced sand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(10):1509–1518
4. El Sawwaf M, Nazir A (2011) Behavior of eccentrically loaded small scale ring footings
resting on reinforced layered soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 138:376–384
5. Klimar KVSP (2010) Bearing capacity of square footing on geocell sand mattress overlying
clay bed, M. Tech Thesis, National Institute of Technology, Warangal
6. Yeo B, Yen SC, Puri VK, Das BM, Wright MA (1993) A laboratory investigation into the
settlement of a foundation on geogrid-reinforced sand due to cyclic load. Geotech Geol Eng
11(1):1–14
Strength Investigation of Fly Ash Based
Concrete Waste Steel Fibre and Polypropylene
Fibre as Reinforcing Materials
1 Introduction
Flyash Concrete
Flyash is a pozzolana, or siliceous material which in the presence of water and lime,
will react to form a cementitious material. This property makes flyash ideal for a
multitude of function in the construction industry. Flyash is an extremely variable by -
product and will not only differ from one plant to another but will vary within the same
plant. Both the physical and chemical characteristics of flyash will affect the hardened
concrete material.
In the modern world, the most used material for construction buildings and to build
infrastructure the most used material is concrete. and concrete is normally manufac-
tured by mixing with ingredients such as cement, cores aggregates, fine aggregates,
water, and mineral admixtures for latent concrete nowadays such as, fly ash, GGBS and
also usage of super plasterers for improving strength of concrete. The materials used for
concrete manufactures such as fine aggregates are found in nature and used by trim-
ming them into required shape & size. Water is also available in nature and clan water
is used, but cement is manufactured for raw materials available in nature. So some
study is been made by replacing cement completely with fly ash and GGBS [1].
Fibre Reinforced Concrete
FRC has a cracking arresting property of which is well proven in many experiments
and it is applied extensively. Million tons waste is produced around the world every
year and most part of this waste is recycled. Furthermore, recycling waste consumes
energy and produces pollution. Accumulation of waste in suburbs and the disposal of
waste has dangerous effects to the environment. Using this waste in civil engineering
works may be considered as an appropriate method for achieving the goals of elimi-
nating waste produced and adding positive properties in concrete. We introduced a
glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)-steel hybrid bar with a core of a deformed steel
bar (steel core). Around six types of hybrid cross sections were considered and 48
specimens to calculate tensile test using uniaxial tensile testing machine and the
modulus of GFRP hybrid bar. The test results revealed that the GFRB hybrid bar
showed higher elasticity modulus and lesser tensile strength than that of usually shown
normal GFRB bar [3].
Strength Investigation of Fly Ash 157
Materials
Properties of Cement Used
Type Granite
Minimum Size 20 mm
Specific Gravity 2.5
Water Absorption 1.2%
158 G. Swamy Yadav et al.
Water
Drinking water available near to the field was used in the present work both for casting
and curing.
Waste Steel Fibre
The steel fibre used in this work has taken from mechanical workshop, They are of
irregular sizes and shapes.
Super Plasticizer
Conplast SP 430 FOSROC is used for the experimental study.
Methodology
The mix design followed according to IS 10262-2009 for M25 concrete. The experi-
mental investigation is carried out by replacing cement with flyash by 20% cement
weight and varying percentages of waste steel fibres in steps of 1% and 1% of
polypropylene the results were observed.
The required materials were weighed and mixed manually and tests were conducted.
The cube of 150 mm 150 mm 150 mm. Cylinder of 150 mm diameter 300 mm
height.
Beam of size 100 mm 100 mm 500 mm was casted. The specimens has been
de molded after 24 h from the casting and the casted specimens were cured at a room
temperature in water tank.
3 Results
Table 1. Workability of concrete using waste steel fibre alone vs Using waste steel fibre and
polypropylene (1%).
%Fibres Compaction Factor %Fibres Compaction Factor
0 0.927 0 0.927
1 0.921 1 0.923
2 0.918 2 0.920
3 0.915 3 0.917
4 0.909 4 0.911
5 0.890 5 0.903
6 0.871 6 0.892
Strength Investigation of Fly Ash 159
Table 3. Compressive strength of concrete using waste steel fibre and polypropylene (1%).
%Fibres 7 days compressive 28 days compressive
strength strength
0 28.64 42.21
1 32.42 46.71
2 34.40 47.51
3 35.68 48.17
4 35.89 48.51
5 36.21 48.69
6 37.03 48.78
Table 4. Split tensile strength of concrete using waste steel fibre alone.
%Fibres Load P1(kN) Load P2(kN) Avg. load P(kN) F = 2P/pdl (N/mm2)
0 112.1 115.7 113.9 3.62
1 124.2 121.2 122.7 3.90
2 124.6 124.3 124.5 3.96
3 127.7 125.3 126.5 4.02
4 127.4 127.6 127.5 4.05
5 128.5 127.9 128.2 4.08
6 128.8 129.1 128.6 4.10
Table 5. Split tensile strength of concrete using waste steel fibre and polypropylene (1%).
%Fibres Load P1(kN) Load P2(kN) Avg. load P(kN) F = 2P/pdl (N/mm2)
0 112.1 115.7 113.9 3.62
1 122.9 123.4 123.1 3.92
2 125.2 124.9 125.0 3.99
3 127.3 126.6 126.8 4.03
4 128.2 127.5 127.8 4.07
5 128.8 128.6 128.7 4.09
6 129.2 129.0 129.1 4.11
160 G. Swamy Yadav et al.
Table 7. Flexural strength of concrete using waste steel fibre and polypropylene (1%).
%Fibres a (cm) P(kN) fb = Pl/bd2
0 15.0 13.0 2.60
1 15.5 15.2 3.10
2 16.5 15.3 3.25
3 16.7 15.9 3.41
4 16.6 16.3 3.48
5 17.2 16.6 3.64
6 17.5 16.8 3.73
4 Conclusions
• The workability of fresh concrete is decreased by adding the steel fibres.
• Gradual increase in Compressive strength, Tensile strength and flexural strengths
are observed by increasing percentage of steel fibres.
• Polypropylene fibres reduce cracks and brittle failure.
• Polypropylene fibres increased the initial crack load of the structure.
• Finally the partial replacement of flyash and waste steel fibres in concrete is
economical.
References
1. Ravi Kumar T, Siva Krishna A (2017) Design and testing of fly-ash based geo polymer
concrete. Int J Civ Eng Technol 8(5):480–491
2. Tavakoli D, Hashempour M, Heidari A (2018) Use of waste materials in concrete: a review.
Pertanika J Sci Technol 26(2):499–522
3. Ju M, Lee S, Park C (2017) Response of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)-steel hybrid
reinforcing bar in uniaxial tension. Int J Concr Struct Mater 11(4):677–686
4. Gobinath R, Awoyera P, Selvaraj Kumar P, Murthi P (2018) Eco friendly high strength
concrete production using Silica mineral waste as aggregate - an ecological approach. Ecol
Environ Conserv 24(2):904–915
Strength Investigation of Fly Ash 161
Abstract. The present paper reports the effect of chloride, sulphate and the
combined chloride-sulphate solutions on the corrosion behaviour of rebar
embedded in concretes made with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and
Metakaolin (MK). The corrosion test data collected on the reinforced slab
specimens made with mix water contaminated with 5% sodium chloride, 2%
magnesium sulphate and the combination of both salts. The corrosion perfor-
mance was monitored for every 30 days throughout 180 days, in terms of
corrosion rate values. The analysis of the obtained data was carried out as per
the specifications given by ASTM G16-13. The analysis of the corrosion data
includes the descriptive statistics of the Normal, Weibull lognormal, and
Smallest Extreme Value probability distribution functions and the test of fit
significance by the Anderson-Darling (AD) goodness of fit statistics. In addition,
the analysis of variance was also carried out to determine the influence of each
factor on the corrosion data. This detailed analysis of the test data is useful to
carry out the further investigation on corrosivity of reinforcement bar exposed to
aggressive environments or marine environment. The statistical analysis from
the present dataset is helpful for further research on the MK and the effect of
concomitant presence of chlorides and sulphates on the corrosivity of rebar
embedded in concrete. In addition to this Analysis of Variance is also carried out
on the obtained corrosion data to assess the effect of cementitious material type
and salt type on corrosion data.
1 Introduction
2 Experimental
2.1 Materials Used and Specimen Preparation
The Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) 53 grade conforming to IS:12269-2013 [9] was
used in preparing normal cement concrete specimens. The blended concrete specimens
were made with the replacement of cement with Metakaolin (MK) by 10% weight of
OPC cement. The oxide composition of the cement and MK used in current study were
shown in Table 1. The diameter of the steel reinforcing bar was 10 mm. The Coarse
aggregate of size 20 mm and 10 mm maximum size of aggregate (MSA) respectively,
were used in the ratio of 1.5:1. The specific gravity and water absorption of coarse
aggregate were 2.8, and 2.25% respectively, and the corresponding values for fine
aggregate were 2.7, and 0.75%. Locally available river sand is confirming to grading
zone II as per IS:383:1970 (Reaffirmed 2002) [10] was used as fine aggregate. Tap
water from the laboratory was used for the preparation of concrete mixtures with water
to cementitious material (w/cm) ratio 0.51. Analytical reagent grade chemicals were
164 U. Raghu Babu and B. Kondraivendhan
added to the concretes. Magnesium sulphate as the source of sulphate ions and sodium
chloride as the source of chlorides were added in mix water. The composition of
admixed solution is as detailed below:
Solution 1: 5% NaCl
Solution 2: 5% NaCl + 2% MgSO4
Solution 3: 2% MgSO4.
Fig. 1. Steel specimen for corrosion moni- Fig. 2. Analysed results of I data of NaCl
corr
toring slab specimen admixed concrete
Application of Statistics to the Analysis of Corrosion Data 165
Fig. 3. Analysed results of Icorr data of Fig. 4. Analysed results of Icorr data of concrete
MgSO4 admixed concrete with NaCl plus MgSO4
The Normal, Lognormal, Weibull and Smallest Extreme Value probability distributions
(pdf’s) were adopted for determining the descriptive statistics for the scatter of mea-
sured corrosion data as per ASTM G16-13 [11] and for detailing the performance of
metakaolin in mitigation of corrosion of rebar. According to ASTM G16-13 [11],
statistical evaluation is necessary in the analysis of the results.
Results of statistical analyses of test-data measurements from each OPC and MK
blended concrete specimen contaminated with chlorides, sulphates and combination of
both were shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4. In order to choose the best fitting distribution, the
results of Anderson-Darling (AD) goodness-of-fit test of the scattering of corrosion test
data were also reported in Table 2. This table consists the AD statistic, AD p-value and
the validation decision of the corresponding distribution. In Table 2 decision of “A”
indicated that the modelled dataset significantly drawn from the fitting distribution,
while the decision of “B” suggests that the modelled data not significantly drawn from
the corresponding distribution.
From the Table 2. It is noted that all the Icorr data scattered like Weibull. It is also
observed that, except the corrosion data of MK contaminated with combined solution
all the set scattered like Lognormal probability distribution. As the Weibull and
166 U. Raghu Babu and B. Kondraivendhan
Lognormal distribution are provide reasonable fit to the data in most of the datasets, the
best distribution can choose by comparing the AD statistics. Generally, the Smaller AD
values indicate that the distribution fits the data better. The overall performance of OPC
and MK concrete specimens was evaluated from the use of these selected distributions
as shown in Fig. 5. These identifications of descriptive statistics for detailing the
corrosion data highlights the importance of the use of goodness-of-fit test for deter-
mining the probabilistic distribution fitting followed by the corrosion data. While
observing the influence of chlorides and sulphates on corrosion of rebar from the
Fig. 5, it is observed that the corrosion due to sulphate ions alone is very less as
compared to chlorides. As well as it is also observed that the attendance of sulphates
with chlorides enhances the chloride induced corrosion. The replacement of cement
with 10% of MK enhanced the corrosion resistance of rebar in concretes contaminated
with chlorides, sulphates and combination of both the salts.
Fig. 5. The overall performance of OPC and MK concrete contaminated with different salts
Application of Statistics to the Analysis of Corrosion Data 167
Table 5. Results of ANOVA for Icorr values of NaCl plus MgSO4 contaminated concrete
Source DF SS MS F-Value P-Value
Cementitious material 1 4.287 4.287 6.38 0.043
Error 17 21.536 1.267
Total 18 25.823
P value 0.05: The level means are significantly different from each other
P value > 0.05: The level means are not significantly different.
From Tables 3, 4 and 5, it is observed that the cementitious material type is statistically
significant with the p value 0.015 for NaCl and 0.043 for NaCl plus MgSO4 con-
tamination with 95% confident level. The cementitious material factor in other admixed
salts namely MgSO4, is not significantly related to Icorr value. It means that the type of
cementitious material has the strongest effect on Icorr values of rebar in NaCl and NaCl
plus MgSO4 admixed concrete. While observing the impact of salt type on corrosion
data of rebar embedded in OPC concretes, it is observed that for Icorr values of rebar,
the P-value indicated that salt type is significant at the 0.05 a-level, but not significant
for MK concrete. It means that there are significant differences in Icorr value of OPC
specimens between salt types (Tables 6 and 7).
4 Conclusions
From the presented statistical analysis of the test data the following conclusions were
drawn:
1. Corrosion current density values in the study followed Weibull probability distri-
bution function for OPC and MK concretes contaminated with different salts.
2. The rebar in MK blended concrete has shown less corrosion current density values
as compared to OPC concrete.
3. The corrosion of rebar in concrete due to sulphates alone is very less as compared to
chlorides and chlorides plus sulphates.
4. The presence of MgSO4 enhances the chloride-induced corrosion of rebar in both
normal, and MK blended concretes.
5. ANOVA results indicated that there is a significant difference in corrosion perfor-
mance between OPC and MK concretes contaminated with NaCl and NaCl plus
MgSO4.
6. ANOVA results also reported that the type of salt affect the corrosion performance
of rebar in OPC concrete.
Application of Statistics to the Analysis of Corrosion Data 169
References
1. Al-Amoudi OSB, Rasheeduzzafar AA, Maslehuddin M, Abduljauwad S (1994) Influence of
sulfate ions on chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion in Portland and blended cement
concretes. Cem Con Agg 16:3–11
2. Al-Amoudi OSB, Baghabra OS (1998) Sulfate attack and reinforcement corrosion in plain
and blended cements exposed to sulfate environments. Build Environ 33:53–61
3. Jarrah NR, Al-Amoudi OSB, Maslehuddin M, Ashiru OA, Al-Mana AI (1995) Electro-
chemical behaviour of steel in plain and blended cement concretes in sulphate and/or
chloride environments. Constr Build Mater 9:97–103
4. Yang L, Yu H, Ma H, Zhou P (2009) Deterioration of high performance hybrid fibers
reinforced expansive concrete exposed to magnesium sulfate solution. In: International
conference on transportation engineering 2009, pp 2614–2619
5. Liu R, Jiang L, Huang G, Zhu Y, Liu X, Chu H, Xiong C (2016) The effect of carbonate and
sulfate ions on chloride threshold level of reinforcement corrosion in mortar with/without fly
ash. Constr Build Mater 113:90–95
6. Khan MS, Tayyib C (1992) Rebar corrosion in MgSO4 solution. J Mater Civ Eng 4:292–299
7. Holden WR, Page CL, Short NR (1980) The influence of chlorides and sulfates on
durability. In: Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete construction, pp 143–150. Society of
Chemical Industry Ellis Horwood Ltd., West Sussex
8. Brown PW, Badger S, Hime WG, Marusin SL (2001) A discussion of the paper The
distributions of bound sulfates and chlorides in concrete subjected to mixed NaCl, MgSO4,
Na2SO4 attack. Cem Concr Res 31:1115–1116
9. Bureau of Indian Standards (2013) Ordinary Portland Cement, 53 Grade-Specification (First
Revision). IS 122692013
10. IS 383 (Reaffirmed 2002) (1970) Indian standard specification for coarse and fine aggregates
from natural sources for concrete (second revision)
11. ASTM G16-13 (2013) Standard Guide for Applying Statistics to Analysis of Corrosion Data
12. Molugaram K, Rao GS, Shah A, Davergave N (2017) Statistical Techniques for
Transportation Engineering. BSP Books Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad Published by Elsevier Inc.
Earthquake Analysis of High-Rise Building
with Floating Column
1 Introduction
India is developing country where population growth is increasing per year. A few year
ago, the population were not so vast so they used to live in horizontal system (because
of large area available per person), but present days people preferring vertical system
due to shortage of space. Buildings are the symbol of modern society. Due to lack of
space, increasing population and also for aesthetic view and functional requirements,
Construction of high rise building in urban cities are required to have column free
space. For this purpose, the concept of floating column is coming in picture. These
columns are highly disadvantageous in building built in seismically prone areas. As per
IS:1893-2002 earthquake code the India is classified into different zone for which it
specifies the seismic zone factor and it is very important to analyze & design the
building for seismic force to prevent damages occur due to earthquake. The code of
earthquake engineering has been designed with the aim that people get enough time to
escape from the building, the building is less damaged and the building comes in faster
use. When earthquakes take place, the building passes at dynamic motion. The reason
is that the building subjected to the inertial forces operating in the opposite direction of
the acceleration of earthquake stimulation. These inertia forces, called seismic loads,
are usually handled as assuming forces are external, Since the motion of earthquake
varies with time and inertia forces vary with time & direction. Seismic loads are not
stable in terms of time and space.
2 Literature Review
Equivalent static analysis on different models for Zone-2 and 5 are carried out to study
the performance of the building in Shrikant et al. [6], and it has been found that
displacement increases when the floating column is provided on the edge. Apart from
this, Kishalay et al. [1] has perform the response spectrum analysis by the BNBC code
on various model, by changing its properties and the size of the elements, and compare
with the results of the general building and found that torsional irregularity was exist
when floating column was placed unsymmetrically. While Sarode et al. [3] analyzed the
172 M. N. Bargir and A. G. Mujawar
model by static and response spectrum method by considering beam girder on the model
and found that the larger base shear comes in the building due to composite beam girder.
Similar work has been done by Wahidi et al. [4] with Pushover Analysis G + 5-storey
building on Sap2000 in which some new system of bracing has been suggested based on
findings. Floating column building along with the Infill wall in the IDARC program,
Banerjee et al. [8] estimates damage index, cracks, yield, plastic hinges and found that
infill wall, help in reducing the seismic parameters with floating columns building.
3 Objective of Work
To the validation of FEM software with literature.
To model the building with floating column by using Staad-Pro V8i Series-6 Software.
To Compare building with and without floating column in terms of base shear, dis-
placement, storey drift, moments, time period, etc.
3.2 Methodology
Article for validation: Seismic Response of Complex building With Floating Column
for Zone-II, V (International Journal of Engineering Research, vol.2, issue.4, 2014)
3.2.2 Cases
Table 1. (continued)
Parameters Model-D Model-E Model-F
Method Response spectrum method
Importance factor (I) 1.2 1.2 1.2
Floor height (H) 3.15 M 3.15 M 3.15 M
Height of building (H) 31.5 M 31.5 M 31.5 M
Thickness of slab 150 MM 150 MM 150 MM
Live load 2.5 kN/m2 2.5 kN/m2 2.5 kN/m2
Floor finish 1.0 kN/m2 1.0 kN/m2 1.0 kN/m2
UDL on beam 11.75 kN/m 11.75 kN/m 11.75 kN/m2
2 2
Table 2. (continued)
Storey Results Model-A Model-B Model-C Model-A Model-B Model-C
7 Staad.Pro 14.48 14.70 16.55 49.14 52.90 55.11
Literature 14.1 14.90 16.35 45 49.5 52.50
6 Staad.Pro 12.62 13.00 14.43 42.84 46.81 48.04
Literature 12.3 12.60 14.20 39.98 43.2 46.05
5 Staad.Pro 10.53 11.60 12.05 36.78 39.94 40.11
Literature 9.8 10.90 11.75 34.6 37.5 39.50
4 Staad.Pro 8.29 9.03 9.48 28.15 32.15 31.57
Literature 7.75 9.25 9.50 27.2 30.2 30.00
3 Staad.Pro 5.85 6.87 6.80 20.2 24.72 22.65
Literature 5.45 7.20 6.75 19.5 23.2 22.20
2 Staad.Pro 3.58 4.64 4.09 12.15 16.71 13.63
Literature 3.3 5.05 4.30 12.1 15.75 13.50
1 Staad.Pro 1.34 2.37 1.53 4.58 8.60 5.10
Literature 1.3 2.20 1.50 4.4 8.1 5.05
4 Conclusions
In static analysis the building with floating column provided at corner side (Case-II),
gives the maximum storey displacement and storey shear for zone-II, V compared to
Case-1, while loading and other properties are similar in both cases.
The location of floating column is made significant impact on building, by ana-
lytically it cannot be said that which location is most appropriate for all types of
building. Every time we need to be carried out careful analysis.
178 M. N. Bargir and A. G. Mujawar
The introduction of triangular plate plays good role in floating column building as
In Model-F, the average value of displacement is decreased by 7.3 mm compared to
Model-E and 5.04 mm decreased compared to Model-D (Normal Building). The value
of storey drift was also found to be decreased in Model-F compared to Model-E.
In Case-III, storey shear decreases with introduction of floating column for all
zones, due to the reduction mass of column structure. Whereas Base shear is increases
in Model-F due introduction of triangular plate.
The mode frequency was seen using model analysis by eigen. It has been found that
frequency is lower for each mode in Model-E. Therefore, as the Model-E building is
more flexible. Whereas Frequency was found more in Model-F, because triangular
plate is provided and due to this the building become stiffer.
References
1. Kishalay MT, Kamrujjaman NM (2018) Evaluation of seismic performance of floating
column building. Am J Civil Eng 06
2. Elakkiyarajan N, Iyappan G (2018) Seismic analysis of multistory building with floating
column. IOSR J Eng 42–44
3. Sarode J, Pote AS (2016) Analysis of floating column building of composite and RCC beam
girder and comparison with RCC frame structure by using E-tab. Int J Adv Res 8:1464–1469
4. Wahidi A, Ramaseshu D (2016) Seismic analysis of multistory building with floating column.
Asian J Civ Eng 17
5. Singla S, Rahman E (2015) Effect of floating columns on seismic response of multistoried RC
framed building. Int J Eng Res Technol 2:1–11
6. Srikanth MK, Holebagilu YR (2014) Seismic response of complex building with floating
column for Zone-II and Zone-V. Int J Eng Res Online 2(4)
7. Sekhar TR, Prasad PV (2014) Study of behaviour of seismic analysis of multi storied building
with and without floating column. Caribb J Sci Technol 2:697–710
8. Banerjee S, Patro SK (2014) Estimation of the park-ang damage index for floating column
building with infill wall. World Acad Sci Eng Technol 8:760–763
A Review on the Recent Development
of Ambient Cured Geopolymer Composites
1 Introduction
The requirement of concrete buildings has been rising regularly, especially in the last 2
decades due to the increment of the world population. It is estimated that the demand of
concrete for the construction works will become 18 billion tons per year by the end of
the year 2050 [1]. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) being an essential constituent of
the concrete other than aggregates. Every year, approximately one ton cement is
produces for every human being and this quantity is increased by 100% by the end of
year 2020 [2]. Manufacturing of cement is not only energy intensive but also emits
carbon dioxide (CO2) in large quantity. It has been calculated that production of one
ton cement required 94.76 mega joule energy and annually, 13,500 million tons or
approximately 7% of the total CO2 gas emission is contributed by only OPC industries
to the environment [3]. Development of green-house gases from the cement industries
is the causal of global warming and ozone layer depletion. On the other hand huge
amount of agro and industrial by-products like fly ash, palm oil fuel ash (POFA) slag,
red mud, metakaolin and rice husk ash (RHA) etc. is being produce, which also affects
the geopolymerization reaction and achieving the better workability and higher strength
[18] which also leads to the high cost of construction and impedes to cast-in-situ work.
So, the researchers are now focusing on to the use of other substitute materials like
GGBFS [19], OPC [14], bottom ash [20], cement kiln dust (CKD) [21], iron making
slag, Silica fume (SF) [19], nano silica [22], rice husk ash (RHA) [23], metakaolin
(MK) [24] etc. as the binder materials in the geopolymer composites. This literature
provides a condensed review of the inclusion of the aforementioned source material in
the geopolymer composites, and determined the effect of different alkali solution,
sodium/potassium silicate to sodium/potassium hydroxides ratio, concentration of
sodium/potassium hydroxides and water addition on the various properties of ambient
temperature cured geopolymer composites.
This study focused on the researches completed in the recent duration on the ambient
cured geopolymer composites and explain the effect of factors those can influence the
properties of geopolymer composites like source materials, alkaline activator and water
addition etc.
Parveen et al. [26] has been recognized, slump of the geopolymer concrete were
increased by approximately 15% when concentration of sodium hydroxide changes
from 16 M to 8 M, however, mechanical properties were improved but rate of
absorption of water were decreased with the increment of sodium hydroxide concen-
tration. Microstructural studies verified the formation of the denser structure and less
crack which could be the reason for reducing the water absorption. It was documented
that drying shrinkage of geopolymer increases with sodium silicate concentration
increment because of higher degree of hydration [34].
The flowability of fresh geopolymer mixture reduced with the increased ratio
between sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide. It was observed from the results,
geopolymer mortar become more cohesive and viscous with the inclusion of alkaline
solution, therefore the flow value reduced compared to the of OPC concrete. However,
the ratio between alkaline activators did not affect the mechanical properties of
metakaolin or silica fume incorporated fly ash based geopolymer whereas, this ratio
highly affect the strength parameters of the slag contain geopolymer [25].
3 Conclusion
Production of a small amount OPC from the natural substance required high amount of
embodied energy and developed CO2 gas along with other environmental affecting
substances. For that reason, OPC concrete has facing acute condemnation from last two
decades which encourage the researchers for finding the alternatives of the OPC, those
have comparable properties of the OPC. After reviewing the previous published
research papers on the ambient cured geopolymer composites, it was found that
geopolymer is the best alternative of the OPC which enhanced the physical, mechanical
parameters and durability properties of the alkali activated geopolymer concrete and
reduce greenhouse gas emission as well as utilize industrial by – products. This review
paper epitomizes the utilization and effect of the industrial and agro waste such as slag,
fly ash, RHA and metakaolin etc. and other factors like alkaline activators, bio-
additives, Al/Bi ratio and air entraining admixtures etc. on the different parameters of
the geopolymer composites. On the basis of current work, the following findings can be
drawn –
• Many components viz. physical and chemical properties of the aluminosilicate
materials, ratio between alkaline compounds and alkali to binder ratio along with
curing temperature and time influence the various properties of geopolymer
composites.
• Due to unavailability of any standard design procedure for achieving comparable or
even better physical, mechanical and durability qualities, geopolymer composites
are not feasible for the cast-in-situ work.
• For the production of self-cured geopolymer composites, calcium oxides and cal-
cium hydroxides should be incorporate in the form of GGBFS or OPC.
• The behavior of fibers with geopolymer composites were found similar to the
normal concrete. Inclusion of fibers into the geopolymer composites also enhanced
the microstructure of the composites.
• Manufacturing of pervious and lightweight geopolymer concrete and geopolymer
brick could also be possible by using geopolymer composites.
• In general, production of high strength and durable geopolymer composites in the
ambient cured condition needs 10–12 M sodium hydroxide, the alkali to binder
ratio 0.35–0.5 and the ratio between sodium silicate and sodium hydroxides 1.5–
2.5.
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and carbon footprint of ground granulated blast-furnace slag-palm oil fuel ash-based
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microstructural study and compressive strength of geopolymer mortar, paste and concrete.
Constr Build Mater 186:550–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.075
8. Mehta A, Siddique R (2017) Properties of low-calcium fly ash based geopolymer concrete
incorporating OPC as partial replacement of fly ash. Constr Build Mater 150:792–807.
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method. Mater Des 36:191–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2011.10.036
10. Albitar M, Ali MSM, Visintin P, Drechsler M (2017) Durability evaluation of geopolymer
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conbuildmat.2017.01.056
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paste by incorporating ground granulated blast furnace slag. Constr Build Mater 146:615–
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12. Nath P, Sarker PK (2015) Use of OPC to improve setting and early strength properties of
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55:205–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.08.008
13. Dep PS, Nath P, Sarker K (2014) The effects of ground granulated blast-furnace slag
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14. Suwan T, Fan M (2014) Influence of OPC replacement and manufacturing procedures on the
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A Case Study on Structural Assessment
of Dudhgaon Grampanchayat Building
by Using Non Destructive Testing
1 Introduction
Any Building Structure can withstand for a very long period without any damage that only
depends on general checkup of that structure. After completing 30 years of any structure
periodical monitoring should be carried out. As the building grows old special precaution
should be carried out to remain the building for long period. Therefore it is suggested to
carry out periodical monitoring of the structure by structural consultant to save the loss of
life and loss of structure. Structural Assessment of a building is the preliminary stage in
which we can clarify exact in which condition is the structure right now. Indian society of
structural engineer has presented methodology on structural assessment.
Structural assessment is the examination of the building to give the current situation
of the building or members of the structure, the extent of material deterioration is
greatly depends on quality of material used for construction and quality of work at
construction stage. The damaged part of the building should repair as soon as, to
overcome future loss of structure. If the deteriorated part remains as it is, it causes slow
poisoning which is corrosion of steel, chemical attack etc. There are several techniques
by which we can extend our building life span but there should be exact diagnosis of
the damage and correctly applied the techniques.
2 Literature Review
Sachin Shelke, Darshana Ainchwar (2018) [1] Structures are the assemblies of beam,
column, & slab which safely transfer the superimposed load to the foundation. Con-
crete is an integral material used for construction purposes. Thus to know the strength
of this concrete we used the technique Non destructive testing. The rebound hammer
test is a hardness test and it is based on principle that the rebound of an elastic mass
depends on the hardness of the surface against which the mass impinges. The
assessment of any old structure by which we can extend the life of the structure by
suggesting remedies for repair. The ultrasonic pulse velocity test is conducted which
gives quality of concrete.
Peteris Drukis, Liga Gaile and Leonids Pakrastins (2017) [2] Safety of buildings is
very important in all aspects. A commercial building at Riga collapse due to damages
caused was very serious and 54 people were died. Safety of structure is the practice of
designing, constructing, operation, maintaining and removing structure in ways that no
any loss of human or injuries. This paper tells us risk based assessment system of
commercial building with target to classify this in common way. The outcome of this
paper is exact assessment of the structure and the effect of that risk factor to the safety
of public buildings.
Mahadik and Jaiswal(4) (2014) [3] This paper create awareness amongst the civil
engineering structure and health examination of the concrete structure called as
Structural assessment. The need of assessment is for maintenance and repair of existing
structures whose life has exceed the age of 15 years according to standard guidelines
and to save valuable loss of human life and also the collapse of structure.
3 Objectives
To study the various types of structural defects.
To identify any signs of material deterioration.
To identify the signs of structural distress and deformation.
To identify any alteration and addition in the structure.
Remedies for restoration of the structure.
4 Problem Formulation
5 Methodology
Performing preliminary inspection by which we can get clear idea of the structure.
Preparation of Architectural plan and steel design of the structure.
Should highlight critical areas which are more damaged.
Performing NDT test by which we can get clearer about the structure health.
Finding actual strength of the building.
Suggesting the remedial measures for extending life span of the structure.
Basic Information
Name of Building:- Dudhgaon Grampanchyat office.
Type of Structure:- R.C.C. Building G + 1
Address:- A/p Dudhgaon Grampanchayat, Tal- Miraj Dist. Sangli.
Age of Building:-18 years completed.
Effects of monsoon:- Yes
(1) Visual Observation
This building is a commercial type and located in Dudhgaon village. While visual
observing this building it has been cleared that material deterioration in every
member has gone to an extreme point and steel has been corroded, and some of
the reinforcements which has been corroded the small parts of corroded steel has
fallen down and only concrete part is there. The column has gone cracks in huge
manner which is easily observed by any common man. Dampness problem in wall
due to leakage in slab.
(2) Tapping Observation
While tapping on the column and beam with hammer the hollow sound was
recorded. This clearly indicates that voids are present in those members.
(3) Non-Destructive Testing Observations
Some of the members of the building were subjected to test by Ultrasonic pulse
velocity and Rebound Hammer test and reading were recorded which were
evaluated further for remedial measures.
While going through all aspects of the building maintenance and as per our detailed
survey, we suggested that building needs to be properly repaired and use without this
repair building cannot sustain load for long time.
Reinforcement of structure acts as bones in body, so if this are damaged then
weight of body cannot be sustain similarly reinforcement are more important in RCC
structure so special precaution should be taken.
To bring original strength of RCC members which are damaged then polymer
modified mortar method should be used.
The RCC members and walls which are deteriorated due to excess of water leakage
or any other action on these components, to stop this leakage must be stopped.
In RCC structure plaster it acts like a skin on bone, this skin should be of good
quality we recommended good quality resin based coating.
Cracks should be filled with adhesive material.
Waterproofing at terrace must be there to avoid leakage (Tables 1, 2 and 3).
7 Conclusion
References
1. Breysse D (2012) Nondestructive evaluation of concrete strength: an historical review and a
new perspective by combining NDT methods. Constr Build Mater 33:140–163
2. Shelke SS, Ainchwar D (2018) Structural health monitoring, Audit Repair and rehabilitation
of building in construction industry. Int J Eng Technol Sci Res 05(3). ISSN 2394-3386
3. Mahadik AB, Jaiswal MH (2014) Structural audit of building. IJCER 05:411–416 ISSN 2278-
3652
4. Chafekar BH, Kadam OS, Kale KB, Mohite SR, Shinde PA, Koyle VP (2013–2014)
Structural audit. IJCSER. 01(1):42–46
5. McCann DM, Forde MC (2001) Review of NDT methods in the assessment of concrete and
masonry structures. NDT E Int 34:71–84
6. Lim MK (2013) Combining multiple NDT methods to improve testing effectiveness. Constr
Build Mater 38:1310–1315
7. The Government of Maharashtra vide their notification date 07/02/2009 has communicated
that Government has modified the M.M.C. act, 1888 thereby incorporation a new
section 353B for making structural audit compulsory in respect of existing building, which
have completed 30 years
Analysis and Design of High-Rise Building
Using Diagrid Structural System
1 Introduction
The word “Diagrid” is derived from ‘diagonal-grid’, an efficient triangular structure that
can guarantee the stability of a building [1]. Diagrid structural system is used in high-rise
steel buildings where the horizontal loads and the accompanying deflection are nor-
mative, thus stability of tall buildings against lateral loads is an important point in the
analysis and design. There are several lateral resistance systems for tall buildings such as
concrete shear wall, infill wall, braced frame, rigid frame, outrigger truss system, braced
tube, and framed tube, but Diagrid structural system is found the most reliable and
economical structural system for steel tall buildings. The structural efficiency of Diagrid
system occurs as a result of its triangular configuration. The triangulation resists both
gravity and lateral load by axial stresses of its members where each member simply acts
in tension or compression with no bending.
Diagrid structural system is a special form of space truss which acts as a rigid shell
and it is considered as a new seismic force-resisting system. For analysis purposes it
can be considered as a very thin deep beam [9]. Among the large-span buildings some
examples are represented as the Seattle Library, the London City Hall, the Sydney One
Shelley Street, and the Astana National library. Among tall buildings, noteworthy
examples are the Swiss Re building in London, the Hearst tower in New York, the
CCTV Headquarters building in Beijing, the Capital Gate in Abu Dhabi, and Tornado
Tower in Doha (Fig. 1).
(a). Poly Int. Plaza Diagrid building (b). Hearst tower Diagrid building
Diagrid system has a bold appearance and the orientation of Diagrid system causes
to reduce the number of structural steel element required on the façade of the buildings.
The structural efficiency of Diagrid system also helps in reducing interior and corner
columns; therefore diagonal periphery of Diagrid system saves approximately 20% of
the structural steel in weight when compared to a conventional moment-frame structure
[8]. Diagonal members in Diagrid structural system can carry both gravity loads and
lateral forces due to its triangulated configuration [10]. Diagrid structures are more
effective in minimizing shear deformation because they carry lateral shear by axial
action of diagonal members. Diagrid structures generally do not need high shear
rigidity cores because lateral shear can be carried by the diagonal members located on
the periphery of the building [8, 9].
In this paper, stiffness method is applied to find the deformation of Diagonal Periphery
of Diagrid building for Bending Deflection and Shear Deflection [10]. The adopted
Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery is consisting of 16 triangular frames, locating three
stories along the height of the building. The 16 nodes are changed to 16 concentrated
loads, which are evenly distributed along the height of the building. Bending Deflection
Analysis and Design of High-Rise Building Using Diagrid Structural System 197
and Shear Deflection formulae for a cantilevered rod with 16 concentrated loads can be
derived with the help of two existing formulas that are deflection and rotation at top of
the rod. Discretization of Diagrid module into continuous load pattern is shown in
Fig. 2. Deflection ðyÞ and Rotation ðuÞ at top of the discretized module calculated
respectively are based on stiffness formulae of cantilever rod [10].
Fig. 2. Discretization of 16 nodes 6 spans Diagrid module into 16 continuous load pattern.
F l3
y¼ ð1Þ
3EI
F l2
u¼ ð2Þ
2EI
X
16
ybending ¼ ðyi þ ui li Þ ð3Þ
i¼1
833 F l3
ybending ¼ ð4Þ
384 EI
16
X
Fi li
yshear ¼ ð5Þ
i¼1
Gi Ai i
17 F l
yshear ¼ ð6Þ
2 GA
3a2 h E Ad
GA ¼ 2 ð7Þ
d3
truss elements. The support conditions are assumed as fixed. Secondary effect like
temperature variation is not considered. Typical cross sections are shown in Fig. 3.
(a). Interior Column (Built-Up Section) (b). Diagonal Circular Column (CHS)
for grade E300-Fe 440. Spans of each Diagrid are 6 m and total height of the building
is 172.8 m. Sizes of typical members are shown in Table 1. Floor plan and elevation
are shown in Fig. 4.
Table 1. Cross sectional sizes of typical members of the 48 stories steel Diagrid structure.
Diagonal columns Interior columns Beams (typical all
stories)
Diagonal column, Storey 1–30 Built-up Column Section B1: ISMB550
CHS: 508 mm 38 mm 1500 mm 1500 mm B2: ISWB600
(20″ 1.5″) 40 mm Thick Plate Web and
Diagonal column, Storey 31–48 Flange
CHS: 406 mm 16 mm 50 mm Think Plate Side Wall
(16″ 0.63″)
Details of Internal Column which resists mainly gravity loads and Diagonal Col-
umns are shown in Fig. 3. Sizes of the members can be reduced by considering higher
yield strength of structural steel. Cross Sections of Interior Column (Built-Up Section)
and Diagonal Circular Column (CHS) is shown in Fig. 3.
periphery calculated 582.7 mm and 595.9 mm at top storey by Manual calculation and
ANSYS software respectively (Table 3).
Table 2. Maximum and minimum axial deformation in elements found by ANSYS software.
Axial Stress Comp. (N/mm2) Min Values (Elm. No. 1115) Max Values (Elm. No. 1120)
−290.73 243.85
Axial Force Comp. (N) Min Values (Elm. No. 132) Max Values (Elm. No. 134)
−0.35362E+07 0.64740E+06
Axial Strain Comp. (N/mm2) Min Values (Elm. No. 840) Max Values (Elm. No. 867)
−0.93912E−04 0.21381E−03
Hand Calculation
Storey Displacement (mm)
ANSYS, Inc. Calculation
Storey Level at Diagrid 's Periphery (mm)
48
42
36
30
24
18
12
6
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Displacement (mm)
30
Storey
24
24
18
18
12 12
6 6
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Fig. 6. Displacement of 48 stories Diagrid structure due to dynamic and combined load.
48 48
42 42
36 36
30 30
Storey
Storey
24 24
18 18
12 12
6 6
0 0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Storey Drift (mm) Storey Drift (mm)
Fig. 7. Inter-Storey Drift of 48 stories Diagrid structure due to dynamic and combined load
Analysis and Design of High-Rise Building Using Diagrid Structural System 203
48 48
42 42
36 36
30 30
Storey
Storey
24 24
18 18
12 12
6 6
0 0
0.00E+00 1.00E+07 2.00E+07 3.00E+07 0.00E+00 1.00E+07 2.00E+07 3.00E+07
Storey Shear Force (N) Storey Shear Force (N)
Fig. 8. Storey Shear of 48 stories Diagrid structure due to dynamic and combined load
2.0 Storey 48
0.5 Min is -2.419E+03mm/sec²
Max is 3.049E+03mm/sec²
-1.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-2.5 ACCELERATION UX
Storey 1
-4.0 Min is-1.56E+02mm/sec²
Time (sec)
Max is 1.82E+02mm/sec²
Fig. 9. Top and bottom storey time vs. acceleration as Per IS:1893 and El-Centro data.
Storey 48
100 Min is -1.272E+02mm
Max is 1.17E+02mm
0 DISPLACEMENT UX
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Storey 1
-100
Min is -1.589E+00mm
Max is 1.42E+00mm
-200
Time (sec)
Fig. 10. Top and bottom storey time vs. displacement as Per IS:1893 and El-Centro data.
204 A. M. Rujhan and R. Kishore
Fig. 11. Time vs. base shear X-direction and Y-direction as Per IS:1893 and El-Centro data.
4.2 Discussions
Comparison of Fundamental Time Period of the building (4.05 s) to First Mode Shape
Time Period (3.1 s) shows that, a 23.5% reduction occurs in the time period of the
building by using only Diagrid system (Fig. 12). Comparison of Displacement of
Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery, found by stiffness formulae and ANSYS, to Maximum
Allowable Displacement (Height of Building/500) [9] (MAD) shows that, Diagrid’s
Diagonal Periphery resists (40 to 42) % of the total lateral displacement of the building.
Displacements found 272.2 mm and 345.6 mm by ETABS (WIND-X) and Maximum
Allowable Displacement (MAD) respectively, shows that Diagrid system resists the
total displacement of the building by 21.2%. From the analysis, it is found that the
Storey Drift of the Diagrid structure is reduced significantly by 100% for all loads by
using Diagrid structural system; it is observed from the Maximum Allowable Storey
Drift as per IS:1893 Part-1 which is calculated 14.4 mm, and the Maximum Storey
Drift by ETABS which are calculated 0.001249 mm, 0.001228 mm, 0.000611 mm,
0.000599 mm, 0.001039 mm, and 0.001808 mm for WIND-X, WIND-Y, EQ-X,
EQ-Y, ISCOMBO1-UX, and ISCOMBO2-UX respectively. It is found that Base Shear
of the Diagrid Structure is reduced by 23.8%, −118.2%, 55.2%, and −61.7% for
ISCOMBO1-VX, ISCOMBO2-VX, EQ-VX-VY, and WIND-VX-VY respectively,
while it can be observed that Diagrid system works best against lateral loads and it can
also be concluded that its contribution to resisting gravity load is also at the range of
satisfaction. It is observed that 21.7% and 78.3% of the Lateral Load is resisted by
Interior Columns and Diagonal Columns respectively, while 83.9% and 16.1% of the
Gravity Load is resisted by Interior Columns and Diagonal Columns respectively
(Fig. 12).
Analysis and Design of High-Rise Building Using Diagrid Structural System 205
7 Period
60%
5
40%
21.7% 3
16.1%
20%
1
0%
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Lateral Load Gravity Load
Types of Load Time period (sec)
Fig. 12. Time vs. base load distribution and time period vs. mode shape.
5 Conclusion
In this paper static and dynamic analysis of the 48 stories Diagrid structure is per-
formed by means of Manual Calculation, ANSYS software, and ETABS software.
From the analysis it is found that diagonal periphery resisted 42% of all lateral loads,
while as total building, Diagrid resists about 21% of the total displacement due to all
loads. It is observed that Diagrid system contributes most to lateral loads in tall
buildings, but its contribution to gravity loads is also sufficient. Storey drift of Diagrid
is reduced by 100%.
References
1. Rujhan AM (2014) Analysis and design of high-rise building using diagrid structural system.
Master’s thesis, Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering, Osmania
University, Hyderabad, India
2. ANSYS Inc. V12.1 (2012) Finite element analysis package, Pennsylvania, USA
3. ETABS Nonlinear V9.6 (2008) Extended 3D analysis of building systems. Computers and
Structures Inc., Berkeley
4. IS:800-2007 (2007) General construction in steel-code of practice. BIS, New Delhi
5. IS:875-1987 Part-3 (2003) Code of practice for design loads other than earthquake. BIS,
New Delhi
6. IS:1893 Part-1, Part-4 (2002) Criteria for earthquake resistance design of structures. BIS,
New Delhi
7. IS:2062-2011 (2011) Hot rolled medium and high tensile structural steel. BIS. New Delhi
8. Moon KS (2011) Diagrid structures for complex-shaped tall buildings, vol 14. Elsevier
9. Moon KS (2008) Material-saving design strategies for tall building structures. CTBUH
Technical Paper, vol 2008, CTBUH 8th World Congress, Dubai
10. Roelofs R (2008) Trussed façade constructions: a study of the opportunities of a structural
system. Master’s thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, Netherland
11. Baker W, Besjak C, Sarkisian M, Lee P, Doo CS (2010) Proposed methodology to determine
seismic performance factors for steel diagrid framed systems. CTBUH Technical Paper, 13th
U.S. Japan Workshop
Engineered Cementitious Composites
1 Introduction
tensile load in the mix from the Cementitious Composite to the Fibers, as been stated in
various research papers [2, 5]. As we know Concrete is a Brittle material, which makes
it fail during the application of Tensile Loading, while Fibers are strong in Tension
compared to the Cementitious Composite.
Capacity Design Phenomenon states that there occurs failure of chain by breaking if
there would be all brittle links in the chain, but the same chain would be able to take an
excessive load if we replace one brittle link by a ductile link. Similarly, in the designing
of the Cementitious Composite if we add few fibers in the mix there may take place
presence of a ductile link in the loading chain of the system making it more susceptible
to the loading.
This suppression in micro-crack development helps in development of pseudo-
strain hardening behavior of material, making formation of numerous micro-cracks all
over the system instead of a single macro-crack. This behavior makes the Composite
mix to act more like a Metal body instead of a Concrete Body, as this helps in making
the mix ductile instead of its property to be brittle.
2 Materials
A. Cement: Cement used during the work was OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) of
53 Grade.
B. Sand: Sand being used during the work was from Godavari River Bed and was
being provided by the institution (SGGSIE&T, Nanded) itself.
C. Coarse Aggregate: It was been provided from the institution itself, and was been
procured from nearby Stone Quarry, best to my knowledge.
D. CBFS: It stands for Crushed Blast Furnace Slag, CBFS been used in the work was
Iron-based, and was being procured from the crushing plant of Kalika Steels Pvt.
Ltd., Jalna, Maharashtra. It was been crushed to until it can be used as a Fine
Aggregate.
E. Fly Ash: Fly Ash been used for the work was being procured from the Maharashtra
State Power Generation Corporation Limited’s Parli Thermal Power Plant, Parli,
Beed, Maharashtra.
F. PVA Fibers: PVA stands for Poly Vinyl Alcohol, which is plastic based polymer
fiber. These polymer fibers were been procured from, The Yarn Guru India Inc.,
Bhilwara, Rajasthan.
G. Brick: Bricks used in the work were mud-based and made with help of dome kiln
in the kiln-plants near Vishnupuri. It was been provided by Institute itself.
H. Water: Water was been provided by the institution itself and was of slightly basic
nature, which made it more favorable for making concrete or mortar.
208 Y. Biyani et al.
3 Inference
There has been research in the area but maximum of that research took place in the
developed economies, while a negligible research took place in undeveloped or
developing economies. This has been reason that usual criteria of Economy was not
been considered to a mark in maximum of research. So our work is been concentrated
to test the mix for Indian economy and atmosphere, so that we can attain better results
for ECC mix to be used in every part of world. My work is concentrated maximum on
Indian counterpart.
As well as my work is to find the ability of ECC mix to be Eco-friendly.
4 Methodology
Initial work was been done to find the optimum content for replacement of Cement and
Sand by Fly Ash and CBFS respectively [3]. Content must be such that we get
maximum strength with replacement.
Then work was been done to find Optimum Content of Reinforcing Fibers, such
that we get maximum strength in minimum usage of fibers.
The obtained values were been plotted in GeoGebra and maximum value was
obtained for strength with variation in replacement and addition of Reinforcing Fibers [8].
In the application of GeoGebra software, we tried to form a parabolic conic with help of
values obtained by help of experimentation. By preparation of curve, we found the
maximum value of strength with replacement and addition of fibers. All the processes of
GeoGebra were been done to find values of Compressive and Tensile Strength with
variation of values for preparing optimum mix of ECC. All Procedures were processed
with provisions specified in literature by Shetty [9] and Indian Standard Codes [10–12].
Normal mortar of 1:4 proportion was prepared and referred in paper further as
Normal Mortar, while Normal Concrete of M20 grade was prepared with proportion
1:1.5:3 and referred in paper further as Normal Concrete. ECC was prepared with
optimum replacement of Cement and Sand as well as with optimum content of Fiber
Reinforcement with PVA. FRC was prepared with same replacements and same
content of PVA as in the case of ECC.
Firstly, the mixes were been tested for density, to find the change in loading due to self-
weight if any (Table 1),
From the above values, we can see that ECC has lower density, which would help
in making the building-structure lighter than other versions, by reducing the sizes of the
support system (Beam and Column) in the framed structure, as well as it would help in
reducing weight of masonry block in the case of LBS structures.
Then the mixes we tested for Compressive Strength, as it is the usual parameter
considered during start of project, it was been calculated for two intervals that is
compressive strength of mix after 7 days of curing and compressive strength of mix
after 28 days of curing (Tables 2 and 3).
From the above values, we can find that ECC helps in making higher strength mix,
which would help in making the structure with smaller sections helping in reducing
weight and cost of structure.
Further they were tested for Tensile Strength, as usually failure in a concrete
structure occur during application of tensile loading, as concrete is a brittle material it is
weak in tension, so test was performed to find the ability of ECC to resist Tensile
Loads. Specimens for testing were prepared for Split Tensile Testing and testing was
performed on CTM (Compressive Testing Machine) Results obtained were as follows
(Table 4),
From the above values, we can find that ECC helps in making higher tensile
strength mix, which would help in providing better strength in members of structure
during application of lateral loads.
Further they were tested the mixes for Flexural Strength, as concrete is a major
component in the flexural components like beams and slab in the structure. Specimens
of 100 mm 100 mm 500 mm were prepared, and testing performed on UTM
(Universal Testing Machine) on 400 mm span-length. Results obtained were (Tables 5
and 6),
(Flexural strength was calculated with the load at which first crack occurred in the
flexure specimen, while the Slope was found by the help of displacement occurred
during the Flexure testing. Specimen of Normal Mortar was prepared twice but the
specimen failed in Demoulding, which made the results for flexure strength unavailable
for it.)
From the above values, we can find that ECC helps in making higher flexural
strength mix, which would help in providing better strength in flexural members of
structure, as well as help in reducing damages in case of progressive collapse. As well
larger slope help to get greater ductility, which can help in reducing damages due to
lateral shocks, as been stated by Soleimani-Dashtaki [1].
Further the mixes were tested for Water Absorption, during the test the specimens
were firstly heated for 24 h in a oven at 105 °C then cooled at room temperature for
24 h in unquenched manner, further placed in potable water for 24 h and the water
absorption was calculated (Table 7),
Engineered Cementitious Composites 211
From above figures we get to know that Compressive Strength of Masonry Prism
increases by 36.67%, this could obtain a greater value. In case of Normal Mortar as
Binder the failure crack passed through the Binding Material itself causing damage to
the whole system, but in case of ECC as a Binder the failure cracks were been placed in
the Masonry Units itself while no visible cracks were observed by naked eye in the
Binding Material.
Usually when a Building Structure goes through an Earthquake (Seismic) Shock,
one reason of failure the Structural Component like Columns is due to failure of
Masonry in Bond Shear. During failure in Bond Shear, there occurs huge displacement
shock to the masonry during Seismic shock, which transfers to the structural compo-
nent weakening the same, thus causing weakening in structure. Therefore, the mixes
were been tested for Bond Shear (Table 9),
From above figures, we can see that about increase of Bond Shear of Masonry was
45–50% more for the ECC-mix compared to Normal Mortar, which would help in
making the structure more resistant to Seismic Shocks.
(Costs mentioned are been calculated according to local market cost analysis, they
may vary for different areas, amount mentioned are been rounded to nearest multiple of
five.)
Being a responsible habitant of Earth, is needed by us to develop better and Eco-
friendly Methods of Construction as well as Materials, which would help in increasing
life of Earth. So during this work we tested all the variation of the mixes that we
prepared for the calculation of Carbon Footprint (Amount of Emission of Carbon
dioxide for production of one unit of mix), to find their ability to be Eco-friendly.
Calculations were been performed by the values of CO2 emissions as been stated in
Research paper by Jiménez et al. [7]. Results obtained by the calculations are as stated
below (Table 11),
(No CO2 emission is been considered for Fly Ash and CBFS, as they are by-
products of other industries.)
Engineered Cementitious Composites 213
From above figures we can observe that ECC being prepared, produces the least
emission of CO2, thus causing least Carbon Footprint, making ECC to be most Eco-
friendly in all tested variations of mix.
Therefore, there needs to be proper transmission of the ability of the mix and proper
blending by the industry, during provision of the mix with good quality of components
in mix. As earlier, these issues have lead to lower consumption of PPC by the Con-
tractors, who still prefer OPC at their respective construction sites, due to provision of
inappropriate quality PPC by the cement production plants during that period.
7 Conclusion
8 Future Works
Recently during this research work, we came in to know that usage of Fibers are
leading to reduction of workability of mix, so this needs to be studied such that we can
obtain a good strength mix with a better Workability.
214 Y. Biyani et al.
References
1. Soleimani-Dashtaki S, Ventura CE, Banthia N (2017) Seismic strengthening of unreinforced
masonry walls using sprayable eco-friendly ductile cementitious composite (EDCC).
Procedia Eng 210:154–164
2. Ranade R, Li VC, Stults MD, Rushing TS, Roth J, Heard WF (2013) Micromechanics of
high-strength, high-ductility concrete. ACI Mater J 110:375–384
3. Wang S, Li VC (2007) Engineered cementitious composites with high-volume fly ash. ACI
Mater J 104:233–241
4. Li VC (2003) Engineered cementitious composites: a review on the material and its
application. J Adv Concr Technol 1(3):215–230
5. Redon C, Li VC, Wu C, Hoshiro H, Saito T, Ogawa A (2001) Measuring and modifying
interface properties of PVA fibers in ECC matrix. J Mater Civ Eng 13:399–406
6. Li VC (1998) Repair and retrofit with engineered cementitious composites. In: Proceedings
FraMCoS-3, Freiburg, Germany
7. Jiménez LF, Domínguez JA, Vega-Azamar RE (2018) Carbon footprint of recycled
aggregate concrete. Hindawi Adv Civ Eng 2018, Article ID 7949741
8. Mali JR, Bagul P, Biyani Y, Pandhare P, Bafna H Partial replacement of fine aggregate with
GGBS. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32107.18725/1
9. Shetty MS (2014) Concrete Technology-Theory and Practice, Reprint, pp 180–189, 559–
575, 617
10. IS 3812 (Part 1):2003, Indian Standard for, “Pulverized Fuel Ash—Specification Part 1 for
Use as Pozzolona in Cement, Cement Mortar and Concrete” (Second Revision)
11. IS 2250:1981 (Reaffirmed 2000), Indian Standard for “Code of Practice for Preparation and
Use of Masonry Mortars” (First Revision)
12. IS 2116:1980 (Reaffirmed 2002), Indian Standard for “Specification for Sand for Masonry
Mortars” (First Revision)
Influence of Metakaolin on Stone Waste
Aggregate Concrete
Abstract. The present paper reports the utilization of industrial stone waste in
construction works as coarse aggregate. The black stone waste (BSW) aggre-
gates collected from the stone industry was used as coarse aggregate by
replacing the natural aggregate with different replacement levels of 0%, 25%,
50% and 75%. In addition, this work also investigates the influence of Meta-
kaolin (MK) on the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of con-
cretes made with BSW aggregates. BSW aggregate concrete mixtures were
prepared the replacement of cement with MK in the replacement levels of 0%,
5%, 10% and 15%. Results have shown that, the addition of MK involve to
increase the mechanical properties of black stone aggregate concrete. The
optimum strength results were obtained at 10% MK replacement level. Beyond
the replacement level of 50% of natural aggregate with BSW aggregate MK
blended concretes the strength results were lessened as compared to that of the
concrete made with natural coarse aggregate (i.e. 0% BSW aggregate).
1 Introduction
Now a days, metakaolin (MK) has attracted significant attention of researchers due to
its high pozzolanic property. MK is produced by the kaolin clay calcination at high
temperature ranges 500 °C to 800 °C. The percentage of MK addition has significant
influence of porosity of the cement matrix. Bredy et al. [1] stated that the incorporation
of MK below 10% decreases the porosity and the dosage level of more than 30% MK
increases the porosity. The addition of MK enhances the compressive strength of
concretes [2]. Li and Ding [3] were observed supreme compressive strength at 10%
addition of MK to the concrete.
Rajendra et al. [4] investigated the compressive strength measurements of the waste
cuddapah stone waste aggregate concrete with Pozzolana Portland cement (Fly ash
based). They replaced the natural aggregate (NA) with cuddapah stone aggregate in
20%, 40% and 60% respectively and the specimens were tested for 7 and 28 days. The
compressive strength results had shown that it increases up to 40% replacement of
coarse aggregate replacement with cuddapah stone. After that there is a gradual
decrement in compressive strength measurements of cuddapah stone waste aggregate
concrete.
Kore and vyas [5] were conducted an experimental investigation to examine the
possibility of marble waste utilization in concrete industry as a coarse aggregate with
different replacement levels. The results revealed that the workability of marble
aggregate concrete mixes was 14% higher than that of made with NA. The replacement
of marble aggregate also enhances the compressive strength by 40% and 18% at 7 and
28 days, respectively. The studies conducted by Binici et al. indicated that modified
concretes containing made with marble and limestone dust have good workability,
abrasion resistance and sulfate resistance. Binici et al. [6] also investigated the dura-
bility of the concretes prepared with marble and granite as coarse aggregate, river sand
and ground blast furnace slag (GBFS) as fine aggregate. The results indicated that
concretes with marble and GBFS was shown superior performance in terms of dura-
bility and bonding strength. Venkataramana et al. [7] studied the performance on steel
fiber reinforced stone waste aggregate concrete with compressive and bearing strength
measurements as the parameters. The different replacement levels of (25, 50, 75 and
100%) NA with stone waste produced from the stone polishing industries was used in
concrete with and without steel fibers. The results had shown that 50% replacement of
NA by stone waste aggregate is acceptable. The test results of Li et al. [8] revealed that
adding marble dust as cement replacement can considerably increase the water resis-
tance and carbonation.
In the present experimental investigation, the compressive and split tensile strength
of concrete made with various replacement levels of cement and coarse aggregate were
investigated. In order to investigate the effect of metakaolin, the concrete specimens
were prepared with various replacement levels (0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%) of cement by
the metakaolin. Further, to investigate the utilization on Tadipatri black stone in
concrete, the concrete was made with Tadipatri black stone waste aggregate (BSWA)
with different replacement levels of NA.
Concrete mixtures were made with water to binder (w/b) ratio of 0.5, two binders
namely, Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and OPC blended with MK and two types of
coarse aggregates namely natural and Black stone waste aggregate. The replacement
level of cement with MK are 5%, 10% and 15% and natural aggregate was replaced at
different levels of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% with BSWA. The chemical composition
of MK and OPC, is shown in Table 1. River sand confirming to classification Zone II
was used as fine aggregate. Black stone waste aggregate of maximum size 20 mm size
and 10 mm was made by the crushing of raw stone waste material collected from the
Influence of Metakaolin on Stone Waste Aggregate Concrete 217
stone industry, Tadipatri. The performance concretes made with BSW aggregate was
evaluated with reference to the concrete made with locally available normal crushed
coarse aggregate. The specific gravity of sand, cement and MK were observed as 2.58,
3.05 and 2.50 respectively. The coarse aggregates of 20 mm and 10 mm MSA were
mixed in the proportion of 60% and 40% respectively. The specific gravities of natural
and BSW aggregate (combination of 20 mm and 10 mm aggregate) were determined as
2.66 and 2.68 respectively. Three replicates of concrete cube of size 150 150
150 mm for compressive strength and three replicates of cylindrical specimen of size
150 mm diameter and 200 mm height for tensile test were cast with each concrete
mixture. Concrete specimens were casted by using an electrically operated mechanical
mixer, for concrete mixing and vibrating table for good compaction. After 24 h the
concrete specimens were demoulded and transferred into the water curing for 27 days.
Figure 3 shows the effect of BSW aggregates and MK addition on the splitting tensile
strength measurements at the age of 56 days. The splitting tensile strength development
trend was also similar to that of compressive strength of different replacement levels of
BSWA concrete with 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% replacement levels of MK. From the
Fig. 3, it was clear, that the splitting tensile strength measurements were increased with
the replacement level of cement with MK.
Fig. 1. Compressive strength of BSWA concrete blended with different levels of MK at the age
of 28 days.
From Fig. 4 it is observed that the a-values for various concrete mixtures prepared
with different dosages of BSW aggregate and MK are in the range of 0.5 to 0.6. It
implies that the present experimental data remarkably in agreement with the relation
proposed by the authors ACI363R-92 between tensile and compressive strength of
concretes.
220 S. V. Babu et al.
4 Conclusions
Based on the experimental studies conducted on the utilization of stone waste as coarse
aggregate in metakaolin blended concrete, the following conclusions were drawn:
• The replacement of coarse aggregate with BSW aggregates up to 50% is beneficial
regarding the both compressive and tensile strength measurements.
• The addition of metakaolin improves the both compressive and tensile strength
measurements of BSWA concrete.
• The optimum contribution of metakaolin in enhancing the mechanical properties of
BSWA aggregate concrete was obtained at 10% replacement of cement.
• The strength values of BSWA concretes were lessened at higher replacement levels
of metakaolin especially at 15% replacement level.
References
1. Bredy P, Chabannet M, Pera J (1989) Pore structure and permeability of cementitious
materials. In: Roberts LR, Skalny JP (eds) Materials research society symposia proceedings,
vol 137. Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, pp 43 l–436
2. Brooks JJ, Johari MAM (2001) Effect of metakaolin on creep and shrinkage of concrete. Cem
Concr Compos 23:495–502
3. Li Z, Ding Z (2003) Property improvement of Portland cement by incorporating with
metakaolin and slag. Cem Concr Res 33:579–587
4. Rajendra D, Nilgiris T (2017) Effect of strength properties on concrete by partial replacement
of coarse aggregate with waste cuddapah stones. Int J Eng Trends Technol 6:433–437
5. Kore SD, Vyas AK (2016) Impact of marble waste as coarse aggregate on properties of lean
cement concrete. Case Stud Constr Mater 4:85–92
6. Binici H, Shah T, Aksogan O, Kaplan H (2008) Durability of concrete made with granite and
marble as recycle aggregates. J Mater Process Technol 208:299–308
Influence of Metakaolin on Stone Waste Aggregate Concrete 221
7. Venkataramana N, Reddy Babu G, Babu UR (2018) Bearing strength of steel fibre reinforced
black marble stone waste aggregate concrete. Mater Today: Proc 5:1201–1210
8. Li LG, Huang ZH, Tan YP, Kwan AKH, Liu F (2018) Use of marble dust as paste
replacement for recycling waste and improving durability and dimensional stability of mortar.
Constr Build Mater 166:423–432
Rapid Hardening on the Strength Gain
Admixture on Behavior of Concrete
with Replacement of Binary Cementitious
Materials
1 Introduction
With the increase in the development in the countries around the world, the use of
concrete is increasing which in turn results in great impact on the greenhouse effect.
According to national Ready Mixed Concrete Association a total of one ton of carbon
dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere during the process of cement manufacturing. It
contributes about 5% of the greenhouse gases [1, 2]. To reduce the greenhouse effect
the use of green building materials as a replacement of the cement are used. The
byproduct wastes from various industries such as fly ash, GGBS, rice husk and silica
fume are used as a replacement of cement. The paper focus, on achieving strength by
replacing fly ash 0–15% and slag (GGBS) 0–25% with cement and stone dust about
0–50% with fine aggregate along with the use of rapid hardening admixture [3–7]. The
binary cementitious materials produced from the industrial waste are used in varying
proportions to achieve a great extent of strength in the concrete. Fly ash and slag are the
major products contributing the waste generated from industries. Copper slag is a big
by-product obtained from the smelting and refining of the copper used in the pro-
duction of electricity [8, 9]. The addition of crimped steel fiber in varying proportions
of 0–2% is added to the concrete which increases the durability and strength of
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 222–233, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_29
Rapid Hardening on the Strength Gain Admixture 223
concrete, with the increasing percentage of steel fiber in the concrete there will be a
control over the cracks developing in the structure and obtains the maximum strength
[10–13]. The manufacturing of cement process is consuming the more energy, which
results in emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, these gases adversely
effect on the environment. The examination is about study of impact of using fly ash
with cement and slag with fine aggregate on characteristics of concrete. The charac-
teristics of concrete are tested by both destructive and non-destructive test. The
destructive tested conducted on the concrete cubes to determine the compressive
strength as concrete is a major source for the compressive strength in the concrete, the
strength is improved by the addition of rapid hardening admixture to increase the rate
of hydration resulting in achieving more strength gain in concrete. The bending stresses
developed in the concrete at tested with three point loading. The flexural strength is
improved by the inclusion of crimped steel fibers for various mixes [14–17]. In this
different samples were taken with different percentage of slag i.e. it varies from 0–60%
and 20% of fly ash replaced with cement for every sample. By various quantities of slag
and constant fly ash the compressive strength will be differ and compressive strength is
more as compare to control specimen. If, copper slag more than 30% replacement with
fine aggregate then the outcomes show the reduction of strengths because the water
absorption of copper slag is very less. And this result shows that is 20% as fly ash
substitution with cement and up to 30% as copper slag substitution with fine aggregate
to acquire good mechanical properties of concrete [18–21]. The use of non-destructive
test was conducted for the determining the compressive strength of concrete using
rebound hammer and the quality of the concrete is determined with the help of UPV
[22–25].
2 Materials
2.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of grade 53 grade was used for preparing the
structural concrete mix for all the batches in preparation of the prisms and cubes for
destructive testing. The obtained test values of Portland cement is represented in the
Table 1.
2.5 GGBS
The slag produced from steel plant as a byproduct of smelting and refining process,
which is more suitable for alternate cementitious materials as a partially replacement of
Portland cement and image of slag (GGBS) as shown in Fig. 2.
Rapid Hardening on the Strength Gain Admixture 225
3 Experimental Program
The M25 grade of standard design mix (1:1:2:0.45) consisting of Eight mixes were
prepared in accordance with IS 10262-2019 [27]. The detailed mix proportion as
represented in Table 4.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1Þ
crack depthðhÞ ¼ x ðTc=TsÞ2 1
50
45
Compressive strength of concrete
40
35
30
25
(MPa)
20
15
10
5
0
C1 (M35) C2 (M30) C3 (M25) C4 (M30) C5 (M30) C6 (M30) C7 (M30) C8 (M35)
43.64 38.65 36.5 38.3 39.7 37.45 40.27 47.25
5
4.5
Bending stress of concrte
4
3.5
3
(MPa)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Mix ID C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
7 days 2.8 2.9 3 3 3 3.1 3.3 4
14 days 3.1 3 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.5 4.5
120
Crack depth measured 100
80
(mm)
60
40
20
0
Mix ID C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
Crack depth (mm) 96 95 62 86 71 91 86 73
Depth obtained (mm) 98 99 86 95 88 96 91 83
50 50
45 45
Compressive strength (MPa)
40 40
Rebound Number
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
Mix ID C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
Strength 42.5 40 34 37 31 34 35 47
Number 42 40 36 38 34 36 37 45
the number a similar graph is drawn and the strength are determined as per IS 13311
part 2 [29]. The compressive strength of the specimen C1 and C8 have attained
maximum strength for 7 days of curing.
5 Conclusion
The following laboratory experimental test results are concluded as given below:
• M25 grade of concrete casted and tested for 7 days curing and achieved the M35
grade of concrete for 7 days of curing followed by 6 h of hot air oven curing and
similarly all mixes was tested.
• The bending stress of concrete beams showed a maximum bending stress 4 N/mm2
for a mix proportion of 25% of slag, 15% of fly ash along with addition of 2% of
crimped steel fibers for 7 days curing.
• The inclusion of crimped steel fibers in varying proportions in the concrete mix
decreases the internal cracks and minimizes the crack depth of the concrete beams.
• The crack depth in the beams is minimized to a great extent with the use of 2% of
crimped steel fiber in the mix proportions.
• The concrete prepared is concluded to be green concrete by using supplementary
cementitious materials which is collected from different industries like waste by
product, and reducing the CO2 emission.
• Usage of rapid hardening chemical admixture for various mixes of concrete exhibits
the rapid hardening of concrete due to increase the hydration gel formation thus
resulting the higher strength at an early age.
• It is more suitable for fast track construction and more economical for structural
concrete.
Conflicts of Interest. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
References
1. Tiwary A (2018) Effect of copper slag and fly ash on mechanical properties of concrete. Int J
Civ Eng Technol (IJCIET) 9(7):354–362. http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet
2. Naga Srinu T, Murali K (2018) Mechanical properties of steel fiber reinforced geopolymer
concrete incorporated with fly-ash & GGBS. Int J Civ Eng Technol (IJCIET) 9(3):789–797.
http://www.iaeme.com
3. Varun BK, Harish BA (2018) Effect of addition of fly ash and GGBS on cement concrete in
fresh and hardened state. Int J Adv Eng Res Dev 5(2). https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/323601780
232 R. Kiranmai et al.
23. Nagalaxmi R (2013) Experimental study on strength characteristics on M25 concrete with
partial replacement of cement with fly ash and coarse aggregate with coconut shell. Int J Sci
Eng Res 4:1–11. www.ijser.org
24. Agunwambaa JC, Adagba T (2012) A comparative analysis of the rebound hammer and
ultrasonic pulse velocity in testing concrete. Niger J Technol (Nijotech) 31:31–39
25. IS ASTM C618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural
Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
26. IS 10262-2019 Indian standard concrete mix proportioning – guidelines
27. IS 13311 Part 1 (1992) Non-destructive testing of concrete - methods of test part 1 ultrasonic
pulse velocity
28. IS 13311 Part 2 (1992) Non-destructive testing of concrete-methods of test part 2 rebound
hammer
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing
Strips Embedded in Cement Modified
Marginal Backfill of Mechanically Stabilized
Earth (MSE) Walls
1 Introduction
et al. 2005; Biswas et al. 2003; Saran 2006; Lopez et al. 2005). Few attempts were also
made by investigators to overcome the ill-effects of marginal backfills by the use of
electrokinetic dewatering (Fourie et al. 2007), prestressing and preloading (Stam-
atopoulos and Kotzias 1985; Tatsuoka 2002) and the use of cementitious materials
(Gill and Bushell 1992; Marchal et al. 1996; Lawson 2003; Tatsuoka 2004; Moham-
mad and Mohammad 2006). In order to evolve the design parameters for internal
stability in case of cement modified backfills, an attempt is made to carryout pull – out
tests on various types of reinforcing strips embedded in marginal backfills without and
with cement modification. These results were compared with those obtained with sand
as backfill.
Table 1. (continued)
Property Sand Marginal soil
Compaction properties
OMC (%) 12 16.5
MDD (Mg/m3) 1.58 1.78
Shear strength parameters
(i) UU condition
cu (kPa) - 52
/u - 140
(ii) CD condition
c′ (kPa) 0 20
/′ 410
290
−3
Coefficient of permeability, k (cm/sec) 1.25 10 2.48 10−6
Note: SC = clayey sand; OMC = optimum moisture content;
MDD = maximum dry density; UU = unconsolidated undrained;
cu = undrained cohesion; /u = undrained angle of internal friction;
CD = consolidated drained; c′ = effective cohesion; /′ = effective
angle of internal friction.
3 Laboratory Tests
Normal stress
Proving ring & Dial gauge Metal plate
Electric motor
Movable ram
Clamp Sleeve
Reinforcing strip
Gearbox
Pedestal Pull–out Box
The protruding part of the respective reinforcing strip was clamped at the end by
steel plates with nut and bolt arrangement (Fig. 2) and then connected to a tension
proving ring attached to motorized movable ram of specially fabricated pull–out testing
unit.
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips 239
The test box was mounted on the pedestal of a compression testing machine and the
respective normal stress was applied through a proving ring on the top of pull–out box
using a steel plate that exactly fits into the box. A series of pull–out tests were carried
out under varied normal stresses (7.5, 15 and 22.5 kPa) using different types of rein-
forcing strips embedded in marginal soil without and with 3% cement modification and
also in plain sand. The pull–out load was recorded from tension proving ring while the
displacement was obtained from dial gauge readings. In case of sand sample, cotton
fabric was used near the sleeve to prevent the fall of sand.
The peak pull–out loads were obtained by drawing the pull–out load versus pull–
out deformation plots. These peak pull–out loads were divided by the gross area of the
respective strip to get the average pull–out resistance (Abu-Farsakh et al. 2007). Then
the pull–out resistance versus normal stress plots were drawn to get the pull–out
interaction parameters (ca and d, the adhesion value and apparent friction angle
respectively). However, these parameters can not be directly used in design calculations
especially for flexible reinforcing strips due to their extensibility and hence, pull–out
design factors, namely, F*(pull–out resistance factor) and a (scale effect correction
factor) were introduced in calculations (FHWA 1998; Mohiuddin 2001; Farrag 2004;
Abu-Farsakh et al. 2007). Pull–out resistance (Pr) is calculated using the above factors
per unit width using the following equation.
Pr ¼ F a rn Le C
F a is given by Ci tan/
Where,
The previously obtained ca and d from the pull–out tests are used in the calculation
of Ci under different test conditions. The F* and a values were calculated from pull–out
test results. These test results were presented in Tables 4 and 5.
4 Field Tests
Field pull–out tests were carried out on different reinforcing strips embedded in model
embankments constructed using locally available marginal soil without and with cement
modification to investigate their pull–out resistance. This work is intended to study the
feasibility and practicality of using marginal soils in the field in comparison with con-
ventional backfill and also to ascertain the pull–out resistance of different types of
240 P. Kurre and G. V. Praveen
reinforcing materials embedded in such fills. These tests were performed at optimum
moisture content and in fully wet condition in case of plain marginal soil; and after 7 days
of curing period under inundation in case of cement modified marginal soil. The pull–out
tests were also conducted on strips embedded in sand at optimum moisture content.
The model walls of 1.60 m height, 1.50 m wide and 3.50 m long were constructed
with vertical faces. The vertical faces were maintained with the help of steel posts and
bamboo mats. The backfill was mixed with water content equal to its optimum moisture
content and compacted in 5 cm thick layers to its maximum dry density using a 2 ton
stone roller up to a lift thickness of 40 cm. The maximum dry density was controlled
by core cutter method. Then the different types of reinforcing strips of 10 cm wide and
35 cm long were placed on the leveled compacted surface on both the sides of wall in
replication, in order to conduct the tests both at OMC and after saturation. A metal
sleeve was used at the pull–out end within 5 cm to avoid the near face distribution.
Similar process was adopted at other lift thicknesses also i.e. at 0.80 m and 1.20 m
height. In case of cement modified marginal soil, the pull–out tests were done both at 7
days of moist curing and also after full inundation for 3 days.
The pull–out tests were carried out using a specially fabricated pull–out testing
apparatus with a strain rate of 1.25 mm/min. Figure 3 shows the test set up on model
embankment. The overhanging portion of the reinforcing strips were clamped to the
extension plate using nut and bolt system which in turn was connected to the pull–out
testing unit through tension proving ring. The dial gauge was attached to the welded
flat using magnetic base to measure horizontal displacement of the respective rein-
forcing strips. The maximum pull–out load obtained from tension proving ring reading
was used to determine the soil–reinforcement interface frictional resistance. Further, the
pull–out design factors F* and a were calculated using a similar procedure explained
under laboratory pull–out testing.
5 Discussion on Results
5.1 Laboratory Test Results
These tests were carried out on different reinforcing strips embedded in a pull–out box
and pulled at different normal stresses. Typical pull–out load versus pull–out deformation
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips 241
plot is shown in Fig. 4 for Polyfelt (non-woven) geotextile strip. It can be seen that the
pull–out load is steadily increased with pull–out deformation beyond the initial extension
of the strip and thereafter, it is decreased. In case of metallic strips, the pull–out load is
steadily increased with deformation up to peak value and then decreased. Similar plots
were drawn for all the strips under different normal stresses and peak pull–out loads were
obtained. As already explained, the peak pull–out load is divided by the original area of
the strip (2 sides) to get the average peak pull–out stress (Abu-Farsakh et al. 2007) for a
given normal stress.
These tests were carried out on the same reinforcing strips embedded in model
embankments using a specially fabricated pull–out testing unit. The calculation pro-
cedures are similar to those for laboratory pull–out tests (Table 4).
These parameters were obtained from the plots drawn between peak pull–out stress and
normal stress. The typical plot is shown in Fig. 5 for chicken mesh reinforcing
strip. The intercept on peak pull–out stress axis is referred to as ca (adhesion intercept)
and the slope of the line as d (apparent interface friction angle). These values obtained
from laboratory and field pull–out tests for different test conditions are presented in
Tables 4 and 5. The rest of the calculation to find F* and a were made by following the
procedure already outlined.
It can be observed from these tables that the pull–out design factors, F* and a
values are ranging from 0.3 to 1.9 and 0.2 to 0.6 respectively. The lower values of these
parameters are pertinent to the more extensible materials like geogrid and geonet for
both the test moisture contents i.e., optimum moisture content and fully wet condition.
242 P. Kurre and G. V. Praveen
Fig. 5. A typical plot between peak pull–out stress and normal stress.
For all the reinforcing strips, these parameters were reduced by 50–60% upon wetting
for both laboratory and field testing. These parameters were restored back to their
presoaked values upon 3% cement modification of the marginal backfill. The labora-
tory values are about 85 to 95% of those from field tests. These observations are close
to those made by others (Farrag 2006).
Among the geotextiles, higher values of pull–out design factors (F* and a) were
obtained for polyfelt compared to other fabrics. This could be supported by its higher
tensile strength and rough surface due to longitudinal laces. The descending order of
values of F* and a are observed for polyfelt followed by PD381 and Q425D. The value
of F* bears a good relationship with tensile strength of fabric reinforcement, whereas a
values are not significantly influenced by tensile strength. For any fabric type, the F*
value is slightly decreased with normal stress. Similar observations were also made by
others (Mohiuddin 2001; Farrag 2004; Abu-Farsakh 2006).
In case of geonet and geogrid, the F* and a values are significantly lower than
fabrics due to their higher extensibility as observed during testing. The lower d values
also indicate their inadequate pulling out of the fill. In case of low extensible materials
like geostrap, bamboo and metallic strips, the F* and a values are observed to be higher
than for geosynthetic strips. This could be supported by their ready slippage during
pull–out testing.
Further, it can be noted that the F* and a values for 3% cement modified marginal
soil are almost close to or in certain cases higher than those obtained in sand backfill. It
is also interesting to note that the smooth surfaced fabrics have shown relatively lower
F* and a values in sand compared to those in cement modified backfill. This could be
supported by the fact that the adhesion component in cement modified backfill is higher
than that in sand backfill. However, in case of geogrid and geonet, higher values of F*
and a were obtained in sand backfill than in cement modified backfill. This could be
due to more interlocking and dilatancy effects of sand backfill compared to cement
modified backfill. Such observations were also made by other investigators (Johnston
and Romstad 1989; Hayashi et al. 1995).
Table 4. Laboratory and field pull–out test results
Type of Pull–out Normal stress Marginal soil Sand
reinforcement test (kPa) At OMC At saturation At 7 days of curing At OMC
period
Ca do Ci a F* Ca do Ci A F* Ca do Ci a F* Ca do Ci a F*
Chicken mesh Lab 7.5 19 27 0.95 0.45 1.12 17 22 0.83 0.37 1.00 31 18 1.45 0.55 1.40 9 18 1.75 0.58 0.69
15 0.91 1.00 0.79 1.00 1.39 1.31 1.59 0.78
22.5 0.89 1.02 0.77 0.98 1.35 1.28 1.45 0.90
Field 7.5 21 30 1.05 0.50 1.15 18 25 0.89 0.4 1.02 32 19 1.51 0.60 1.45 10 17 1.89 0.61 0.70
15 1.05 1.15 0.88 0.96 1.38 1.26 1.25 1.00
22.5 1.03 1.13 0.87 0.92 1.28 1.17 1.20 1.75
Welded Wire Lab 7.5 13 35 0.76 0.45 1.05 7 24 0.43 0.41 0.78 20 29 0.94 0.50 1.20 10 19 1.93 0.50 1.77
mesh 15 0.75 1.00 0.40 0.81 1.01 1.12 1.00 1.05
22.5 0.70 0.95 0.35 0.78 1.19 1.05 0.77 1.09
Field 7.5 15 40 1.08 0.51 1.14 9 26 0.52 0.41 0.69 25 41 1.30 0.55 1.30 12 16 1.89 0.56 1.85
15 0.98 1.05 0.58 0.78 1.34 1.34 1.25 1.25
22.5 1.02 1.10 0.60 0.81 1.37 1.37 0.92 0.96
Welded rod Lab 7.5 21 31 1.06 0.45 1.45 10 8 0.46 0.30 1.10 25 29 1.21 0.48 1.37 19 21 1.55 0.54 1.51
15 1.07 1.39 0.41 1.06 1.15 1.33 1.45 1.45
22.5 1.02 1.20 0.39 0.99 1.01 1.29 1.36 1.56
Field 7.5 25 37 1.27 0.50 1.45 15 9 0.69 0.29 1.20 27 28 1.29 0.51 1.39 19 18 1.75 0.58 1.69
15 1.29 1.42 0.63 1.15 1.24 1.34 1.05 1.50
22.5 1.27 1.39 0.57 1.09 1.18 1.27 0.98 1.40
(continued)
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips
243
Table 4. (continued)
244
Bamboo Lab 7.5 9 38 0.65 0.34 1.28 3 15 0.25 0.17 1.34 16 40 0.92 0.33 1.56 8 21 1.67 0.48 1.68
15 0.61 1.30 0.21 1.28 1.04 1.30 1.05 1.43
22.5 0.58 1.35 0.18 1.43 1.13 1.62 0.74 1.29
Field 7.5 10 43 0.72 0.29 1.34 6 16 0.35 0.15 1.26 15 42 0.92 0.28 1.78 8 17 1.08 0.50 1.70
15 0.86 1.62 0.38 1.40 1.02 2.00 0.96 1.53
22.5 0.96 1.82 0.39 1.40 1.10 2.14 0.74 1.22
Table 5. Laboratory and field pull–out test results
Type of Pull–out Normal stress Marginal soil Sand
reinforcement test (kPa) At OMC At saturation At 7 days of curing At OMC
period
Ca do Ci a F* Ca do Ci A F* Ca do Ci a F* Ca do Ci a F*
Polyfelt Lab 7.5 16 13 0.73 0.40 1.00 11 10 0.51 0.25 1.22 24 21 1.11 0.41 1.48 5 15 0.91 0.49 1.02
15 0.69 0.94 0.48 1.02 1.06 1.42 0.89 0.99
22.5 0.64 0.88 0.45 0.99 0.98 1.31 0.75 0.84
Field 7.5 22 15 0.99 0.38 1.44 21 7 0.90 0.26 1.28 32 25 1.49 0.44 1.87 5 17 1.12 0.50 1.85
15 0.91 1.31 0.80 1.09 1.39 1.75 0.73 1.21
22.5 0.86 1.23 0.73 1.03 1.32 1.66 0.69 1.14
PD 381 Lab 7.5 14 20 0.69 0.40 0.95 12 10 0.55 0.27 1.12 30 14 1.32 0.42 1.72 5 14 0.97 0.44 1.21
15 0.67 0.92 0.52 1.05 1.20 1.57 0.83 1.03
22.5 0.66 0.90 0.44 0.89 1.07 1.40 0.81 1.01
Field 7.5 15 21 0.74 0.40 1.02 13 10 0.59 0.25 1.28 32 25 1.49 0.43 1.90 6 15 1.23 0.43 1.37
15 0.73 1.00 0.55 1.20 1.44 1.83 0.77 1.18
22.5 0.72 1.97 0.52 1.12 1.38 1.76 0.60 1.15
Q425D Lab 7.5 10 10 0.47 0.31 0.83 5 12 0.29 0.28 0.56 21 5 0.90 0.40 1.23 4 11 0.63 0.39 0.88
15 0.45 0.79 0.27 0.53 0.79 1.08 0.53 0.74
22.5 0.42 0.72 0.26 0.51 0.69 0.95 0.41 0.60
Field 7.5 11 10 0.51 0.32 0.88 5 12 0.27 0.25 0.56 25 5 1.06 0.38 1.52 4 10 0.81 0.51 1.31
15 0.48 0.81 0.28 0.60 0.92 1.31 0.51 0.83
22.5 0.46 0.78 0.30 0.64 0.83 1.21 0.39 0.63
(continued)
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips
245
Table 5. (continued)
246
Geogrid Lab 7.5 7 10 0.34 0.32 0.58 6 8 0.29 0.24 0.56 8 10 0.38 0.30 0.70 4 14 0.93 0.40 1.27
15 0.33 0.56 0.28 0.44 0.36 0.66 0.91 1.25
22.5 0.31 0.53 0.27 0.31 0.33 0.60 0.89 1.22
Field 7.5 7.5 8 0.35 0.33 0.57 5 8 0.27 0.24 0.62 8.5 8 0.39 0.31 0.67 5 13 1.03 0.42 1.95
15 0.33 0.54 0.26 0.58 0.37 0.64 0.65 1.28
22.5 0.32 0.51 0.25 0.54 0.35 0.61 0.51 1.00
Geonet Lab 7.5 6 10 0.31 0.22 0.77 3 5 0.15 0.20 0.41 7 11 0.35 0.21 0.91 4 15 0.91 0.30 1.66
15 0.30 0.75 0.13 0.35 0.31 0.81 0.90 1.65
22.5 0.28 0.70 0.10 0.27 0.29 0.75 0.88 1.61
Field 7.5 5 5 0.21 0.22 0.50 4 5 0.18 0.18 0.50 5 8 0.21 0.22 0.50 6 15 0.93 0.38 1.03
15 0.20 0.50 0.17 0.50 0.20 0.50 0.77 1.67
22.5 0.19 0.45 0.16 0.44 0.19 0.45 0.60 1.31
Geostrap Lab 7.5 13 31 0.78 0.25 1.71 4 21 0.38 0.16 1.30 14 30 0.76 0.28 1.49 7 17 1.42 0.31 1.51
15 0.74 1.56 0.34 1.16 0.80 1.57 1.31 1.32
22.5 0.72 1.58 0.32 1.10 0.81 1.59 1.29 1.28
Field 7.5 12 30 0.69 0.25 1.52 3 31 0.31 0.17 1.00 14 31 0.76 0.27 1.51 8 18 1.56 0.61 1.12
15 0.74 1.64 0.42 1.35 0.81 1.57 0.94 1.27
22.5 0.79 1.72 0.50 1.58 0.84 1.64 0.76 1.03
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips 247
References
Fourie AB, Johns DG, Jones CJFP (2007) Dewatering of mine tailings using electrokinetic
geosynthetics. Can Geotech J 44:160–172
Vidal H (1978) The developments and future of reinforced earth. In: Proceedings of symposium
on earth reinforcement. ASCE, Pittsburgh
Bergado DT, Teerawattanasuk C, Wongsawanon T, Voottipruex P (2001) Interaction between
hexagonal wire mesh reinforcement and silty sand back fill. Geotech Test J 24(1):23–38
Glendinning S, Jones CJ, Pugh RC (2005) Reinforced soil using cohesive fill and electrokinetic
geosynthetics. Int J Geomech 5(2):138–146
Saran S (2006) Reinforced soil and its engineering applications. IK International PVT Ltd., New
Delhi
Tatsuoka F (2002) Geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining wall as permanent structures. In: Indian
geotechnical conference, vol 2, pp 681–699
Mohammad JK, Mohammad A (2006) Durability and mechanistic characteristics of fibre
reinforced soil-cement mixes. Int J Pavement Eng 7(1):53–62
Abu-Farsakh M, Coronel J, Tao M (2007) Effect of soil moisture content and dry density on
cohesive soil–geosynthetic interactions using large direct shear tests. J Mater Civ Eng
19:540–549
Identification of Artificial Recharge Zones
Using GIS
Abstract. Water is one of the most dynamic and important resources of the
world. Hence, it needs special attention towards its conservation. Fresh water is
mainly obtained either from surface source or as a ground water. Artificial
recharge is the most appropriate practice, which traps the unused surface runoff
which leads to increase the groundwater recharge. The present study aims to
identify artificial recharge zones. Formation of different thematic layers such as
soil, slope, land use, drainage and geomorphology were carried out by using
Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS). These maps
were combined in GIS tool to categorise artificial recharge zones. The
knowledge-based weightage was assigned. These thematic maps were used for
weighted overlay analysis and the final map was prepared showing artificial
recharge zones which are categorised as good, moderate and poor. The infor-
mation regarding groundwater recharge zones is useful for locating water har-
vesting structures.
1 Introduction
In our day to day life, water is most abundantly used natural resource. Day by day, it is
exhausting at very fast rate in both rural as well as in urban areas. This is probably due
to increase in per capita demand and irrigation. Ground water is attracting an attention
due to scarcity of good quality water. In overcrowded country like India, requirement
of ground-water resource is very high. Due to irregularity in monsoon and misman-
agement leads to depletion of ground-water levels. This results in increase in the
operational costs which leads to increase in investment. To overcome this problem
there is a need to increase recharging potential of aquifers by providing artificial
recharge structures. So, resourceful planning and management of sub-surface water is
getting more importance. For delineating the artificial recharge zones, GIS tool found
to be very effective [1].
GIS is highly accurate and less time-consuming tool. GIS offers skill to analyse the
spatial and non-spatial data to fulfil desired objectives. It allows us to develop different
thematic layers and merge these thematic layers into a single layer. Modern Remote
Sensing tools enable delineation of required areas for groundwater replenishment. It
also accounts the diversity of different factors which influences groundwater recharge
like geomorphologic parameters including faults, lineaments, land use and soil etc.
These factors control ground water potentiality.
2 Study Area
A study area is a sub watershed of BM 49. Figure 1 shows the details of study area i.e.
Kurukumbh watershed, which lies between latitude 18° 25′ to 18° 15′ N and longitude
74° 25′ to 74° 49′ E in upper Bhima watershed basin in Daund Taluka of Pune district,
Maharashtra. This covers an area of approximately 43.15 km2 and perimeter 35.92 km.
The study area falls in the semi-arid zone and the average temperature of the study area
ranges between 24 °C to 40 °C in summer season and goes down to 10 °C during
winter season. The maximum relative humidity ranges 70% to 80% during the rainy
season, while in summers it lies near to 30%. Winds flows from light to moderate in dry
season. The rainy season starts from second or third week of June and continues till the
last week of the September. The region receives its annual precipitation from south
west monsoon. The average annual precipitation varies from 400 to 600 mm. The
highest elevation ranges from 612 m to lowest elevation of 420 m above the mean sea
level.
Five hydro-geological parameters that are drainage, slope, soil, geomorphology and
land use have been considered to find out the artificial recharge zones. Various maps
were obtained from satellite images and existing data sets of respective departments.
Thematic maps for this hydro- geological parameter were obtained, categorised,
weighted, and combined into a GIS environment. Figure 2 shows the stepwise
methodology for preparation of map [2, 5].
Different data such as satellite images, DEM and soil map were obtained from
National Bureau of Soil Survey (NBSS) and Land Use Planning (LUP), Nagpur. Land
use map was prepared by using IRS-LISS-III data obtain from Bhuvan site which is
Indian geo-platform of ISRO for month of January 2016. DEM from Shuttle Radar
Topographic Mission (SRTM) having 30 m resolution was used for delineation of
watershed and to obtain the slope map.
The methodology adopted for the work is as given below:
1. Data compilation.
2. Marking of boundary of study area.
3. Geo-processing of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and satellite image using
Geomantic software.
4. Extraction of geomorphological, land use, drainage, soil and slope etc. in Arc-GIS
tool.
5. Spatial and non-spatial data integration GIS environment.
6. Weighted overlay analysis is conducted in GIS environment.
7. Preparation of map showing suitable site for artificial recharge zone.
Soil, geomorphology, drainage, slope and land use plays critical role for identification
of artificial recharge zones. Information regarding various thematic maps is given
below:
4.1 Soil
There are three types of soils and have been delineated in the study area based on
hydrological conditions and details are as shown in Fig. 3. These are very shallow, well
drained and loamy calcareous soils found on mildly inclined undulating area having
reasonable erosion which are categorised as good, slightly deep, moderately well
drained, fine soils which found in very gently sloping plains and moderate erosion
categories as moderate. Shallow, well drained, clayey and moderately calcareous soil
on gently sloping lands which categories as poor.
4.2 Geomorphology
Geomorphology of the study area is categorised into three different classes i.e. struc-
turally origin and moderately dissected upper plateau shown in Fig. 4. Plateaus are flat
topped residual mountains and having high runoff zone. This show green in colour in
map and is classified as poor, it accelerates more run off so that it is treated as poor
artificial recharge zone. Another one is undulation origin and pediment-pedi plane
complex, which have characteristics of highly porous, permeable and having high
infiltration rate. This is good for providing artificial recharge structures. Most of
the agricultural land of the study area is in pediment-pedi plane complex region.
Table 1 shows area under different types of soil and Table 2 shows geomorphology of
the study area.
4.3 Slope
The contour is one of the important terrain parameters to find slope. On the basis of
topography and DEM, the study area is classified from undulating terrain having
steeply sloping hill to plane surface. Slope represented in degree which varies from 0 to
22. On the basis of degree of slope, slopes are divided into five classes as shown in
Fig. 5. Slope in the range of 0 to 2° is very good zone and is classified as very gently
slope, which allows more time to percolate the surface runoff is considered good for
artificial recharge zone. Slope in the range of 2 to 4° as good zone and is gentle slope.
Slope in the range of 4 to7° is a moderate zone and moderate slope. Slope in the range
of 7 to 11° as poor zone which is moderately steep slope. Slope in the range of 11 to
20° as very poor zone and is steep slope, which having large surface flow with low
residential time and results in fairly less penetration of water causing low ground water
potential zone (Tables 3 and 4).
4.5 Drainage
In this study area, up to five order streams are observed, it is clear from Fig. 7. Fifth
order streams are most suitable for the artificial recharge structures. Other streams are
categorised as good, moderate, poor and very poor in decreasing order respectfully.
Table 5. Rank and weight for different parameter of artificial recharge zone
Sr. Parameter Classes Groundwater Weight Rank
no. prospect (%)
1 Geomorphology Undulation origin and Good 30 3
pediment pedi plane
complex
Water body Moderate 2
Structurally origin- Poor 1
moderately dissected
upper plateau
2 Soil Very shallow, well drained, Good 20 3
loamy calcareous, soils
Slightly deep, moderately Moderate 2
well drained, fine soils
Shallow, well drained, Poor 1
clayey moderately
calcareous soil
3 Slope (degree) 0–2 Very good 20 5
2–4 Good 4
4–7 Moderate 3
7–11 Poor 2
11–20 Very poor 1
4 Drainage 1 Very poor 15 1
(order) 2 Poor 2
3 Moderate 3
4 Good 4
5 Very good 5
5 Land use Agriculture land Very good 15 5
Water body Good 4
Fallow land Moderate 3
Barren land Poor 2
Built-up land Poor 1
5 Conclusions
Artificial recharge is the need of the day. Based on the study carried out the different
conclusions arrived at are as given below.
1. Five different thematic layers viz. geomorphology, soil, drainage, slope lineament,
and land use are integrated in GIS environment. This study area is divided in to
excellent, good, moderate and poor artificial recharge zones and their respective
areas are 2.94, 27.58, 12.26 and 0.35 km2.
2. The area having slope 0 to 2°, 5thorder drainage underneath pediment-Pedi plain
and agriculture land is identified as excellent artificial recharge zone and incorpo-
rating area is 2.94 km2.
3. Area having pediment-Pedi plain, water body and cover with fallow land, having
slope 2 to 4°, and 4th order drainage is identified as good artificial recharge zone and
its area is 27.58 km2.
4. The area under slope 4 to 7°, 3rd order drainage under pediment-Pedi plain and
moderately dissected upper plateau and with fallow and barren land is detected as
moderate artificial recharge zone and its area is 12.26 km2.
5. The area under slope 7 to 11°, 2nd and 1st order stream under moderately dissected
upper plateau with barren land and built-up land is found as poor artificial zone and
its area is 0.35 km2.
6. This artificial recharge zone is very much useful in locating the artificial recharge
structure such as check dams, contour bunding, contour trenching, nala bandhs, and
recharge pits and wells.
7. The numbers of artificial recharge structures suggested are percolation tank 9 in
number, check dam 7 in number with medium runoff and contour bunds are 6 in
number.
References
1. Mishra RC, Chandrasekhar B, Naik RD (2012) Remote sensing and GIS for groundwater
mapping and identification of artificial recharge sites. Am Soc Civ Eng 3:216–221
2. Bhowmick P, Sivakumar V (2015) GIS based fuzzy modelling approach to identify the
suitable sites for artificial recharge of groundwater. Int J Remote Sens Geosci 4:68–79
3. Riad PH, Billib MH, Hassan AA, Omar MA (2011) Overlay weighted model and fuzzy logic
to determine the best locations for artificial recharge of groundwater in a semi-arid area in
Egypt. Nile Basin Water Sci Eng J 4:24–35
4. Tiwari A, Lavy M, Amanzio G, Maio MD, Singh P, Mahato M (2017) Identification of
artificial groundwater recharging zone using a GIS-based fuzzy logic approach: a case study
in a coal mine area of The Damodar Valley, Indian. Appl Water Sci 7:13–24
5. Jaiswal RK, Mukherjee S, Krishnamurthy J, Saxena R (2013) Role of remote sensing and GIS
techniques for generation of groundwater prospect zones towards rural development an
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Identification of Artificial Recharge Zones Using GIS 257
6. Bamne Y, Patil KA, Vikhe SD (2014) Selection of appropriate sites for structures of water
harvesting in a watershed using remote sensing and geographical information system. Int J
Emerg Technol Adv Eng 4:270–275
7. Haji B, Patil KA, Vikhe SD (2015) Identification of suitable sites for water conservation
structures in a watershed using RS and GIS approach. Int J Sci Res Dev 3(9):45–48 ISSN
2321-0613
8. Waikar ML, Nilawar AP (2014) Identification of groundwater potential zone using remote
sensing and GIS technique. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol 3:12163–12174
Seismic Analysis and Design of Mass
and Stiffness Irregular R.C. Building Frames
with Different Code
1 Introduction
Earthquake forces are the occasional forces that may or may not occur on the structure
but when they occur, causes serious impact on structure, which may lead to collapse of
structure. Hence in case of multistoried structure, it becomes mandatory to consider
response of the structure for earthquakes. As per Indian seismic code IS 18932016,
there are five seismic zones having different potential for shaking intensity. During
earthquake, failure occurs due to mass and stiffness irregularity present in the structure.
The 2016 version of Indian seismic code clearly defines the irregular structure.
2 Literature Review
Carried out numerical analysis due to this results showed that the first store, not be
softer than the storey above or storey below that. The mass irregularity is present in the
structure which increased the response of the structure during analysis of the structure.
It is required the irregularities provided by proper design and analysis.
Carried out performance of structure of R.C. building with mass and stiffness
irregularities. These irregularities decrease the seismic response of the structure during
seismic activity. The study is carried out for what is the effect of these types of
irregularity on the building and what is the effect of influence on the various parameters
of the structure.
260 N. C. Chandanshive and S. S. Mohite
3 Objective
3.1 Methodology
In this problem configuration of frames is as given below (Table 1).
3.2 Results
Seismic Analysis and Design of Mass and Stiffness Irregular R.C. Building Frames 261
4 Conclusion
1. Decrease in response of irregular structure as compared to regular structure.
2. If increase the column stiffness base shear increases.
3. Higher the stiffness Displacement, storey drift, Time period reduces.
References
1. IS 13920: Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structure Subjects oo Seismic Forces
(1993)
2. Soni AG, Agrawal DG, Pande AM (2015) Effect of irregularities in buildings and their
consequences. Int J Mod Trends Eng Res 2:14–21
3. Hassaballa AE, Adam MF, Ismaeil MA (2013) Seismic analysis of a reinforced concrete
building by response spectrum method. IOSR J Eng (IOSRJEN)
4. Himanshu Bansal G (2012) Seismic analysis and design of vertically irregular RC building
frames. Int J Sci Res (IJSR) 2012:2319–7064
5. Poonam AK, Gupta AK (2012) Study of response of structurally irregular building frames to
seismic excitations. Int J Civ Struct Environ Infrastruct Eng Res Dev Sci Res (IJSR)
(IJCSEIERD) 2:25–31
6. Sarkar P, Prasad AM, Menon D (2010) Vertical geometric irregularity in stepped building
frames. Eng Struct 32:2175–2182
7. Athanassiadou CJ (2008) Seismic performance of R/C plane frames irregular in elevation.
Eng Struct 30(2008):1250–1261
Assessment of Spatial Interpolation Techniques
on Groundwater Contamination
1 Introduction
Our planet earth has one unique quality which makes us to survive in this planet, its
termed as “water” which supports the life form in bountiful ways. Every species in the
world depend on groundwater for their existence. Threat on quality and quantity of
groundwater is caused due to the improper management and reckless use of water
system [1]. Urban growth, industrialization and agricultural activities has imposed
greater stress on soil and groundwater and the risk of contamination have been
amplified [2]. Large quantum of groundwater is pumped each day for various usage,
the water pollution threats human health, social environment and economic growth of
the area [3]. In industrial area there are chances for the pollutants to percolate and
migrate through soil and reaches the groundwater. Analyzing the groundwater char-
acteristics in a large space and solving geochemical problem is a challenging task [4].
The constrains in time and cost allows the groundwater data collection and monitoring
at a restricted number of sites [5]. The ArcGIS 9.2 is a the spatial analyzing tool for
managing, compiling and analyzing data set of sample points representing the changes
in pollution is used to visualize variability of observed data across the surface. The
interpolation technique is used to estimate the surface values at locations without taking
the sample measurement [6]. The selection of algorithm is based on actual data,
accuracy level and software resources available. The spatial interpolation analysis is
performed by using the techniques such as Spline Inverse distance Weightage
(IDW) and Kriging with the goal of determining the best method to create continuous
surface. The area selected for study is Mettupalayam, India, the important trading hub
in the foothills of Nilgris. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the spatial dis-
tribution of groundwater quality and analyse the limitations and benefits of each
method. The data set were obtained from eighty-five stations. The different methods of
interpolation result in different surface and arrive at different results. The best method
of spatial distribution is analyzed using univariate statistics.
2 Spatial Interpolation
The focus of this research is on the spatial interpolation technique to analyze the
pollutants in the urban area, which enable to target the pollutants as close as possible.
ArcGIS 9.2 spatial analyst is used for managing, compiling and analyzing data that the
value of unknown sampled location is predicted based on the known set of readings.
The estimated cell values are to estimate the real value of the selected location [7]. The
individualities of the spatial surface are controlled by limitation of the input points to
calculate the output cell values. Characteristics of different interpolation methods can
be generated in different predictions at same locations. The data’s are collected for
specific location, interpolation techniques and mathematical function is used to esti-
mate the values at the uniform location. The spatial data is involved in the geographic
information science research. The point data of the area is varied and continuous
according to space [8]. The data at any location within the boundary is calculated using
interpolation formulas and arrived in a spatial pattern. The predicted data are accurate if
the data set is closer and is not precise if they are spaced out. Based on these
assumptions the interpolation methods are formulated.
The data’s collected at discrete locations are used for creating continuous data. The
objective of interpolation technique is to create a layer that is intended to represent
empirical reality those the method is selected, is assessed for accuracy. The valuable
and legitimate method for data creation is interpolation method, which is accepted in
Arc GIS.
3 Methodology
ArcGIS. Samples were taken from 8 locations in the study area to create the interpo-
lated surface. As the weight increased the more value confirm to the range of sample
data. In the study area the range of EC is from 1.7 dS/m to 7.1 dS/m. 10 new Sample
locations were selected in the study area and analyzed to validate the interpolation
method. Univariate statistical method is used to validate the best fit out of three
methods.
The degree of accuracy in the interpolated surface varies based on the data set. The
utilities are complex to outliers due to the inclusion of original values at the selected
points. Spline works well for Smooth Varying Surfaces. The parameters given as input
are Mettupalayam, India boundary, Sampled points interpolation attribute (Electrical
Conductivity), the type (tension), weight point to be considered for each know value
and the output cell size (Fig. 1). The weight set of 1.0 and the cell size of 100 is taken
as the input. The Spline surface is bounded to the observed data range. The cell size of
100 m2 was selected based on the ability to interpolate within the selected area.
are noted in the north eastern and south western part of the study area (Fig. 2). Smooth
diversity is observed in IDW with that of the tension Spline. The parameters Indicated
are power option, Search radius number of points a possible maximum distance for
impact on the data and output cell size. The input locations (sampling points) contained
within a specific area are same for spline, Kriging & IDW methods. The 100 m2 cell
size was fixed, power was set to 4 and search radius was represented to variables.
N
P 1=2
^ i 2
Unsystematic Root Mean Square Errors RMSEu ¼ N 1 Pi P
i¼1
2
Index of agreement d ¼ 1 NRMSE
PE
Where P* = a + b Oi; a & b are the coefficients of an ordinary least- squares simple
linear regression between O and P.
Summary statistics the mean of observed (OEC), mean of predicted (PEC) and their
standard deviations (So, Sp) is displayed in the Table 2. It shows that the surfaces
predict the unknown EC value at the Selected Locations. The Largest average error
0.11 is found in the Spline data and the smallest is found in Kriging Data and it is
followed by IDW data. The standard deviation suggests the Kriging method fits good,
followed by IDW method and the Spline method. To get the best fit average standard
error and the mean standardized prediction error should be as small as possible; further
the root-mean-squared standardized prediction error should be close to one [14]. The
five difference measures are shown in the Table 2 below. The least value of mean
absolute error (MAE) was found in Kriging method. The similar response as MAE is
found in RMSES & RMAEu. The Kriging method can be improved by refining the
parameters as the majority of the RMSE error is the systematic RMSE.
The final error difference measured indicates Kriging is better than both Spline &
IDW method. The examined data is analyzed, followed by empirical semivariogram
estimation & interpolation model. The sampling points are closer in the central part of
the study area; hence the predicted value is closer to the observed value.
To make an informed decision, validation is carried out before producing the final
surface. Cross validation (Fig. 4) of the semivariogram model and covariance was
performed by selecting ten new sample locations. The predictions are centered on the
measurement value. The closest true value is obtained if the root-mean-square pre-
diction errors are minimum. The average standard error and the mean standardized
prediction error should be minimum for the ideal prediction. The root- mean-squared
standardized prediction errors should be close to one [15].
The evaluation of interpolation method by 5 different measures indicated the Root
Mean Square Error is minimum in Kriging method, it indicates Kriging as the best
method for interpolating surfaces followed by IDW and Spline. Kriging method has
done a responsible job in predicting Electrical Conductivity Value in the unknown
location. The 86 Sample locations are worthy over study area of 7.20 Km2. If the
number of samples have been increased still an accurate prediction can be made in the
study area.
5 Conclusion
Surface generation was done to produce the electrical conductivity map that shows the
spatial variation in the groundwater contamination, which is high in the Thekampatti
and Ramampalayam village. The validation of the model is carried out using cross
validation statistics. Best estimate of continuous surface of EC is produced by Kriging
Method. Nevertheless the evaluation illustrates that regardless approach taken in these
interpolation methods it does not adequately address the electrical conductivity and
variability in an urban setting. To get more realistic representation of the area, addi-
tional factors of the urban environment may be incorporated.
Assessment of Spatial Interpolation Techniques on Groundwater Contamination 269
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taluk, Bangalore, rural district of Karnataka. J Curr Sci 10(1):279–282
2. Ackah M, Agyemang O, Anim AK (2011) Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking
and irrigation: the case study of Teiman-Oyarifa Community, East Municipality, Ghana.
Proc Int Acad Ecol Environ Sci 1(3–4):186–194
3. Milovanovic M (2008) Water quality assessment and determination of pollution sources
along the Axios/Vardar River, Southeastern Europe. Desalination 213:159–173
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Geochimica et Cosmochima Acta 8(1–2):22–48
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to integrated water resource management. Ethiop J Environ Stud Manag 5(4):521–528
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fuzzy and ordinary Kriging. Environ Model Assess 14:729–737
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6th edn. Wiley, Hoboken
8. Hartkamp AD, De Beurs K, Stein A, White JW (1999) Interpolation techniques for climate
variables. NRG-GIS Series 99-01, pp 1–34
9. ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited (2007) Tamil Nadu Urban infrastructure
Financial Services Limited (TNUIFSL) Final Report. Conversion of City Corporate plan to
Business Plan for Mettupalayam Municipality
10. Burrough PA, McDonnell R (2000) Principles of geographical information systems. Oxford
University Press, New York
11. Kumar D, Ahmed S (2000) Seasonal behavior of spatial variability of groundwater level in a
granitic aquifer in monsoon climate. Curr Sci 84(2):188–196
12. Kumar V, Ramadevi (2006) Kriging of groundwater levels-a case study. J Spat Hydrol 6
(1):81–94
13. Willmott CJ (1984) On the evaluation of model performance in physical geography. In:
Spatial statistics and models, vol 18, pp 443–460
14. Schut G (1976) Review of interpolation methods for digital terrain models. Can Surveyor
30:389–412
15. Meyers DE (1994) Spatial interpolation: an overview. Geoderma 62:17–28
Sustainability Concepts in the Design
of Tall Structures
1 Introduction
Sustainable development means the development that can meet the needs of today
without compromising the requirements of future generations to meet their own needs.
One of the important aspects is to see that all the resources available are efficiently
utilized taking into account other Social, Environmental and Economic factors. Best
way to achieve Sustainability in construction field with this rapid growth of population
is only through effective usage of all available resources. The Structural system adopted
for construction also has a major impact on the Sustainability aspect which is identified
and discussed in this work.
In the present work 3D models of two different structural systems with 50, 80 and 100
storeys are being modelled in seismic zone V to study and compare the performance of
the structures subjected to Earthquake forces with respect to Sustainability of struc-
tures. The two different 3D RC frame models considered are Column-Beam structure
and Outrigger structure. Outrigger element is modelled at three fourth height of the
building as it is found to be the optimum location from previous literature study. All the
models have same structural plan dimensions with six bays in both X and Y direction.
Column to column spacing in each bay is 5 m. All the columns are considered as
Fixed. The Response Spectrum analysis is performed for all the structures using
ETABS version 15.2.0 (Tables 1, 2 and Figs. 1, 2).
Table 2. Loading
Loading
Dead load
Floor Finish 1 kN/m2
Live load on the slab 2 kN/m2
Seismic loading
Seismic zone Zone V
Soil type Medium soil (Type II)
Importance factor 1
Response reduction factor 5
272 P. Sunagar et al.
3 Results
3.1 Maximum Storey Displacement
The following plots were obtained from E-tabs for Maximum Storey Displacement for
50 storey Beam-Column structural model and Outrigger structural model in both X and
Y Directions (Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6):
Similarly the Plots are obtained for 80 and 100 storeys in both X and Y Directions
and are compared, because of the symmetry of the plan of the structure the displace-
ment and drift values in both X and Y direction are almost identical, the values
obtained in X direction are tabulated (Table 3).
Sustainability Concepts in the Design of Tall Structures 273
Fig. 10. Maximum storey drift for 50 storey outrigger model in Y-direction
276 P. Sunagar et al.
Similarly the plots are obtained for 80 and 100 storey Beam-Column and Outrigger
models in both X and Y Directions and the values are compared and tabulated below
(Table 4):
4 Conclusions
(a) From the study it can be observed that Sustainability in Tall structures has various
aspects to be considered out of which Structural form adopted in construction
plays a vital role.
(b) It is observed that the maximum storey displacement for a 50 storey 3D RC frame
structure varies in accordance with the structural form adopted. For a normal
Beam-Column structure the displacement is found to be 387 mm in X-direction.
(c) The maximum storey displacement reduces by 65.16% for an Outrigger system in
comparison with normal Beam-Column system. Thus it can be concluded that the
Outrigger structural form is more Sustainable against Displacement due to seismic
forces.
(d) The maximum storey drift for a 50 storey Beam-Column structure is found to be
0.0036 and as per IS 1893 the maximum storey drift shall not exceed 0.004 times
the storey height which turns out to be 0.012 for all the models considered in this
study.
(e) The maximum storey drift reduces by 69.44% for an Outrigger system in com-
parison with normal Beam-Column system. As in case of displacements even
when storey drift is considered the Outrigger structural form proves to be more
Sustainable against Earthquake forces.
(f) Similarly for 80 storey structural models the maximum storey displacement is
reduced by 51.90% for an Outrigger system in comparison with normal Beam-
Column system and for 100 storey structural models the reduction is 46.22% for
an Outrigger system on comparison with normal Beam-Column structural system.
(g) For 80 storey structural models the maximum storey drift is reduced by 52.23%
for an Outrigger system on comparing with Beam-Column structural system and
similarly for 100 storey models the reduction in maximum storey drift is 41.11%
for Outrigger system when compared with normal Beam-Column system.
Sustainability Concepts in the Design of Tall Structures 277
(h) Even when the height of the building is increased with increase in number of
stories the two main parameters maximum storey displacement and maximum
storey drift is found to be majorly reduced at least by 40–50% for an Outrigger
structural system in comparison with normal Beam-Column system which proves
that the Outrigger structural system to be the sustainable system against seismic
forces in Tall structures.
References
1. Sharath BN, Claudiajeyapushpa, D (2015) Comparative seismic analysis of an irregular
building with a shear wall and frame tube system of various sizes. IJECS. ISSN 2319-7242
2. Itware VA, Kalwane UB (2015) Effects of openings in shear wall on seismic response of
structure. IJERA. ISSN 2248-9622
3. Nair RS (1998) Belt trusses & basements as virtual outriggers for tall structures. Eng J
35:140–146
4. Kogilgeri SS, Shanthapriya B (2015) A study on behavior of outrigger system on high rise
steel structure by varying outrigger depth. IJRET. eISSN 2319-1163
5. Bayati Z, Mahdikhani M, Rahaei A (2008) Optimized use of multi-outriggers system to stiffen
tall buildings, Beijing, China, October
Spontaneous Combustion of Coal
and Correlation with Its Intrinsic Properties
Using Adiabatic Oxidation Method
1 Introduction
Spontaneous combustion of coal has been a persistent and widespread problem during
underground and surface mining, stockpiling, sea-borne transport and handling in coal
milling systems. The loss of coal cargoes, ships and life had become a significant
problem through known cases of spontaneous combustion. Although the hazards from
such occurrences have been effectively under control, there have been many cases
recently where consequences have been costly in terms of lives, equipment and large
reserves of coal.
Conversely, thousands of underground coal fires around the world could be fuelling
toxic pollution, contributing up to 3% of the rate of global warming and threatening
wildlife [1, 2]. Such coal fires usually start from spontaneous combustion as the seams
react with oxygen and moisture to release heat.
Recently concerns have been raised on spontaneous heating problems in Indian
coal mines [3, 4]. Recently, power-generating companies in India are importing coals
with unknown histories from the world trading market. Spontaneous combustion of
coal in milling systems and stockpiles has become a major concern in the selection of
coals. Processing of coals including the separation, blending and mixing has increased
in recent years. Blending of coals has become popular for improving the performance
of coals to meet the specifications of power plants and for reducing cost of coals.
The manipulations in these processes will most likely lead to higher susceptibility of
the pulverised fuel deposits to spontaneous heating. With the increase in coal trade,
large amounts of coal are being trans-shipped. Stockpiles usually serve the purpose of
short-term and long-term storage as a reserve for high tonnage users i.e. energy gen-
erating companies. Storage of coals in coal handling plant has presented problems in
spontaneous heating for power plants across India.
In order to develop a hazard management plan, there is a need to have a better
understanding of the self-heating behaviour of coal. Previous experimental investiga-
tions in India have been carried out with a heating system used to initiate the self-
heating process [5]. The spontaneous combustion index parameters resulting from such
tests can produce misleading evaluations of the propensity of a coal to self-heat [6]. On
the other hand, adiabatic oxidation test method allows the coal sample to exhibit its
self-heating behaviour without any external heating system. This method can be
modified to closely replicate in situ conditions in a coal mine and coal handling plant
and thus providing a means for benchmarking laboratory determined results [7].
2 Methodology
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of reaction vessel within the calorimeter. Calorimeter with
temperature control unit and data acquisition.
Test conditions that demonstrated maximum oxidation potential of the coal sample
were established. Detailed description of the test conditions are explained in a previous
280 R. V. Rambha
study [9]. Coal samples were nitrogen dried at an initial temperature of 40 °C before air
supply was introduced at flow rate of 200 cc/min. Self-heating rate was measured for
approximately 8 h. Initially self-heating increased at constant rate. Approximately after
4 h of testing there was no increase in temperature rise. Total temperature rise
(TTR) was considered as the difference between the initial temperature and the max-
imum temperature observed expressed in °C.
To check accuracy and sensitivity of the apparatus and verify the self-heating curve
is representative of coal sample, repeatability tests were carried out. At least three
repeatability tests were conducted within 3 to 4 days for a given coal sample to ensure
no pre-oxidation and ageing effect (Fig. 2). Variation in total temperature rise between
each test was within ±0.5 °C.
Tests were carried out on 14 different coal samples and corresponding spontaneous
heating propensity was recorded according to the total temperature rise (TTR). Coal
samples were selected on basis of commonly used coals from nearby thermal power
plant. The results were interpreted by spontaneous combustion liability index based on
the TTR values obtained (Table 1). TTR values less than 5 °C were categorized as low
risk, coals with values between 5 °C and 10 °C were medium risk and coals which
gave values above 10 °C were high risk.
Results for proximate and ultimate analyses (percentage, dry ash free basis), and
spontaneous combustion test results (TTR values) carried out on each sample are
presented in Tables 2 and 3. Moisture content varies from 1.9% to 17.9% for the given
Spontaneous Combustion of Coal and Correlation with Its Intrinsic Properties 281
coal samples. It was observed that there is no clear trend emerging from the results.
Previous studies have suggested that low moisture content tends to be more liable to
spontaneous combustion [10]. Volatile matter ranges between 24.7% to 38.1%. There
is no clear trend observed from the results. Coals with higher volatile matter have
exhibited high risk potential for spontaneous combustion by earlier studies [11].
Table 2. Proximate analysis and corresponding adiabatic oxidation data for coal samples.
Coal TTR (°C) Risk category Proximate analyses
Moisture Ash Volatile FCC
HL 27 V.High 17.9 12 29.4 40.7
DM 20.6 V.High 7.4 14.3 31 47.3
SA54 18.3 V.High 8.7 13.5 24.7 53.1
SA56 16.6 V.High 8.6 13.7 24.7 53
RA 13.2 High 17.1 3.9 31.8 47.2
HU 11.2 High 3.2 10 30.7 56.1
BA 11 High 2.4 8.9 35.2 53.5
CO 10.2 High 15.1 8.9 30.7 45.3
HA14 9.4 Medium 1.9 6.2 33.9 58
BA 8.8 Medium 4.8 7.6 27.8 59.8
LI 8.2 Medium 13.9 19.7 38.1 28.3
HA16 6 Medium 2.3 17.7 29.6 50.4
KU 5.3 Medium 4.7 11.9 32.1 51.3
TS 3.2 Low 4.6 13.9 26.2 55.3
Ash content varies from 3.9% to 19.7% for the given coal samples. Variation in the
ash content could be attributed to the changes during pre-oxidation of coal. Lesser the
pre-oxidation of coal the lesser the ash content. Coals with low ash content are
expected to show higher risk. However, the results did not indicate any such trend.
Fixed carbon content varies between 28.3% and 59.8% for the coal samples. Both the
coal sample BA with the highest and LI with lowest fixed carbon content indicated
medium risk potential. Results do not seem to show any direct relationship. Also, the
intrinsic properties obtained from ultimate analysis – Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen,
Sulphur and Oxygen percentage did not seem to show any direct relationship with the
liability for spontaneous combustion risk.
282 R. V. Rambha
Table 3. Ultimate analysis and corresponding adiabatic oxidation data for coal samples.
Coal TTR (°C) Risk category Ultimate analyses
C H N S O
HL 27 V.High 75.6 5 1.3 4.1 14
DM 20.6 V.High 81.3 4.8 1.3 2.2 10
SA54 18.3 V.High 86.3 5.2 2 0.7 5.8
SA56 16.6 V.High 85 5.2 2 0.8 6.9
RA 13.2 High 79.8 6.7 1.5 3.5 8.5
HU 11.2 High 83 4.9 1.9 0.5 9.7
BA 11 High 83.7 5.3 1.7 1.4 7.7
CO 10.2 High 88.3 6.6 1.8 0.7 2.6
HA14 9.4 Medium 83.1 5.4 1.8 2.9 6.6
BA 8.8 Medium 81.8 4.5 1.8 0.4 11.5
LI 8.2 Medium 67.9 5.1 1.4 2.7 22.9
HA16 6 Medium 83.1 5.4 1.8 3 6.3
KU 5.3 Medium 82 5.1 2.4 0.4 10.1
TS 3.2 Low 83.6 4.7 1.9 0.8 9.1
Table 4. Correlation coefficients and R-squared values obtained from linear regression analysis.
Independent variables Dependent variable (TTR)
R-squared Correlation coefficient
Moisture 0.26 0.51
Ash 0.00 −0.03
Volatile 0.05 −0.23
FCC 0.05 −0.23
C 0.01 −0.11
H 0.00 −0.02
N 0.26 −0.51
S 0.13 0.37
O 0.00 0.04
The equation gives R-squared value of 0.88 which is a strong positive correlation.
This indicates that the adiabatic oxidation method could be used to predict self-heating
risk of coal. The model also points out that spontaneous heating occurs due to com-
bined effect of various intrinsic factors. On the other hand, the standard error of 3.97
obtained from the model is very high. The sample base should be enlarged to include
coals of varying classification to obtain improved results.
284 R. V. Rambha
4 Conclusions
Spontaneous combustion risk in coal can be measured using intrinsic properties of coal.
Moisture and nitrogen contents indicate linear relationships with spontaneous com-
bustion risk. Multiple regression analysis shows that spontaneous combustion liability
has high correlation coefficients with intrinsic properties. However the standard devi-
ations are high. More number of coal samples with varying classification rank should
be tested to obtain benchmark values. Spontaneous combustion liability of coal can be
predicted by a model consisting of intrinsic factors. Such a model could be incorpo-
rated in spontaneous combustion management software by the coal industry to predict
the propensity of coal for spontaneous ignition in storage, preparation and handling
systems.
Acknowledgments. The author acknowledges the European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC) for its financial support of this study. Thanks are due to University of Nottingham, UK
Coal, PowerGen Plc, and TXU Europe for their support and generosity in providing useful
discussions and information.
References
1. Sloss L (2015) Assessing and managing spontaneous combustion of coal. IEA Report
CCC/259
2. Arisoy A, Beamish B (2015) Reaction kinetics of coal oxidation at low temperatures. Fuel
159:412–417
3. Singh RVK (2013) Spontaneous heating and fire in coal mines. In: The 9th Asia-Oceania
symposium on fire science and technology, procedia engineering, vol 62, pp 78–90
4. Zutshi A, Ray SK, Bhowmick BC (2001) Indian coal vis-à-vis spontaneous heating
problems. J Mines Met Fuels 44:123–128
5. Mohalik NK, Lester E, Lowndes IS (2016) Review of experimental methods to determine
spontaneous combustion susceptibility of coal – Indian context. Int J Min Reclam Environ
31:301–332
6. Beamish BB, Theiler J (2017) Recognising the deficiencies of current spontaneous
combustion propensity index parameters. In: The Australian mine ventilation conference,
Brisbane, Qld., pp 113–117
7. Beamish B, Beamish R (2010) Benchmarking moist coal adiabatic oven testing. In: 10th
underground coal operators’ conference. University of Wollongong & The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pp 264–268
8. Ren TX, Edwards JS, Clarke D (1999) Adiabatic oxidation study on the propensity of
pulverized coals to spontaneous combustion. Fuel 78:1611–1620
9. Rambha RV, Ren TX (2018) Study of the susceptibility of coal for spontaneous combustion
using adiabatic oxidation method. Chem Eng Trans 65:271–276
10. Bhat S, Agarwal PK (1996) The effect of moisture condensation on the spontaneous
combustibility of coal. Fuel 75:1523–1532
11. Onifade M, Genc B (2018) Prediction of the Spontaneous Combustion liability of coals and
coal shales using statistical analysis. J South African Inst Min Metall 118:800–808
Extraction of Electricity from Blast Induced
Ground Vibration Waves – Case Study
1 Introduction
2 Piezo-Gen Technique
specified distances from blast site with a geophone/ground vibration monitor in three
mutually orthogonal – longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Among all these
waveforms, whichever is the peak, that particular absolute value was taken as peak
particle velocity (PPV). Seismic energy was estimated for all the signals in three
directions using DADiSP signal processing software. DADiSP is a signal processing
tool/software, using which shock energy dissipated in the form of waves is calculated.
Longitudinal, Transverse and Vertical component of blast vibration event were
imported from blastware software to digital signal processing software DADiSP in
ASCII format. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) was performed subsequently to find
the frequency component of the time domain of blast wave signal as blast wave
recorded by Minimate Plus and processed by Blastware falls in the category of random
progressive signal. The estimation of absolute area describes the intrinsic energy of the
blast wave signal distributed in various frequency bands. The energy of the signal x(t)
R1
is given by 1 jxðtÞj2 dt [12].
Blasts were carried out in various mines for the extraction and assessment of seismic
energy. Ground Vibration monitors were placed near blast field at various distances to
find the impact of blast on nearby structures. Geophones were attached to the ground
with the help of Plaster of Paris for proper contact. The developed piezo generator
circuits were placed in the similar locations where conventional seismographs are
positioned [13]. Altogether, 55 blasts were studied and electrical energy was tapped. In
total, 10 blasts were carried out in Choutapalli limestone mine, 11 blasts were carried
out in Yepalamadhavaram limestone mine and 34 blasts were carried out in Singareni
Collieries Company Ltd.
The following are some photographs depicting obtained electricity from undesir-
able seismic waves, extracted through the developed piezo-gen circuit in various mine
locations (Figs. 2, 3 and 4) [13]. The various seismic data collected at various distances
in different blasts are compared with the obtained electrical energy data as shown in the
below Tables 1 and 2.
Fig. 2. Extraction of electricity using Piezo-Gen circuit from undesirable blast vibrations at
limestone mine
288 R. C. Garimella and R. S. Vedala
Fig. 3. Observation of obtained voltage from the blast vibrations by multimeter for the
assessment of seismic energy
Fig. 4. Piezo-Gen circuit placed beside the geophone underground coal mine
Table 2. Summary of extracted electricity from blasts conducted in underground coal mine
Sl. Distance MCD PPV Seismic energy Electricity extracted
No. (m) (kg) (mm/s) (MJ) (MJ)
1 54.75 2.59 2.67 156122 123185
2 58.28 2.59 1.02 59990 44402
3 67.80 2.59 4.19 7133334 5250688
4 61.85 3.33 7.49 486001 439429
5 63.64 3.33 5.08 61229 33356
6 68.74 3.33 5.08 4500852 3037611
7 61.81 2.96 3.55 405538 320185
8 66.67 2.96 1.52 98359408 81513971
9 73.62 2.96 2.15 3215421 2113462
10 98.28 2.96 1.52 4766935 3618080
11 110.26 2.96 0.64 92201932 71141568
12 88.71 2.59 0.63 84232644 71975752
13 101.08 2.96 0.63 75042381 71675872
14 40.00 3.33 7.37 543915 303769
15 60.00 3.33 6.10 40070581 31248263
16 62.09 3.33 5.08 920512 757222
17 35.00 2.96 5.59 33162509 22980792
18 55.00 2.96 5.72 28491223 21762289
19 61.85 2.96 4.83 1388977 1122289
20 70.00 2.96 4.45 8638939 7328110
21 35.11 3.33 22.22 37634381 17394886
22 45.08 3.33 17.40 7741455 7402328
23 55.07 3.33 7.24 55507124 22103881
24 40.00 2.59 8.38 17768342 11519133
25 50.00 2.59 1.78 33645 18533
26 60.00 2.59 4.70 5883851 4534639
27 60.00 2.96 5.59 30312788 21312155
28 80.00 2.96 6.73 150689 125553
29 100.00 2.96 2.54 5659210 3921140
Typical sample event report and FFT reports generated (Figs. 5 and 6). Seismic
energy has obtained from the events recorded using signal-processing tool,
DADiSP. Sample of signal processing window is shown in Figs. 7 and 8.
290 R. C. Garimella and R. S. Vedala
Fig. 5. Typical event report Fig. 6. Typical FFT Report from Blastware
Also, comparison of seismic energy with the generated electrical energy has made
to observe the amount of undesirable vibrations which were converted to electricity
(Figs. 9 and 10). From the analysis made (Figs. 9 and 10), it is observed that amount of
seismic energy extracted in the form of Electricity is 80–90% of the total seismic
energy in limestone mines and that is about 75–80% in the case of underground mine
locations.
Fig. 9. Electricity extracted in limestone mine Fig. 10. Electricity extracted in coal mine
5 Conclusions
In the research study, detailed field investigations were carried out to estimate the
seismic energy dissipated by ground vibrations caused due to blasting operations, using
signal processing approach and to tap electricity from blast induced ground vibrations
by piezo generator. Following are the main conclusions drawn from the research study:
• It was observed from previous literature, the amount of explosive energy distributed
would be more in seismic form. From the results, it is observed that the amount of
seismic energy is being increased with the increase in Maximum charge per delay;
hence, the optimal usage for MCD will improve the performance of blast by
reducing seismic losses further optimizing explosive utilization.
292 R. C. Garimella and R. S. Vedala
• From the research studies, it is clear that blast induced ground vibrations may be
effectively tapped and converted into useful electrical energy with the developed
patented Piezo-Gen circuit (Indian Patent Application No.: 201941002334A, pub-
lished on Jan. 25, 2019).
• The use of DADiSP for the assessment of seismic energy is an excellent advantage
to the industry for doing effective signal processing mechanisms in a simple
manner.
• It is also observed that amount of seismic energy obtained in case of limestone
mines is much higher than underground coalmines. Therefore, explosive energy
losses in limestone mines are more than in case of underground coal mine.
• In addition, it is observed in the case of underground mine that even with the parting
more than 70 m between the blast location and monitoring station, the vibrations
will travel effectively giving tendency to get more energy loss. In such cases, the
application of Piezo-Gen circuit will gives a chance to extract some amount of
undesirable blast wave energy.
• Hence, the Piezo-Gen circuit has become as a renewable source for generation of
electricity from blast vibrations and further will be more useful in assessing the
seismic energy in blast field.
References
1. Johansson CH, Persson PA (1970) Detonics of high explosives. Academic Press, Cambridge
2. Atchison TC, Duvall WI, Pugliese JM (1963) Effect of decoupling on explosion-generated
strain pulses in rock. Bureau of Mines, College Park, MD (USA)
3. Nicholls HR (1962) Coupling explosive energy to rock. Geophysics 27:305–316
4. Sastry VR (1989) A study into the effect of some parameters on rock fragmentation by
blasting. Unpubl. Ph Thesis BHU India (1989)
5. Sanchidrian JA, Segarra P, Lopez LM (2007) Energy components in rock blasting. Int J
Rock Mech Min Sci 44:130–147
6. Anon: All About Heaven - Some science behind the scenes. https://allaboutheaven.org/
science/piezoelectricity/121
7. Curie J, Curie P (1880) Development by pressure of polar electricity in hemihedral crystals
with inclined faces. Bull Soc Min Fr 3:90
8. Imai K, Tingley D, Yamamoto T (2013) Experimental designs for identifying causal
mechanisms. J R Stat Soc Ser A Stat Soc 176:5–51
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Eng Technol 2:260–262
10. Curie J, Curie P (1881) Contractions and expansions produced by voltages in hemihedral
crystals with inclined faces. C R 93:1137–1140
11. APC International Ltd. (2002) Piezoelectric ceramics: principles and applications. APC
International
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based on explosive energy utilization. RD Proj. Rep.
13. Garimella RC (2019) Tapping of electricity from ground vibrations caused due to blasting
operations in mines and quarries
Evolution of the Probability Distribution
Function of Shovel – Dumper Combination
in Opencast Coal Mine Using ANN and RWB
Abstract. This article presents a new analytic calculation for the shovel –
dumper combination in opencast coal mine evolution of the one and two galaxy
probability distribution function (PDF). To develop a nonparametric PDF for a
combination of shovel and dumper in a opencast coal mine, the historical
breakdown data such as time between failure (TBF) of a shovel and dumpers
were collected from the mine. Based on the collected TBF, Weibull parameters
such as the shape parameter (b), scale parameter (η) and location parameter (c)
were calculated under the K-S test (Kolmogorov–Smirnov test). A Weibull
distribution model has been developed to obtain the one and two galaxy
probability distribution function (PDF) for a collected failure data of shovel-
dumper system using Reliability Isograph Workbench (RWB). Also, Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) model has been developed to predict the PDF for the
same shovel-dumper system and compared with the actual obtained value of
Reliability Isograph Workbench (RWB). It was found that the values of RMSE
and R2 were 0.00068 & 0.9465 for PDF. The statistical results showed that the
proposed Reliability Isograph Workbench and ANN model successfully predicts
PDF for the shovel-dumper system.
1 Introduction
The function of the PDF to the sum of any random number of independent variables is
important for many programs in science and technology [1]. This issue is not entirely
clear and there is a theoretical solution in some cases [2–5]. In addition, in some cases,
this theoretical solution is applicable for engineering purposes (see, for example, [2–6])
and here, especially in [4, 5], where it is examined and the rate of compression in
different metrics as studied well. The purpose of this article is to find a better estimate
of PDF files of random variables (RV) 5, the sum of the number of variables Number of
independent distribution and the independent and identically distributed (IID) real RVs
Xi (i = 1, 2, …, N). The new model also benefits from providing intuitive support for
physical interpretation. In simple terms, the amount of PDF is represented by the sum
of ordinary PDF files, according to the N PDF file. Two practical results have been
achieved, namely, RWB and ANN.
In MATLAB, ANN sample consists of three layers namely information layer,
centre as the last layer and a problem-solving layer as production [7]. The statistics for
Feedforward System are shown in Fig. 1, each result of the entry into the components
(ai) and (wij) is promoted to increase neurons as follows Eq. (1) [8]. In Fig. 1, every
result of entering components (ai) and weights (wij) are nourished to accumulation
intersection and is added with bias (bj) of neurons as follows Eq. (1) [8]
X
n
X¼ð wij ai Þ þ bj ð1Þ
i¼1
In hidden layers, the most normally used migration functions are “Tansig and
Logsig”. The function which is in activation, is not generally functional line is known
as a series function, the output is between zero and one. the summation (X) passes
through the transition function (F) that produces equality using the Eq. (2) [8]
X
n
FðXÞ ¼ uj ¼ F[ ðwij ai Þ þ bj ð2Þ
i¼1
The obtained values of RWB and the predicted values of the ANN are interpolated
by means of biases and weights of the network to organizing to reduce the error among
them.
Evolution of the Probability Distribution Function of Shovel 295
This case study was carried out at Opencast-I (OC-I), The SCCL, Kothagudem area,
Telangana. This mine using a number of shovels and dumpers of dissimilar make i.e.,
Komatsu and BEML having dissimilar capacity. The capacity of the shovel include 12,
11 and 6.5 m3 and dumper includes 100T, 65T and 35T. In this article, one shovel i.e.
11 cubic meters which is made by Komatsu and four dumpers i.e., 100 T each which is
made by Komatsu and BEML both were selected based on the match factor (i.e., 1:4).
Also, in this case study, the breakdown (TBF) and repair (TTR) details of a shovel and
four dumpers were collected for the one-year period during working hours.
3 Estimation of MTBF
The basic failure data is analyzed using the trend test and series correlation test [9, 10].
It can provide statistical measurements of mean time between failure (MTBF) for the
shovel and dumpers considered. However, the maximum likelihood estimation
(MLE) is the method that tests the originally collected failure data of a shovel and
dumpers [10]. The calculated MTBF from failure data (TBF and failure frequency) by
the Eq. (3) mentioned below. The summary of the failure data of one S1, D1, D2, D3 &
D4 from the field such as MTBF and failure frequency are shown in Table 1.
P
n
ðt1 þ t2 þ t3 . . .tn Þ
n¼1 Total Operating Time
MTBF ¼ ¼ ð3Þ
n Total No: of Failures
The K-S test is used to analyze the best-fit distribution functions for TBF data of the S1,
D1, D2, D3 & D4. The values of b, η and c are obtained directly by fitting the data
collected (TBF) from the mine to cumulative TBF conducted using the RWB software
package. The results of the modified K-S test for the three distributions, the best-fitted
distribution, and predictable Weibull parameters of the best-fitted distribution function
of an S1, D1, D2, D3 & D4 for TBF are listed in Table 2.
296 N. S. Harish Kumar et al.
The probability density function (PDF) was obtained by using Maximum Likelihood
Estimation under Isograph Reliability Workbench as mentioned in Table 3. Also, the
numerical interpretations were carried out using Eq. (4) [11].
From Fig. 2, it is observed that the two galaxy PDF (left & right) of the shovel (S1)
is 0.0057681 at MTBF is 43.71 h with b = 0.7139 (b < 1). It can be concluded that the
PDF of a shovel S1 was found to reject the null hypothesis at 5% (0.05) level of
significance for obtained data of a shovel [12].
From Fig. 3, it is observed that the one galaxy PDF (Right) of dumper D1 is
0.0011329 with MTBF is 117.35 h and b is 1.018 (b > 1). It can be concluded that the
PDF of a dumper D1 were found to reject the null hypothesis at 5% (0.05) level of
significance for obtained data of a dumper D1 [12]. From Fig. 4, it is observed that the
one galaxy PDF (Right) of dumper D2 is 0.000774 with MTBF is 138.48 h and b is
0.5357 (b < 1). It can be concluded that the PDF of a dumper D2 was found to reject the
null hypothesis at 5% (0.05) level of significance for obtained data of a dumper D2 [12].
From Fig. 5, it is observed that the two galaxy PDF (right & left) of dumper D3 is
0.0024717 with MTBF is 78.42 h and b is 1 (b = 1). It can be concluded that the PDF of
a dumper D3 were found to reject the null hypothesis at 5% (0.05) level of significance
for obtained data of a dumper D3 [12]. From Fig. 6, it is observed that the two galaxy
PDF (right & left) of dumper D4 is 0.0042954 with MTBF is 54.80 h and b is 1 (b = 1).
It can be concluded that the PDF of a dumper D4 were found to reject the null hypothesis
at 5% (0.05) level of significance for obtained data of a dumper D4 [12].
Evolution of the Probability Distribution Function of Shovel 299
In the present work, failure date of a shovel and four dumpers were taken out of the field.
The anticipated ANN model to calculate the PDF of a shovel and dumpers in open cast
coal mine is shown in Fig. 7. The neural structures are formed using three layers namely
input, output and hidden layer in among them. In the input layer, four parameters were
taken in MTBF, b, η, c and one parameter, i.e. the PDF output layer (f (t)).
In this model, 5 data sets and outputs have been taken. In this, three sets of data are
used for training, one set of data for a fixed validation and for the test. In this model,
Progression Learning Algorithms Feed has been applied even more to learn. Before
sampling the neural network, predictions of prediction and output data should be the
norm for accuracy. The following Eq. (5) are used to provide the data (−1) and (1) [7].
In this model, 5 data sets and outputs have been taken. In that, three data sets are
used for training, one set for testing and one set of data for validation. In this model,
before the neural network is modelled, the input and output data must be normal for the
precision of the predictions. The subsequent Eq. (5) is used to facilitate data between
(−1) and (1) [7]
Yi YMin
Y ¼ ðHighValue LowValue Þ þ LowValue ð5Þ
YMax YMin
In the current study, the Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) back propagation was used for
the study training process. The number of neurons in hidden layers is evaluated by trial
and errors. Using this technique, 8 neurons are selected for PDF with hidden single
layers, as shown in Fig. 7. The LEARNGDM was chosen as a function of training
coordination after selecting exercise. Transmission features are chosen as hidden layers
and linear functions for the resulting layer (output layer).
The ANN model is trained by the LM training functions, which include 8 neurons
for PDF of shovel and dumper. Each neuronal pattern has been trained more than 100
times. This training algorithm has adjusted the weight and biases to reduce the errors
between the values obtained by the RWB and the expected values of the ANN model. It
was found that LM, which includes 8 neurons for PDF, is better than the R2 error and
the highest value. Several models of ANN are shown in Table 4. Several sampling
processes are based on RMSE and R2, which are counted calculated using the Eqs. (6)
and (7) [7]. From Table 4, it has been calculated that the RMSE and R2 values are
0.00068 & 0.9465 for PDF in LM-8.
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u N
u1 X
RMSE ¼ t ðy y0 Þ2 ð6Þ
N i¼1
P
N
ðy y0 Þ2
i¼1
R ¼1
2
ð7Þ
P
N
ðy0 Þ2
i¼1
300 N. S. Harish Kumar et al.
In comparison with the values obtained by the RWB, with the predicted value of
LM-5 offered by the ANN models and its error is described in Table 5. From Table 5,
it has been found that the highest error is at 9.04E-5 at sample 5. Least error in the
sample −9.33E05 in PDF.
The regression calculation for ANN neuron with LM-5 of the training, testing and
verification procedure is shown in Fig. 8. It has be concluded that the value of R2 is
close to unity and linear, which gives the accurateness of performance of the model.
Fig. 8. R2 plot for predicted and obtained values by ANN and RWB respectively
7 Conclusion
In this paper, one and two galaxies of the probability density function, along with the
Weibull distribution of S1, D1, D2, D3 and D4 used in open cast coal mine for the
period of 1 years. The influencing Weibull parameters b, η, & c were found from the
observation and result obtained. It was concluded that the level of significance of 5%
(0.05) for the data obtained for S1, D1, D2, D3 and D4. The ANN model has been
formed with MTBF, b, η, & c, an output parameter such as one output parameter
namely PDF f(t). With the propagation of the forwarded feed backup, the LM algorithm
is used to exclude the best model. The hidden layer, LM learning algorithm with 5
neurons for PDF has been found increasingly based on data analysis. The obtained and
the predicted value of PDF of a shovel and dumpers with the highest R2 value give
satisfactory results.
Acknowledgement. The authors are thankful to The General Manager (HRD), HR/Employee
Relation Department, The SCCL, Kothagudem, Telangana for giving the authorization to gather
the breakdown data of shovels and dumpers and publish this work. Also, wish to convey our
gratitude to Dr Ranjan Kumar, Senior Scientist and Dr P K Mandal, Senior Principal Scientist,
CIMFR, Dhanbad for supporting us in carrying out research work.
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Procedia Earth Planet Sci 11:189–194
Temperature Measurement During Rotary
Drilling of Rocks - A Statistical Approach
1 Introduction
Drilling is the process used to drill a hole for placing explosives in blasting, petroleum
extraction, mining and so on. The two important drilling methods used in mining
industries are percussive drilling and rotary drilling. Rotary drilling is a major process
in large open pit mines. During drilling process the temperature in drill bit and rock is
around several degrees centigrade, depending on operating conditions and time to drill.
Many researchers have conducted experiments to measure transient temperature during
drilling operation. Che et al. [1] found that, some of the traditional temperature mea-
surements techniques (e.g., embedded method and infrared radiation pyrometer) in
machining processes metal have also been used in the rock cutting/drilling domain with
minor adaptations. Szwarc et al. [2] developed a model to predict the drilling tem-
peratures of limestone, by using RTD (Resistance temperature detector). Dreus et al.
[3] developed a mathematical model, for the heating process of diamond drill bit. The
difference between experimental and calculated data temperature of the diamond drill
bit was more than 12%. Zacny et al. [4] conducted drilling experiment under Martian
condition; the results found that the drilling efficiency is much greater than under
terrestrial pressures and temperature. Gunes Yilmaz et al. [5] derived a predicted model
for temperature for hard rock and could be applied to rocks which have uniaxial
compressive strength in the range of 85–150 MPa. Rittel [6] found that the time
response of thermocouple to be generally a limiting factor for the transient temperature
to assess in solids. The embedded thermocouple method used as a tool, the response
time of the thermocouple of the order of 10 microseconds. Agapiou and Stephenson [7]
measured the temperature by using thermocouple method, standard welded thermo-
couple, and the insulated wires were embedded in the work piece near the drill zone.
They found that measured temperatures are reasonable and concluded that the thermal
inertia of welded thermocouple is high, with a good time response thin-wire insulated
in the workpiece to form a thermal junction measurement to obtain temperature data
also considered. Samy and Kumaran [8] used contact measurement techniques such as
K-type thermocouple with 1 mm diameter. They also used avoiding contact type
measurement of the temperature using FLIR E60 infrared thermal image camera with
different operating parameters such as rpm and feed rate conditions. It was concluded
that operational parameters increase, the temperature range from 66 °C–135 °C. Cui
et al. [9] Developed a prediction model by considering radiation effects, configuration
of bit and source of heat. Model shows that the radiation can be calculated for a limited
from the drill head.
From the above survey it is observed that a limited work has been reported on
temperature measurement during rotary drilling using embedded thermocouple tech-
nique. Hence this article aims to present the percentage contribution of operational
parameters such as bit diameter, rpm, and rate of penetration at different depth of
thermocouples and also to identify the temperature for varying all three parameters.
In rock drilling, the temperature of the rock sample is very high depending on drilling
conditions. To measure these temperature thermocouples are used as it is an extremely
versatile device. Measurements of the temperature at the bit-rock interface were made
using thermocouple, thermometers, resistance temperature detector (RTD), thermistors,
etc. A set of experiments were conducted to develop a thermal model using 4-wire
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) were placed on the interior of a limestone
block at a various locations [2]. Most of the rocks drilling process used to measure
temperature by thermocouples and are made of two dissimilar metals with good
physical contact, to achieve a good agreement of measurement. The K-type
Temperature Measurement During Rotary Drilling of Rocks 305
3 Experimental Procedure
The rock drilling experiments were carried out on fine-grained sandstone (pink).
A commercial masonry drill bit diameters of 6 mm to 16 mm with a U flute of tungsten
carbide was used in this experiments. Thermocouples are commonly used versatile
device for temperature measurement. These thermocouples are used to measure the
actual interface temperature between two dissimilar metals, most of the thermocouples
are made of two different pieces of wire, and it is welded into the bead called as a
grounded thermocouple with an appropriate size of the wire. K-type thermocouples are
measuring range from 0 °C to 1200 °C. In this experiment grounded thermocouples are
used, in which the wire can be inserted into the predrilled hole of the rock sample in a
Computer Numerical control (CNC) vertical machine centre [10] (Fig. 2).
306 V. K. Shankar et al.
Table 1. (continued)
14 mm depth
DD (mm) 1 6810.4 11.91% 650.5 650.5 33.66 0.000
SS (rpm) 1 2016.4 3.53% 2016.4 2016.4 104.35 0.000
PR (mm/min) 1 45778.8 80.06% 1058.4 1058.4 54.77 0.000
DD2 1 197.0 0.34% 197.0 197.0 10.19 0.002
PR2 1 81.6 0.14% 81.6 81.6 4.22 0.042
Error 119 2299.6 4.02% 2299.6 19.3
Total 124 57183.6 100.00%
22 mm depth
DD (mm) 1 13518 9.12% 1399 1399 50.20 0.000
SS (rpm) 1 4822 3.25% 4822 4822 173.08 0.000
PR (mm/min) 1 125888 84.90% 7262 7262 260.65 0.000
DD2 1 452 0.30% 452 452 16.21 0.000
PR2 1 285 0.19% 285 285 10.24 0.002
Error 119 3316 2.24% 3316 27.9
Total 124 148281 100.00%
30 mm depth
DD (mm) 1 10103 7.45% 928 928 12.75 0.001
SS (rpm) 1 3968 2.93% 3968 3968 54.49 0.000
PR (mm/min) 1 110292 81.32% 7691 7691 105.60 0.000
DD2 1 2030 1.50% 2030 2030 27.88 0.000
PR2 1 571 0.42% 571 571 7.84 0.006
Error 119 8666 6.39% 8666 72.8
Total 124 135630 100.00%
Where DD = Drill bit diameter, SS = Spindle speed, PR = Penetration rate
Table 1 shows percentage contribution and significant values of all depth of ther-
mocouples for fine grained sandstone (pink). ANOVA table reveals that the F-value is
higher for rate of penetration followed by the diameter of the bit and rpm. Figure 3
Show the pie chart of individual parameter contribution for the response output. From
the pie chart it is clear that the penetration rate is the most influencing parameter of
71.32% followed by diameter of the bit of 19.27% and rpm is the least effect of 2.99%
respectively.
5 Conclusions
In the present study, thermocouple technique has been used to measure the temperature
during rotary drilling of rocks. The three controlled parameters has been considered in
this study i.e., diameter of the bit, rpm and rate of penetration at different depths of
thermocouple to find the most influencing parameters on temperature rise during dril-
ling. The result shows that the penetration rate of 71.32% is the most influencing
Temperature Measurement During Rotary Drilling of Rocks 309
parameter followed by the diameter of the bit of 19.27% and rpm of 2.99%.
The ANOVA analysis revels that the overall contribution of the controlled parameters
and P-value is less that or equal to 0.05 is considered to be a statistically significant.
Coefficient of determination (R2) for all the four models for different depths of ther-
mocouple are 94.46%, 95.98%, 97.76% and 93.61% respectively. Hence the operational
parameters are statistically significant and the values are within the expected range.
References
1. Che D, Han P, Guo P, Ehmann K (2012) Issues in polycrystalline diamond compact cutter–
rock interaction from a metal machining point of view—part I: temperature, stresses, and
forces. J Manuf Sci Eng 134:64001
2. Szwarc T, Aggarwal A, Hubbard S, Cantwell B, Zacny K (2012) A thermal model for
analysis and control of drilling in icy formations on Mars. Planet Space Sci 73:214–220
3. Dreus A, Kozhevnikov A, Lysenko K, Sudakov A (2016) Investigation of heating of the
drilling bits and definition of the energy efficient drilling modes. East-Eur J Enterp Technol
3:41–44
4. Zacny KA, Quayle MC, Cooper GA (2004) Laboratory drilling under martian conditions
yields unexpected results. J Geophys Res 109:E7
5. Gunes Yilmaz N (2007) Prediction of radial bit cutting force in high strength rocks using
multiple linear regression analysis. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 44:964–970
6. Rittle D (1998) Transient temperature measurement using embedded thermocouples. Exp
Mech 38:73–78
7. Agapiou JS, Stephenson DA (1994) Analytical and experimental studies of drill
temperatures. Trans Am Soc Mech Eng J Eng Ind 116:54
8. Samy GS, Kumaran T (2017) Measurement and analysis of temperature, thrust force and
surface roughness in drilling of AA (6351)-B4C composite. Measurement 103:1–9
9. Cui J, Hou X, Deng Z, Pan W, Quan Q (2017) Prediction of the temperature of a drill in
drilling lunar rock stimulant in a vacuum. Thermal Sci 21:989–1002
10. Vijay Kumar S, Kunar BM, Murthy ChSN (2018) Experimental investigation and statistical
analysis of operational parameters on temperature rise in rock drilling. Int J Heat Technol 36
(4):1176–1180
Safety in Coal Mines in India-Its Perspective
1 Introduction
Mining is a vital contributor for industrial development and to the country’s economy.
About 565 Coal Mines, 85 Oil & Gas Projects and Over 8268 Non-Coal Mines are
being worked in India employing over one million persons directly on daily average
basis. India produces 95 minerals as per the Annual Report 2016–17 of the Ministry of
Mines [2]. As per the International Energy Agency World Energy Outlook-2018, coal
will continue to be the country’s largest source of energy, maintaining a crucial role in
fueling, developing economies and infrastructure. Despite of the significant growth of
renewable, coal still accounts for the primary share of 74% of its electricity in India.
The government strives to ensure universal electricity access by the early 2020s, India’s
power system will need almost quadruple its size by 2040, and investments up to $2
trillion will be required to keep pace with increasing demand [6].
India is the world’s second largest coal producer. In 2017, India produced 716
million metric tons of coal (294 million tons of oil equivalent), accounting for 9.2% of
the world coal production (in term of metric tons). Coal plays a vital role in meeting
global energy needs and is critical to infrastructure development – 38% of the world’s
electricity and 71% of the world’s steel is produced using coal [6].
Accident rate in coal mines 5 yearly average fatalities in CIL came down from 196
in 2075-79 to 45 numbers in 2015-17 and 5 yearly average of serious injuries came
down from 1278 in 2075-79 to 116 numbers in 2015-17. Still it is high in Indian mines
due to lack of automation and skilled labor in mine operations [1] (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1. 5 yearly average fatalities in CIL since Fig. 2. 5 yearly average of serious injuries
1975 [1]. since 1975 [1].
Safety and sustainable development must always be top most priority of any company.
Company has to frame a well-defined safety policy to ensure safety in all mines and
establishments. Company has to establish a multi-disciplinary Internal Safety Orga-
nization (ISO) in all subsidiaries for the implementation of the Mine Safety Plan. Safety
Management Plan (SMP) has to be prepared and implemented as per 104(3) of Coal
Mines Regulations 2017.
a. Ground Movement (fall of roof, fall of side and other ground movement)
b. Transportation machinery (Winding in Shaft)
c. Transportation machinery (other than winding in shaft)
d. Rope haulage, Wheeled Trackless Transportation and other transportation
machinery
e. Machinery other than Transportation Machinery
f. Explosives
g. Electricity
h. Gas, dust & other combustible material
i. Fall (other than falls of ground): Fall of persons, fall of objects, other falls
312 K. Srihari and A. Sandeep Kumar
1000
900
Killed/ seriously injured
800
700
600
500
Persons killed
400
300 Seriously injured
200
100
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year
6
Death / seriously injured rate
5
Rate of seriously injured/million
4 tonne
3 Rate of death/ million tonne
Fig. 5. Number of fatal accidents UG coal mines in India, the USA and Australia.
314 K. Srihari and A. Sandeep Kumar
Exploration
Mine
Mine
planning
closure
and design
Safe
mining
operations
Environmental
Management Exploitation
Plan
Project
monitoring
and control
5 Conclusion
and research bodies, to develop new skills, new knowledge and new ways of doing
business. Company has to establish a multi-disciplinary Internal Safety Organization
(ISO) in all subsidiaries for the implementation of stated Safety Policy.
All operations, systems and processes are meticulously planned and designed with
due regard to SMP, safety, conservation, sustainable development and clean environ-
ment. Currently, demand for advanced technology is already present in India. In order
to achieve resource efficiency, the Indian mining sector is already looking forward to
adopt advanced mine surveying and exploration technologies (using geophysics
applications using 2D and 3D seismic surveys) along with the usage of software
solutions by utilizing 3D software packages (like Micromine, Gemcom MINEX,
SURPAC, Datamin and Vulcan) in the mine planning and design stage.
References
1. Safety in Coal Mines - Annual Report (2017–18), Ministry of Coal-New Delhi
2. Safety in mines Annual Report 2016–17. Ministry of Mines-New Delhi
3. Coal Mines Regulation (2017)
4. Statistics of mines in India, vol. I. Directorate General of Mines Safety, India. http://dgms.
gov.in/writereaddata
5. World Coal 2018–2050: World Energy Annual Report (Part 4)
6. Statistics of mines in India, vol. I (coal), pp 53–57, Directorate General of Mine Safety (2015)
Reliability Analysis of LHD
Machine - A Case Study
1 Introduction
Achievement of the projected level of production mainly depends upon the effective
utilization of men and machinery. In every production industry, maintaining machinery
with a greater level of reliability is also one of the crucial aspects [1]. Underground
metal mine’s production for the last few decades in India is not according to the plan.
The unavailability of the machine is the major cause for a drop in production levels in
the industry [2]. Reliability estimation plays a significant role in the performance
evaluation for a complex repairable system. Performance of equipment is mainly
depends upon the reliability of the usage, working atmosphere, and effectiveness of
maintenance, operational procedures, and technical skill of the operators. These fore-
casts are helpful to organize the maintenance and operational activities [3]. Unreliable
parts lead to fails the system during the operation of the vehicle. Repair and replace-
ment action should be advised to failure components to describe the remaining useful
life [4]. The reliability of a complex repairable system can be enhanced by applying
proper maintenance strategies. Preventive maintenance (PM) is one of the well
appropriate techniques to conduct the maintenance or repair action. The possible
repairs should be performed at the time of repair action. The part which is not possible
to repair is called censored failures. These can be replaced with a new modified design.
The present investigation has been performed to identify the breakdowns, reasons for
occurrence of breakdowns and frequency of its occurrence, classification of sub-
systems based on the breakdown mode; develop the models to forecast the sub-system
reliabilities.
2 Methodology
The first and foremost step in the reliability analysis is collection of failure data and it’s
classification. The required data should be collected either from real time monitoring of
experiments or from the existence of past historical failure data which was stored in the
maintenance records. The classification of the data can be done in accordance with type
of failure. This data can be useful to estimate the time between failure (TBF) and time
to repair (TTR) [5]. The procedure of reliability analysis for a critical subassembly is
shown in a flow chart (Fig. 1) as follows [6].
Fig. 1. Reliability analysis procedure of a critical subsystem (Source: Ascher et al. [5])
320 J. BalaRaju et al.
3 Case Study
The present case study has been carried out in one of the Indian underground Lead and
Zinc mines of the northeast region. In this study, 4 number of Sandvick made LHDs
(LHD1, LHD2, LHD3 and LHD4) were considered for the analysis. LHD machine is
treated as an intermediate level mechanized system used for transporting the ore in
underground mining operations. Ore extraction is done by drilling and blasting tech-
niques. Transportation of ore is done by LHD from mined out area to the crushing
point. A schematic view of LHD machine at the workshop is shown in Fig. 2.
Before performing the intended analysis of data sets, every equipment should be
classified into a number of sub-assemblies [6]. These classifications were made on the
basis of described reasoning of maintenance records kept by maintenance personnel
about the failures. LHD machine has been classified into seven numbers such as Engine
(SSE), Brake (SSBr), Tyre (STTy), Hydraulic (SSH), Electrical (SSE), Transmission
(SSTr) and Mechanical (SSM). The failure data (Table 1) of LHDs were collected over
a period of one financial year (2016-17). This was collected in the form of spreadsheets
of maintenance records. This includes the failure frequency (FF), the time between
failure (TBF) and time to repair (TTR) (Table 2).
800
ith TBF
600 150
400
200 100
0 50
0 200 400 0
CFF 0 200 400
(i-1)th TBF
Fig. 3. (a) Trend test plot of LHD1 (b) Serial correlation test plot of LHD1
200
ith TBF
1000 150
500 100
50
0 0
0 200 400 0 200 400
CFF (i-1)th TBF
Fig. 4. (a) Trend test plot of LHD2 (b) Serial correlation test plot of LHD2
200
ith TBF
150
500
100
50
0 0
0 200 400 0 200 400
CFF (i-1)th TBF
Fig. 5. (a) Trend test plot of LHD3 (b) Serial correlation test plot of LHD3
Reliability Analysis of LHD Machine - A Case Study 323
1500
ith TBF
1000 200
500 100
0
0
0 100 200
0 200 400
CFF
(i-1)th TBF
Fig. 6. (a) Trend test plot of LHD4 (b) Serial correlation test plot of LHD4
(K-S) test. Parametric estimation for theoretical probability distributions has also made
by utilizing the Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE) method (Table 4).
maintainability and failure rate (Table 6). Maintainability equation for the Weibull
distribution is as follows:
MTTR b
Maintainability ðMwÞ ¼ 1 eð g Þ
1
Failure rate ðhÞ ¼
MTBF
99.9 99.9
99 99
2-parameter Weibull 3-parameter Weibull
Median rank Median rank
90 90
70 η: 188.2 70 η: 476.5
Eta estimator β: 4.078 Eta estimator β: 9.15
50 50
γ: 0 γ: −250.2
30 30
ρ: 0.9802 ρ: 0.9876
20 20
Unreliability (%)
Unreliability (%)
ε: 0.05796 ε: 0.04515
10 10
B10: 108.4 B10: 122.4
5 5
P0: 0% P0: 0.2749%
3 3
2 2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
108 137.3 174.6 222 125 199.8 319.2 510.2
Time Time
99.9 99.9
99 99
3-parameter Weibull 3-parameter Weibull
Median rank Median rank
90 90
70 η: 89.62 70 η: 284
Eta estimator β: 1.205 Eta estimator β: 4.556
50 50
γ: 116.3 γ: −1.212
30 30
ρ: 0.982 ρ: 0.9883
20 20
Unreliability (%)
Unreliability (%)
ε: 0.0618 ε: 0.04998
10 10
B10: 130.1 B10: 172.1
5 5
P0: 0% P0: 1.601E-09%
3 3
2 2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
13.7 37.01 99.96 270 170 21 .9 264.1 329.2
Time Time
Fig. 9. Cumulative probability curve of Fig. 10. Cumulative probability curve of LHD4
LHD3
5 Conclusion
References
1. Military Handbook (2003) Military Handbook, MIL-HDBK-5H: Metallic Materials and
Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures, (Knovel Interactive Edition), pp 6–55. U.S.
Department of Defense
2. Dhillon BS (2008) Mining equipment reliability maintainability and safety. Springer, London,
pp 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-288-3_4
3. Jardine AKS (1998) Maintenance replacement and reliability. Preney Print and Litho Inc.,
Ontario
4. Vagenas N, Runciman N, Clement SR (1997) A methodology for maintenance analysis of
mining equipment. Int J Surf Min Reclam Env 11:33–40
5. Ascher H, Feingold H (1984) Repairable systems reliability modeling inference misconcep-
tions and their causes, vol 45, no 4. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 222–232
6. Vagenas N, Kazakidis V, Scoble M, Espley S (2003) Applying a maintenance methodology
for excavation reliability. J Surf Min Reclam Environ 17:4–19
7. Kumar U, Klefsjo B, Granholm S (1989) Reliability investigation for a fleet of load haul
dump machines in a Swedish mine. Reliab Eng Syst Saf 26(4):341–361
8. Nuziale T, Vagenas N (2000) A software architecture for reliability analysis of mining
equipment. Int J Surf Min Reclaim Env 114:19–34
9. Esmaeili M, Aghajani A (2011) Reliability analysis of a fleet of loaders in Sangan Iron Mine.
Arch Min Sci 56:629–640
Emerging Mining Trends: Preparing Future
Mining Professionals
Laxminarayana Chikatamarla1(&)
and Devulapalli Narasimha Prasad2,3
1
RPMGlobal, Brisbane, Australia
lchikatamarla@rpmglobal.com, lchikatamarla@gmail.com
2
Ministry of Coal, Government of India, New Delhi, India
dnprasad2005@gmail.com
3
Mining, Singareni Collieries, PSU of GoTS and GoI, Kothagudem, India
1 Introduction
With the current climate of global economic uncertainty coupled with adverse impact
on commodity prices and access to finance, mining companies are seeking solutions to
reduce all costs and increase productivity to weather the cyclical downturn of mining
industry tied up to commodity prices. The mining sector has seen the ups and downs in
recent years and the trend continues. During this time, many mining companies started
adopting innovative and transformative practices. These transformations will continue
for the next decade due to declining tier-one assets with poor mineral grades, focus on
shareholders returns with environmental obligations. In this environment, mining
companies must find ways to remain competitive by revising their traditional mining
models.
The miners recognised the power of digital solutions to improve the efficiency of
mining operations and embedding digital thinking into the core of their business
practices for making corporate decisions [1]. The miners should envision the future
digital mine transformation and flow of information to back-office processing for
decision making [2–4]. Academic institutions should focus on this direction to train
future mining professionals.
• Data mining, i.e. need for increased real-time monitoring (of machinery movement,
temperature, gaseous emissions, wear and tear); and
• The need for collaborations with local communities for sustainable mining
operations;
The biggest challenge the mining industry facing globally is attracting talent to the
mining profession. Harsh and remote working conditions in the mining industry cou-
pled with the cyclical nature of ‘booms and busts’ talented students are not getting
motivated to opt for a mining engineering discipline. The mining industry should
incentivise for driving innovation and encourage contributions from the workforce with
a commitment to strengthening government and community relations to attract talent.
Hence, the mining engineering education and training must be revised for taking up the
challenges of the fast-changing mining technologies of the 21st century.
According to the McKinsey, PwC and Deloitte’s tracking the mining industry reports,
the following trends are fast emerging which will bring a drastic change the way the
mining industry is going to be transformed in the coming decades [1, 5, 6].
a. Evolution of Digital mining: The “big data” transformation significantly improves
the decision-making process of the corporate world. The information and the ability to
sort out, oversee, and process it, is quickly turning into a focused differentiator. Mining
organizations must implant innovative and scientific reasoning into the core of the
business system and practices to change the manner in which corporate choices are
made. The mining companies are not fully utilizing the majority of the information
captured from operational frameworks. Some are currently realizing that capturing and
dealing with the correct information can unravel huge enhancements in operational
profitability, maintenance of assets and safety of workforce [10]. Figure 1 shows an
example of an intelligent data platform for integrated operational planning, control and
decision support for a typical mining project; the Enterprise Planning Framework’
(EPF) facilitates end-to-end design, planning & scheduling, simulation, financial
modelling and execution capabilities across the mining value chain to propel the
mining organization’s productivity.
b. Overcoming innovation barriers: advancement is fundamental for the mining
business to change and it isn’t restricted to technology; it includes the adoption of
innovative approaches to appeal with stakeholders, re-imagining the future of work and
recognizing the products that will be in prominent demand going ahead. Change the
traditional mindset of risk-averse culture hindering the efforts to innovate within the
mining industry;
c. The future of work: the adoption of innovative technologies, such as robotics,
process automation, and artificial intelligence will augment performance in the mining
industry. As opposed to dispensing with occupations, it will probably make endeavours
to retrain individuals to utilize innovation and upgrade employment at both the mine
site and in the back office.
330 L. Chikatamarla and D. N. Prasad
Fig. 1. Coordinated operational planning, control and decision making process (Source:
RPMGlobal intelligent Platform [10])
g. Remediation of mined out areas: Land is a key component in all mining tasks, and
systematic reclamation and rehabilitation of mined out zones and dumps are critical for
a maintaining an ‘Ecological Balance’ in the mining business. Thus, mining companies
are using innovative methods to showcase their competences to remediate the land
realistically after mining activities to obtain a social license to operate the mines;
h. Reserve replacement woes: as supply limitations plague the business, the chal-
lenge for mining organizations is to find replacement reserves by engaging innovative
exploration and development techniques that use minimum capital for a short period of
time. Hence, mining companies are using digital technology to overcome this
challenge;
i. Realigning mining boards to drive change: Boards hindered in old mindset will
progressively battle to fulfil new directives, such as taking a more active role in
challenging the executive team on topics from corporate strategy to digital disruption,
talent management, and emerging risk factors. Diverse viewpoints are necessary for the
mining boards to challenge organizational assumptions and help determine if the
organization is taking on too much risk, or possibly not enough risk [6].
The Indian mining industry has grown over a period of time. India is currently pro-
ducing about 95 major and minor minerals which include 4 fuel, 10 metallic, 23 non-
metallic, 3 atomic and 55 minor minerals. India’s position in 2015 as compared to
world production was second in barites, and talc/steatite/pyrophyllite, third in coal &
lignite, chromite, and zinc (slab), fourth in kyanite/andalusite/sillimanite, fifth in iron
ore, and Steel (Crude), sixth in bauxite ore, seventh in manganese ore and eighth in
aluminum [12].
Technology wise major opencast mining projects are on par with any advanced
countries and being operated by deploying high capacity shovels and dumpers as well
as specialized mining equipment consisting of bucket wheel excavators and stacker re-
claimers in conjunction with high capacity conveyor belts both for overburden removal
and coal. In-pit crushing and conveying technology, High wall technology has also
been successfully adopted. In the case of underground mining, mechanization was
adopted as per the needs including continuous miner technology and longwall tech-
nology successfully. Extraction and use of Coal Bed Methane (CBM)/Coal Mine
Methane (CMM) have been successfully demonstrated and a couple of commercial
CBM projects are ongoing.
However, automation and application of IoT (internet of things) to mining opera-
tions are required to be adopted in a significant manner. The software is in use for
geological modelling and mine planning for quite some time but needs to be further
enhanced for the actual implementation and monitoring of planned activities as well as
equipment utilisation and maintenance for day to day control of mine operations for
making quick informed decisions.
Majority of the mining industry in India is controlled by Government and Private
sector is slowly making its headway into mining operations since opening up the sector
in early 2000 for private participation. In this context, there is a need for the Global
Reporting Initiative to be taken up seriously for sustainable mining in the country on
par with global mining companies.
5 Way Forward
Development of mining skillset i.e. teaching and training methods will be playing an
extremely crucial role for shaping the Indian mining economy. Hence, searching for
innovative methods for mining engineering education is of great significance to make
the Indian mining professionals on par with global standards. Benchmarking Indian
mining teaching and training methods with international mining educational standards
is the need of the hour. To achieve this, the involvement of the mining academics,
professional bodies and the participation of mining organisation leaders is critical to
developing a curriculum to take up the challenges of 21st-century mining needs. Thus,
the mining and other engineers trained by the universities are readily employable with a
minimum induction period.
The curriculum of mining engineering at graduate and master’s levels to be
redrawn keeping industry’s requirements in view. Faculty also need to be trained in
these areas such that students find the resource person to repose confidence in learning.
PBL method of teaching should be introduced in the mining education to train,
challenge, innovate and retain the much-needed talent for the mining industry [14].
The approach suggested is similar to the one being followed by the Minerals
Council of Australia to improve the standards of Mining Engineering Education and
skill set of young mining professionals [16].
Continuous efforts of all interested parties i.e. educational institutions, professional
associations (national and international), research organisations, mining companies,
government organisations need to work in a coordinated manner to reach the common
goal of preparing tomorrow’s mining and other engineers to embrace the technological
challenges i.e. digital thinking, training, certification and continuous professional
development of qualified mining professionals for a highly efficient, environmentally
sound mining industry for sustainable development [17].
References
1. Behind the mining productivity upswing: technology-enabled transformation, metals, and
mining practice. McKinsey & Company Report, August 2018
2. Blockchain explained: what it is and isn’t, and why it matters. McKinsey & Company
Report, September 2018
3. Harnessing data to unlock new energy solutions ExxonMobil, 04 February 2019. https://
www.spe.org/en/dsde/dsde-article-detail-page/?art=5065
4. Crompton J (2019) The new world of data science and digital engineering: the hype, the
hope, and the reality. SPE DSDE Upstream Oil Gas J. https://www.spe.org/en/print-article/?
art=4966
5. We need to talk about the future of mining, PwC’s future insights series. https://www.pwc.
com.au/publications/we-need-to-talk-about-future-of-mining-2017.html
6. Tracking the trends 2018 the top 10 issues shaping mining in the year ahead. A report by
Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (2018)
7. Mining industry looks towards a new wave of automation. https://www.abc.net.au/news/
rural/2017-05-23/the-future-of-automation-in-the-mining-industry/8550636
336 L. Chikatamarla and D. N. Prasad
Abstract. Transport in underground mines i.e. belt conveyor is used for car-
rying extracted materials from one station to other. Transportation involves
energy as its main consumer. An efficient energy system adapted for trans-
porting extracted materials can minimize energy losses, hence resulting in
reduced cost of energy. Energy to transportation is provided by means of an
electric motor, the efficiency of the electric motor depend on load carried by the
system, the length and height to which the material has to be delivered. The
present study was carried on the energy efficiency of three different trans-
portation systems in GDK-1&3 incline underground mine, The Singareni Col-
lieries Company Limited, Ramagundam. The present study was carried out
considering two cases with first, load varying from 20% to 100% keeping
conveyor speed constant. Secondly, with 20% fixed loading and varying the
conveyor speed from 1 m/s to 2 m/s. Estimation of the energy efficiency for a
unique electric motor was estimated considering both the cases which involved
three different lengths and heights. It was observed that with a constant conveyor
speed of 2 m/s and filling rate varying from 27.775 kg/m to 5.555 kg/m, the
amount of increase in efficiency was found to be 23.92%, 18.75% and 5.25% for
Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors respectively. Also with a constant filling rate
of 5.555 kg/m and conveyor speed varying from 1 m/s to 2 m/s, the amount of
decrease in efficiency was found to be 13.63%, 11.52% and 1.64% for Gantry,
5L and Surface conveyors respectively. Further a prediction study was carried
on the energy efficiency based on the input parameters load, length and height.
The model gives an R2 value 87% which is significant.
1 Introduction
Energy is one of the basic requirement for modern civilization. Energy efficiency is the
reduction of energy consumption subjected to key constraints. The importance of
energy efficiency is sustainability and cost reduction. As from ISO 50,001, the energy
saving potential in manufacturing sites is 15–20%. The Global energy potential is
around 36% and an average saving potential of a plant is 20% [1]. The energy cost for
2 Field Study
The present study was carried at GDK-1&3 Incline, located at RG-I Area of The
Singareni Collieries Company Limited, Ramagundam. The Mine totally consist of 8
belt conveyors to transport the coal from underground to dump area. The specifications
of the belt, idler, drive motor and gearbox were collected from the respective equip-
ment catalogs, which are listed in Tables 1 and 2.
Along with the field data, presented in Sect. (2) DIN 22101 was also used to do the belt
conveyor calculations.
The total force to run the conveyor at a given load and inclination can be calculated
by [9].
Pm ¼ F v ð2Þ
Pe ¼ V I cosu ð3Þ
Pm
gd ¼ ð4Þ
Pe
4 Simulation Study
Among the eight conveyors systems of GDK-1&3 Incline, three conveyors were
considered based up on the conveyor length. These three belt conveyors are modelled
and simulated using Matlab 2009b. The simulation parameters of these conveyors is
same as the parameters of the conveyors used in the field, shown in Tables 1 and 2. The
details of the three different conveyors considered in the present study is given in
Table 3. Gantry, 5L and Surface belt conveyors were modelled and simulated at two
different operating conditions as follows: (1) Variable filling rate and constant speed
(2) Constant filling rate and variable speed. In first condition, the load applied on the
belt is variable and the speed of the belt is almost constant. Where as in second
condition the belt speed was adjusted using a variable frequency drive and the material
filling rate has been maintained constant. The simulation parameters of the induction
motor (IM) are given in Table 4, which are same as the parameters of the IM used in
the field.
Figures 1 and 2 show the variation of motor efficiency of three belt conveyors when
they are operated at two different operating conditions such as (1) Variable filling rate
and constant speed (2) Constant filling rate and variable speed. Figure 1 represents a
graph of efficiency versus load. The data involved motor efficiencies for load varied
from efficiency of the motor 5.555 kg/m–27.775 kg/m with a constant rated speed of
2 m/s for Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors. It was observed that with increase in the
load on the conveyor belt the efficiency of the motor increased linearly. The amount of
increase in efficiency was found to be 23.92%, 18.75% and 5.25% for Gantry, 5L and
Surface conveyors respectively.
The rated speed of all three belt conveyors is 2 m/s. It is observed that from no load
to full load the speed was dropped by 10% that means at full load condition i.e.
27.775 kg/m the corresponding speed of Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors is same
and it is equals to 1.8 m/s, and when the load is varying from full load i.e. 27.775 kg/m
to 20% of full load i.e. 5.555 kg/m the speed of all three belt conveyors is 2 m/s, as
shown in Fig. 3. It may seems to be the variation of speed is not relaying with load.
Figure 2 represents a graph of efficiency versus conveyor speed. The data involved
motor efficiencies for speed varied from 1 m/s to 2 m/s with a constant filling rate of
5.555 kg/m for Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors. It was observed that with increase in
the speed of the conveyor belt the efficiency of the motor decreased linearly. The
amount of decrease in efficiency was found to be 13.63%, 11.52% and 1.64% for
Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors respectively.
342 N. V. Sarathbabu Goriparti et al.
Fig. 3. Variation of speed of motor, when it is connected to three different belt conveyors.
6 Statistical Analysis
Using Minitab 17, an ANOVA (Analysis of variance) based regression analysis was
done to predict the most influencing parameters on the drive system efficiency. The
obtained Eq. (5) represents efficiency (η, %) in terms of conveyor height (h in m),
conveyor length (l in m), conveyor speed (v in m/s) and material load (ml, kg/m)
(Tables 6 and 7).
From the analysis done with Table 5, it was observed that the most influencing
parameters among the input parameters are load, conveyor length and conveyor speed.
All the parameters have P-Value less than 0.05 except one parameter i.e. conveyor
height (insignificant). Figure 4 shows that normal probability and residues of
efficiency.
7 Conclusions
1. With a constant conveyor speed of 2 m/s and filling rate varying from 27.775 kg/m
to 5.555 kg/m. The amount of increase in efficiency was found to be 23.92%,
18.75% and 5.25% for Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors respectively. The highest
variation was found to be in Gantry conveyor system.
2. With a constant filling rate of 5.555 kg/m and conveyor speed varying from 1 m/s
to 2 m/s. The amount of decrease in efficiency was found to be 13.63%, 11.52% and
1.64% for Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors respectively. The highest variation
was found to be in Gantry conveyor system.
3. It was a common observation found with both the cases that for Gantry conveyor
the amount of variation is higher compared to 5L and surface conveyors. With a
long distance to travel the efficiency of the conveyor motor the variation in effi-
ciency is lesser which indicates that as the length increases the efficiency becomes
high and smooth.
344 N. V. Sarathbabu Goriparti et al.
4. A regression model was developed considering the above two cases the model had
an R-square value of 87.27%, and found to be statistically significant.
References
1. Chan Y, Kantamaneni R (2015) Study on energy efficiency and energy saving potential in
industry and on possible policy mechanisms. Technical report, ICF Limited
2. Luo J, Huang W, Zhang S (2015) Energy cost optimal operation of belt conveyors using
model predictive control methodology. J Clean Prod 105:196–205
3. Pang Y, Lodewijks G (2011) Improving energy efficiency in material transport systems by
fuzzy speed control, pp 159–164
4. He D, Pang Y, Lodewijks G (2016) Speed control of belt conveyors during transient
operation. Powder Technol 301:622–631
5. Commission of the European Communities (1978) Underground transport in coal mines.
Information Symposium, vol 1, Luxembourg
6. Din22101 (2011) Continuous conveyors – belt conveyors for loose bulk materials – basis for
calculation and dimensioning
7. ISO-5048 (1998) Continuous mechanical handling equipment - belt conveyors with carrying
idlers - calculation of operating power and tensile forces. Standard ISO 5048
8. Hiltermann J, Lodewijks G, Schott DL, Rijsenbrij JC, Dekkers JAJM, Pang Y (2017) A
methodology to predict power savings of troughed belt conveyors by speed control. Part Sci
Technol 29:14–27
9. He D, Pang Y, Lodewijks G (2017) Green operations of belt conveyors by means of speed
control. Appl Energy 188:330–341
10. He D, Pang Y, Lodewijks G (2016) Determination of acceleration for belt conveyor speed
control in transient operation. Int J Eng Technol 8:206–211
11. Marx DJL, Calmeyer JE (2004) An integrated conveyor model methodology, vol 3, pp 256–
264
12. Lech G, Witold K, Robert K (2016) Selection of carry idlers spacing of belt conveyor taking
into account random stream of transported bulk material. Maintain Reliab 18:32–37
13. Lauhoff H (2005) Speed control on belt conveyors - does it really save energy? Bulk Solids
Handling 25:368–377
14. Lodewijks G, Schott DL, Pang Y (2011) Energy saving at belt conveyors by speed control,
pp 1–10
15. Marx DJL (2005) Energy audit methodology for belt conveyors. Thesis, University of
Pretoria
Shortcomings of Vibrating Screen
and Corrective Measures: A Review
1 Introduction
The screening process is usually carried out for separating two or more materials of
different shapes, particle sizes and densities [1]. The vibrating screen has wide range of
application in minerals industries for the screening of minerals, mineral ores and ore
slurries [2]. It also has applications in mining industries especially in coal mining
industries [3]. Other applications of screening are in cement industries, food industries
and pharmaceutical industries [1]. The two major process of screening are particle
stratification and the passage of particles through the screen aperture [4]. During
screening process, the feed material is poured on the downwardly inclined vibrating
screen deck. Because of the vibration provided to the screen deck, the fine particles will
pass near the screen aperture and the process is referred as particle stratification. The
2 Literature Review
2.1 Review on the Basics of Screening and Screening Efficiency
[5] theoretically studied the screening efficiency with respect to the screen slot size,
particle size and time length of screening. [4] utilized a flow model to determine the
interrelation, the stratification and the passage of particle through the screen aperture.
[6] utilized a flow model to study the influence of particle size distribution, feed rate
and bed thickness on the stratification and particle passage through the screen aperture.
[7] developed a method to control the efficiency of vibrating screens. The authors
noticed that the constant feeding rate and the percentage of particle passing during the
operation need to maintained for efficient screening process. [8] studied the particle
screening efficiency for the various effects of vibration parameters such as frequency
and swing declination angle. [9] studied the circularly vibrating screen performance
index such as screening efficiency and throughput capacity by considering the effects of
the amplitude, frequency and inclination angle of the screen deck. [10] analysed the
frequent failure occurrence in the vibrating screen.
2.3 Review on the Various Parts of the Screen Such as Screen, Motor
[17] developed an improved seal between the hopper and the vibrating box. [3]
developed a supporting frame for screening assembly. The authors suggested that the
support frame facilitates easy and rapid removal of the screen panel. The authors also
suggested that the reduction in downtime of the screen deck and improved efficiency
Shortcomings of Vibrating Screen and Corrective Measures: A Review 347
could be obtained from the installation of the support frame. [1] developed a method to
detect the breakage of a screen system. [2] developed a snap fit fastening arrangement
for fixing of the screen panel. [18] developed a screen clamp which can be attached
with sealing element such as chemical adhesive, mechanical fasteners or any other
method. [19] developed a mechanism for preventing the failure screen modules. [20]
developed a screen which is secured with the wedge like screen frame without the use
of bolts, clamps or additional parts reducing the number of the parts which reduces the
risk of accidental damage of vibrating screen. [21] developed a motor group for pro-
viding proper balance on the control of the larger vibrating force and the mass of the
vibrator to the vibrating screen.
Fig. 3. Helical springs attached between the screen frame and base structure
1. The vibrating screen has larger force of vibration and friction which causes the wear
of the machine parts. The higher friction of the conventional vibrating screen leads
to higher power requirement for instance in industries the motor power requirement
is around 7.5 kW to 15 kW.
2. The moisture content of the feed materials causes clogging of screen slots which
reduces the screening efficiency of the machine. The conventional vibrating screen
has reduced effect on the screen clogging because of the type of motion provided on
the screen.
3. The vibrating screen will have isolated system for instance in the Fig. 3 which
shows the helical springs used to carry out the load of the vibrating screen. If the
isolated system is not perfectly maintained, then there will be screen imbalance,
loosening of the mechanical fasteners, wear and fatigue of the machine parts.
4. The vibrating screen requires higher structural strength to withstand the load of the
machine parts and vibration produced by the machine defects.
5. The drawback such as loosening of the mechanical fasteners will produce the
variable critical frequency of one or more machine components which will be
vibrating at different stroke compared to the overall machine. The variable critical
frequency of one or more machine components will reduce the overall machine life.
6. The vibrating screen has reduced amplitude and stroke length. The amplitude and
stroke length can throw the material ahead causing loosening of the particle and also
helps stratification of the material on the screen.
7. The vibrating motion and the downward inclination of the screen will provide less
residence time to the feed materials on the screen thereby the time required for the
particle to meet the screen aperture will be reduced.
8. The overall screening efficiency in the vibrating screen will be reduced because of
large number of machine parts, larger force of vibration, friction, wear of the
machine parts, overloading, clogging of screen and low residence time of the feed
material.
4. The circular vibrating motion provided to the screen will give larger amplitude and
stroke length of the screen which increases stratification of the particles on the
screen.
5. The circular vibrating motion provided to the screen will also reduce the velocity of
the particles on the screen which increases the residence time of the feed materials
on the screen.
6. The angle of screen inclination can be adjusted which can also be used to control
the residence time of the feed material.
The need of utilizing the circular motion to the screen can be seen from the work of
[22]. The work consists of development of a DEM model for the various vibrating
mode of the screening such as linear and circular vibration of the screen. It was found
that the travel velocity of particles on the screen was found to be higher for the linear
vibration and lower for the circular vibration. The results showed that the screening
efficiency of the machine was found to be higher for the circular vibrating screen when
compared with the linear vibrating screen. From the result, it was cleared that the linear
vibrating motion of the vibrating screen can be replaced with circular vibrating motion
which increases screening efficiency.
4 Conclusion
Some of the observation on the shortcomings of conventional vibrating screen has been
presented. The review was carried out through literature survey and plant visit. The
remedial measures such as reducing the number of machine components and
replacement of linear vibrating motion with circular vibrating motion to the vibrating
screen need to be mainly considered to overcome the shortcomings of the conventional
vibrating screen. The reduction in number of components also reduces overall screen
load, angular velocities, stress, wear or damages to the screen, screen replacement,
downtime and overall cost of production. The circular vibrating motion provided to the
screen will give larger amplitude and stroke length of the screen which increases
screening efficiency. The overall outcome of remedial action will lead to improved
screening efficiency.
References
1. DeCenso AJ (2007) System and process for break detection in porous elements for screening
or filtering. International publication number-US7182207B2
2. Kriel NP (2009) Screen panel fastener and fastening arrangement. International publication
number-US20090301944A1
3. Ronald Johnson RM (2006) Support frame. International publication number-
US20060237348A1
4. Soldinger M (1999) Interrelation of stratification and passage in the screening process. Miner
Eng 12(5):497–516
Shortcomings of Vibrating Screen and Corrective Measures: A Review 351
Abstract. The estimation of rock strength is most often required for the pre-
liminary stage of rock engineering projects. The determination of rock strength
properties in the laboratory is reliable, but the availability of a number of fine
quality core samples for lab testing is very difficult. In this study, an attempt is
made to investigate the usability of variations of thrust developed at the rock-bit
interface and vibration frequency generated in the drilling machine head for
estimation of rock strength during the rotary drilling. The variation of thrust and
vibration frequency during drilling is measured using sophisticated digital type
drilling dynamometer and data acquisition system (DAQ) with accelerometer
sensor respectively. The second order regression models were developed to
predict the rock strength such as uniaxial compressive strength considering the
machine operating parameters and measured variables. The evaluation of the
prediction ability of the developed models was checked using the three per-
formance indices known as VAF, RMSE, and MAPE. The results revealed that
the approached method is highly efficient for estimation of rock strength during
rotary drilling.
1 Introduction
Rock mechanics deals with the study of mechanical and physical properties of rocks.
The vital mechanical property of rocks such as a uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS) is often used in many engineering projects concerned with a rock engineering
background [1]. The determination of UCS in the laboratory is reliable, but it is
expensive, time-consuming and often high-quality core specimens are needed for the
test [2]. It is not always possible to obtain a sufficient amount of fine quality drilled
cores from weak, highly fractured, weathered and thin layers of rock matrix [3].
Therefore, the engineers and geologists have been attracted to quantify the rock
strength indirectly through the use of predictive empirical models [4]. Some of the
indirect tests such as point load, Schmidt hammer, and p-wave velocity tests are often
used to estimate rock strength [5–7]. However, the standard samples for the indirect test
may not always possible for weak or soft rocks such as sedimentary rock type.
Recently, the quantification of rock properties during the drilling was investigated by
many researchers with acceptable level errors. The mechanical drilling parameters such
as bit diameter, bit speed, weight on bit and corresponding penetration rate, sound level
and many more physical parameters have been used to correlate with various rock
properties. From the earlier investigation on the characterization of rocks, estimation of
rock properties during drilling is found easy, less time consuming and also economical
as no core samples of rocks are required. The mechanical drilling parameters like bit
load or thrust, speed and penetration rate of diamond drill bit have a strong relationship
with rock mass strength [8]. Finfinger et al. [9] attempted to identify the properties of
overlaying rocks in underground mines during rock bolting operation. It was observed
that there is considerable variation of thrust and torque as the drill bit moves to different
rock layers. Stuart et al. [10] proposed a method for quantification of formation
properties around an oil well by analyzing the acoustic waves generated at the bottom
hole assembly of drill unit. An investigation on sound level produced during the
drilling of different rocks using a portable pneumatic drilling machine was made by
Vardhan et al. [11]. The results revealed that the sound level linearly increases as the
UCS of rocks increases. Kumar et al. [12] attempted to predict the uniaxial compressive
strength, tensile strength and porosity of sedimentary rocks using sound level produced
during rotary drilling. The prediction mathematical model for each property was
developed using the drilling parameters and equivalent sound level. It was observed
that the sound level produced during drilling was increased as the UCS of rocks
increases and the sound level was decreased as the porosity of rocks increases. The
evaluation of the prediction model concluded that the equations would be useful for the
preliminary stage of mining engineering design projects. Yari and Bagherpour [13, 14]
have conducted the experimental investigation to estimate the geomechanical proper-
ties of igneous rocks as well as sedimentary rocks using the five dominant frequency of
an acoustic signal acquired during rotary drilling. The dominant frequency was
extracted from the time domain acoustic signal using Fast Fourier transformation
(FFT). The results revealed that the fourth dominant frequency is capable of predicting
the UCS and tensile strength with a high coefficient of determination value. The study
on identification of rocks based on acoustic signal parameter gathered while drilling
was made by the Zborovjan et al. [15]. The results revealed that the analysis of the
frequency component of the acoustic signal is useful for identification of rock type and
controlling the rock disintegration process. Lakshminarayana et al. [16] attempted to
predict some physico-mechanical properties of sedimentary rocks using the drilling
parameter and the maximum or sometimes referred as dominant frequency of vibration
induced at spindle head of conventional rotary drilling machine. It was observed that
the vibration frequency at spindle head was increased as the properties of rocks such as
uniaxial compressive strength and tensile strength increases during the drilling. During
drilling, an attempt was made by Rostami et al. [17] to detect the voids in rocks using
the vibration data acquired at the drill head. It was observed that the amplitude of
vibration would be less when the drill bit enters into the porous region of rocks.
In this study, an attempt is made to estimate the UCS of sedimentary rocks using
the machine operating parameters (penetration rate, bit dia, bit speed) and the
354 C. R. Lakshminarayana et al.
mechanical data measured during the rotary drilling such as thrust or weight on the bit
and vibration frequency of machine head. The different amount of thrusts acting on the
bit during drilling was measured by dynamometer and the vibration parameter was
measured using the data acquisition system (DAQ).
2 Experimental Investigation
The experiment was conducted using the sedimentary rock samples such as shale,
sandstone and limestone. The samples were directly collected from the field. The rock
specimens were prepared by cutting off the rock samples into a cubic block of size
15 cm 15 cm 15 cm. While collecting the rock samples, a proper inspection was
carried out for macroscopic defects such as fractures and joints.
Accelerometer
Drilling Dynamometer
During the drilling of different rocks, the amount of thrust acting and torque developed
at the bit-rock interface were measured using the sophisticated drilling dynamometer.
The measuring range of thrust in the dynamometer was 0 ± 5000 N and the measuring
range for the torque was 0 ± 50 N-m. Basically, the dynamometer consists of a
cylinder fitted with steel plates at both ends. The bottom plate can be fixed to t-slots of
machine table using bolt and nut. Similarly, the machine vice used for holding the rock
sample can be fixed directly to the top plate of dynamometer using suitable bolt and
nuts. The analog output from the dynamometer is connected to the digital indicator of
dynamometer which shows the numerical value of thrust and torque.
Measurement of Vibration Frequency of the Machine Head During Drilling
The vibration frequency of the CNC machine head was measured using the
sound/vibration data acquisition system (DAQ). The DAQ system basically consists of
DAQ hardware, IEPE accelerometer and LabVIEW application software. The NI-9234
model DAQ hardware was used for converting the analog signal into a digital type. The
important specification of DAQ hardware is as follows
• Number of the channel - 4
• ADC resolution - 24 bits
• Sampling rate -1.652 Ks/s to 51.2 Ks/s.
• Frequency - 13.1072 MHz
The mounting of an integrated electronic piezo-eclectic (IEPE) accelerometer on
the machine head using the magnetic type mount is shown in Fig. 1. The specification
of IEPE accelerometer as follows.
• Model: YMC121A10 IEPE
• Sensitivity: 9.81 Mv/g
Initially, the accelerometer is fixed on the machine head using the magnetic mount.
The output from the accelerometer is connected to DAQ hardware using the single-
ended BNC connector. The DAQ is a signal conditioning device which converts the
analog signal captured from the accelerometer into a digital signal. The digital signal
coming out from the DAQ hardware is in turn connected to laptop installed with
LabVIEW application software. The application software process the signal and rep-
resenting the vibration data in the time domain as shown in Fig. 2. The maximum
vibration frequency (Z) or dominant frequency is usually meant the one that carries
more energy with respect to all the other frequencies in the considered spectrum. The
example of dominant frequency at which the machine head (Z = 327 Hz) was vibrating
for a particular operating parameter during the drilling of shale is shown in Fig. 3. The
extraction of frequency data from the time domain vibration signal was achieved using
the Fast Fourier transformation (FFT) graphical program in LabVIEW application
software.
356 C. R. Lakshminarayana et al.
3 Methodology
In the current experiment, a total of 192 data (6 rock types 32 test conditions) of
each measured parameters i.e., thrust and vibration frequency is acquired during the
rotary drilling. For developing the multiple regression models, the thrust and vibration
frequency is used along with the machine operational parameters. The maximum and
minimum values of measured variables which are selected from the 32 data set of each
rock sample are summarized in Table 1. During the drilling process, the variation in
thrust and vibration frequency is affected by so many factors in a complex way.
Therefore, a detailed process is defined by second-order multiple regression models.
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out in order to know which variable is
significantly influencing the response. The considered responses are UCS and BTS.
The machine operational parameters are identified as drill bit diameter (D) in mm, drill
bit speed(S) in r.p.m and penetration rate (PR) in mm/min. Similarly, the measured
variables which are varying due to machine operational parameters and rock properties
are thrust (T) in Newton and vibration frequency (Z) in Hertz.
Table 1. Mechanical rock properties and range of measured variables during drilling
Rock sample UCS (Mpa) BTS (Mpa) Thrust (N) Vibration
frequency (Hz)
min max min max
Shale 19.6 2.3 315 635 327 626
Sandstone-1 37.5 3.4 397 802 330 629
Sandstone-2 63.8 4.1 495 1009 337 642
Limestone-1 93.1 7.5 567 1130 340 656
Limestone-2 119 8.1 617 1207 342 667
Limestone-3 142.6 10.2 672 1315 345 669
The variations of selected measured variables (thrust and vibration frequency) are
the function of machine operating parameters and mechanical properties of rocks. The
mathematical model for establishing the relationship between rock properties and
considered variables can be written as y = f (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) + w where y is the
response and x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 are the machine operational parameter and measured
variables, and w is fitting error. In general, the second order model can be represented
as follows
358 C. R. Lakshminarayana et al.
Xn Xn Xn
f ¼ ao þ ax þ
i¼1 i i
a x2 þ
i¼1 ij i i\j
aij xi xj þ w ð1Þ
where, ai represents the linear effect of xi , aij represents the quadratic effect of xi , and aij
in fourth term represents the interaction effect produced due to the linear interaction of
xi and xj . In developing the multiple regression models, the backward elimination
method was used as a screening technique. In ANOVA table, if absolute t value of an
independent variable was not greater than the tabulated t value at 95% confidence level,
then that particular independent variable was removed and the multiple regression
procedure was continued using the remaining independent variables. The procedure is
repeated until the remaining independent variables could not be removed from the
model and that corresponding generated regression model was selected.
The Eq. (2) represents the best second-order multiple regression model developed
for prediction of UCS. From Table 2 it was concluded that the developed model
explains 93.60% of the total variation in the observed UCS. The significance of
regression coefficients are illustrated in Table 3. In this, the value of p for all the terms
are statistically significant at p < 0.05 for 95% confidence level and also the calculated
absolute t values are much higher than the tabulated t values (for 95% confidence level
and 9 degrees of freedom, for k = n − 1, t = 1.860). It is therefore concluded that all
the terms generated in the selected regression model are significantly influencing the
UCS. The influence of linear, square and interaction terms of the regression model is
explained in ANOVA Table 4. The linear terms are significantly influencing the UCS.
The calculated F value is sufficiently greater than the tabulated F value of 3.36 to
explain the adequacy of the developed model. Figure 4 indicates the comparison of the
UCS of rocks measured in the laboratory and the UCS predicted using the prediction
model. The predicted values are very close to the measured values. So that it is
concluded that the developed models are highly efficient.
varðm pÞ
VAF ¼ 1 100 ð3Þ
varðmÞ
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u N
u1 X
RMSE ¼ t ðm pÞ2 ð4Þ
N i¼1
N
1X ðm pÞ
MAPE ¼ 100 ð5Þ
N i¼1 m
In Eqs. (3)–(5), ‘m’ and ‘p’ are representing the UCS measured in the laboratory
and the UCS obtained using the predictive model respectively. Similarly, the N rep-
resents the number of data used. The model would predict the response with zero errors
if the VAF and RMSE values are 100 and 0 respectively. The MAPE indicates the
absolute percentage error or accuracy of the model in terms of percentage. The values
of VAF, RMSE, and MAPE for the developed models are tabulated in Table 5.
5 Conclusions
In this experimental investigation, the machine operating parameters along with the
measured variables such as thrust developed at bit-rock interface and vibration fre-
quency induced at machine head during the rotary drilling were used to predict some of
the mechanical properties of sedimentary rocks. For rock drilling, the CNC vertical
milling centre with different penetration rate, speed and drill bit diameter was used as
the machine operational parameters. The thrust and vibration frequency was measured
for all machine operating conditions and the same was used for developing the pre-
diction models.
• It was observed that the thrust developed at the bit-rock interface was significantly
increased as the UCS of rocks increases during the drilling.
• The vibration frequency was moderately changed as UCS of rocks increased.
• The evaluation of the prediction performance of the developed model indicated that
the predictive models are well efficient to predict the UCS of sedimentary rocks
with an acceptable level error.
• Therefore, it was concluded that the suggested approach can be successfully used
for preliminary investigation of UCS which is often used as a primary data for the
design of mining and civil engineering projects.
Quantification of Rock Strength Using the Mechanical Drilling Parameters 361
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Evaluation of Whole Body Vibration of Heavy
Earth Moving Machinery Operators
1 Introduction
Mechanical oscillation produced by the machinery, when enters the human body
through supporting surface either through lower pelvic bones during sitting posture or
through the feet when in standing posture is known as Whole Body Vibration (WBV).
Professional drivers and industrial vehicle operators are prone to health risk due to
exposure to whole body vibration [1]. Occupational exposure to vibration has a well-
established impact on health [2, 3]. It also has an impact on the operator’s performance
and comfort [4]. During the execution of daily tasks in surface mines, a wide range of
machineries are used, which imparts WBV risk to their operators [5–7]. Workers
exposed to WBV are susceptible to the high prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders
(MSDs). The parts of the body most affected by the vibration depend on direction,
duration, frequency and magnitude of vibration, and also body posture of the person.
Epidemiological studies revealed that long-term exposure to vibration causes health
problems, like lumbar spine degeneration, aggravation of lower back pain etc. [8].
The WBV has accounted for sick leave, loss of working hours, disability and chronic
pain among workers [9].
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 362–373, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_45
Evaluation of Whole Body Vibration of Heavy Earth Moving Machinery Operators 363
Table 1. Machinery considered for the study from Mine I and Mine II
S. no Mine Machinery* Make Model Capacity
1 I Dragline BEML BHEEM 30.6 m3
2A I Shovel TATA-HITACHI EX-1200 5 m3
2B I Shovel KOMATSU PC-2000-8 12 m3
2C II Shovel TATA-HITACHI EX 1200-V 5.5 m3
2D II Shovel KOMATSU PC-2008 12.5 m3
3A I Front End Loader1 L&T 1920 LT-09 4.6 m3
3B II Front End Loader2 Tata 3036 T-18 2.1 m3
4A I Drill 1 ATLAS COPCO DM-37 150 mm
(continued)
364 J. S. Kumar et al.
Table 1. (continued)
S. no Mine Machinery* Make Model Capacity
4B I Drill2 REL DM-22 250 mm
4C II Drill3 REL DM-28 150 mm
5 I Crane Escort ACE FX120 12 ton
6 II Spreader KRUPP FORDER TECHNIK GMBH 813 ton
7A I Grader1 BEML MG-11 16 ft blade
7B II Grader2 BEML MG-15 16 ft blade
7C II Grader3 Volvo MG-19 16 ft blade
8A I Water Sprinkler1 BEML WT-20 28 KL
8B II Water Sprinkler2 BEML WT-24 28 KL
*The present study includes seventeen types of machinery with varies make models and capacity.
2.2 Methodology
As per ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines the readings were taken by placing the
accelerometer on the operator’s seat-surface as well as at the seat-back, as shown in
Fig. 1. Care was taken to confirm that seat pad triaxial accelerometer is firmly fixed to
the operator’s seat-surface and seat-back during the entire measurement process. The
readings were recorded at each position (i.e. seat-surface and seat-back) for 15 min for
all the machinery under consideration.
3 Vibration Standards
As given in sub-clause 5.1 of ISO 2631-1 (1997) standards, the intensity of vibration is
measured considering three orthogonal axes with respect to acceleration values (i.e. in
m/s2). In the event of the absence of shock wave, frequency weighted acceleration
(The r.m.s vibration magnitude represents the average acceleration over a measurement
period) is applied to quantify acceleration intensity, which is given by Eq. (1).
Z T 1=2
aw ¼ 1=T a2w ðtÞdt ð1Þ
0
The threshold values set for risk assessment based on ISO 2631-1:1997 and EU
Directive 2002 standards are summarized in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Table 2. Summarized RMS and VDV threshold values for WBV health risk assessment based
on ISO 2631-1:1997
Parameter Threshold vibration value (HGCZ)*
RMS (m/s2) <0.5 Moderate
0.5–0.8 Caution zone
>0.8 Severe zone (likely risk)
VDV (m/s1.75) <8.5 Moderate
8.5–17 Caution zone
>17 Severe zone (likely risk)
*Health Guidance Caution Zone
Table 3. Summarized EAV and ELV threshold values for WBV health risk assessment based
on the EU 2002 directive
Parameter RMS (m/s2) VDV (m/s1.75)
EAV* 0.5 9.1
ELV* 1.15 21
*EAV (Exposure Action Value)
*ELV (Exposure limit Value)
Three vibration measurement parameters, such as RMS, VDV and CRF for seventeen
types of machinery (i.e. dragline-1nos., shovel-4nos., front end loader-2nos., drill-
3nos., spreader-1nos., crane-1nos., grader-3nos., water sprinkler-2nos.) were recorded
by placing the accelerometer on the seat-surface as well as at the seat-back of the
operators. Tables 4 and 5 indicate the WBV data w.r.t x-axis (i.e. fore-aft direction), y-
axis (i.e. lateral direction) and z-axis (i.e. vertical direction) for seat-surface and seat-
back measurements, respectively.
Table 4. (continued)
a 2
S. no RMS (m/s )* VDV (m/s1.75)** CRF***
Fore-aft Lateral Vertical Fore-aft Lateral Vertical Fore-aft Lateral Vertical
2D 0.27 0.36 0.61 2.40 2.86 4.47 9.79 7.23 7.77
3A 0.82 0.47 0.36 5.30 3.02 2.39 5.41 5.94 6.97
3B 0.35 0.68 0.92 3.99 4.86 7.95 16.22 7.19 14.27
4A 0.43 0.42 0.96 2.32 2.21 5.48 4.31 4.42 6.14
4B 0.61 0.45 1.09 2.88 2.37 5.32 4.60 6.59 4.91
4C 0.48 0.48 0.8 2.98 2.92 5.24 5.30 5.27 6.36
5 0.29 0.33 0.19 1.62 1.88 1.10 3.77 4.04 5.00
6 0.29 0.26 0.56 2.30 2.04 4.88 6.98 7.35 10.17
7A 0.48 0.47 0.92 3.71 4.75 7.61 8.07 10.91 10.32
7B 0.49 0.62 0.64 6.47 6.65 5.92 31.51 24.41 21.93
7C 0.51 0.47 0.76 5.20 4.68 6.58 15.28 9.18 8.38
8A 0.34 0.41 0.76 2.22 3.17 4.81 13.12 14.74 9.77
8B 0.02 0.58 1.00 0.02 3.94 7.49 37.03 5.22 9.32
*RMS (Root Mean Square Measured in m/s2)
**VDV (Vibration Dose Value measured in m/s1.75)
***CRF (Crest Factor)
a
Machineries are designated with different set of Serial numbers for simplified representation.
respectively. Likewise, among four shovels, only one shovel (i.e. shovel–2B) of 12 m3
capacity depicted an RMS value of 0.64 m/s2. Despite the high crest factor 22.00 of
grader–7B, its VDV is below the moderate zone as per ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines.
Though many types of equipment surpass EAV, their ELV value is within the
prescribed limit as per EU 2002 Directive.
Measurements in the Y-direction revealed the highest RMS value for grader–7B
with 0.78 m/s2. As indicated in Table 5, in total eight machineries were crossing
moderate zone (i.e. RMS of 0.5 m/s2) and falling in caution zone, as per ISO2631-
1:1997 guidelines. However, there was no indication of a moderate zone based on
VDV measured in the lateral direction. Further, the ELV of all the machinery were
within the safe limit of 1.15 m/s2, as per EU 2002 Directive.
A close look at Tables 4 and 5 reveals that the VDV of four machineries (front end
loader-3B, grader-7A, grader-7B, and grader-7C) w.r.t. Z-direction was found to be in
caution zone, whereas no machinery has shown any indication of VDV in caution zone
as far as seat-surface measurements are concerned. The RMS of four machineries was
in the severe zone and that of six machineries in caution zone. The highest RMS value
in the vertical direction was evinced by the grader–7A with 1.40 m/s2. Among all the
machinery under consideration, ten were found exceeding EAV, out of which grader-
7A exceeded ELV as per EU 2002 directive.
For ready reference, a critical review of Tables 4 and 5 was done to highlight the
dominant axis of vibration based on ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines for all the machinery
and also its associated health risk as per EU Directive 2002. Table 6 indicates the
dominant axis of vibration and health risk based on ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines and
Table 7 gives health risk prediction based on the EU 2002 Directive, for both seat-back
and seat-surface measurements.
Table 6. Dominant axis of vibration and health risk prediction for different types of machinery
based on ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines when measured at operator’s seat-surface and seat-back.
S. RMS measurement VDV measurement RMS measurement VDV measurement
noa at seat-surface at seat-surface at seat-back at seat-back
Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ
axis axis axis axis
1 Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate
2A Z Caution Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate
2B Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Caution Z Moderate
2C Z Severe Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate
2D Z Caution Z Moderate Z Caution Z Moderate
3A X Severe X Moderate Y Caution Y Moderate
3B Z Severe Z Moderate Z Severe Z Caution
4A Z Severe Z Moderate Z Caution Z Moderate
4B Z Severe Z Moderate Z Severe Z Moderate
4C Z Severe Z Moderate Z Severe Z Moderate
(continued)
370 J. S. Kumar et al.
Table 6. (continued)
S. RMS measurement VDV measurement RMS measurement VDV measurement
noa at seat-surface at seat-surface at seat-back at seat-back
Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ
axis axis axis axis
5 Y Moderate Y Moderate Y Moderate Y Moderate
6 Z Caution Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate
7A Z Severe Z Moderate Z Severe Z Caution
7B Z Caution Y Moderate Z Caution Z Caution
7C Z Caution Z Moderate X Caution Z Caution
8A Z Caution Z Moderate X Severe X Moderate
8B Z Severe Z Moderate Y Caution Y Moderate
a
Machineries are designated different set of Serial numbers for simplified representation.
Table 7. Health risk prediction for different types of machinery based on EU 2002 Directive
guidelines w.r.t operator’s seat-surface and seat-back measurements.
S. no Type of machinery For seat-surface For seat-back
measurement measurement
Based on Based on Based on Based on
RMS VDV RMS VDV
EAV ELV EAV ELV EAV ELV EAV ELV
1 Dragline XX* XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
3 p
2A Shovel1 (Tata-Hitachi) 5 m XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
p
2B Shovel2 (Komatsu) 12 m3 XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
p
2C Shovel3 (Tata-Hitachi) 5.5 m3 XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
3 p p
2D Shovel4 (Komatsu) 12.5 m XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p p
3A Front End Loader1 (L&T 1920) XX XX XX XX XX
p p
3B Front End Loader2 (Tata 3036) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p
4A Drill 1 (Atlas Copco DM-37) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p
4B Drill 2 (REL DM-22) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p
4C Drill 3 (REL DM-28) XX XX XX XX XX XX
5 Spreader XX XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
p
6 Crane (12 ton ACE FX120) XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p p p
7A Grader1 (BEML) XX XX XX XX
p p
7B Grader2 (BEML) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p p
7C Grader3 (Volvo) XX XX XX XX XX
p p
8A Water Sprinkler1 (BEML) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p
8B Water Sprinkler2 (BEML) XX XX XX XX XX XX
*XX refers to not exceeded
p
** refers to exceeded
Evaluation of Whole Body Vibration of Heavy Earth Moving Machinery Operators 371
5 Conclusions
The whole body vibration of heavy earth moving machinery operators in Indian surface
mines were measured with regard to seat-surface and seat-back using a triaxial
accelerometer. The obtained results were evaluated based on guidelines as stipulated by
ISO2631-1:1997 and EU 2002 Directive. The following conclusions were drawn from
the analysis of collected WBV data:
1. The RMS of twelve machineries under study were exceeded EAV with respect to
seat-back measurements, whereas for seat-surface measurement it was exceeded for
fourteen machineries. From this comparison it is evident that seat-surface vibration
is more prominent than that of seat-back vibration.
2. Among all the machinery under consideration, the measured vibration for a grader
operator with regard to seat-back was exceeding ELV. Hence, there should be
prompt health surveillance especially for grader operators.
3. The WBV of machinery operators demonstrates that nine (as per Table 6)
machineries were in the severe zone as per their RMS values; hence these
machinery needs suitable mitigation intervention.
4. Crest factors were found to exceed a value of 9 in 44 cases out of 102 measure-
ments, which constitutes 43.13%. This indicates noticeable shock magnitudes
during the measurement period.
5. In spite of the high crest factor, VDV of water sprinkler is within the safe limits.
This is mainly because this unit is not directly involved in any mining operations,
such as loading, excavation, transportation etc.
6. For both seat-surface and seat-back measurements, Z-axis (i.e. vertical direction)
was found to be a prominent axis for most of the HEMM.
The mine management can adapt the following few recommendations/guidelines to
minimize the industrial exposure to vibration, as addressed in this study.
1. Since the dominant axis of the vibration for most of the equipment under consid-
eration is in Z-axis, it is suggested to use pneumatic suspension seats, which can
attenuate the vibration in the vertical direction.
2. Since the dragline and spreader operators are exposed to low vibration levels, these
operators can be put to work for longer hours.
3. It is recommended to maintain good work conditions, such as smooth terrain
especially for loaders in surface mines.
4. Implementation of the participatory ergonomics can boost the safety compliances of
the workers which enhances productivity and also the quality of their life.
5. Mechanized mines should strictly comply with the regular vibration monitoring
scheme as per DGMS guidelines.
6. By inducting Multi Skilled Operator System the overall exposure to vibration of an
individual operator would be minimized.
372 J. S. Kumar et al.
1. There should be a spurt in the sample size of the machinery tested to decrease
sampling error.
2. The measurements taken in this study were not included in all seasons of the year.
References
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whole-body vibration exposure of agricultural tractor with the large square baler. Int J Ind
Ergon 47:79–83
2. Harris MA, Cripton PA, Teschke K (2012) Retrospective assessment of occupational
exposure to whole-body vibration for a case-control study. J Occup Environ Hygiene 9
(6):371–380
3. Paschold HW, Sergeev AV (2009) Whole-body vibration knowledge survey of US
occupational safety and health professionals. J Saf Res 40(3):171–176
4. Newell GS, Mansfield NJ (2008) Evaluation of reaction time performance and subjective
workload during whole-body vibration exposure while seated in upright and twisted postures
with and without armrests. Int J Ind Ergon 38(5–6):499–508
5. Eger T, Salmoni A, Cann A, Jack R (2006) Whole-body vibration exposure experienced by
mining equipment operators. Occup Ergon 6(3, 4):121–127
6. Eger T, Stevenson J, Boileau PÉ, Salmoni A (2008) Predictions of health risks associated
with the operation of load-haul-dump mining vehicles: part 1—analysis of whole-body
vibration exposure using ISO 2631-1 and ISO-2631-5 standards. Int J Ind Ergon 38(9–
10):726–738
7. Smets MP, Eger TR, Grenier SG (2010) Whole-body vibration experienced by haulage truck
operators in surface mining operations: a comparison of various analysis methods utilized in
the prediction of health risks. Appl Ergon 41(6):763–770
8. Bovenzi M, Hulshof CTJ (1999) An updated review of epidemiologic studies on the
relationship between exposure to whole-body vibration and low back pain (1986–1997). Int
Arch Occup Environ Health 72(6):351–365
9. Boshuizen HC, Hulshof CT, Bongers PM (1990) Long-term sick leave and disability
pensioning due to back disorders of tractor drivers exposed to whole-body vibration. Int
Arch Occup Environ Health 62(2):117–122
10. Mandal BB, Srivastava AK (2006) Mechanization, vibration, and the Indian workforce.
Asian Pac Newslett Occup Saf Health 13(2):38–40
11. Kaku LC (2004) DGMS classified circulars. Lovely Prakashan, Dhanbad, p 604
12. Directorate General of Mines Safety. Recommendations of 10th National Conference on
Safety in Mines (2008). https://www.dgms.net/circulars.html. Accessed 11 Feb 2019
13. Kumar S (2004) Vibration in operating heavy haul trucks in overburden mining. Appl Ergon
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15. International Organization for Standardization, ISO 2631-1:1997 - Mechanical vibration and
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requirements. Geneva, Switzerland (1997)
Evaluation of Whole Body Vibration of Heavy Earth Moving Machinery Operators 373
16. European Union and General Provisions (2002) (Directive 2002/44/EC of the European
Parliament and the Council of 25 June 2002 on the minimum health and safety requirements
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Assessment and Prediction of Specific Energy
Using Rock Brittleness in Rock Cutting
Abstract. In this study, we used picks with point attack angles of 45°, 50°, 55°,
and 65° and 45°, 55°, and 65° attack angles in rock cutting experiments. The
main objective is to estimate specific energy during the cutting process based on
rock brittleness and study the influence of attack angle on specific energy. From
the experimental data, we compared the obtained results using multiple linear
regressions and ANOVA to predict the specific energy and found that the model
developed were statistically significant. R2 of the brittleness B4 is 0.79 in
comparision with R2 of density, UCS, BTS and abrasivity as 0.74, 0.83, 0.84
and 0.73. Specific energy not only be predicted from density, UCS, BTS,
abrasivity, it can also be predicted using rock brittleness.
1 Introduction
Many researchers have studied the brittleness and its effects on the cutting efficiency of
picks in rock cutting mechanisms. In fact, there is no globally accepted concept of
brittleness to measure cutting efficiency and the brittleness and its effect has not been
completely enlightened on rock cutting. Thus, the objective of these findings is to
establish relationships between rock properties with specific energy (SE) and brittle-
ness. Also, investigated the different brittleness significance and techniques for rock
cutting efficiency.
The researcher studied the mechanics of rock cutting whereas the rock and coal
brittleness’ effect on cutting pick efficiency has been examined. Brittleness usually
measures a materials relative susceptibility to competing two mechanical responses,
fracture and deformation, and is characterized by a transition from ductile to brittle. The
brittleness concepts we used in this study are given in Eqs. 1, 2 and 3 below.
Equation 1 utilise the ratio of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) rc to the
Brazilian Tensile Strength (BTS) rt to evaluate brittleness of the rock (Figs. 1a and b).
B1 ¼ rc =rt ð1Þ
B2 ¼ rc rt =rc þ rt ð2Þ
Equation 3 evaluate the rC - rT area under the line of graph (Fig. 1b),
B2 ¼ rc xrt =2 ð3Þ
Fig. 1. The graph for the relation between (rc) to (rt) of the rock
In his study, he used information derived from earlier research work and investi-
gated the correlations between SE and rock brittleness. In his study, evaluated
two earlier used brittleness concepts, B1 (the ratio of (rc/rt), and B2 (the ratio of
(rc − rt/rc + rt), and a new concept brittleness named B3 (rcxrt/2). He established
regression analysis to correlate between the concepts of brittleness for rock cutting
efficiency. He investigated that brittleness B3 value was correlated strongly with the SE.
This demonstrates that the brittleness B3 could be used to indicate rock cutting effi-
ciency analysis [1].
The researchers have performed rock cutting with fully instrumented laboratory
drilling tests to determining values of SEcut and SEdrill on five types of rocks. They then
performed regression analyses to get relationships between SEdrill and SEcut with rock
brittleness values B1 (rc/rt), B2 (rc − rt/rc + rt), and B3 (rc * rt/2). Their results
specify strong relationships exists logarithmically, linearly and exponentially between
the B1, B2, and B3 brittleness values and the SEcut value of circular diamond saw
blades, with R2 of 0.98, 0.93, and 0.85, respectively. They could not get a strong
relation between brittleness values of B1 and B3 and picks of diamond impregnated
core and picks of non-core and SEdrill of poly diamond crystalline [2].
The researchers have conducted experiments on natural stone cutting based on rock
properties and operational parameters of block cutters and predicted SE for large
circular saws. They used apparent density, UCS, BTS, bending strength, Shore hard-
ness test, seismic velocity, Schmidt hammer hardness, water absorption at atmospheric
pressure, open porosity, point load strength, depth of cut values and saw blade
diameter, as input parameters to predict SEcut values in their statistical analysis. SEcut
values for Carbonate rock can be predicted using the model developed successfully
with large-diameter circular saws in natural stone processing [3].
The researchers have developed a prediction model for SEcut with circular diamond
saw blades when sawing granite. They investigated how operating parameters and rock
properties influenced SEcut. Statistical analysis were carried out and developed a model
to predict which operating parameters and rock properties had most significantly
influenced on SEcut [4].
The researchers carried out rock cutting experiments with abrasive water jet cutting
(AWJC) and circular sawing (CS) machines on 12 types of rock samples. In their study,
376 V. Raghavan and Ch. S. N. Murthy
rock cutting efficiency was compared with SE values. Their results showed that SE
values of CS were lower than AWJC. With multiple regression equations, they found
the relationship between SE values and rock properties for AWJC system SE
(R2 = 0.95) and CS system SE (R2 = 0.98) which were statistically significant [5].
Artificial neural networks were used in evaluate and predict brittleness in hard rock
using elastic properties of rocks. A predictive model was developed by Earth
Mechanics Institute (EMI), Colorado School of Mines. The model uses density, P and
S wave velocities and elastic properties. The results showed that this model is a
improved method compared with multiple regression techniques and conventional
destructive strength test in predicting rock brittleness. This methodology can be
explored to rock mass problems in both tunnelling and underground mining [6].
Coal and sandstone blocks were collected from M/S The Singreni Colliery Coal Ltd
(SCCL), Ramagundem Area I Telangana, India, and limestone and dolomite blocks
were collected from sites operated by Chaitanya Industries, JK cements, in Mudhapur,
Bagalkot, Karnataka and Anantapur and Cuddapah districts, Andhra Pradesh. Core
samples were prepared and mechanical properties tested were density, UCS, BTS, and
Abrasivity of rocks as per ISRM standards and shown in Table 1.
2.1 Density
The density of rock is determined by taking a graduated cylinder filled half full with
water. Then find out the exact water volume using cylinder scale. Then dip the rock into
the graduated cylinder completely immersed into the water, then note down the level of
the water. Again measure the volume of the cylinder. After that subtract the initial volume
from the final volume in the cylinder to evaluate the volume of rock and divide mass of
the rock by its volume as shown in (Eq. 4) and results of test is shown in Table 1.
Density gm=cm3 ¼ mass of the sample=volume of sample: ð4Þ
200 N/s until the sample failed, and the maximum load at failure (in kN) was recorded.
The specimen’s BTS was calculated by dividing its maximum load at failure to its
original cross-sectional area and the results is shown in Table 1.
2.5 Brittleness
Brittleness is a concept obtained by the UCS and BTS values of rocks tested in this
study. A modified formula was proposed as mentioned in (Eq. 6) to determine brit-
tleness in rock cutting. Brittleness values are shown in Table 1.
Where
rc ¼ UCSðMPaÞ; rt ¼ BTSðMPaÞ
The RCM, shown in Fig. 2, was fabricated to study the influence of cutting parameters
like thrust, torque, and speed on cutting process results. The RCM consists of a firm
base with two protruding parts, one of which has a prime mover (motor) mounted on it.
The cutter head, which consists of a drum with 12 picks mounted on it, is attached to
the shaft by a flange. The sample holder can accommodate a block with dimensions of
0.3 0.3 0.45 m. In laboratory rock cutting, speed and thrust are varied from
225 to 350 rpm and 1.3 to 2.1 kN, respectively. During the cutting process, the cutting
force and torque were measured by a cutting tool dynamometer that is calibrated in the
rock mechanics laboratory. Ten types of rocks were considered for laboratory exper-
iments: like coal, three types of sandstone, four types of limestone, and two types of
dolomite. For each combination of speed and thrust, rock fragments produced during
the cutting process were collected and weighed. This experiment considered attack
angles of 45°, 55°, and 65°, and four pick angles (45°, 50°, 55°, and 65°) were
considered for each attack angle for every pick-rock combination and operational
parameter (i.e., speed and thrust) considered during the investigation. The influence of
wear on the cutting rate and SE were considered, with a wear rate of 5 mm fabricated
and used for all considered pick-rock combinations. Additionally, experiments were
carried out for all speed and thrust combinations used. Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 show the
relationship between SE and rock brittleness in this study.
Fig. 2. (a) Rock cutting machine (b) Line diagram of Rock cutting machine
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
Regression analysis along with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the F-test were
carried out and found that independent variables could be used in establishing the
relationship between SE from the linear equation at a 95% confidence level.
ANOVA results for all the attack angle are shown in Table 3. Based on results,
models like density, UCS, BTS, Abrasivity, and brittleness were predictors and were
statistically significant in terms of linearity. The P-values for all the parameters are less
than 0.05; therefore all the parameters are statically significant at 95% confidence
intervals.
After verifying these regression models through ANOVA to establish whether they
could be used to predict SE reliably, we used Student’s t-tests. We tested the model
components to find the significances of each at a 95% confidence level. Depending on
the (P-values obtained, each of the model components mentioned above could be
established statistically significant or not. All the regression models for all attack angle
verified through ANOVA were understood to have statistically significant (Table 4).
This reveals that, the practicality of these models in predicting SE values [7]. Further,
coefficients of determination (R2) to measure the goodness of the proposed regression
models. R2 is equal to the square of the correlation coefficient between observed and
predicted values.
The two statistical measures calculate values of these for the model are given in
Table 2. According to these values, most of the SE value changes can be successfully
expressed individually by density, UCS, BTS, Abrasivity, and brittleness, in line with
the ANOVA shown in Table 3 and Student’s t-test results shown in Table 4.
5 Conclusions
1. Rock properties such as density, UCS, BTS, Abrasivity and brittleness influence
SE. It was observed that increases in density, UCS, BTS, Abrasivity, and brittleness
correlated with increases in SE. This is because the rock’s resistance to cutting
increases with the increase in the rock’s strength.
2. Regression model results showed that attack angle, pick type, and rock mechanical
properties are the important operating variables affecting the SE.
3. R2 of the brittleness is 0.79 in comparison with R2 of density, UCS, BTS and
abrasivity as 0.74, 0.83, 0.84 and 0.73 respectively.
4. Specific Energy can be efficiently predicted not only with rock properties but also
using rock brittleness.
References
1. Altindag R (2003) Correlation of specific energy with rock brittleness concepts on rock
cutting. J South Afr Inst Min Metall 103(3):163–171
2. Atici U, Ersoy A (2009) Correlation of specific energy of cutting saws and drilling picks with
rock brittleness and destruction energy. J Mater Process Technol 209(5):2602–2612
3. Yurdakul M, Akdas H (2012) Prediction of specific cutting energy for large diameter circular
saws during natural stone cutting. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 53:38–44
4. Aydin G, Karakurt I, Aydiner K (2013) Development of predictive models for the specific
energy of circular diamond saw blades in the sawing of granitic rocks. Rock Mech Rock Eng
46(4):767–783
382 V. Raghavan and Ch. S. N. Murthy
5. Engin IC, Bayram F, Yasitli NE (2013) Experimental and statistical evaluation of cutting
methods in relation to specific energy and rock properties. Rock Mech Rock Eng
46(4):755–766
6. Kaunda RB, Asbury B (2016) Prediction of rock brittleness using nondestructive methods for
hard rock tunnelling. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 8:533–540
7. Tiryaki B, Dikmen AC (2006) Effects of rock properties on specific cutting energy in linear
cutting of sandstones by picks. Rock Mech Rock Eng 39(2):89–120
Numerical Investigation on Factors Affecting
the Performance of Roof Bolts for Continuous
Miner Working
Abstract. Optimum support design of roof bolts based on axial load of the bolt
plays the major role for effective development of coal seam with continuous
miner. Axial load on the roof bolts gives a clear understanding of the behaviour
of roof bolts in different working conditions. Therefore, estimation of axial load
on the bolts is important for supporting the immediate roof, helps in higher
production, productivity and safety. By using the software FLAC 3D, the axial
load for different gallery widths and working depths was estimated. From the
simulation results, it was observed that for shallow depths of 100 and 200 m, the
axial load acting on the bolt is 15% of the bolt capacity at gallery widths of 4 m
and 5 m. Whereas for moderate depths 300 m and 400 m, its value is found to
be 75% at gallery widths 6 m and 7 m. But, for deeper depths of 500 m and
more, its values reaches maximum capacity of roof bolts.
Also, the roof convergence in junction, for moderate and deeper depths is
80 mm to 150 mm, whereas for shallow depths its value is 10–25 mm, at 6 m,
7 m and 8 m gallery widths.
1 Introduction
bolts, these includes the roof bolt type, roof bolt length, roof bolt capacity, and pattern
of bolting for a particular application. The present research contexts on the attributes of
roof bolts including anchorage mechanism, pretension, bolt length, capacity of bolt,
installation timing and quality of installation [4, 7, 8]. Roof bolting design is indeed
mainly based on the experience and its appears that rock bolting design is simply a
business of selecting a rock bolt type. Along with, determination of bolt length and
spacing. A study was carried out in 37 U S Mines the parameters affects the roof bolt
design where roof geology and stress level by numerical modeling and statistical
analysis where carried out to find the significant parameters and some of the prelimi-
nary guidelines have been proposed [7]. According to [6], the selection of roof bolt is
based on the pressure arch theory resulting in the formation of the natural pressure arc
in the rock. If the failure is small, then the roof bolt length should be long enough such
that it reaches the nature pressure arc. It is indeed that, the bolt length should be at least
1 m beyond the failure zone [8]. Parameters of resin bolt, such as gloving and back
pressure, also effect the roof support performance [9]. Though selection of roof bolts is
carried out in various ways the present study focus on behaviour of roof bolts under
different gallery widths and different working depths, resulting to the correlation of
selecting the roof bolts. Numerical modelling finds wide application in solving
geotechnical problems and platform for parametric study, which saves time and money
[10]. The objective of this paper is to study the behaviour of roof bolt considering
different gallery widths and different working depths in development working with
continuous miner.
2 Numerical Simulation
bm ¼ bRMR=100 ð4Þ
Where, r3 is the minor principal stress in MPa, r1 is the major principal stress in
MPa, rC is the intact rock Compressive strength, MPa, rt is the intact rock Tensile
strength, MPa, b is the Exponent of intact rock which controls the curvature of the
triaxial curve. rCm is the Compressive strength of rock mass, MPa, rtm is the Tensile
strength of rock mass, MPa, RMR is the Bieniawski (1976) Rock Mass Rating and bm
is the Exponent for rock mass corresponding to the intact rock constant lesser than
0.95.
The rock mass shear strength ssm the coefficient l0m and the angle of internal
friction ;0m are obtained as
386 K. M. Tejeswaran et al.
1=2
bbmm
ssm ¼ rCm rtm 1 þ bm ð5Þ
ð 1 þ bm Þ
s2sm ð1 þ bm Þ2 r2tm
l0m ¼ ð6Þ
2ssm rtm ð1 þ bm Þ
It is observed that the values of shear strength and friction angle determining from
the above equations should be done slightly adjustment. This slight adjustment is
required to incorporate the fact that the Mohr-Coulomb strain softening plasticity
model in FLAC3D uses the linear Mohr-Coloumb criterion, where as the Sheorey
criterion is nonlinear in Table 2. To compensate for the differences, the value of ssm
obtained from the Sheorey criterion is increased by 10% and that of ;0m is reduced by
5° to use them as Mohr-Coloumb parameters, Fig. 2 validate this practice.
Table 2. Change in cohesion, friction angle and dilation angle with shear strain
Shear strain Cohesion (ssm ) (Mpa) Freiction angle (;0m ) (°) Dilation angle (u) (°)
0 1.1 −5 15
0.005 1.1/5 −7.5 5
0.050 0 −10 0
0.500 0 −10 0
In addition to the peak friction angle and cohesion, the Mohr-Coulomb strain
softening model also requires to describe the parameters that the rate of cohesion and
friction drop as a function of plastic strain in the post-peak region.
Numerical Investigation on Factors Affecting the Performance of Roof Bolts 387
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram showing the linear Mohr-Coulomb criterion adopted from the non-
linear Sheorey criterion in FLAC3D.
In-situ stresses
Both vertical and horizontal in-situ stresses play an major role during the performance
evaluation of roof bolts through numerical modelling. For this study, it is necessary to
estimate the in-situ stresses with in the coal seam as exists in the field. The vertical
stress and horizontal stress can be determined using the following formulas:
rv ¼ 0:025H ð8Þ
where, rv is the vertical stress in MPa, rh is the horizontal stress in MPa, and H is the
depth of working in m.
In this simulation study, the value of in-situ stresses is calculated using Eq. 8 and 9.
The values of both minor and major horizontal stresses were taken the same.
Table 3. Grouting properties and Rock bolt properties used in the FLAC3D software.
Cross- Young’s Tensile Bond Bond Pre-tension
sectional modulus yield stiffness, cohesive in N
area (sq.m) (Pascal) strength (N/m/m) strength,
(Newton) (N/m)
3.80 10−4 20.60 1010 27.0 104 2.00 109 2.5 105 2.94 104
Figure 5 shows the comparison of model results with field measured data. The
maximum load developed in the bolt after final stage of development is plotted along
with the maximum axial load obtained from the model after reaching equilibrium. Both
field data and model data almost matches each other that the model is validated.
Fig. 6. Axial load for 100 m depth vers different gallery widths
Fig. 7. Axial load for 200 m depth vers different gallery widths
Fig. 8. Axial load for 300 m depth vers different gallery widths
Fig. 9. Axial load for 400 m depth vers different gallery widths
Numerical Investigation on Factors Affecting the Performance of Roof Bolts 391
Fig. 10. Axial load for 500 m depth vers different gallery widths
bolt length for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m and 8 m gallery widths the maximum axial load is
observed from numerical modelling at junction is 4.3, 6.31, 7.81, 10.48 and 18.9 tons
respectively as the gallery width increases the axial load in the bolt increases.
Figure 9 shows the graphs plotted for 400 m depth working for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m
and 8 m gallery widths. The maximum axial load is observed at the middle of the bolt
length for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m and 8 m gallery widths the maximum axial load is
observed from numerical modelling at junction is 5.9, 9.29, 13.48, 19.19 and 27 tons
respectively as the gallery width increases the axial load in the bolt increases.
Figure 10 shows the graphs plotted for 500 m depth working for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m,
7 m and 8 m gallery widths. The maximum axial load is observed at the middle of the
bolt length for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m and 8 m gallery widths the maximum axial load is
observed from numerical modelling at junction is 7.6, 13.7, 14.4, 27 and 27 tons
respectively as the gallery width increases the axial load in the bolt increases.
3.2 Influence of Working Gallery Width and Working Depth for 4 Row
Bolt on Roof Convergence
Figure 11 shows the convergence plot for different gallery widths observed at junction
using FLAC 3D from the graph it is observed that, as depth increases the convergences
also increases.
For working depth of 100 m, the minimum convergence is 4.3 mm, which is in
4 m gallery width, and the maximum convergence is 12 mm, which is in 8 m gallery
width. For working depth of 200 m, the minimum convergence is 8.8 mm, which is in
4 m gallery width, and the maximum convergence is 26.3 mm, which is in 8 m gallery
width. For working depth of 300 m, the minimum convergence is 15 mm, which is in
4 m gallery width, and the maximum convergence is 47.6 mm, which is in 8 m gallery
width. For working depth of 400 m, the minimum convergence is 23.3 mm, which is in
4 m gallery width, and the maximum convergence is 79.4 mm, which is in 8 m gallery
width. For working depth of 500 m, the minimum convergence is 33.81 mm, which is
in 4 m gallery width, and the maximum convergence is 150 mm, which is in 8 m
gallery width.
4 Conclusions
In this paper, the effect of gallery width and working depth on bolt axial load is studied.
The observations found are as described below:
1. With increase in gallery width, the axial load on the bolt is increases. For wide
gallery widths of 6 m, 7 m and 8 m, the axial load developed in the bolt is more
compared to the smaller gallery widths of 4 m and 5 m.
2. With shallow depths of 100 and 200 m, the axial load acting on the bolt is 15% of
the bolt capacity at gallery widths of 4 m and 5 m. Whereas for moderate depths
300 m and 400 m, its value is found to be 75% at gallery widths 6 m and 7 m. But,
for deeper depths of 500 m and more, its values reaches maximum capacity of roof
bolts.
3. The roof convergence in junction, for moderate and deeper depths is 80 mm to
150 mm, whereas for shallow depths its value is 10–25 mm, at 6 m, 7 m and 8 m
gallery widths.
4. For the wide gallery widths working (6 m, 7 m and 8 m) and for higher working
depth (300 m, 400 m and 500 m), the axial load in the bolt reaches maximum and
roof supports fail.
5. In order to ensure the safety of roof supports the amount of convergence must be on
lower side from the Fig. 11 it can be observed that minimum convergence is
4.3 mm in 4 m gallery for 100 m working depth for 4 bolts row bolting.
6. If the depth of working is greater than 300 m and gallery width more than 7 m with
4 row bolting, the axial load on the bolt reaches maximum bearing capacity and bolt
fails.
Acknowledgement. The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad for his
kind permission to carry out this study at CSIR-CIMFR Dhanbad. Authors also thankful to Dr. P.
K. Mandal senior principal scientist and Mr. Arka Jyoti Das, scientist for the valuable sugges-
tions and help.
Numerical Investigation on Factors Affecting the Performance of Roof Bolts 393
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of roof convergence during driving roadways in underground coal mines by continuous
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Modelling of Biogas Fueled HCCI Engine
for Various Inlet Conditions
1 Introduction
The transportation division has seen an expanding need to create more productive and
environment friendly engine. This is to reduce the regulated allowable limits for pol-
lutants emission originating from internal combustion engines (ICE) and instable oil
costs. IC Engines have a great significance in recent times and have numerous appli-
cations in our society. Much exertion has been put into enhancing and refining engines
throughout the years. Starting late, much intrigue has been put into low temperature
combustion (LTC) engines, which can possibly decrease emissions related with tra-
ditional ICEs while keeping up their high efficiencies [1]. Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion engines are viewed as LTC system. The fuel
and air are premixed to form a homogeneous blend before the compression stroke in
HCCI engines [2]. Therefore, the blend ignites throughout the mass without discernible
fire engendering because of auto ignition at different areas in the burning chamber
(multi-point ignition). This may give rise to a high rates of heat discharge and thus,
high rates of pressurization. In HCCI engines, auto-ignition and burning rates are
fundamentally controlled by the fuel compound energy or in other words to the charge
synthesis and to the pressure and temperature development amid the compression
stroke along these lines HCCI ignition is generally thought to be dynamically
controlled [3]. The primary goal of HCCI combustion engines is to lessen the residue
and NOx emissions while maintaining high eco-friendliness [4]. In aspects, HCCI
combustion combines engines the benefits of both spark ignition (SI) engines as well as
compression ignition (CI) engines [5]. The outcomes from analysis and recreation
demonstrate that the HCCI ignition has a low temperature heat discharge and a high
temperature heat discharge and both heat discharges happen inside certain temperature
ranges [3]. The low temperature heat discharge is a standout amongst the most vital
elements for HCCI engine activity and its processes depends synthetically on the fuel
composition [3]. Such a system faces improvement challenges. Ignition timing isn’t
directed by an exact ignition controlling occasion, such as fuel infusion or spark plug. It
is rather a very delicate capacity of the fuel’s auto-ignition properties, the gas blend
synthesis and thermodynamic conditions in the burning chamber [6]. The beginning of
ignition and the resulting heat discharge becomes challenging to anticipate and control.
2 Literature Review
3 Model Formulation
The closed part of the operating cycle of a four-stroke biogas fuelled HCCI engine is
modelled in this work. A single zone model based on the Otto cycle is chosen because
of the near homogeneity of the working fluid before and after combustion and rapid
energy release rate resulting in almost instantaneous combustion. Details of the engine
studied here are given in Table 1. Biogas is modelled as a mixture of methane and CO2.
The effect of methane enrichment is described by the parameter methane fraction (x),
which indicates the fraction of methane by volume in biogas. The range of methane
fraction (x) = 0.5 (raw biogas) to methane fraction (x) = 1 (pure methane) is used in
this study. Equivalence ratio varies from very lean (U = 0.4) to stoichiometric
(U = 0.6).
Instantaneous piston stroke (s) and displacement volume (V) are expressed as
functions of crank angle (h) using the slider-crank relationships [22].
pB2
V ¼ VC þ ðl þ a sÞ ð1Þ
4
1=2
s ¼ a cos h þ l2 þ a2 sin2 h ð2Þ
Where ‘Vc’ is clearance volume and the crank radius is represented by ‘a’ = L/2.
Modelling of Biogas Fueled HCCI Engine for Various Inlet Conditions 397
where ‘n’ is the number of moles of the reactant mixture and ‘Ru’ is the universal gas
constant. The terms on the RHS can be calculated from the values at the previous crank
angle and the equations can be solved to obtain pi and Ti. The effective specific heat
‘cv’ is estimated as the molar average value considering all species at a particular
temperature.
The energy release during combustion is expressed as:
where ‘nCH4’ is the number of moles of methane and LCV is the lower calorific value
(800000 J/mol).
The resultant product temperature is evaluated from energy balance:
Qin
Tp ¼ Tr þ ð7Þ
np c v p
398 N. Mishra et al.
where subscripts ‘p’ and ‘r’ denote products and reactants respectively. An iterative
procedure has to be used, as the value of cv,p depends on Tp.
The pressure after combustion is obtained from the ideal gas equation.
np Ru Tp
Pp ¼ ð8Þ
Vtdc
The pressures and temperatures during the subsequent expansion are solved in a
manner identical to that of the compression process, as described by Eqs. (4) and (5)
except for the fact that ‘n’ represents the number of product moles.
The model calculations are performed using a MATLAB program which gives the
indicated thermal efficiency and indicator (p-V) diagram as the outputs. The program
can also be used to evaluate the parametric variations of the outputs while varying
methane fraction, compression ratio and equivalence ratio. Table 2 shows various
intake condition taken in this study.
4 Validation
The single zone model is validated with the experimental data and the result is shown
in Fig. 1. The model shows good agreement with the experimental data. The single
cylinder CI engine (AV1XL, 1900 rpm) is used for the experimental purpose. Biogas is
used as primary fuel and DEE is used as secondary fuel. Biogas is induced via manifold
and DEE is injected through manifold during suction stroke. Pressure sensor, charge
amplifier, DAQ system and angle encoder are used to take pressure readings. Finally,
pressure reading of experimental data is compared with the data obtained from the
modelling. Inlet conditions of modelling and experiments are same (Intake conditions:
methane fraction = 1, equivalence ratio = 0.6, intake temperature = 308 K, DEE
fraction = 0.5, combustion ratio = 17). A variation of 4%–8% differences is noticed
between modelling and experimental data.
Modelling of Biogas Fueled HCCI Engine for Various Inlet Conditions 399
Fig. 2. Effect of (a) Intake temp, (b) Equivalence ratio), (c) DEE energy, (d) Compression ratio
on Max cylinder pressure
400 N. Mishra et al.
Fig. 3. Effect of (a) Intake temp, (b) Equivalence ratio, (c) DEE energy, (d) Compression ratio
on In-cylinder temperature
Modelling of Biogas Fueled HCCI Engine for Various Inlet Conditions 401
Figure 3(b) depicts the variation of in-cylinder temperature with methane fraction for
various equivalence ratio. Increase in equivalence ratio increases the in-cylinder tem-
perature due to higher fuel content. This leads to an increase in in-cylinder temperature
at low values of methane fraction for high equivalence ratio. Figure 3(c) depicts the
variation of in-cylinder temperature with respect to methane fraction for various DEE
energy fractions. At high DEE fraction, in-cylinder temperature increases due to
reduction in biogas intake. Figure 3(d) depicts the variation of temperature with respect
to methane fraction for various compression ratio. On increasing the compression ratio,
the in- cylinder temperature increases due to increase in In-cylinder pressure.
Fig. 4. Effect of (a) Intake temp, (b) Equivalence ratio, (c) DEE energy, (d) Compression ratio
on Indicated Thermal Efficiency.
402 N. Mishra et al.
6 Conclusion
This study shows the effect of intake temperature, equivalence ratio, DEE energy
fraction and compression ratio with methane fraction on maximum cylinder pressure,
in-cylinder temperature and indicated thermal efficiency. A generalised trend is
obtained that on increasing intake temperature, maximum cylinder pressure decreases
as work done is less, but in-cylinder temperature and indicated thermal efficiency
increases. Also, on increasing equivalence ratio, maximum cylinder pressure, in-
cylinder temperature and indicated thermal efficiency increases. As DEE energy frac-
tion increases, maximum cylinder pressure, in-cylinder temperature and indicated
thermal efficiency increases. Finally, on increasing Compression ratio, maximum
cylinder pressure, in-cylinder temperature and equivalence ration increases.
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Studies on Pitting Corrosion of Pulsed
Electrodeposited Nanocomposite Coating
1 Introduction
Mild steel is inexpensive and widely used in several engineering applications such as
naval ship building and automobile industries. It is extremely vulnerable to corrosion
due to its high chemical reactivity [1–3]. Pure Nickel and nickel alloy based inert metal
matrix nanocomposite coatings have been used as protective and functional coatings in
several applications for automotive and aerospace industries due to their beneficial
mechanical and chemical properties [4–10]. In order to improve the utilizable prop-
erties and uniform particle distribution of nickel layers formed with pulsed current
electrodeposition process has its potential applications [11, 12]. Such procedure led to
the production of coating layers with ultrafine composite structure and characterized the
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 404–412, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_49
Studies on Pitting Corrosion of Pulsed Electrodeposited Nanocomposite Coating 405
properties like corrosion resistance [4, 10, 13], micro hardness [10, 14–17]. Modified
wave shapes with considerable wave form variables that increases the peak currents
produces the nucleation growth and generates higher hardness values than with DC
electrodeposition [17]. Conventional rectangular wave form promotes the good quality
of deposition. Sufficient quantities of additives like surfactant CTAB (Cetyltrimethy-
lammonium bromide) added to the electrolyte bath have been strongly used to promote
the codeposition process [18]. Very less research work has been reported with pulsed
current use of triangular waveform [15, 17, 19]. An electrodeposited nickel coating
improves the useful level of hardness and corrosion resistance in industrially utilizing
equipment. Investigations are carried out for mechanical and electrochemical properties
of nickel metal matrix nanocomposite coatings like TiO2 [4, 10], Al2O3 [6, 14], SiC
[15], ZrO2 [20], MoS2 [21]. By mutual influences of ZrO2 and TiO2 films via sol-gel
dip coating process produce high protection efficiency and increase hardness and wear
resistance properties [3, 22]. By consideration of Potentiodynamic polarization results
in Electrodeposited coatings, Ecorr values shifted towards noble values, reduction of
Icorr values yields the high thermal stability, high surface area and strong mechanical
strength [10, 23].
In this paper, electrodeposition of Ni-50% ZrO2-TiO2 composites coating with
rectangular and triangular shaped waveform pulsed current with relaxation time was
reported. The resultant deposited nickel metal matrix nanocomposite layers on the mild
steel substrate were investigated for phase identification, surface morphology, pitting
corrosion and hardness. These studies are aimed at studying the effect of irregular
waveform shape and duty cycle of pulsed current on the deposition of ceramic
nanocomposites in metal matrix coatings and to improve the corrosion resistance and
hardness of nanocomposite coatings.
at 70 °C. Then the solid mixture was taken out and dried at 100 °C for 3 min. 50%
ZrO2-TiO2 powder was obtained later on heat treatment for 3 h at 950 °C [22] in muffle
furnace. Afterwards, the resultant Nano sized ZrO2-TiO2 composite powder was
characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM - JOEL) with
EDAX and X-ray diffraction (XRD).
2.2 Electrodeposition
Mild steel (25 mm 15 mm 3 mm), and a high purity (99.99%) nickel plate
(40 mm 40 mm 3 mm) were used as cathode and anode respectively. Before the
coating process cathode and anode materials were mechanically dry polished with
emery papers series 800, 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, and 4/0. And then wet polished on cloth
polishing machine felt with suspensions of alumina until their surfaces became smooth
and mirror bright finish. Prior to plating the polished substrates ultrasonically cleaned
for 3 min in water and rinsed with acetone, water sequentially for removal of impurities
from the surface and dried [2, 3, 13, 25]. Deposition was done in freshly prepared
aqueous nickel solution, containing materials and quantity listed in Table 1. Here
anode size is greater than that of cathode to minimize the nickel anodic polarization
problems particularly at lower duty cycles [14]. Coating conditions and parameters are
described in Table 1. Anode is placed vertically 3 cm distance from the cathode in the
nickel electrolyte solution. In electrodeposition process the composite coating was
obtained at a constant current density 10 mA/cm2 with rectangular and triangular shape
pulsed current with 10% and 50% duty cycle in two electrode cell. Coated samples
sintered were at 700 °C. Triangular and rectangular wave shape pulsed current used in
this process. Direct current was supplied to the pulse width modulator by GW INSTEK
GPS-3030D d.c power supply unit. In the deposition boric acid was used as buffering
agent. The pH of the electrolyte was 4.21 controlled by addition of 0.1M HCl and 0.1M
NaOH. Cetyltrimethyl ammoniumbromide (CTAB) surfactant used as size and shape
controllable agent. Coated mild steel with triangular and rectangular shape wave pulses
at 10% and 50% duty cycle named as 10%T, 10%R, 50%T, and 50% R respectively.
2.3 Characterization
The surface morphology of the sol gel synthesized Zirconium titanium oxide powder
was examined by using JOEL–FESEM with EDAX. Similarly surface of electrode-
posited coatings was observed with SEM. Phase, crystalline size and growth was
studied using Cu Ka radiation of X-ray diffraction (XRD) at 40 kV. The electro
chemical corrosion studies were carried out in conventional three electrode cell
GillAC ACM instrument 1130 electro chemical work station (US make) for 15 min at
3.5% NaCl environment at room temperature. Here AgCl as saturated calomel elec-
trode, platinum as reference and counter electrode, and the deposited specimens are
used as working electrode with exposed 1 cm2 area to the 3.5% NaCl corrosive media
solution. The micro hardness of the Ni-50% ZrO2-TiO2 deposited coating was mea-
sured with Vickers micro hardness indenter by forcing diamond indenter having the
Vickers pyramid geometry, using test load of 50 gf on the individual sample. The
indentation dwell time of 10 s was used as follows ASTM E92-17 standard.
Table 2. Grain sizes and hardness values of coated substrates annealed at 700 °C
Sample Grain size (nm) Hardness (HV)
Blank – 170.03
10%R 32.41 200.95
50%R 25.36 202.89
10%T 25.89 199.14
50%T 29.23 201.32
410 C. Prasad et al.
In this rectangular and triangular wave shape pulse current at 50% duty cycle
greatly increases the surface hardness of the mild steel sample. It was obtained due to
the same average current density with higher surface concentration of nickel and
Zirconium titanium oxide nanoparticles were formed by pulsed current with longest
transition time.
ability of the coating is increased by the use of triangular shaped pulsed current at lower
duty cycle in electrodeposition process.
Table 3. Electrochemical parameters of the coated and uncoated mild steel from Tafel plots.
Sample ba bc Ecorr Icorr Corr. rate LPR
mV mV mv mA/cm2 mm/yr. ohm/cm2
Uncoated 24.76 26.19 −700.53 4.92E−02 5.703E−01 1.12E+02
Coated 10%R 17.10 21.11 −320.83 1.24E−03 1.433E−02 3.32E+03
50%R 24.55 20.24 −328.52 3.51E−04 4.066E−03 1.37E+04
10%T 39.94 30.99 57.43 3.25E−05 3.750E−04 2.35E+05
50%T 17.29 19.08 21.99 5.30E−05 2.418E−02 7.44E+04
4 Conclusion
Zirconium titanium oxide powder was successfully synthesized in sol gel route and was
characterized with XRD and SEM. Use of rectangular wave form at 50% duty cycle in
electrodeposition of Ni-50% ZrO2-TiO2 nanocomposite coating resulted in non-
uniform distribution of grains. However triangular wave form at lower duty cycle
strongly influences the surface morphology of nanocomposite coating and resulted in
more uniform formation of grains. Hence it can be concluded that use of triangular
wave form irrespective of duty cycle has significantly improves the corrosion resistance
of mild steel.
References
1. Tiwari SK, Sahu RK, Pramanick AK, Singh R (2011) Development of conversion coating on
mild steel prior to sol gel nanostructured Al2O3 coating for enhancement of corrosion
resistance. Surf Coat Technol 205(21–22):4960–4967
2. Khalaf MM, El-lateef HMA (2016) Corrosion protection of mild steel by coating with TiO2
thin films co-doped with NiO and ZrO2 in acidic chloride environments. Mater Chem Phys
177:250–265
3. Abd El-Lateef HM, Khalaf MM (2015) Corrosion resistance of ZrO2-TiO2 nanocomposite
multilayer thin films coated on carbon steel in hydrochloric acid solution. Mater Charact
108:29–41
4. Birlik I et al (2016) Preparation and characterization of Ni–TiO2 nanocomposite coatings
produced by electrodeposition technique. Front Mater 3(October):1–7
5. Tury B, Radnóczi GZ, Radnóczi G, Varsányi ML (2007) Microstructure properties of pulse
plated Ni-Co alloy. Surf Coat Technol 202(2):331–335
6. Gül H, Kiliç F, Aslan S, Alp A, Akbulut H (2009) Characteristics of electro-co-deposited Ni-
Al2O3 nano-particle reinforced metal matrix composite (MMC) coatings. Wear 267(5–
8):976–990
7. Zhang HJ, Zhou YB, Sun JF (2013) Preparation and oxidation behaviour of electrodeposited
Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China (English Ed) 23
(7):2011–2020
412 C. Prasad et al.
Symbol Description
VCR system Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
COP Co-efficient of Performance
RE Refrigeration Effect KJ
QC Refrigeration Capacity KJ
moref Mass flow rate of Refrigerant Kg/sec.
Cpref Specific heat of refrigerant = 1.467 kJ/Kg K
ΔTref Temperature difference in Evaporator °c
V Flow velocity of the refrigerant in the system is m/s
qref Density of Refrigerant m3/Kg
d Diameter of coil condenser in mm
h1 Enthalpy of refrigerant before compression
h2 Enthalpy of refrigerant after compression
h3 Enthalpy of refrigerant before throttling
h4 Enthalpy of refrigerant after throttling
1 Introduction
Refrigeration can be defined as the process to attain and keep an enclosed space at a
temperature below than its surrounding temperature. This is achieved by continuous
removal of heat from the enclosed space where as the temperature is lower than that of
the surrounding temperature with the help of external work. Refrigerator is working
based on Clausius statement of thermodynamics. Refrigerators are used in domestic
and in industrial applications to preserve products for long duration without damage by
providing low temperature.
Refrigerants used and about the types of refrigeration systems are classified and
type of refrigerant should be used for what kind of refrigeration processes are given in a
detailed manner by Venkatarathnam and Murthy [1]. Ricardo Costa and Garcia [2]
applying design of experiments to a compression refrigeration cycle. To know what
variables effect on efficiency of a compression refrigeration cycle, designed experi-
ments are conducted and analyze the data. A quadratic polynomial model is fitted to
COP and variable arrangements to maximum cycle efficiency observed. ES-
FuelCell2013-18243 [3] focused on the description of the design and the theory
behind the system, design and construction of a solar thermal refrigeration system for
Patna, India. Designing of an evaporator using 16 pipes and manufacturing a cold
chamber, the outline of the refrigeration system working using solar collectors which
can reduce the power consumption. The vapour compression system performs using
main components like evaporator, condenser, capillary tube and heat exchanger if
needed and compressor Arora [4].
Basic components of the refrigeration system and design of the evaporator coil,
condenser, and capillary are to be selected according to the pressure, temperature drops
and requirement of the system, capacity of the system. Prasad [5]. Nussbaum [6]
studied all relevant type of condensers and investigate the effects of advantages and
disadvantages of various condensers on performance of refrigeration systems. Air
cooled condensers with small capacity i.e. 5 to 7.5 Hp is commonly used as indoor
condensing unit. Condenser is selected based on heat rejection and mass flow rate of
refrigerant. Pavkovic [7] studied properties and applications of refrigerants. The
refrigerants are given some class numbers which are meant to reduce the emissions of
the hydrocarbons and properties like physical, chemical properties are discussed.
Saidulu and Guru Dattatreya [8] studied the performance of a domestic refrigerator
by placing shell and tube type heat exchanger after the condenser to extract more
amount of heat by sub cooling process by using ammonia as an external cooling media,
to increase the performance of the system. Vasanthi and Maruthi Prasad Yadav [9] to
enhance the performance of the domestic refrigerator by flooding the evaporator with
liquid refrigerant. To attain this objective, a low pressure vessel is designed, developed,
fabricated and incorporated between evaporator and compressor. The performance of
refrigerator is calculated with and without low pressure receiver and analysis is done
using R134a and R401c refrigerants. Maruthi Prasad Yadav, Rajendra Prasad, Veeresh
[10] studied the performance of refrigerator with liquid line suction line heat exchanger
for different lengths of heat exchanger by using R134a and R404a as refrigerants and
analyzed with various lengths of liquid line- suction line heat exchanger.
Effect of Condenser Coil Profile and Subcooling 415
It is found from the literature review that most of the research carried out is to
increase the COP of the system by change refrigerants, the design of condenser,
evaporator and sub cooling method. The paper deals with improve the COP of VCR
system by change the condenser coil profiles and sub cooling system.
2.2 Evaporator
2.3 Compressor
• Capillary tube is one of the most commonly used throttling devices in the refrig-
eration and the air conditioning systems. The capillary tube is a tube which has very
small l diameter as to decrease the pressure of refrigerant.
• The diameter of the capillary tube is 36 mm.
• Pressure gauges used are of max 500 psi and a 250 psi to note down the suction and
discharge pressure from compressor.
• Filter is used to remove of the moisture and other gases from the condenser coil.
Effect of Condenser Coil Profile and Subcooling 417
2.5 Refrigerant
Refrigerant used is 134a (Tetra fluro ethane)
Boiling point temperature @1 atm (K) = 247
Freezing point (K) = 176.55
Critical temperature (K) = 374.25
Critical bar pressure = 40.
3 Experimental Setup
Experiments are conducted on VCR system to note required readings manually as seen
figure given below. Measure the temperatures and pressures using a digital ther-
mometer and pressure gauges in below mentioned locations (Figs. 6, 7 and 8).
• Before Compressor
• Before Condenser
• After Condenser
• After Capillary tube
• Inside Freezer/Evaporator
The experiment includes three different types of arrangements as follows (Table 1).
Fig. 6. Straight coiled refrigeration system Fig. 7. Helical coiled type system
COP ¼ T1 =T2 T
An experiment is conducted on VCR system with straight coiled, helical coiled con-
denser and helical coiled condenser with sub cooling. Then required parameters are
noted and tabulated in the below Table 2.
Table 2. Straight coiled, helical coiled condenser and helical coiled condenser with sub cooling
Parameters Straight coiled Helical coiled Helical coiled condenser
condenser condenser with sub cooling
Compressor discharge 46 50 46
temp t2 (°C)
Condensing temp t3 (°C) 43 43 40
Evaporator temperature 4 3.5 1.6
t1 (°C)
Compressor suction 3.5 1.37 1.6
pressure p1 (bar)
Compressor discharge 15.5 18 12.3
pressure p2 (bar)
Condenser pressure p3 15.5 18 12.3
(bar)
(continued)
420 S. Vullloju et al.
Table 2. (continued)
Parameters Straight coiled Helical coiled Helical coiled condenser
condenser condenser with sub cooling
Evaporator pressure p4 3.5 1.37 1.6
(bar)
Result table
Enthalpy h1 (kJ/kg) 395 397 398
Enthalpy h2(kJ/kg) 422 423 422
Enthalpy h3(kJ/kg) 268 270 247.6
Enthalpy h4 (kJ/kg) 268 270 247.6
28
27
27
Work Done in KJ/Kg
26
26
25
24
24
23
22
Srtaight Coiled Helical Coiled (HC) HC with Sub cooling
From the above Fig. 10, it is observed that work done on compressor with straight
coiled condenser is 27 kJ/kg, helical coil without sub-cooling is 26 kJ/Kg and helical
coil with sub-cooling is 24 kJ/Kg as the percentage decrease in compressor work is
12.5% by helical coil with sub-cooling compared with straight coil. Thus it reduces
load on compressor and increases the COP of the system.
200
NET REFRIGERATION
150
150 127 130
EFFECT kJ
100
50
0
Straght Coiled Helical Coiled(HC) HC with Sub cooling
From the above Fig. 11, it is observed that Refrigeration Effect in straight coiled
condenser is 127 kJ but in case of helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling is
130 kJ and with sub-cooling is 150 kJ. Refrigeration Effect in case of helical coiled
condenser is increased by 3 kJ compared to straight coiled condenser and Refrigeration
Effect in case of helical coiled condenser with sub-cooling is increased by 15.3%
compared to helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling.
8
COEFFICIENT OF
PERFORMANCE
6 6.2
5.65
4 4.7
0
Straight Coiled Helical Coiled (HC) HC with Sub cooling
From the above Fig. 12, it is observed that COP in straight coiled condenser is 4.7
but in case of helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling is 5.65 and with sub-cooling
is 6.2. COP in case of helical coiled condenser is increased by 20% compared to straight
coiled condenser and COP in case of helical coiled condenser with sub-cooling is
increased by 9.7% compared to helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling.
1.22 1.21
HEAT REJECTION
1.2
1.17
RATIO
1.18
1.16
1.16
1.14
1.12
Straight Coiled Helical Coiled(HC) HC with Sub cooling
Fig. 13. Heat rejection ratio vs different coiled condensers and sub-cooling
From the above Fig. 13, it is observed that heat rejection ratio in straight coiled
condenser is 1.21 but in case of helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling is 1.17.
and with sub-cooling is 1.16. Heat rejection ratio in case of helical coiled condenser is
decreased by 3.3% compared to straight coiled condenser. Heat rejection ratio in case
of helical coiled condenser is decreased by 4.1% compared to straight coiled condenser.
422 S. Vullloju et al.
6 Conclusions
References
1. Venkatarathnam G, Murthy SS (2012) Refrigerants for vapour compression refrigeration
system. Resonance 17(2):139–162
2. Ricardo Costa M, Garcia J (2015) Applying design of experiments to a compression
refrigeration cycle. Cogent Eng 2:992216
3. ES-fuelcell, design and construction of a solar thermal refrigeration system for Patna, India
(2013) Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
4. Arora CP, Refrigeration and air conditioning
5. Prasad M, Refrigeration and air conditioning
6. Nussbaum OJ (2009) Condensers, services application manual SAM chapter 620-32A
section 5B
7. Pavkovic B (2013) Properties and air-conditioning applications. REHVA J. Faculty of
Engineering in Rijeka, Croatia
8. Saidulu E, Guru Dattatreya GS (2015) Experimental investigation on domestic refrigerator
by shell and tube exchanger after the condenser using sub cooling of refrigerating fluid.
IOSR-JMCE 12(2):63–67 e-ISSN 2278-1684, p-ISSN 2320-334X
9. Vasanthi R, Maruthi Prasad Yadav G (2015) Experimental analysis of vapour compression
refrigeration system for optimum performance with low pressure receiver. IJSRM. ISSN
2231-3418
Effect of Condenser Coil Profile and Subcooling 423
10. Maruthi Prasad Yadav G, Rajendra Prasad P, Veeresh G, Experimental analysis of vapour
compression refrigeration system with liquid line suction line heat exchanger by using
R134a and R404a
11. ASHRAE guide and data book (1965) Fundamentals and equipment
12. ASHRAE guide and data book (1977) Fundamentals and equipment
13. Dasthagiri P, Rangamma H, Maruthi Prasad Yadav G (2015) Fabrication and analysis of
refrigerator cum chilled water dispenser. IJSRT. ISSN 2320-3927
14. ASHRAE, guide and data book (1978) Product directory applications
15. Ravindra D (2001) Air cooled condensers; types, rating design, construction, installation and
maintenance. ISHRAE
16. Momin GG, Tupe SB, Parate SA, Yewale OG, Thite AP (2016) COP enhancement of
domestic refrigerator by sub cooling and superheating using shell & tube type heat
exchanger
17. Sunny S, Jayesh S (2015) To improve cop of domestic refrigerator with the help of water
cooling condenser. IJIRSET 4(3). ISSN 2319-8753
Criteria for Drop-in Replacement of Existing
Refrigerant with an Alternative Refrigerant
Abstract. In the present work, criteria for substituting working refrigerant with
alternative refrigerant is given through R134a being replaced with ternary
mixtures of R134a/hydrocarbons. Thermodynamic properties were compared
theoretically using REFPROP software for five refrigerant mixtures. Investiga-
tions have been carried out for different operating temperatures in the range of
50 °C to −20 °C. The criterion is established by analyzing the thermophysical
properties of refrigerant mixtures and comparing saturation pressures. The
procedure to select a drop-in replacement with maximum COP is discussed
against comparison of volumetric cooling capacity of the ternary mixtures.
Nomenclature:
ODP Ozone Depletion Potential
GWP Global Warming Potential
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons
HC Hydrocarbon
RE Refrigeration Effect
HC mixtue 50%R290/50%R600a
Mixture-1 47.5%R290/47.5%R600a/5%R134a
Mixture-2 42.5%R290/42.5%R600a/15%R134a
Mixture-3 37.5%R290/37.5%R600a/25%R134a
Mixture-4 32.5%R290/32.5%R600a/35%R134a
Mixture-5 27.5%R290/27.5%R600a/45%R134a
1 Introduction
The role of CFCs in the process of ozone depletion is now widely accepted and should
be discontinued in spite of its exceptional properties. The search for environment-
friendly refrigerant replacing ozone depleting substances like R12 led to usage of
R134a. The performance parameters of R134a are as good as with that of R12. R134a
has zero ODP but considerable GWP of 1300 [1, 2]. To replace R134a, HC refrigerants
can be considered due to their negligible GWP [3, 4]. They have good thermodynamic
properties and locally available at low cost.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 424–431, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_51
Criteria for Drop-in Replacement of Existing Refrigerant 425
Agarwal [5] has proposed a substitute for R12 with R152a, R124/R22 and mixtures
of R600a and R290. Pendyala et al. [6] investigated drop in substitute of R134a with
HC mixtures and calculated the performance parameters like compressor work, coef-
ficient of performance and refrigeration effect are evaluated at various operating con-
ditions and compared with R134a. Their results show that COP of HC mixture is
superior to R134a. Ravikumar and Mohan Lal [7] have conducted experiments on a
refrigerator to substitute R12 with R134a. R134a is not compatible with mineral oil. To
improve the miscibility, HC mixture was added to the R134a with the mass fraction of
9% and 91% respectively. Sattar et al. [8] examined the substitutes for R134a with a
zeotropic mixture of R600/R290/R600a. They concluded that energy input to the
compressor using zeotropic mixture decreased by 3% compared with R134a. Col-
bourne and Ritter [9] presented the guidelines and various safety aspects of flammable
HC refrigerants. Saravanakumar and Selladurai [10] studied the performance of a
refrigerator to replace R134a using 55% R600a/45%R290. The results showed that
COP of the 55% R600a/45%R290 was better than R134a. Yu and Teng [11] evaluated
experimentally drop-in replacement for R134a using R600a and R290. The experi-
ments showed that optimum mass was obtained at 40% of that of R134a.
From previous studies, it was examined that hydrocarbons mixtures or mixtures of
HC/HFC can be used to substitute R134a. HCs are flammable which restrict the use of
hydrocarbons for commercial purpose. However, small capacity systems like domestic
refrigerator requires charge quantity less than 0.15 kg. A system with refrigerant charge
quantity is less than 0.15 kg can be installed any size of the room [5]. In order to use
drop-in replacement for the existing system criteria for selecting alternative refrigerant
need to be established. In the present work, different masses of R600a/R290/R134a
were considered to establish a procedure for replacing R134a.
Most of the refrigerators in India are operating with R134a as refrigerant. One of the
expensive components of a refrigeration system is the compressor. It would be eco-
nomical to replace refrigerant instead of changing the compressor or any other hard-
ware of the system. In order to check the drop-in replacement of alternative refrigerant,
its saturation properties should match with the base refrigerant. This would not
necessitate any modification of compressor. Isobutane (R600a) and Propane (R290)
mixture is most commonly available HC refrigerant. However, due to flammability
issues, this cannot be used as a refrigerant on its own.
The saturation pressure of HC mixture (50%R600a/50%R290) and R134a matches
closely [12]. Hence, any combination of R600a/R290/R134a can have saturation
pressures close to R134a. For making a ternary mixture, Isobutane, Propane and R134a
are selected. For analysis, mass fraction of R134a is varied from 5% to 45% to bring
GWP down and the remaining HC mixture is divided equally to reduce flammability
issues. Coefficient of performance (COP) is another important parameter to be con-
sidered for selecting alternative refrigerants. COP represents energy consumption for a
given cooling capacity. To find best alternative refrigerant, calculations were performed
at 40 °C and −20 °C of condenser and evaporator temperatures respectively. Properties
426 S. Pendyala and R. Prattipati
of the refrigerant are taken from REFPROP software [13]. The performance parameters
of the proposed ternary mixtures are shown in Table 1.
Figure 1 shows the variation of vapor pressure with saturation temperature for R134a
and selected ternary mixtures with R134a. The graph shows that saturation pressures
from mixture-1 to mixture-5 are vary at higher temperatures from R134a. However, as
the compressor operates at lower temperature, the saturation pressure is equivalent to
that of R134a.
Refrigerants with high latent heat (hfg ) can absorb more cooling load for the same
flow rate. The Fig. 3 confirms that high latent heat values of the proposed mixtures
increases from mixture-5 to mixture-1 by 34% to 76%. This is due to increasing mass
quantity of hydrocarbons in the ternary mixture. As a result, there is a chance for the
less mass flow of ternary mixtures for the same cooling load compared with R134a.
Viscosity of the refrigerant influences the capillary length. Pressure loss decreases
with the decrease of viscosity. The Fig. 4 shows that variation of liquid viscosity at
different saturation temperatures. It is observed that viscosities of the ternary mixtures
are 40% to 47% lower than R134a. Thus, for ternary mixtures, to have the same
pressure drop length the capillary length needs to be increased.
428 S. Pendyala and R. Prattipati
reduce the suction volume and compressor work. The Fig. 5 It is observed that the
specific heat of the ternary mixture is 60% higher than R134a. Hence the degree of
superheating would be lesser for selected refrigerants as compared to R134a resulting
in better performance.
From the results, it shows that with the increasing HC quantity in the ternary
mixture (R290/R600a/R134) specific volume and latent heat values are increases from
mixture-5 to mixture-1. Results show that cooling capacity of the ternary mixtures is
superior to R134a. However, it consumes more power due to the increase in specific
volume. The COP started increasing with the increasing percentage HCs and reaches
the maximum value at 37.5%R290/37.5%R600a/25%R134a (mixture-3) and then
started decreasing with further increase in HC mixture mass fraction.
Volumetric Cooling Capacity (VCC) is another parameter to check for the drop-in
replacement. Volumetric Cooling Capacity (VCC) represents amount of heat removed
for a given volume of compressor
mr RE RE
VCC ¼ ¼ : ð1Þ
V_ t
Where mr is the refrigerant flow rate in kg/s, RE is the refrigeration effect in kJ/kg,
V_ is the volume flow rate and t is the specific volume at the suction to the compressor.
The Fig. 6 shows that variation of VCC of the ternary mixtures and R134a. VCC for
mixture-3 is very close than that of R134a (deviating 2.9% only). Therefore, mixture-3
is absorbing same amount of cooling load without changing the compressor of R134a.
430 S. Pendyala and R. Prattipati
4 Conclusions
This study presents the procedure for drop-in replacement of new refrigerants in the
existing system. Ternary mixtures of R134a and HC mixtures are considered to sub-
stitute pure R134a.
The following were the conclusions from the obtained results.
• Saturation pressures of R134a and HCs match closely. Therefore ternary mixtures
can be considered as direct substitutes for R134a.
• Among the selected ternary mixtures, mixture-3 has better COP.
• Specific work done for the mixture-3 is more than that of R134a. However, energy
consumption can be minimized by optimizing the capillary length.
• The mass fraction of R134a in the ternary mixture has been reduced to 25% thus
reducing the global warming associated with the refrigerant.
• VCC of mixture-3 is the closest match for compressor operating with R134a as
refrigerant.
• Systems with HC refrigerant charge quantity less than 0.15 kg can be installed any
size of the room.
Criteria for Drop-in Replacement of Existing Refrigerant 431
References
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pp 471–476
6. Pendyala S, Prattipati R, Raju AVSR (2017) Optimization process of a visi-cooler using
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1–1750019-10
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refrigerant mixture in an automobile air conditioning system with mineral oil as lubricant.
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risk assessments. In: IIR conference on emerging trends in refrigeration and air-
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Analysis of Characteristics of Launcher Missile
System and Its Optimization to Reduce Tip-Off
Effect During Launch
1 Introduction
Modeling of the system is done by using CAD package, Solid Works. The system
analyzed in this work, needed modeling of canister with internal part of launch rail and
missile with external part of launch lugs (Fig. 1).
Launch Lugs
Launch Rail
Center of mass
Missile has interaction with launcher with the help of launch lugs of missile and
launch rail of canister. The missile moves along the launch rail with help of launch
lugs.
The missile is supported by launcher with the help of two launch lugs, also known
as missile shoes as shown in Fig. 4. When thrust is provided externally, missile starts
moving along the launch rail with the help of these lugs.
Canister
Missile position
Missile
It is recommended to analyze the launcher missile system in order to optimize the tipoff
rate. ADAMS motion software has been employed to perform the motion analysis of
missile. Thrust misalignment, which causes mal-launch errors, exists in reality [6].
Thrust misalignment should be less than 0.25° [7].
The basic conditions to be considered for simulation and analysis of the launcher
missile system are clearance between shoe and launch rail is 0.50 mm, coefficient of
friction is 0.16, launch angle is 45° and thrust misalignment is 0.2° (Fig. 5).
From the view of the launcher dynamics, only a small portion of thrust force is
needed because there is no effect of the thrust force once the missile leaves the launcher
[6]. Ideally, thrust force should be aligned with the flight axis of the missile.
Optimization of the launcher missile system is done to achieve the minimum tipoff rate.
In this work, optimization is performed by studying the interaction between the missile
shoe (launch lug) and the launch rail.
Optimization of the launcher missile system is done by varying parameters such as
1. Clearance between the missile shoe and rail.
2. Location of launch lugs with respect to CM position.
3. Number of launch lugs.
436 P. Ravinder Reddy et al.
Table 1. Tip-off rate and separation time for an ideal system and real system which has thrust
misalignment
Cases Separation time (sec) Tipoff rate (deg/sec)
Without consideration of thrust misalignment 0.09141 0.0117
With consideration of thrust misalignment 0.09145 −3.2250
The tipoff rate of the missile without considering the thrust misalignment is
3.21 deg/sec less than that of considering the thrust misalignment.
However, it’s not the big difference between separation times in terms of thrust
misalignment but variations in tipoff rates are more.
Rear Lug
Here, x1 represents the distance between the tip of the missile to the front launch lug
and x2 represents the distance between the front launch lug and rear launch lug (Fig. 6).
Figure 7 is showing the angular velocity w.r.to time (pitch rate) when the clearance
between the missile and the rail is 0.50 mm under the conditions, thrust misalignment
is considered and the launch angle is 45°.
The missile is separated from launcher at 0.09145 s. The angular velocity at this
separating time is −3.2250 deg/sec.
Table 2. Tipoff rates for horizontal Table 3. Tipoff rates for vertical clearance
clearance
Horizontal Vertical Tipoff
Horizontal Vertical Tipoff clearance clearance (deg/sec)
clearance clearance (deg/sec) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm) 0.50 0.25 −3.155
0.25 0.50 −3.2362 0.50 0.50 −3.225
0.50 0.50 −3.2250 0.50 0.75 −3.241
0.75 0.50 −3.2252 0.50 1.0 −3.263
Analysis of Characteristics of Launcher Missile System 437
From the results obtained for clearance (Tables 2 and 3), it is observed that there is
no much difference for varying horizontal clearance. That indicates this parameter
doesn’t influence the tipoff rate and among those obtained results for horizontal
clearance, minimum tipoff rate, −3.2250 deg/sec, can be achieved for the horizontal
clearance of 0.50 mm. It is observed that vertical clearance influences tipoff rate,
optimum condition to get minimum tipoff rate, −3.155 deg/sec, is when providing the
clearance of 0.25 mm.
Fig. 7. Angular velocity vs time showing tipoff rate −3.2250 deg/sec when the clearance is
0.50 mm
Table 4. Tipoff rate for varying the location of launch lugs w.r.to C.M of the
missile
Cases Ratio of distances from Tipoff rate (deg/sec)
center of mass to lugs (mm)
Case 1 1:1 −2.9437
Case 2 1:2 −2.0933
Case 3 2:1 −2.313
From results obtained (Table 4) for varying location of launch lugs w.r.to C.M of
missile, minimum tipoff rate can be achieved for placing lugs in ratio of 1:2 w.r.to C.M.
And minimum tipoff rate for this condition is −2.0933 deg/sec.
Table 5. Tipoff rates for placing the three launch lugs in different locations
Dimensions/parameters Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
x1 (mm) 1929 1990 1990 1990
x2 (mm) 1000 1000 1150 850
x3 (mm) 1000 500 350 650
L1 (mm) 500 500 500 500
L2 (mm) 500 500 650 350
L3 (mm) 1500 1000 1000 1000
Tipoff rate (deg/sec) −2.1808 −2.1091 −1.0629 −0.6088
438 P. Ravinder Reddy et al.
Here, X1 represents the distance between the tip of the missile to front launch lug,
X2 represents the distance between the front launch lug and intermediate launch lug, X3
represents the distance between the intermediate launch lug and rear launch lug, L1
represents the distance from center of mass to the front launch lug, L2 represents the
distance from center of mass to intermediate launch lug and L3 represents the distance
from center of mass to the rear launch lug.
Optimization is done by performing the analysis for four cases.
From Table 5, minimum tipoff rate can be achieved for case 4 in which third launch
lug is placed between C.M and rear launch lug in such a way that it is near to C.M, far
away from the rear launch lug.
The dimensions are as follows:
The minimum tipoff rate for the above condition is −0.6088 deg/sec.
6 Conclusions
Acknowledgement. The authors would like to thank Defense Research and Development
Laboratory (DRDL), Hyderabad, India, for supporting this project and also likes to thank the
Principal, CBIT, Hyderabad, India.
References
1. Acmaz E (2011) Experimental analysis and modeling of wear in rocket rail launchers, 129 p
2. Çiçek BC (2014) Dynamic analysis and modeling of a rocket launcher system, 128 P
3. Cochran EJ (1975) Investigation of factors which contribute to mal-launch of free rockets.
Technical report, RL-CR-76-4, Auburn University, AL
4. Zeman P (2001) Rail launch missile simulation using MSC Nastran software
5. Dziopa Z, Krzysztofik I, Koruba Z (2010) An analysis of the dynamics of a launcher-missile
system on a moveable base. Bull Polish Acad Sci Tech Sci 58(4):645–650
Analysis of Characteristics of Launcher Missile System 439
6. Işık Ç, Ider SK, Acar B (2013) Modeling and verification of a missile launcher system. Proc
Inst Mech Eng Part K J Multi-body Dyn 228(1):100–107
7. Knauber RN (1996) Thrust misalignments of fixed-nozzle solid rocket motors. J Spacecraft
Rockets 33(6):794–799
Performance Analysis of a Horizontal Axis
Wind Lens Wind Turbine
1 Introduction
We all know that, fossil fuels are limited, and we have to utilize the renewable energy
resources more effectively [4–6]. Among all these, wind energy has a great advantage
for generating electrical energy, as it’s cheap and free from pollution. In general, wind
turbine converts the kinetic energy of the wind energy into rotational energy which is
further converted into electrical energy when it is coupled to a generator. Wind farms,
which contain a group of wind turbines help in harnessing the wind energy are gen-
erally located far from the urban places [7, 8]. It is difficult and quite expensive to
maintain such lengthy transmission lines that run from wind farms to urban regions. It
is best suited if we could harness more energy from the wind, i.e. increasing the power
coefficient of the wind turbine. We all know that, the power output of a wind turbine is
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 440–448, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_53
Performance Analysis of a Horizontal Axis Wind Lens Wind Turbine 441
always directly proportional to the swept area and cube of wind velocity at the inlet.
The rotor diameter is limited by the spatial restrictions in the urban regions. The only
option left is to increase the available kinetic energy at the rotor. This is generally done
by placing a diffuser around the wind turbine rotor. It increases the overall mass flow
and kinetic energy available in the rotor by creating a pressure difference, thereby
increasing the energy density of the flow.
In 1919, Betz theoretically calculated that the maximum efficiency possible with a
wind turbine is 59.3% called as Betz limit [9]. A long diffuser is more preferable than a
short one. However a long diffuser makes the setup heavy and out of balance. Hence an
optimum length of the diffuser is chosen keeping in view the stability of the wind
turbine setup. A tip clearance of 0.2D is chosen (D = Diameter of the rotor). As the
wind flows through the diffuser, a low pressure region is created at its entrance; the
inlet wind velocity is further accelerated at the inlet of the diffuser. Thus the accelerated
wind energy possessing high kinetic energy is harnessed by the wind turbine rotor.
Wind with an inlet velocity of Vw approaches the wind turbine and exits with a wind
velocity of V2. Let, q be air density (kg/m3), A1 is the cross-sectional area of a wind
turbine at inlet, A2 is the cross-sectional area of a wind turbine at the outlet.
Power coefficient is defined and calculated as [10, 11]
Where a ¼ VVw2
2 Experimental Setup
In this paper, a practical horizontal axis wind turbine is designed and performance
studies are performed by having with and without diffuser around the rotor, and the
results are also compared with computational results by using ANSYS CFX. The three
blade wind turbine rotor of diameter 0.224 m is mounted on a 9 V-2000 RPM DC
motor. An LED (0.5 W) is connected to the DC motor in series with a 1 A–1000 V
Rectifier diode and an ON-OFF switch as shown in the circuit Fig. 1. Ammeter (A) and
Voltmeter (V) are connected in series and parallel to the circuit respectively.
Fig. 2. The dimensions of three diffusers (a) D1, (b) D2 and (c) D3.
The performance of horizontal axis wind turbine is studied at three different inlet wind
velocities i.e. at 1.7 m/s, 2.7 m/s and 3.7 m/s by using with and without diffuser around
the rotor and power output and efficiency are calculated.
Table 1 shows the performance results for all the cases. It is clearly seen that, as the
wind inlet velocity increases, the rotational speed increase results in an increase in
power output. The power output and efficiency of D1, D2, and D3 wind turbines are
more compared with bare wind turbine. By comparing wind turbines D1 and D2, D2 is
having improved performance compared to D1 due to lengthier diffuser. Comparing
diffusers D2 and D3, the D3 performance is not that much improved due to less
diverging angle. It clearly indicates that, better performance of a wind turbine mainly
depending on the optimum length of the diffuser and diverging angle.
Performance Analysis of a Horizontal Axis Wind Lens Wind Turbine 443
Fig. 3. Experimental test facility (a) horizontal axis wind turbine without diffuser and (b) with
diffuser D1
A 3D model of the Wind turbine rotor is modeled using Ansys 19.0 Design Modeler
(Fig. 4(a)). A rotating medium of air is created around the rotor in the form of a
cylinder (Fig. 4(b)). All the diffusers are modeled in Ansys workbench as shown in
Fig. 5(b)–(d). Here we are considering cylindrical domain with 30 cm radius and
having a length of 50 cm on both sides of rotor blades. With three different speeds,
444 P. Usha Sri and C. Jeevesh
three different diffusers (D1, D2 and D3), total twelve numbers of simulations are
conducted as shown in Table 2. Here we are generated, unstructured mess with an
element size of 1.4 cm and having a growth rate of 1.5 is realistic. The total number of
nodes is 92500 with 1350 mesh elements having inflation size of 5 as shown in the
Fig. 6(a) and (b). The total number of nodes for diffuser D1 is 75005, diffuser D2 is
70259, and for diffuser D3 is 74356.
Fig. 4. (a) Three bladed horizontal axis wind turbine, and (b) Cylindrical rotating medium
After mesh generation, in the ANSYS CFX Preprocessor, the boundary conditions
are applied as shown in Table 2. Here we consider the working fluid is air at 25 °C at 1
atmospheric pressure. In Ansys CFX solver, we are considering k-e turbulence model
with a turbulence intensity of 5%. The selected convergence criteria were set to the
residuals smaller than 10−4, having physical time scale of 0.0002 s with maximum
number of iterations of 10000.
Figure 7(a) and (b) shows the velocity streamlines and pressure contour of the fluid
moving at 1.7 m/s from the inlet to the exit for wind turbine without diffuser. It clearly
shows, the inlet wind velocity reduces from 1.7 m/s to 1.2 m/s at the exit. There is a
loss in kinetic energy of the wind. The changes in pressure and velocity from the inlet
to the outlet is plotted as a graph as shown in the Figs. 8(a)–(d) and 9(a)–(d) for a wind
turbine without a diffuser, diffuser D1, diffuser D2, and diffuser D3.
The velocity ratio, ratio of exit velocity of wind (V2) at the outlet to inlet velocity of
wind (V1) at inlet is also calculated as shown in Table 3. The Table 3 also gives the
output power and efficiency of wind turbine without a diffuser, diffuser D1, diffuser D2,
and diffuser D3 at a different inlet velocity of wind. It clearly shows that by comparing
with diffuser type wind turbine, wind turbines without diffuser produces less output
power.
From Table 3, for wind turbine with diffuser cases, the output power and efficiency is
increased by nearly 2 times as compared with wind turbine without diffuser. From this,
we can conclude that, wind turbine with a diffuser is very efficient as compared to without
diffuser at the same inlet test conditions. It is also important that, diffuser with the angle
of diverging of approx. 8° gives high power output and better efficiency. The power
output and efficiency at different inlet wind velocity is shown in Fig. 10(a) and (b).
Performance Analysis of a Horizontal Axis Wind Lens Wind Turbine 445
Fig. 5. Computational fluid model of (a) Horizontal axis wind turbine without diffuser, (b) with
diffuser D1, (c) with diffuser D2, and (d) with diffuser D3
From Fig. 10(a), blue line shows the power output for wind turbine without dif-
fuser, which have least power out as compared with wind turbines with diffusers. Wind
turbines with diffuser D2 (Green line) and diffuser D3 (Purple line) produces high
power out and efficiency as compared with other wind turbines. The same thing is also
supported by Fig. 10(b). From these results, we can conclude that, the wind turbine
with diffuser D2 produces high power output and high efficiency as compared with
other diffusers. It also have power coefficient of approximately 0.6, which is greater
than the Betz’s limit.
446 P. Usha Sri and C. Jeevesh
Fig. 6. (a) The generated mesh around the rotor (b) The generated mesh in complete fluid
domain and around the rotor
Fig. 7. (a) Velocity streamlines of fluid flow, and (b) Pressure contour at middle cross section
Fig. 8. Variation of pressure along stream line at velocity V1 = 1.7 m/s for (a) wind turbine
without diffuser, (b) with diffuser D1, (c) with diffuser D2, and (d) with diffuser D3
Fig. 9. Variation of velocity along stream line at velocity V1 = 1.7 m/s for (a) wind turbine
without diffuser, (b) with diffuser D1, (c) with diffuser D2, and (d) with diffuser D3
Performance Analysis of a Horizontal Axis Wind Lens Wind Turbine 447
Table 3. Summary of results having horizontal axis wind turbine with and without diffusers
Inlet Diffuser Output power (p0) Efficiency η (%) Velocity
wind length Wind Wind Wind Wind ratio (VV21 )
velocity turbine turbine turbine turbine
without with without with
diffuser diffuser diffuser diffuser
1.7 D1 0.03 0.04 30.8 38.30 0.75
1.7 D2 0.06 56.25 0.50
1.7 D3 0.06 53.40 0.56
2.7 D1 0.13 0.22 31.4 50.20 0.62
2.7 D2 0.25 58.40 0.43
2.7 D3 0.24 56.25 0.51
3.7 D1 0.31 0.49 28.1 43.86 0.69
3.7 D2 0.62 55.10 0.53
3.7 D3 0.60 53.77 0.56
Fig. 10. (a) Output power vs inlet wind velocity, and (b) Efficiency vs inlet wind velocity
5 Conclusions
References
1. Bryans L, Jenkins N, Milborrow D, O’Malley M, Watson R, Fox B, Flynn D, Anaya Lara O
(2007) Wind power integration: connection and system operational aspects. The Institute of
Engineering and Technology
2. Harries A, Stankovic S, Campbell N (2009) Urban wind energy. Earthscan, Sterling
3. Gilbert BL, Oman RA, Foreman KM (1978) Fluid dynamics of diffuser-augmented wind
turbines. J Energy 2:368–374
4. Gilbert BL, Foreman KM (1983) Experiments with a diffuser-augmented model wind
turbine. Trans ASME J Energy Resour Technol 105:46–53
5. Igra O (1981) Research and development for shrouded wind turbines. Energy Conv Manag
21(1):13–48
6. Bet F, Grassmann H (2003) Upgrading conventional wind turbines. Renew. Energy 28
(1):71–78
7. Ohya Y, Karasudani T (2010) Shrouded wind turbine generating high output power with
wind-lens technology. Energies 3(4):634–649
8. Hjort S, Larsen H (2014) A multi-element diffuser augmented wind turbine Energies 7
(5):3256–3281
9. Foote T (2011) Numerical modeling and optimization of power generation from shrouded
wind turbines. All theses and dissertations (ETDs). 545
10. Aranake AC, Lakshminarayan VK, Duraisamy K (2015) Computational analysis of
shrouded wind turbine configurations using a 3-dimensional RANS solver. Renew Energy
75:818–832
11. Hansen MOL, Sørensen NN, Flay RGJ (2000) Effect of placing a diffuser around a wind
turbine
Experimental Investigation and Optimization
of Electrochemical Micro Machining Process
Parameters for Al 7075 T6 Alloy
1 Introduction
In the current development the micro products has been rapidly increasing demand in
the field of automotive, bio-medical, aerospace, biotechnology, optics, avionics
industries and electronics [1] and the quantity materials which are difficult-to-machine
like super alloys has considerably increasing because of their improved properties [2].
While machining with conventional machining process on difficult-to-machine mate-
rials a lot of issues like heat affected zone, tool wear, high surface roughness, thermal
stress and mechanical forces are being occurring [3]. Hence, to attain this requirement,
various advance methods have been developed [4]. ECMM is a non-conventional
machining technique emerging to be assuring method because of its additional
advantages [5]. While machining through ECMM process the complexity of mecha-
nism builds between required performances indicators and process parameters are very
difficult. Hence, proper assortment of process parameters should be done. To work out
this issue researchers have considered different experimental possibilities [6] and
attempted various types of analysis methods [7, 8].
From the available literature up to now, it is noticed that even though much work
was done on the ECMM experimental process investigations and also developed
numerical models unfolding the performance on process parameters, very few authors
have investigated the optimal process parameters in ECMM and also little attention
towards the machining of super alloys and analyzing the optimal values and influence
of process parameters. Taking the above issues into consideration, the present inves-
tigation focuses on the influence of process parameters (voltage, electrolyte concen-
tration and frequency) on MRR and OC while machining super alloy using ECMM
through measuring the optimum combination for multiple performance using Grey
relation analysis and to know the influence of process parameters ANOVA has been
carried out.
2 Experimental Setup
The ECMM works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. The ECMM setup
was developed and is shown in the Fig. 1 (a). The ECMM basically consists of Pulse
generator, tool feeding arrangement, stepper motor, tool holder, tank, machine cham-
ber, filter and electrolyte pumping system. The Pulse generator or rectifier consists of
input power as 110–120 V AC single phase 50–60 Hz, output rating as 0–20 V, 30 A
avg. 100 A peak, output pulse wave shape as Bi-polar square wave–50 µsec rise max.,
50 µsec fall max., and the output resolution as 20.0 V/99.9 A, meter resolution
20.0 V/30.0 A.
A manual tool feeding system with resolution of 4 lm in the direction of z-axis are
provided to stepper motor with motor resolution 1.8°/step and lead screw 30 teeth per
inch for 75 mm. The tool holder which was attached to the tool feeding arrangement
contains the tool moment per revolution of motor is 0.8467 mm and maximum tool
moment is 75 mm. The tank is made with electrically non-conductive material, cor-
rosion resistance, visible and attains capacity of 1.6 L. The electrolyte is filtered up to 5
microns in the filter and the electrolyte is pumped with pump having capacity of 16–
18 L/min. The work holding fixtures are fabricated with non-conductive Perspex
material which is used to hold the workpiece as shown in the Fig. 1 (b) is mounted in
the machining chamber.
Experimental Investigation and Optimization 451
3 Experimental Planning
Where ni is the grey relational co-efficient, D min = 0 and D max = 1 these are the
values which can get from deviation sequence.n is distinguishing or identification co-
efficient. If equal preference is given to all parameters then n is taken as 0.5.
Step 4: Calculate the grey relational grade by averaging the grey relational
coefficients
The grey relational grade has been calculated with the following Eq. 4
nim þ nio
ci ¼ ð4Þ
n
Where ci is the grey relation grade and n is number of response variables.
In the grey relation grade the higher value reveals stronger relationship between
present sequence and ideal sequence. The higher value of the grey relation grade shows
nearer to the optimal response in the process.
Step 5: Finally rank is given to the grey relation grade and the optimal result has been
chosen
Give the rank according to the grey relation grade obtained. Thus the multiple
output response optimization problems are converted into single response problem
through grey relation analysis with Taguchi method.
Fig. 2. (a) The effect of process parameters on performance characteristics (b) Percentage
contribution of process parameters on Grey relational grade
It is clear from the above Table 2 that the Voltage is the most influencing factor for
multiple performance characteristics because the ions increases in the electrochemical
cell which increases the material removal and also increases the current flow through
IEG. For the higher values of current there will be the more current density which leads
to higher removal of material and higher over cut. From the Table 3 it is clear that the
electrolyte concentration is significantly influence factor because when concentration
increases the ions association in the machining zone also increases, a higher ion
concentration improves the current density in the IEG resulting in increasing overcut.
Figure 2 (b) shows the Percentage involvement of process parameters on grey rela-
tional grade. Residual plots was drawn to the grey relation grade to check the Residual,
fitted values and observation order in Fig. 3 (a) and (b) shows interval Plots of Grey
relation grade 95% CI for the mean verses voltage, electrolyte concentration and fre-
quency was drawn which indicates that the lower values of voltage and moderate
values of electrolyte concentration and lower values of frequency gives optimal com-
bination levels of machining parameters.
Fig. 3. (a) Residual Plots for grey relation grade and (b) Interval plots of gray relation grade
verses voltage, electrolyte concentration and frequency
X
q
cp ¼ cm þ ðci cm Þ ð5Þ
i¼1
Where cp is the expected grey relation grade, ci is the mean of grey relation grade,
cm is the total mean of the grey relation grade at optimal combination levels and q is the
number of performance characteristics.
The predicted grey relation grade of optimal levels can be calculated using the
above Eq. 5 and with the optimal combinations levels of process parameters new
experiment has been conducted to verify the improvement of optimal combination
levels of machining parameters. Table 4 shows the confirmation test where the pre-
dicted grey relation grade and investigational grey relation grade using optimal process
parameters are compared which clearly indicates that the optimal mixture levels of
Experimental Investigation and Optimization 455
Fig. 4. SEM diagram of machined micro holes at 6 V, 30 g/l and 40 Hz (a) at entry and (b) at
exit (c) at machined surface of micro-hole
In ECMM the machining is done by anodic dissolution where the workpiece (Al
7075 T6 alloy) which is having very good corrosion resistance because of the pro-
tection formed on the surface by aluminium oxide is completely immersed in the
electrolyte solution (NaNO3). This oxide layer is formed when it comes in contact with
oxygen. The oxide layer formed is extremely unprotected in nature and delay the
anodic dissolution of aluminium alloy. To know the effect of NaNO3 on aluminium
alloy EDAX APEX™ software has been used. Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis
(EADX) is a microanalysis software package which is used to identify elemental
composites of materials. Figure 4 (c) shows the SEM image of Al 7075 T6 alloy at
machined surface micro-hole which is used to analyses through EADX. The EADX for
Al 7075 T6 alloy has been carried out and presented in the Fig. 5 (a) before machining
and Fig. 5 (b) EDAX APEX image of Al 7075 T6 alloy after machining. It was clear
from the Fig. 5 (a) and (b) that there is inclusion of NaNO3 after machining which
supports the development of reactive layer on the workpiece and reduces the disso-
lution process and therefore decreases the overcut.
456 K. Samson Praveen Kumar and G. Jaya Chandra Reddy
Fig. 5. EDAX APEX image of Al7075 T6 alloy (a) before machining (b) after machining
5 Conclusion
In this paper, an experimental investigation has been carried out to know optimal
combination levels of process parameters using grey relation analysis method and also
to find the influence of process parameters using ANNOVA method during machining
micro-hole on Al 7075 T6 alloy using ECMM. It has been made an attempt to know the
influence of NaNO3 on aluminium alloy using EDAX APEX™ analysis. Based on the
experimental outcomes and analysis, the following conclusions can be made.
1. The optimal combination levels of process parameters were voltage of 6 (V),
electrolyte concentration of 30 (g/l) and frequency of 40 (Hz).
2. From ANNOVA analysis the most significant process parameter that influences
higher MRR and lower OC is voltage and the contribution of machining parameters
are found to be voltage as 72.50%, electrolyte concentration as 10.99% and fre-
quency as 7.55%.
3. Based on confirmation test the improvement of optimal combination levels of
machining parameters to initial parameters is about 32.55%.
4. Based on EDAX APEX analysis it seems that the NaNO3 was present after
machining which supports the formation of reactive layer on the workpiece and
reduces the dissolution process and therefore decreases the overcut.
References
1. Rajurkar KP, Levy G, Malshe A, Sundaram MM, McGeough J, Hu X, Resnick R, DeSilva A
(2006) Micro and nano machining by electro-physical and chemical processes. CIRP Ann-
Manuf Technol 55(2):643–646
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Metals & Materials Society)
Experimental Investigation and Optimization 457
1 Introduction
Man, over centuries, has ventured deep into the secrets that earth has to offer. The
energy requirement in terms of electricity is gargantuan and the current mode of such
energy extraction is through the non-renewable sources. Since these resources are not
everlasting, the quest for finding a better alternative has begun. Many such corners
have been identified that could serve as energy sources. The drawback of such energy
resources is their availability, which is greatly affected by the seasons and the gravity
between the sun, moon and the earth.
The outer space is a home for different and probably unexplainable celestial bodies
and events. Robert Millikan coined the term ‘cosmic rays’, whose exact origin is
unknown. They are predominantly found in the outer space, coming from interstellar
regions - thus named as Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR). It was identified that GCR are
found to be in large quantities surrounding the Earth. These rays are detected experi-
mentally to be a stream of high energy particles possessing the energies ranging from
1.5–10 GeV on an average. If such energy-rich rays could be harvested, a part of the
energy requirement by mankind could be conveniently met.
Radiation is a mode of energy that is emitted in the form of rays, electromagnetic
waves and/or particles. The radiation is classified based on its power into ionizing and
non-ionizing radiation. The non-ionizing radiation is the low energy radiation,
comprising of microwaves, visible region, infra-red and radio waves, while ionizing
radiation is the high energy radiation that causes ionisation of an atom and is caused by
a particles, b particles, c rays, protons, electrons and neutrons. Space radiation is
caused due to the particles being trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field. The particles
shoot up into space during Solar Flares and the movement of GCR, which are com-
posed of high energy particles. Space radiation falls into the category of ionizing
radiation [1].
Due to the supposed origin of the cosmic rays, their composition is still obscure to a
certain extent. Going by Planck’s radiation law, if the radiation is to have high energy
then the wavelength of the rays must be very less, i.e. lesser than the wavelength of c
rays of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. The scientists then narrowed down the
scope of the cosmic rays’ composition to high energy protons (90%), a particles (9%),
and atomic nuclei that are found in the interstellar spaces (1%).
The Transition Radiation Array for Cosmic Energetic Radiation (TRACER)
cosmic-ray detector, in 2006 [2] was able to measure the presence of primary cosmic
ray nuclei ranging from atomic numbers 5 to 26 i.e. Boron to Iron. It was stated that the
relative abundances of the nuclei of C, O and Fe, that constitute the primary cosmic
rays are over 10 GeV/amu. The mass composition of the Ultra High Energy Cosmic
Rays (UHECR) has been obtained with the help of Telescope Array Surface Detector
which employed Boosted Decision Tree (BDT) multivariate analysis that is trained
with the Monte-Carlo sets of events induced by Primary protons and Iron thereby
presenting the average atomic mass of UHECR for energies ranging between 1018.0 to
1020.0 eV. The experiment detailed that the atomic mass of the primary articles did not
show significant energy dependence (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1. Compilation of different energy spectra measured by TRACER. The dashed line
represents simple power law fit over 20 GeV/amu [2].
460 U. M. Vanamala and L. P. Nidamarty
Fig. 2. Average atomic mass <ln A> in comparison with the Pierre Auger Observatory and rise
time asymmetry results. The statistical error is shown with error bars, systematic error is shown
with brackets [3]
Within the Earth’s magnetosphere, two high energy belts are formed by the entrapped
particles due to the magnetic field of the Earth. The inner belt ranges from 800 km to
2,000 km from the earth’s surface, while the outer belt occurs at 18,000 km and
extends upto 25,000 km. These Van Allen belts also called radiation belts, are not
made up of radiation but are made of energy-rich charged particles (Figs. 3 and 4).
Fig. 3. Temporal profile of the daily values of the geomagnetic Ap index [4]
Fig. 4. Temporal profile of the daily values of the cosmic ray intensity (1965–2018) [4]
Galactic Cosmic Energy - A Novel Mode of Energy Harvesting 461
It can be deduced from the above figures that the geomagnetic effects on the cosmic
rays are not predominant but is observed to vary inversely especially during 1965,
1985–1990, 2005–2015. For such instances, it is safe to draw that the daily incidence
of Cosmic Ray Intensity is high when the geomagnetic field is less [4] (Figs. 5 and 6).
Fig. 5. Wavelet power spectrum (WPS) computed of Ap index from 1965–2018 [4]
Fig. 6. Wavelet power spectrum (WPS) computed of cosmic rays from 1965–2018 [4]
The maximum power of the cosmic rays, indicated by the red region, is witnessed
to last for a span of a decade. Although the peak geomagnetic effects were found during
the span of 1990–1995, the Wavelet power spectrum of the cosmic rays remained less
affected by it [4].
A short-term average periodicity of 27 days was observed with the geomagnetic Ap
index due to the solar rotation and also with the varying cosmic ray intensities, but the
noticeable power of the Cosmic Ray intensity was abundantly more for 11-year peri-
odicity as observed through the given time span of 1965–2018, recorded by neutron
monitors [4]. The Cosmic ray intensity during the synodic month did not show any
striking variation in the analysis for any range of time periods i.e. long, medium or
short ranges, thereby remaining unaffected (Figs. 7 and 8).
462 U. M. Vanamala and L. P. Nidamarty
Fig. 7. Lomb–Scargle power spectrum of CRI time series during 1965–2018 [4]
Fig. 8. Hysteresis plot for Solar Cycle 24, and the linear regression fit to the data taken at
MCMD (McMurdo), NEWK (Newark), SOPO (South Pole), THUL (Thule) stations [5]
Galactic Cosmic Energy - A Novel Mode of Energy Harvesting 463
The count rate of Cosmic rays in the mentioned stations was duly noted and was
computed and compared over a large time interval. The result pointed to the fact that
the Cosmic Ray count doesn’t peak over 2016 as the model seems to compress beyond
that timeline. Also, the Rigidity cut off (Rc) was observed to be the highest at the
NEWK station located at 75.8oW 39.7oN, while the least was found at SOPO station
with the coordinates of 0.0oE 90.0oS [5] (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Cosmic Ray intensity measured by neutron monitors with vertical lines depicting the
approximate epochs of solar magnetic field polarity reversals [5].
Fig. 10. Deflection of the charged particles in the presence of electric field [6]
narrow aperture to produce high-intensity beams. Due to high mass compared to the
electron, the scattering of the proton beam is less and thus it helps in promoting better
penetration. The focused ionising proton beam, could be then incident on a photo-
electric crystal. The possibility of inverse Compton scattering effect could be expected
as very high energy proton loses its energy to the metal that could produce relatively
lower energy radiation, compared to the incident energy. The inverse Compton effect is
to be achieved under supervised conditions in the presence of magnetic field, as the
scattering is random motion of particles with high velocities. The scattering of high
energy particles from the photoelectric crystal are to be focused on a lens such that the
emissions from the lens fall under the IR region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This
set up based on available technology requires high powered lens arranged in series. The
energy developed by the congregation of the powerful lenses will be made to emit the
desired radiation which could be transferred to the ground station on the earth with
minimum losses as it cuts through the atmosphere, in the form of highly focused
LASER and hence could be recovered using Compton’s scattering effect on the earth’s
surface. Once the energy of the CR has been recovered, the electricity could be gen-
erated by using the regular system of energy extraction of using steam cycles where the
steam is generated by the recovered CR energy at the ground station.
5 Conclusions
As a part of the efforts to find an alternative renewable mode of energy which has a
scope in the future in regards to the energy generation, the paper presented a hypo-
thetical analysis of the possible conditions that could lead us to harvest the galactic
cosmic radiation. The availability of the cosmic radiation around the earth when pre-
dicted accurately could help us derive the energy from the incoming galactic radiation.
The energy generated in the space could also help the other crafts in the orbits by
providing them with energy thereby standing as an energy bank for the satellites and
spacecraft. The scope for generating such energy is always on the table and research
efforts must be focused to harvest such promising energy resource.
References
1. Jon Rask MA (2008) Space faring-the radiation challenge. Retrieved from NASA. www.nasa.
gov/pdf/284273main_Radiation_HS_Mod1.pdf
2. Obermeier A, Ave M (2011) Energy spectra of primary and secondary cosmic-ray nuclei
measured with TRACER. Astrophys J 742:14 (11p). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637x/742/
1/14
3. Abbasi RU (2019) Mass composition of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays with the telescope
array. Phys Rev D 99:022002-1–022002-11
4. Tsichla M, Gerontidou M (2019) Spectral analysis of solar and geomagnetic parameters in
relation to cosmic ray intensity for the time period 1965–2018. Solar Phys 294:15. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11207-019-1403-0
5. Ross E, Chaplin WJ (2019) The behaviour of galactic cosmic-ray intensity during solar
activity cycle 24. Solar Phys 294:8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-019-1397-7
6. Abhiyan P (2014) Energy harvesting from solar wind. J Energy Res Environ Technol 1:33–36
Infrared Heating - A New Green Technology
for Process Intensification in Drying
of Purslane Leaves to Reduce
the Thermal Losses
1 Introduction
1.1 Purslane Leaves
Purslane is a common weed which cultivated/grown on all over the globe. It has high
resistance against infestation because of its high seed production per plant. Purslane is
also called as “power food of the future” as it has many nutritional and medicinal
benefits. It can also cultivate in soil with poor availability of water during germination
period and can with stand the salt content in the soil moderately.
Preparation of Mineral Solution: One gram of the finely powdered sample was
exactly weighed into 100 or 150 ml conical flask. 10 ml of the Triacid mixture was
added to the sample and funnel was kept over the flask. The contents were left over-
night for cold digestion. The next day the contents were digested at low temperature for
about 2–3 h on a hot plate. The temperature of the hot plate was increased to 200 °C,
till the contents became white and the major portion of the Perchloric acid ceases to
appear on heating. Then the flask was removed from the hot plate, cooled and diluted to
20 ml, passed through filter paper (Whatman No. 1), this filtrate was used for mea-
surement of micro nutrients
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy: The samples were analyzed using atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) model for determination of Iron at a wavelength
of 499 nm. The method used was by direct aspiration of sample digest, using an air
acetylene flame. “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) is a technique for measuring
quantities of chemical elements present in environmental samples by measuring the
absorbed radiation by the chemical element of interest. This is done by reading the
spectra produced when the sample is excited by radiation”.
From the Tables 1, 2 and 3, the yield of the dried products also observed more in
the case of infrared drying than tray drying method
80
70
60
MC (kg/kg)
50
40 50˚C
30 60˚C
20 70˚C
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Drying time (min)
0.9
0.8
0.7
DR (kg/kg.min)
0.6
0.5 50˚C
0.4
60˚C
0.3
0.2 70˚C
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80
MC (kg/kg)
90
80
70
60
MC (kg/kg)
50 50˚C
40
60˚C
30
20 70˚C
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Drying time (min)
Fig. 4. Moisture content vs Drying time of purslane using Infrared drying method
8
7
6
DR (kg/kg.min)
5
4 50˚C
3 60˚C
2 70˚C
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
MC (kg/kg)
Fig. 5. Drying rate vs Moisture content of purslane using Infrared Drying method
Table 4. Comparison between Tray drier and infrared drier at 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C
Temperature ( °C) Iron (mg/100 gm)
Tray drying Infrared Drying
50 1.599 1.78
60 1.437 1.61
70 1.338 1.49
From Table 4 it is evident that during tray drying as the temperature is changing from
50 °C to 60 °C, iron content decreased from 1.599 mg to 1.437 mg and from 60 °C to
70 °C, iron content reduced from 1.437 mg to 1.338 mg. Whereas in the infrared
drying, changed from 1.78 to 1.49 mg per 100 gm. The Iron content in fresh purslane
leaves was found to be 1.99 mg. Iron content at 50 °C and 60 °C are closer to the iron
content in the fresh leaves
Table 5. Comparison between Tray drier and infrared drier at 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C
Temperature ( °C) Calcium (mg/100 gm)
Tray drying Infrared drying
50 61.23 64.17
60 57.14 61.32
70 52.56 58.44
3.2.2 Calcium
From Table 5 it is observed that in tray drying as the temperature from changed from
50 °C to 60 °C, calcium content reduced from 61.23 mg to 57.14 mg and from 60 °C
to 70 °C, calcium content reduced from 57.14 mg to 52.56 mg. where as in infrared
474 D. Kodandaram Reddy et al.
drying, with the change in the temperature from 50 °C to 60 °C, calcium content
reduced from 64.17 mg to 61.32 mg and with the change in the temperature from 60 °
C to 70 °C, calcium reduced from 61.32.14 mg to 58.44 mg. Calcium content in fresh
purslane leaves was found to be 65 mg.
3.3 Colour
For fresh purslane leaves the values are: L* = 54.37, a* = −2.46, b* = 15.60
With the increase in the temperature, brightness decreased and the samples became
lighter. The greenness of the samples decreased and yellowness of the samples
increased with the increase in the temperature. Infrared radiation could retain more
color than the conventional method of tray drying (Table 6).
4 Conclusions
Infrared heating took lesser time for drying when compared to tray drying. Yield in
Infrared heater is higher when compared to tray dryer. Color measurement indicated
that greenness decreased and samples became lighter with an increase in drying air
temperature. Analysis of iron has shown that with the increase in the temperature iron
content decreased. Iron content at temperature of 50 °C and 60 °C is closer to the iron
content in fresh leaves. Analysis of calcium has shown that with the increase in the
temperature calcium content decreased. Calcium content at temperature of 50 °C and
60 °C is closer to the calcium content in fresh leaves. Infrared radiation could retain
more iron, calcium and color than the conventional method of tray drying.
Acknowledgments. The authors wish to thank for the supports received from Head, Department
of Food Technology Srinivas Maloo, Principal Prof. R. Shyam Sundar, Dean Prof. Ravindranath
and entire teaching and non-teaching staff of Food Technology and College of Technology,
Osmania University. We would also like to extend our sincere thanks to the entire teaching and
non-teaching staff of JNTU Ananthpuram for their unconditional support
Infrared Heating - A New Green Technology for Process Intensification 475
References
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(2000) The analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Portulaca oleracea L. subsp. sativa
(Haw) Celak. J Ethnopharmacol 73:445–451
2. Arslan D (2008) Evaluation of drying methods with respect to drying kinetics, mineral
content and color characteristics of rosemary leaves. Energy Convers Manag 49(5):1258–
1264
3. Kodandaram Reddy D, Waghray K, Satyanarayana SV, Harika P (2017) The effect of
infrared radiation on native enzymes-a study on potato. Int J Eng Sci Inven 6(7):42–45 ISSN
(Online): 2319-6734, ISSN (Print): 2319-6726
4. Ranganna S (1986) Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruit and vegetable
products, 2nd edn
5. Doymaz I (2013) Hot air drying of purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.). Heat Mass Trans
49:835–841
6. Doymaz I (2007) Thin layer drying of spinach leaves in a convective dryer
7. Ahmed J, Shiv Hare US, Singh G (2001) Drying characteristics and product quality of
coriander leaves. Department of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University,
India
8. Li Y, Morey V (1987) Thin-layer drying rates and quality of cultivated American ginseng.
Trans ASAE 30:842–847
9. Levey GA (1993) The new power food. Parade Magazine, The Washington Post, p 5
10. Lewicki PP, Witrowa-Rajchert D, Nowak D (1998) Effect of drying mode on drying kinetics
of onion. Dry Technol 16(1&2):59–81
11. Uddin MK, Juraimi AS, Hossain MS, Un A, Nahar M, Ali ME, Rahman MM (2014)
Purslane weed (Portulaca oleracea): a prospective plant source of nutrition, omega-3 fatty
acid, and antioxidant attributes. Sci World J 2014, Article ID 951019
12. Gonnella M, Charfeddine M, Conversa M, Santamaria P (2010) Purslane: a review of its
potential for health and agricultural aspects. Eur J Plant Sci Biotechnol 4:131–136
13. Kashaninejad M, Tabil LG (2007) Drying characteristics of purslane (Portulaca oleraceae L.)
14. Rocha T, Lebert A, Audouin CM (1992) Effect of drying conditions and of blanching on
drying kinetics of mint (MenthaspicataHuds.) and basil (Ocimumbasilicum). In: Mujum-
dar AS (ed) Drying 1992. Elsevier Science, pp 1360–1368
15. Sandu C (1986) Infrared radiation drying in food engineering: a process analysis. Biotechnol
Prog 2(3):109–119
16. Karaaslan S, Erdem T, Oztekin S (2013) Mathematical modelling and color characteristics of
purslane (Portulaca oleraceae L.) leaves using different drying methods
17. Zbicinski I, Jakobsen A, Driscoll JL (1992) Application of infrared radiation for drying of
particular materials. In: Mujumdar AS (ed) Proceedings of the international drying
symposium IDS 1992. Elsevier, part A, New York, pp 704–711
Grey Relational Analysis of EDM Process
Parameters for Incoloy-800
1 Introduction
The machine, workpiece and electrode material used to carry out the experiments are
explained below. The methodology implemented including design factors and response
variable for the experimentation is also outlined.
point = 94 °C to flush internally with a pressure of 0.70307 kg/cm2. The pulsed dis-
charge current in positive mode was applied in various steps.
In this experiment, using three different electrode materials viz. copper, graphite
and composite electrode CW75 (25% Copper, 75% Tungsten) of size 10 100 mm2
were used to find the optimum electrode with respect to better surface finish.
Experimental data was analyzed using Grey Relational Analysis (GRA). GRA has
three major steps involved starting with pre-processing of data. This analysis is
required when one data unit is differing from others or if it has large scattering of
sequence range and this is the method for studying date sequence by transferring the
original to a comparable sequence. So, the data needs to follow normalization, scaling
and polarization first into comparable sequence beforehand which is called as gener-
ation of grey relation or standard processing. The other processes involve in these steps
are normalization and representative of data.
EWR and Surface Roughness has to be follow the lower the better criterion, which
can be expressed as
D0j ¼ kx0ðkÞ xiðkÞk ¼ difference between absolute value of x0ðkÞ and xiðkÞ ð3Þ
From the Table 8, it is observed that experiment 9 has obtained rank 1, which
represents that particular experiment’s parameters helps in achieving better output
responses altogether.
5 Conclusion
References
1. Muthukumar V, Rajesh N, Venkatasamy R, Sureshbabu A, Senthilkumar N (2014)
Mathematical modeling for radial overcut on electrical discharge machining of Incoloy 800
by response surface methodology. Procedia Mater Sci 6(Icmpc):1674–1682
2. Kumar M (2013) Wear studies on Incoloy-800 and prediction of wear by ANN model, pp 1–
12
3. Chen WS, Kai W, Tsay LW, Kai JJ (2014) The oxidation behavior of three different zones of
welded Incoloy 800H alloy. Nucl Eng Des 272:92–98
4. Sherif EM, Seikh AH (2015) Effect of exposure period and temperature on the corrosion of
Incoloy® alloy 800TM in hydrochloric acid pickling solutions. Int J Electrochem Sci 10:1843–
1854
5. P. V. Committee and S. Metals (1969) INCOLOY alloy 800
6. Dongre G, Zaware S, Dabade U, Joshi SS (2015) Multi-objective optimization for silicon
wafer slicing using wire-EDM process. Mater Sci Semicond Process 39:793–806
Computation of Kinematic Redundancy
and Its Workspace in RRRR Planar
Kinematic Chain
1 Introduction
A resistant body is one which does not undergo deformation while transmitting the
force, each resistant body in a machine that moves relative to another resistant body is
called a Kinematic link. A kinematic chain is an assembly of rigid bodies connected by
joints to provide constrained motion which provides a mathematical relationship for
any mechanical system. When one of the links of a chain is fixed then it is called as a
mechanism, these have always been the subject of extensive research interest. In for-
ward kinematics, we use kinematic equations and relations of a robot to compute the
position of the end-effector from specific joint and link parameters. Inverse kinematics
makes use of the kinematics equations and relations to determine the joint parameters
that provide the desired position for each of the robot’s links and end-effector. Kine-
matic redundancy is having more degrees of freedom than strictly required to perform a
specific task. Specifying the movement of a robot such that its end-effectors achieve the
desired task is known as motion planning.
2 Methodology
The methodology includes three main criterions, firstly preparation of a virtual model
as per our specifications, secondly defining the origin and link lengths, finally com-
puting the results by following the experimentation for end-effector criterions.
‘Q°’ is angle of link in (Degrees), ‘A’ is area of Locus in (cm2), ‘L’ is length of link
in (cm), (x1, y1) is a point of origin of chain, (x2, y2) is Locus of joint-2, (x3, y3) is locus
of joint-3, (x4, y4) is locus of joint-4, (x5, y5) is the position of end-effector.
The mentioned methodology is described in detail below.
2.1 Model
Considering a model of RRRR (R- Revolute) planar kinematic chain of four links with
lengths L1, L2, L3, L4, angles Q1°, Q2°, Q3°, Q4° as shown in Fig. 1a. An angle of a
link is measured relative to the x-axis or horizontal axis where an anti-clockwise
direction is positive (+Q°) and the clockwise direction is considered as negative (−Q°)
as shown in Fig. 1b.
Computation of Kinematic Redundancy and Its Workspace 485
2.3 Experimentation
The main constraints of this kind of workspace are limiting lengths of links and their
interference. The parameters are as follows: L1 = 30 cm, L2 = 15 cm, L3 = 15 cm,
L4 = 20 cm. After computing arrays of points (x2, y2), (x4, y4) and (x3, y3) distance
from each point on (Circle-1) to (x3, y3) is calculated, if the distance equals to L2 with
precision of 1e−04 cm then the case is considered as a feasible position, later the locus
of (x3, y3) is computed again to next point on circle-2 this process continues till all the
points on circles are completed. This process is done for different end-effector (x5, y5)
486 S. A. Komakula
points (50, 50), (20, 35), (4, 10) with (x1, y1) as origin. The points and links that satisfy
these conditions are plotted between its joint parameters.
ðx x1 Þ2 þ ðy y1 Þ2 ¼ ðL1 Þ2 : ð1Þ
ðx x1 Þ2 þ ðy y1 Þ2 ¼ ðL2 Þ2 : ð2Þ
ðx x1 Þ2 þ ðy y1 Þ2 ¼ ðL1 þ L2 Þ2 : ð3Þ
ðx x5 Þ2 þ ðy y5 Þ2 ¼ ðL4 þ L3 Þ2 : ð4Þ
ðx x1 Þ2 þ ðy y1 Þ2 ¼ ðL1 L2 Þ2 : ð5Þ
ðx x5 Þ2 þ ðy y5 Þ2 ¼ ðL4 L3 Þ2 : ð6Þ
(1) is the equation of circle-1 i.e. end path traced with (x1, y1) as centre and radius
L1, (2) is the equation of circle-2 i.e. end path traced with (x5, y5) as centre and radius
L4, (3) is the equation of circle-3 i.e. end path traced with (x1, y1) as centre and radius
L1 + L2, (4) is the equation of circle-4 i.e. end path traced with (x5, y5) as centre and
radius L4 + L3, (5) is the equation of circle-5 i.e. end path traced with (x1, y1) as center
and radius L1 − L2, (6) is the equation of circle-6 i.e. end path traced with (x5, y5) as
center and radius L4 − L3.
After the experimentation acquired results are presented here with respect to graphs in
detail according to the case study’s I–III.
Fig. 3. (a) Locus of joints, (b) Possible paths of links, (c) Angle Q3° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q4°, (d) Angle
Q4° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q3°
circle-5 and circle-6 interacting with the locus of joint-3, when distance from origin to
end-effector is less than L1 − L2 + L3 + L4 circle-5 influences locus of joint-3, and
when distance from origin to end-effector is less than L1 + L2 + L3 − L4 circle-6
influences locus of joint-3. Figure 4b shows the paths of links in a possible number of
positions obtained in this case. Figure 4c shows the influence of Q3 on Q1, Q2, Q4
similarly Fig. 4d shows the influence of Q4 on Q1, Q2, Q3, maximum and minimum
possible angles at four joints are shown in the table below. From the above figures we
can observe a complete discontinuity in angle Q4 from −132.1° to −106.9° this is due
to the interaction of circle-6 with circle-3 on the exterior of circle-1 which means for
any possible position of the chain for this case Q4 cannot have these angles (Table 2).
Fig. 4. (a) Locus of joints, (b) Possible paths of links, (c) Angle Q3° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q4°, (d) Angle
Q4° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q3°
Computation of Kinematic Redundancy and Its Workspace 489
Fig. 5. (a) Locus of joints, (b) Possible paths of links, (c) Angle Q3° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q4°, (d) Angle
Q4° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q3°
490 S. A. Komakula
After the computation has been carried out to determine workspace and kinematic
redundancy of different cases, the summarized results of above all case studies are
presented below in Table 4 with condition (x1, y1) as the origin (0, 0).
From the above case study’s (I-III) we can observe that the coordinates of joint-3
(x3, y3) in Cartesian workspace must satisfy all the below four conditions.
4 Conclusions
The results obtained showed that by changing the end-effector position there is a
significant change in the redundancy of the robot. As the distance from the origin to the
end-effector decreases, there is an increase in the area of locus of joints, redundant
workspace and range of joint angles. This type of analysis helps us in effectively
positioning the end-effector link with respect to other links and joints in a Cartesian
workspace by establishing their angles and locations in order to perform the given task.
The number of redundant paths obtained depends on the precision of computation
but the area and range of angles remain similar. Though computation has been done for
a few points, this kind of study will help us quench the thirst for the hunt of high-
performance robots.
References
1. Campos A, Martins D, Guenther R. Differential kinematics of robot manipulators using
virtual chains. Robotics Laboratory - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Campus
Trindade, 88040-900 Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
2. Tsai L-W (1999) Robot analysis: the mechanics of serial and parallel manipulators. Wiley,
New York
Computation of Kinematic Redundancy and Its Workspace 491
Abstract. In the past few decades, vegetable fibers became the viable alter-
native to petroleum-based fibers in composite industry, due to their renewability,
biodegradability and eco-friendly properties. In the present work, a new leaf
fiber extracted from Furcraea Foetida Mediopicto (ffm) plant, has been char-
acterized and reported. Morphological, physical, mechanical and thermal
properties of ffm fiber were examined by performing comprehensive charac-
terization. Findings revealed that ffm fibers have an average low density and
better mechanical properties compared to other fibers. Micro structural exami-
nation revealed the cross-section of the ffm fiber is the honeycomb structure.
XRD analysis indicated the 49.7% crystalline content of ffm fiber. TG and DTA
analysis revealed that ffm fibers are thermally stable up to 360 °C. Present
investigation, indicates that ffm fibers are highly suitable as reinforcement
agents in polymeric matrices for various light weight-medium load-thermal
insulation applications.
1 Introduction
The mechanical use of natural fibers as composite material inclusions began toward the
start of the twentieth century, the synthetic fibers were being the traditional rein-
forcements for various applications, the drawbacks of having properties which include
high density, high cost, non-renewability, non-recyclability, high energy consumption,
non-biodegradability and health hazard contents, led the researchers to shift their focus
to natural fibers. Yet, the natural fibers are not free from few disadvantages which
include moisture absorption and low degree of resilience, people keep investigating to
improve the properties for appropriate applications [1, 2]. For instance, research
method which demonstrated RTM flax embedded polyester-specifically for wind tur-
bine edges application, acquired the Asia 2013 Innovation Award due to potential
supplanting for those embedded with glass fiber [3]. Moreover, due to natural fiber’s
many superlative-unique properties, researchers have started to overcome the
drawbacks. Recently, Popzyk and Klein [4] have won 2017’s DNFI Award for their
submission on “Reduction of the moisture absorption of natural fibers and production
of no-twist yarns for use in structural components” and this shows the continuous
exploration on natural fibers by the researchers.
Since the past 15–20 years, many researchers have investigated few bio-wastes for
various applications. Characterizations of Alfa fiber [5], betel nut leaf fiber [6],
sansaveriacynlindrica fiber [7], Albiziaamara bark fiber [8], fiber extracted Ipomoea
staphylina plant [9] and Prosopisjuliflora bark fibers [10] reflects the serious research
on various species plants which are simply garden plants or plants for no use grown in
wastelands. The present work mainly intended to introduce and characterize one more
new natural fiber for increasing the input of raw fibers for various applications. Fur-
craea Foetida Mediopicto (ffm), is a garden plant native to the Caribbean and northern
South America. It is a perennial evergreen-succulent plant belongs to Asparagaceae
family, consists of a dark green rosette of lance shaped-leathery leaves. Each leaf can
grow up to 150 cm tall and 15 cm wide are not tipped with a sharp spine as in case of
most of the agave plants. Furcreo Foetedo Mediopicta plant will grow in rich well-
drained soils, has a lifespan of 8–22 years and puts a flowering stem towards the end of
its life. Furcraea Foetida Mediopicto is a tropical and subtropical plant, which will live
and grow in the sunshine where the temperatures are above 25 °C [11, 12]. The authors
of present work have observed the fibers in the leaves of Furcraea Foetida Mediopicto
plant and investigated potentiality of the fiber for various applications.
2 Method
The fibers are extracted from healthy leaves of ffm plant; the leaves are retted in water
for 21 days. From there on, juicy ffm leaves were taken from the water, delicately
crushed and beaten to expel the greenish flesh from fiber strands. Each well-grown leaf
of ffm plant approximately weighs 300 gms and contains around 600 fibers of length
0.8–1 m, which are ivory in color and with very less glazing unlike henequen and
agave angustufolia fibers. These fibers have been sun-dried for two days and put in
polythene cover and used for further investigations. ffm plant, identified fibers in the
leaf, retting of leaves, extracted fibers and sundried fibers are shown in Fig. 1.
The extracted fibers are subjected to following tests to find: Density, Micro
structural analysis through SEM, Thermo Gravimetric Analysis, Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy for finding organic or inorganic material (chemical group), and
tensile properties.
Table 1. ffm fiber density is listed in comparison with other natural fibers
Fibre Density (kg/m3)
ffm 891.3
Date (L) 990
Bamboo (M) 910
Jute 1300
sisal 1500
flax 1500
Rectophyllumcamurunense 947
be assured that ffm fiber contains hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin contents. Beakou
et al. [14] have investigated the microstructure of a Rhectophyllumcamerunense plant
fiber. It is widely known from the literature [15] that, the presence of trichrome can
enhances the mechanical bonding of fiber with polymeric matrices and this fact assures
ffm fibers are good embedment for polymeric composites.
the stretch of C-O of the acetyl group of hemicelluloses [17, 18]. The peak at
2853 cm−1 shows the alkyl saturated C-H and CH2 (methylene group) stretching
vibrations. The degradation of C-H stretch of alkyl and methylene (CH2) group can be
observed from the peak at 2922 cm−1 [5]. The COOH bending band was present at
666 cm−1 band. The presence of peak at 1372 cm−1 denotes the CH2 symmetric
bending. The peak at 1244 cm−1 shows the stretch of C-O of acetyl group of lignin
[18]. This extracted spectra from FTIR, confirm the existence of hemicelluloses, lignin
and cellulose chemical components in the ffm fiber.
Table 3. ffm fiber tensile properties is listed in comparison with other natural fibers
Fiber Tensile Tensile % of Specific Specific Reference
strength Modulus elongation tensile tensile
(MP) (GPa) strength modulus
(MPa/kg m−3) (MPa/kg m−3)
ffm 56 ± 12 4.5 ± 1.85 16.05 ± 5.2 0.06282 ± 0.12 5.04 ± 0.57 Present
work
Date (L) 309 11.32 2.73 0.3121 11.44 [20]
Bamboo (C) 341 19.67 1.73 0.3831 22.10 [20]
Jute 393–773 26.5 1.5–1.8 0.302–0.594 20.38 [21]
Sisal 511–675 9.4–22.0 2.0–2.5 0.3407–0.4233 6.3–14.7 [21]
RC average 557.1 5.8 27.5 0.5883 6.1 [18]
Palm fiber 80–248 0.5–3.2 17–25 0.05161–0.354 0.333–4.571 [22]
Glass-E 2000– 70 2.5 0.80–1.400 28.0 [18]
3500
left-out fiber probably cellulose content was found to be 19.7% in terms of weight, at
the temperature 620 °C. From the DTG peak, the peak temperature was determined
which shows maximum decomposition rate with respect to time and the tailing region
indicates end of fiber decomposition. From Fig. 5, it is also observed that, the peak
degradation temperature (PDT) for the ffm fiber is 200 °C with the maximum mass
decomposition to be 0.51 mg/min.
110.0
100.0 1.600
90.0
1.400
5.9%
80.0
M o istu re c o n te n t 1.200
70.0 74.4%
1.000
DTG mg/min
60.0 c a rb o n c o m p o u n d s
TG %
50.0 0.800
40.0
0.600
30.0
R e sid u e c o n te n t
1 9 .7 %
0.400
20.0
0.200
10.0
0.0 0.000
50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 350.0 400.0 450.0 500.0 550.0 600.0 650.0
Temp Cel
From the TGA analysis, it can be concluded that the ffm fibers are thermally stable
till 360 °C. This value is higher than carao (190 °C), olive husk (200 °C), areca fruit
(240 °C), grass (301 °C) and henequen (300 °C) [13, 22–25] and indicates outstanding
thermal resistance of ffm against temperature loads. From the literature [26, 27], Net
epoxy will be stable up to 335 °C and the addition of lingo cellulose fibers to the epoxy
can further increase the composite’s thermal stability. This indicates, ffm fibers
embedment in polymeric matrix also, could make the respective composite to sustain
more thermal shocks than unreinforced matrix.
4 Conclusions
physico-mechanical properties and thermal stability. From the investigation the fol-
lowing prominent conclusions can be made: The presences of lignin and cellulose have
been confirmed through FTIR analysis ensures better rigidity and strength of ffm fiber.
Rough surface of the ffm fiber confirmed through micro structural analysis offers
mechanical interlocking with polymeric matrices and hence enhances the composite
performance. Additionally, low density (890.3 kg/mm3) and ordinary tensile properties
of ffm fiber gives sufficient specific strength for light weight-low to medium load
applications. The nature of the ffm fiber found to be semi-crystalline and large crys-
tallite size of fiber decreases the chemical and water absorption capacity. TG and DTA
analysis revealed that ffm fibers are thermally stable up to 360 °C. By the present
investigation, it can be bottom lined that ffm fibers are suitable as reinforcement agents
in polymeric matrices for various light weight-medium load-thermal insulation
applications.
References
1. Mohammed L, Ansari MN, Pua G, Jawaid M, Islam MS (2015) A review on natural fiber
reinforced polymer composite and its applications. Int J Polym Sci 1:1–15
2. Lackey E, James GV, Kapil I (2008) Statistical characterization of pultruded composites
with natural fiber reinforcements – part a: fabrication. J Nat Fibers 4:73–87
3. Shah DU, Schubel PJ, Clifford MJ (2013) Can flax replace E-glass in structural composites?
A small wind turbine blade case study. Compos Part B: Eng 52:172–181
4. Popzyk, Klein (2017) DNFI awards. Discovery of natural fibres initiative
5. Paiva MC, Ammar I, Campos AR, Cheikh RB, Cunha AM (2017) Alfa fibers: mechanical,
morphological and interfacial characterization. Compos Sc Tech 67:1132–1138
6. Arifuzzaman Khan GM, Shahrear Palash SR, Shamsul Alam M, Chakraborty AK,
Gafur MA, Terano M (2012) Isolation and characterization of betel nut leaf fiber: its
potential application in making composites. J Pol Comput 33:764–772
7. Sreenivasan VS, Somasundaram S, Ravindran D, Manikandan V, Narayanasamy R (2011)
Microstructural physico-chemical and mechanical characterization of Sansevieriacylindri-
cafibres – an exploratory investigation. J Mater Des 32:453–461
8. Senthamaraikannan P, Sanjay MR, Subrahmanya Bhat K, Padmaraj NH, Jawaid M (2018, in
press) Characterization of natural cellulosic fibre from bark of Albiziaamara. J Nat Fibres.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1453432
9. Santhanam K, Kumaravel A, Saravanakumar SS, Arthanarieswaran VP (2016) Character-
ization of new natural cellulosic fibre from the Ipomoea staphylina plant. IJPAC 21:267–274
10. Saravanakumar SS, Kumaravel A, Nagarajan T, Sudhakard P, Baskarane R (2013)
Characterization of a novel natural cellulosic fiber from Prosopisjuliflora bark. Carbohydr
Polym 92:1928–1933
11. Villagenurseries, furcraea-foetida mediopicta. https://www.villagenurseries.com/product/
furcraea-foetida-medio-picta/
12. My bageecha, furcraea-foetida-medio-picta. https://mybageecha.com/products/furcraea-
foetida-mediopicta
13. Binoj JS, Edwin Raj R, Sreenivasan VS, Rexin Thusnavis G (2016) Morphological,
physical, mechanical, chemical and thermal characterization of sustainable Indian Areca fruit
husk fibres (Areca Catechu L.) as potential alternate for hazardous synthetic fibres. J Bionic
Eng 13:156–165
500 P. Yasin et al.
14. Beakou A, Ntenga R, Lepetit J, Ateba JA, Ayina LO (2008) Physico-chemical and
microstructural characterization of ‘‘Rhectophyllumcamerunense’’ plant fibre. Compos:
Part A 39:67–74
15. Yusriah L, Sapuan SM, Zainudin ES, Mariatti M (2014) Characterization of physical,
mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of agro-waste betel nut (areca catechu.)
husk fibre. J Cleaner Prod 72:174–180
16. Spinace MAS, Lambert CS, Fermoselli KKG, De Paoli M-A (2009) Characterization of
lignocellulosiccurauafibres. J. Carbohydr Polym 77:47–53
17. Biagiotti J (2004) A systematic investigation on the influence of the chemical treatment of
natural fibers on the properties of their polymer matrix composites. Polym Compos 25:470–
479
18. Liu W, Mohanty AK, Drzal LT, Askel P, Misra M (2004) Effects of alkali treatment on the
structure, morphology and thermal properties of native grass fibers as reinforcements for
polymer matrix composites. J Mater Sci 39:1051–1054
19. ASTM D3379-75 (1975) Test method for tensile strength and young’s modulus for high-
modulus single-filament materials. ASTM standard
20. Murherjee PS, Satyanarayana KG (1984) Structure properties of some vegetable fibres, part
1. Sisal fibre. J Mater Sci 19:3925–3934
21. Zeriouh A, Belbirl L (1995) Thermal decomposition of a Moroccan wood under a nitrogen
atmosphere. J Thermochimia Acta 258:243–248
22. D’Almeida ALFS, Barreto DW, Calado V, d’Almeida JRM (2008) Thermal analysis of less
common lignocellulosicfibres. J Therm Anal Cal 91:405–408
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composites materials based on polypropylene load with olive husk flour. J Appl Polym Sci
122:1382–1394
24. Sgriccia N, Hawley MC (2007) Thermal morphological and electrical characterization of
microwave processed natural fibre composites. Compos Sci Technol 67:1986–1991
25. Yang H, Yan R, Chen H, Lee DH, Zheng C (2007) Characteristics of hemicelluloses,
cellulose and lignin pyrolysis. Fuel 86:1781–1788
26. Zhang XJ, Yi XS, Xu YZ (2008) Cure-induced phase separation of epoxy/DDS/PEK-C
composites and its temperature dependency. J Appl Polym Sci 109:2195–2206
27. Li G, Li P, Zhang C, Yu Y, Liu H, Zhang S, Jia X, Yang X, Xue Z, Ryu S (2008) In
homogeneous toughening of carbon fiber/epoxy composite using electro spun polysulfo-
nenano fibrous membranes by in situ phase separation. J. Compos Sci Tech 68:987–994
Computational Analysis of Cavitation
Structures on a Ship Propeller
1 Introduction
Today the ships can be described in different methods, but most of them have fun-
damentally the same propulsion (Colley 2012; Chen 2015) as shown in Fig. 1. The
back side of the blade, which is in motion direction is always at very low pressures
(Colley 2012). We all know that, cavitation is a multiphase complex occurrence, due to
this here three different definitions is given below (Knapp et al. 1970).
• When the static pressure of liquid reaches to low pressures (vapor pressures) or
below to it (Coutier-Delgosha et al. 2003).
• Formation phase, growth and collapse phase of bubbles in liquid medium (Young
1989).
• The collapse will take place in liquid at high pressures (Franc and Michel 2004).
The repeated collapse of these cavitation bubbles on blade surface causes erosion,
vibration and noise. Frank et al. (2007) studied the ship propeller and concluded that,
by using CFD it is still difficult to predict cavitation at high pressure fluctuations. Chen
VA 2 2 2
Where nD is coefficient of advance (J), nDv is Reynolds number (Re) and ngDD is
Froude number (Fr). In general, the ship propeller is generally operated far away from
the free surface of liquid and doesn’t produce any surface waves, so Froude number can
be ignored.
Till now, the cavitation effects have been studied by many researchers by experi-
ments. It involves high cost due to construction of cavitation water tunnels. Because of
this, it is highly important to explore the CFD simulation techniques and cavitation
models (Frank et al. 2007; Chen 2015). At the same time, in most of the papers, the most
severe off design operating conditions are not properly studied. In this paper, the CFD
simulations are performed at the same experimental conditions and results are compared.
Computational Analysis of Cavitation Structures on a Ship Propeller 503
The ship propeller (Marine Trinket propeller) having 6 number of blades is modelled
by using CATIA V5 R 19. The blade is modelled by taking several sections at various
radii, and are rotated through their respective pitch angles as shown in Fig. 2(a). The
computational domain consider for analysis is a cylindrical domain of length and
diameter 23 m, which is ten times the propeller diameter and having a rotational speed
of 1500 RPM as shown in Figs. 2(b) and 3.
Fig. 2. (a) Modelled ship propeller, and (b) Generation of mesh refinement around the blades
Fig. 3. Computational fluid domain considered and boundary conditions for CFD analysis
504 C. Syamsundar and P. Usha Sri
At the inlet boundary, a uniform velocity of 6.22 m/s was prescribed and at the
outlet, the atmospheric pressure was considered. Table 1 clearly shows the detailed
solver control parameters for both non cavitating and cavitating test conditions.
Computational simulations have been carried out at six different cavitation conditions
(r) i.e., 7.2, 5.1, 3.7 (design condition), 2.9, 2.3, and 1.9 respectively. The corre-
sponding inlet velocities are 5.2, 6.2, 7.2 (design condition), 8.2, 9.2 and 10.2 m/s. The
experimental and computational results are compared at cavitation number 3.7 (Paik
et al. 2013) as shown in Fig. 4, which shows a good agreement with experiments.
Figures 5 and 6(a–f), shows the variation of pressure on the front and back side of
ship propellers. From these figures, we can clearly visualize that, water got vaporized at
particular low pressure regions, which causes cavitation and flow separation. By clear
observation, it is also concluded that cavitation and flow separation mainly happens at
back side of the ship propeller and also at an outer blade location as shown in Fig. 7
(a)–(f).
Fig. 4. Comparison between (a) Kwang-Jun Paik et al. 2013, experimental results and
(b) Computational simulation outcomes at cavitation number 3.7
Computational Analysis of Cavitation Structures on a Ship Propeller 505
Fig. 5. Total pressure distribution at propeller inlet of cavitation numbers (a) 7.2, (b) 5.1, (c) 3.7
(design condition), (d) 2.9, (e) 2.3 and (f) 1.9 at a rotational speed of 1500 RPM
Fig. 6. Total pressure distribution on the propeller back side of cavitation numbers (a) 7.2,
(b) 5.1, (c) 3.7 (operating condition), (d) 2.9, (e) 2.3, and (f) 1.9, at a rotational speed of 1500
RPM
506 C. Syamsundar and P. Usha Sri
Fig. 7. Velocity stream lines of cavitation numbers (a) 7.2, (b) 5.1, (c) 3.7 (design condition),
(d) 2.9, (e) 2.3, and (f) 1.9 at rotational speed of 1500 RPM
4 Conclusions
From CFD simulations for different cavitation numbers (design and off design con-
dition), the main observations are;
1. Computational results are shown a very encouraging, good agreement with
experiments and they were reproducible.
2. At higher cavitation numbers, there is a small attached cavitation is observed
compared with lower cavitation numbers.
References
Morgut M, Nobile E (2012) Numerical predictions of cavitating flow around model scale
propellers by CFD and advanced model calibration
Sato K, Oshima A, Egashira H, Takano S (2009) Numerical prediction of cavitation and pressure
fluctuation around marine propeller
Kamal IM et al (2017) A CFD RANS cavitation prediction for propellers
Ghose JP, Gokarn RP (2004) Basic ship propulsion. Allied Publishers Pvt. Limited
Knapp RT, Daily JW, Hammitt FG (1970) Cavitation. McGraw-Hill Book Company, London
Coutier-Delgosha O, Reboud JL, Delannoy Y (2003) Numerical simulation of the unsteady
behaviour of cavitating ows. Int J Numer Methods Fluids 42:527–548
Young F (1989) Cavitation. Imperial College Press, London
Franc JP, Michel JM (2004) Fundamentals of Cavitation. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht
Colley E (2012) Analysis of flow around a ship propeller using open FOAM, pp 1–8
Sipilä T (2012) RANS analyses of cavitating propeller flows, Thesis for the degree of Licentiate
of Science in Technology, Aalto University School of Engineering
Frank T, Lifante C, Jebauer S, Kuntz M, Rieck K (2007) CFD simulation of cloud and tip vortex
cavitation on hydrofoils. In: 6th international conference on multiphase flow, ICMF 2007,
Leipzig, Germany, 9–13 July 2007, pp 1–5
Chen Z (2015) CFD investigation in scale effects on propellers with different blade area ratio.
Master thesis, Aalesund University College, Norway
Heat Transfer in Food Crop Dryer Using
Halogen Lamp
Abstract. Drying of food crop during post harvesting is essential to remove the
moisture content. Moisture removal is required to preserve the food crop from
spoilage due to micro-organisms. Moisture removal depends on the design of
the dryer and the heat distribution inside the dryer. Present work is the exper-
imental investigation to obtain uniform temperatures in a crop dryer by distri-
bution of heat using hot air at various positions in the chamber and using
halogen lamp at different wattage. Usage of two halogen lamps in the opposite
sides of the chamber is observed to get more variable and higher temperatures in
the chamber with lower power input.
1 Introduction
Post harvesting of food crops involves removal of excess moisture from the grains to
protect from spoilage due to the growth of micro-organisms. Farmers usually try to
achieve this by doing open sun drying (OSD). During open sun drying the fresh grains
from the field are dried by spreading either on mud plates or on concrete slabs. By
doing this, continuous monitoring of the drying process is required which further need
man hours and increase in post harvesting costs. Hence, the concept of controlled
drying is introduced in the industry. The drying takes place in a controlled environment
by using special equipment called dryer to remove the moisture content in the fresh
food grains by sending hot air. There are number of industrial dryers but are very
expensive for the farmers and availability is limited at the farm fields. Hence, most
often farmers do only open sun drying and loose a considerable quantity of food crop
due to spoilage [1]. Sahadev reviewed drying of food crops by open sun drying and
green house drying [2]. It was observed that the losses of agriculture products due to
OSD are remarkable and can be reduced by adapting to green house drying techniques.
However, green house drying is also climate dependent. Hence, drying in controlled
environment is most recommended. In open sun drying the solar radiation and con-
vection heat transfer phenomena are principal in drying. The heat required for drying
except in open sun is produced by heating the air using heating element, halogen lamp
or by Infra Red rays. Forced convection phenomenon is employed in the case of
heating element as air is blown over the hot surface. Tolmac et al. studied the
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 508–516, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_61
Heat Transfer in Food Crop Dryer Using Halogen Lamp 509
convection dryer with material transport and observed that the heat transfer during
drying involves loss due to air leaving the cabin, loss due to radiation and loss due to
conduction [3]. The overall convection heat transfer due to losses is found to be
100 W/m2K. Heat and mass transfer coefficients were reviewed [4] for various food
crops and dryers.
1. Heat transfer as per Newton’s law of cooling is given by
Q = hADT ð1Þ
Where
Q is the heat transfer rate from solid surface to the ambient fluid (W)
A is the surface area of the solid surface (m2)
h is the heat transfer coefficient w/m2K
ΔT is the difference in temperature of the solid wall and surrounding fluid
(K or °C)
2. Heat transfer by radiation phenomenon
Q=A ¼ r T4s T4a ð2Þ
Where
Q/A is the radiation heat flux (W/m2)
r is the Stephan-Boltzman constant 5.68 10−8 W/m2K4
Ts is the temperature of the radiation source (K)
Ta is the temperature of the chamber air (K)
3. Nusselt number for heating of foods in the form of slices and cylinders by hot air is
given by [5]
Where
NuD is the Nusselt number
ReD is the Reynolds number based
4. Heat gained by the air in the chamber is given by
Q ¼ m Cp D T ð4Þ
Where
m = mass of air = q/v
q = density of air
v = volume of the chamber
Cp = specific heat of air
ΔT = rise in temperature of chamber air
510 S. Madireddi et al.
Q ¼ m Cp D T ð5Þ
Where
m = mass of chamber material
Cp = specific heat of chamber material
ΔT = rise in temperature of chamber surface
6. Heat energy from halogen lamp ¼ Rated power 96:5 (6)
Halogen lamp converts for every 100 W put in 3.5 W to light and 96.5 W to heat [7]
7. Heat load from lamp = wattage usage factor ballast factor loadfactor (7)
for halogen lamps
usage factor = 1,
Ballast factor = 0.85 and load factor = 1
Wattage is the power input
2 Experimentation
A cubical chamber of 2 ft by 2 ft is employed for the purpose. Figure 1(a) shows the
space volumes in the chamber. The chamber is spatially divided as left, middle and
right planes considered vertically. Figure 1(b) shows chamber with thermocouples
placed in the left plane. Volumes V1 to V9 are the volumes in the right plane. Volumes
V1, V2, V3 are in the front side of right plane. Volumes V4, V5, V6 are in the middle
of the right plane. Volumes V7, V8, V9 are in the backside of the right plane. The
volumes are considered similarly for the middle and left planes. Heating of the space
volumes is done with case(i) hot air at 60 °C and 2.5 m/s speed, case (ii) halogen
lamp. Hot air inlet is once from the backside and once from the top of the chamber. For
case(ii), two halogen lamps are placed opposite to each other near volume V5 on each
side of the left and right vertical planes. The wattage of the lamps is changed from
150 W to 500 W each. Hot air generated by a heater at 1000 W is placed at the back of
the cabin. Temperatures T1 to T9 are measured in all these cases for every 10 min in
one hour duration. The values are plotted to find the distribution of temperature in the
entire chamber.
3.1 Heating by Hot Air from the Center of the Back Surface
of the Chamber
Figure 2 shows the temperatures in the chamber when the hot air is sent into the
chamber from the center of the back surface. The steady state is reached at 60 min for
the vertical middle plane and at 70 min for the right and left planes. Due to symmetry
of the chamber, the temperatures at the right and left planes are found to be same. The
Heat Transfer in Food Crop Dryer Using Halogen Lamp 511
Fig. 1. (a) Space volumes considered in the chamber showing vertical left, middle and right
planes (b) Chamber with thermocouples placed in the left plane.
temperatures are found to be nearly uniform. As the food products are not placed
currently in the chamber the air is free to circulate inside the chamber and escapes
through the 5 mm holes made in the top surface as shown in Fig. 1. The average
chamber temperature is observed as around 55 °C as there is a leakage of air from the
front door due to small gaps near the closing surface. Hence, we can conclude that the
position of hot air from the chamber back surface can create uniform temperatures. If
the chamber is made completely leak proof and let the air escapes only through the
vents in the top surface, higher temperatures can be created. By this the hot air takes
more amount of moisture from the products to be dried which are kept inside the
chamber.
60 60
o
o
50 50
T1
T2 T1
40 T3
T4
40 T2
T3
T4
T5
T5
T6
30 T7 30 T6
T7
T8 T8
T9 T9
20 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)
Fig. 2. Temperatures in the chamber with Hot air from the center of the back surface
512 S. Madireddi et al.
3.2 Heating by Hot Air from the Center of the Top Surface
of the Chamber
Figure 3 shows the rise in temperatures in the chamber when the hot air is blown into
the chamber from the center of the top surface.
60
Temperature( C)
70
o
o
T1
60 T2 50 T1
T3 T2
50 T4 T3
T5 40 T4
T6 T5
40 T7 T6
T8 30 T7
30 T9 T8
T9
20 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)
Fig. 3. Temperatures in the chamber when hot air from the center of the top surface
The temperatures are measured for time duration of 1 h. Temperatures in the mid
plane are slightly higher than that at the right/left planes. This is because of the direct
flow of hot air initially into the middle plane and the diffusion of hot air later into the
other planes or space volumes. However, the average temperature in the chamber
obtained is 62 °C which is higher than the earlier case of sending the hot air from the
back surface of the chamber. The power consumed in 1 h is 1 kW and the heat
absorbed by air is 367.75 W (Eq. 4).
3.3 Heating by Halogen Lamps Each One at Left and Right Surfaces
Temperatures are measured using thermocouples at the defined volumes in the chamber
space varying power supply to each bulb as 150 W, 200 W, 250 W and 500 W.
Figure 4 shows the temperatures T1 to T9 in space volumes V1 to V9 in the Mid and
Right/Left vertical planes at 500 W and 250 W.
The temperature near to the halogen lamp in the right/left planes shows the highest
value. The temperatures in the mid plane show slightly less than the right or left planes.
However, the average temperatures are 81.55 °C and 89 °C respectively for mid plane
and right/left plane at 500 W respectively with a difference of approximately 7 °C. The
average temperatures for 250 W are 61 °C and 66 °C with a difference of 5 °C. For
200 W and 150 W the average temperatures for mid and right planes are 53 °C and
59 °C, and 45 °C and 55 °C respectively. The difference in temperatures is 6 °C and
5 °C respectively for 200 W and 150 W. Hence with the halogen lamps on each side of
the chamber near uniform temperatures can be obtained. Figure 5 shows the average
temperatures in the planes. As the halogen lamp is near the right/left plane the tem-
peratures are slightly higher in the right-middle plane. And also the temperatures in the
Heat Transfer in Food Crop Dryer Using Halogen Lamp 513
Temperatures ( C)
70
o
o
T1
60 T2 80
T3 T1
50 T4 T2
T5 60 T3
40 T6 T4
T5
T7 T6
30 T8 40 T7
T9 T8
20 T9
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)
100 250 W - Temperatures at Mid Plane 100 250 W - Temperature at Right/Left plane
90 90
80 80
Temperatures ( C)
Temperatures ( C)
o
70 o 70
T1
60 T2
60
T3
50 T4
T5 50
T1
T2
T6 T3
40 T7
T8 40
T4
T5
T9 T6
30 30
T7
T8
T9
20 20
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)
Fig. 4. Temperatures in the Mid and Right vertical planes at 500 W and 250 W
front and back side space inside chamber are slightly lower in right/left/middle planes
than the middle space due to the effect of location of lamps. i.e. volume V5 in all
planes. However, when the material to be dried is placed in the chamber heat will be
dissipated by the air in the entire chamber. Natural convection takes place between the
wet material and nearby air leading to movement of air. Hence, the small difference in
temperatures (5 °C) can be neglected.
Safe moisture content is different for different food crops [6]. The required tem-
peratures can be obtained based on the quantity of the material to be dried. In the
present work, the chamber size is designed for a batch dryer with a capacity of 5 kg.
Table 1 gives the heat gained by the air in the chamber in one hour duration using the
Eq. 4. Energy from halogen lamp is estimated using Eq. 6. Heat transfer to the cabin
material is estimated using Eq. 5. It is interesting to note that the heat gained by air is
nearly equal to the total energy from the two lamps. With increase in time of heating
this value for 1000 W power input would have been reached to the total energy from
two lamps as the steady state temperatures are not reached in the 1 h duration
considered.
514 S. Madireddi et al.
Average Temperature ( C)
o
o
80 80
70
70
60 Middle-Front
60 Middle 50 Middle-Middle
Middle- Back
Left
Right 40 Left/Right-Front
50 Left/Right-Middle
30 Left/Right-Back
40 20
200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000
Power (W) Power (W)
Fig. 5. Temperatures in the chamber in each vertical plane and in the vertical space volumes in
each plane at different wattage of lamp
Table 1. Heat gained by the air in the chamber during heating by halogen bulb.
Power Heat energy Rise in the Heat gained by Heat transfer to the
(W) from halogen temperature of the chamber air cabin material in
lamp (W) air in 1 h (°C) (W) in 1 h 1 h (W)
1000 965 61.5 706.77 276.67
500 482.5 42 482 148.98
400 386 34 390 120.60
300 289.5 26 298 92.22
Fig. 6. (a) Temperatures in Left-Center-Right vertical plane space volumes (b) Average
temperatures in the vertical planes with heat source as hot air at top-center and 2 halogen lamps
on either side
4 Conclusions
Dryer cabin for food crops is fabricated and tested for distribution of heat using hot air
at 60 °C with 2.5 m/s velocity and with halogen lamp at different wattage. Hot air
heater at 1000 W could produce a maximum temperature of around 60 to 65 °C where
as by using halogen lamp higher temperatures (80 to 90 °C) are obtained for the same
power input. By varying the power input to halogen lamps the rise in chamber tem-
peratures observed are from 60 to 25 °C than the initial cabin air. As different food
crops need different drying temperatures, the results obtained from the present work
can be used to design the dryer with required capacity. The present chamber can also be
used for seed/commercial drying of different food crops like wheat, Ragi etc.
References
1. Government of Telangana Agriculture and cooperation department, Agriculture challenges
and way forward, A task Force report - NITI Aayog (2016)
2. Sahdev RK (2014) Open sun and greenhouse drying of agricultural and food products: a
review. Int J Eng Res Technol 3(3):1053–1066
3. Tolmac D, Prvulovic S, Radovanovic L (2008) Effects of heat transfer on convection dryer
with pneumatic transport of material. FME Trans 36:45–49
4. Krokida MK, Maroulis ZB, Marinos-Kouris D (2002) heat and mass transfer coefficients in
drying: compilation of literature data. Drying Technol: Int J 20(1):1–18
516 S. Madireddi et al.
Abstract. Laminate composites are used widely in diverse fields because of the
ubiquitous advantages it provides compared to others. These materials are
susceptible to developing of micro cracks which will change the global response
of material thus creating high stresses and heightened damage in the other part.
To precisely predict its life and practical applications, considering material
strength and its capability to resist damage is important. This paper intends in
finding out optimum conditions for minimum damage progression. A flat plate
with stress concentrations in form of cut-outs made up of Epoxycarbon UD
(Prepreg) and [45 0 −45 90]s layup has been modelled; progressive failure
analysis under uni-axial tension loading is performed. Comparison of failure
criteria is done and ultimately Hashin failure criteria is chosen for static analysis
with different layups, cut-out shapes, sizes, orientations and multiple cut-outs.
The observations are noted and outcomes are compared.
1 Introduction
and failure, rather it will review the failure criteria and progression damage models and
specify the optimum shapes which can be used in the real world. The scope of this
paper is limited to laminate composites under pure tensile stress.
2 Problem Statement
The objective of this research is to analyse the progressive damage on a plate made
from EpoxyCarbon UD [15] with cut-outs in the form of stress concentrations.
Dimensions of the specimen: 152 38 mm2
Radius of the notches: 4 mm
Layup: [45° 0° −45° 90°]s
No. of plies and thickness of the whole: 8 mm and 8 mm.
This model is chosen because of its real-life applications in aerospace industries
etc.; for example, in aircraft wings notches are needed for delivering fuel with the help
of fuel lines and also to decrease the structural weight of the air-craft as a whole, they
are also convenient for inspecting, maintaining and also Non-Destructive testing.
3 Solution Methodology
is further done to find out the damage yet again. This continues until a catastrophe has
taken place.
4 Results
First Ply failure: Maximum stress > Puck > Hashin > LaRc04 > LaRc03 >
Maximum strain
Fig. 5. Load vs displacement plot for circular cut outs with radius 4 mm, 6 mm and 8 mm.
First ply failure: Ellipse 1 > Ellipse 3 > Ellipse 2 > Ellipse
First Ply failure: Horizontal > Horizontal (fillet) > Tilted > Tilted (Fillet)
5 Conclusions
In laminates failure begins at the most weakest link. By keenly observing the pro-
gression of failure in the model, it was found out that the matrix failure occurs first in
this loading condition. Although, the model failure does not occur immediately because
the fibres are intact and helps carrying and redistributing the load again and again.
Catastrophe occurs when all the fibres fail. Different failure theories are used to analyse
the model. Among all these, Hashin theory gave approximately an average prediction
of all different theories. Among the ones with different radius of circular cut-outs, as the
radius of the circle increases, the peak of the curve (Fig. 5) lowers i.e. the force that the
laminate can withstand before failure decreases. As the radius of the circle increases,
the peak of the curve shifts to the left i.e. the time after which it fails was less. From the
Fig. 6, for multiple circular configurations it is observed that slope of the curve for all
the three configurations are same till the first ply failure and also vertical configuration
takes higher load than other two configurations. From Fig. 7, when the ellipse is in
horizontal position, failure occurs at lower values of force. Comparing ellipses of same
geometry, ellipse with major axis in vertical direction sustains more force than the other
one. Comparing ellipses of same orientation (major axis horizontal), the ellipse with
smaller major axis sustains more force before failure. Comparing ellipses of same
orientation (major axis vertical), the ellipse with longer major axis sustains more force
than the other before failure. From Fig. 8, when the side of the square was in line with
loading axis, failure occurs at higher values of force also the square with fillet sustains
higher load but the square without fillet sustains more force before failure. It was also
observed that in squares with the same orientation, the second ply failure occurs later in
the one with the fillet. From the Fig. 9, it is evident that an elliptical cut-out would take
the maximum load when compared to a circle or a square. From Fig. 10, a symmet-
rically laid up laminate holds up more amount of load before failure of the first ply
occurs while anti-symmetrically laid up plies sustain more even after the failure of the
first-ply occurs. All these analysis performed in this paper states that the size,
524 Y. Achanta et al.
orientation and shape of the holes play a very important role in the progression of
damage. Although the effect of taking different stacking sequences is over-shadowed
by the other major factors, it still plays a major role in the failure envelope develop-
ment. The effect of all these factors can be very large when combined and can lead to
better designs when taken into consideration.
6 Future Scope
The primary focus in this research has been to analyse the optimum factors to slow
down the failure in progression in real-life structural models. Zhu et al. utilised a
micromechanical approach to develop the failure envelope for a unidirectional com-
posite laminate. They came to a conclusion that not even one of the existing failure
theories are in comparison with their theory in the entire range and also that the
combination of Maximum stress and Tsai–Wu theory is the best alternative for finding
out failure in an uni-directional composites. It would further be interesting to analyse
the effect of different combinations of different failure theories in analyzing the model.
There are many ways to improve the strength of the laminate. As mentioned above,
stacking sequence and also the geometry have an important effect on failure. The effect
of properties of the material, volume fraction of the fiber and also the orientation of the
fiber is not investigated. Hygrothermal stresses and other ambient conditions have not
been taken into consideration. There is scope of analysis in above mentioned areas.
Also, it would be very interesting to analyse the damage progression in composite
structures with bolted connections and hybrid joints.
References
1. Hiton MJ, Soden PD (1998) Predicting failure in composite laminates: the background to the
exercise. Compos Sci Technol (Impact Factor: 3.63) 58(7):1001–1010. https://doi.org/10.
1016/s0266-3538(98)00074-8
2. Sun CT (2008) Strength analysis of unidirectional composites and laminates. Compr
Compos Mater Sci 1:641–666
3. Icardi U, Locatto S, Longo A (2007) Assessment of recent theories for predicting failure of
composite laminates. Appl Mech Rev 60:76–86
4. Camanho PP, Matthews FL (1999) A progressive damage model for mechanically fastened
joints in composite laminates. J Compos Mater 23:2248–2249
5. Nguyen BN (1997) Three-dimensional modeling of damage in laminated composites
containing a central hole. J Compos Mater 31:1672–1693
6. American Society for Testing and Materials (2006) Standard test method for short beam
strength of polymer matrix composite materials and their laminates. ASTM Standard D
2344/D 2344M, ASTM International
7. Tirkas K, Kortschot MT (1995) The relationship between critical strain energy release rate
and delamination Mmde in mutidirectional carbon-fibre/epoxy laminates. ASTM STP
1285:283–304
8. Hashin Z (1980) Failure criteria for unidirectional fiber composites. J Appl Mech 47:329–
334
Progressive Damage Analysis of Laminated Composites 525
Abstract. Globally experts and researchers believe that litheness play a critical
role in industrial sector. Exclusively connected with tiny lot size production
because litheness flexible is a vital part to be include in arrangement of racks in
layout design among the manufacturing segment. With regards to such condi-
tions, considering NP hard dual objective issues is, commonly, a very cum-
bersome task. In this paper, authors addressed about a population based
metaheuristics like differential evolution (DE) and sheep flock method
(SFM) for cracking Pecking order layout design issues in flexible lot arrange-
ment environment. The originators concentrated on double target advancement
of which essential goal is worried about the adaptable occupation (FJSP)
planning issue, the following goal concentrated on Pecking request Layout
issues where removing the demand of machines with in lead-ins of ladder to
restrain hard and fast transportation cost and amassing lead time of vocations on
machines. The execution of the estimation (SFM and DE) is checked by
benchmark issues. Finally, it is contemplated that SFM outfits perfect results
when differentiated with DE.
1 Introduction
Flexibility in FMS is concern with dealing the machines, breakage of tools, changes in
scheduling, part mix and alternative routing. Actually, this works relates Ladder layout
design which is a plan of setup requirement for yielding products or rendering services
with job shop scheduling as constraint. Problems concern with outline of a plant are
commonly observed in industries linked to a position [1] of capacity in a plant.
Abbas and Khan et al. presented a contextual analysis for planning of jobs during
processing of chunks on existing machineries. Further they estimated the Throughput
and motion stint and action stint in terms of entire dispensation time [2]. Chaudhry and
Luo reviewed that during 1990–2001 nearly 21 major production journals published
genetic algorithm related papers [3]. Ku, Hu, Wang et al. addressed on how to crack the
static FLP with matching areas by applying parallel simulated annealing (SA) and
genetic algorithms (GAs) using a coarse grained model in retrieving the solution [4].
Ripon et al. focused about two major issues such as FLP and JSSP that affect the
efficiency of manufacturing systems [5].
2 Problem Portrayal
The issue plan received from Liu et al. [6] taken reference for this work. researcher’s
accentuation on structure of Ladder format in adaptable arrangement of assembling
with [FJSP] adaptable jobshop booking as limitation.
Imperilled To
Si;j;k 0; for j ¼ 1; 2; 3. . .p
3 Projected Practices
Psuedo code for pair wise inverse mutation for sheep flock method
chsPICMMakespan[p] =
makespan_Odject(represtatives, chsPICM[p]);
if(chsMakespan[p] > chsPICMMakespan[p]){
chsMakespan[p] = chsImMakespan[p];
for(int i=1; i<= size; i++){
chs[p][i] = chsIM[p][i];
}
}
}
btvgm[g] = tvm[btvmI];
if(g == 1)
{ Gbtvm = btvgm[g] ;
GbtvgmI = g;
}
else if(Gbtvm > btvgm[g])
{
Gbtvm = btvgm[g] ;
GbtvgmI = g;
}
}
cout<<"\n---------------------------Optimized
Solution-----------------";
cout<<"\nBest Target Vector From All
Generation :"<<GbtvgmI;
cout<<"\nJob Representation:\n";
for (int b = 1; b <= no_operations*no_batchs;
b++) {
cout<<btv[GbtvgmI][b]<<" ";
}
cout<<"\nMakespan :"<< Gbtvm;
}
530 K. Mallikarjuna et al.
A Pecking order layout design framework with the immediate group scopes and the
FMS format are appeared Tables 1 and 2. Let parts be taken care of on machine for
various activities needs the handling time and part directing with the task arrangement
of chunks is considered.
Table 2. Lot contrasts with clump sizes of the PECKING ORDER Layout with 9 machines with
9 bunches
Batch number B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9
Batch variety Constant batch size 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Charge per unit distance = 1Rs
Cargo Conveyance charge per unit distance = 1Rs
Optimization of Pecking Order Layout with Job Shop Scheduling as Constraint 531
6 Result Analysis
The proposed SFM for taking care of the combinatorial advancement issues identified
with stepping stool format plan with planning is mimicked utilizing created cryptogram
in C++ and keep running in an intel i5-8G processor utilizing Interactive Development
Evaluation programming tool. A relative investigation is done among SFM and DE by
assessing the calculations more than 3 benchmark issues [2, 4] accessible in survey.
6.1 Inferances
From Tables 3, 4 and Figs. 2, 3 it is discovered that execution of SFM and DE for
computing Overall Conveyance charge and Makespan is diminishing as issue measure
532 K. Mallikarjuna et al.
is littler according to the issue scope. By relative investigation, it is seen that OCC are
upgraded for SFM.
7 Conclusion
References
1. Graves SC (1981) A review of production scheduling. Oper Res 29(4):646–675
2. Abbas M, Abbas A, Khan WA (2016) IOP conference series: materials science and
engineering. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/146/1/012052
3. Chaudhry SS, Luo W (2005) Int. J Prod Res. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207540500143199
4. Ku M-Y, Hu MH, Wang M-J (2011) Int J Prod Res. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00207541003645789
5. Ripon KSN, Torresen J (2014) Evolving Syst (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12530-013-
9092-7
6. Liu H, Abraham, A, Grosan C, Li N. ICDIM 2007. LNCS, vol 1, pp 138–145. http://www.
springer.com/lncs. Accessed 21 Nov 2016
Experimental and Simulation Study
in Deep Drawing of Circular Cups
for Determination of LDR
Abstract. Still today, the analysis and design of deep drawing is an art rather
than science. In this paper, an attempt was made to study the deep drawing
process for experimental determination of Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) and
justify the results with simulations. The use of FE simulation software can
predict sheet metal forming process such as deep drawing and also enhances the
efficiency by reducing development time and cost. The deep drawing experi-
mental tests were carried out, using the tool setup ingeniously developed in the
lab and mounted on universal testing machine. The AA6111 aluminum alloy
sheet blanks of different sizes were drawn using optimum forming conditions
established through Taguchi design of experiments. The drawn cups were tested
for wrinkling and cracks, if any and determined the LDR by considering the
maximum size of the blank successfully drawn without these defects. The LDR
found in this study for AA6111 was 1.8325. The simulation tests were con-
ducted using the FE code Pam-Stamp and are in good agreement with the
experimentally drawn cups when inspected for wrinkles and cracks. The
forming limit diagram in each test shows that the strains were within safe limit
for the successfully drawn cups and exceeded the limit in case of fractured
and/or wrinkled cups.
1 Introduction
Variety of problems in sheet metal forming can be solved better with the use of
advanced numerical simulation methods [1, 2]. This methods readily provides a
practical knowledge and gives feedback to the researchers and/or manufacturers about
the forming characteristics of manufacturing process in advance of the actual pro-
duction. The use of Finite Element Methods (FEM) in sheet metal forming has
become an efficient concept of virtual design of tooling, testing and eliminates the
physical try-out method that consume a lot of time and cost. By the use of Finite
Element software such as PAM-STAMP, ANSYS, LS-DYNA, it is possible to better
understand the deformation phenomenon in sheet metal forming process. The different
parameters and their influence in sheet metal part deformation can be studied thor-
oughly using numerical simulations for taking intelligent decisions based on optimal
forming conditions [3]. The deep drawing process is used extensively in various
industrial applications such as beverages, automobile and household. Any advanced
research in this area can directly improve the productivity of sheet metal forming
industries.
The stress state in deep drawing process is a complex phenomenon and varies from
compression in the circumferential direction at flange to a biaxial tensile stress state at
the bottom of cup. The movement of the punch ends with the ejection of cup formed
from the blank and it experiences a complex series of stresses and strains continuously,
during transformation of flat blank into complete cup. The downward movement of the
punch pushes the bent metal over the die into the gap between the punch and die and
straightens the side wall of the final cup. The bottom of the initial cup and the metal
that was bent over the punch nose moves downwards. In order to avoid stretching of
the metal in the die corner region, an additional material can be received from the
flange region. Hence, the flange portion of the sheet blank is drawn continuously
towards the die cavity and compensates for the metal used in cup sidewall forming and
it results in reduction in circumference (perimeter) of the blank [4].
Pourboghrat et al. [5] were conducted a research study on the deep drawing of
AA5754 aluminum sheets. The various parameters such as displacement, punch force,
hydro-forming pressure, temperature and the maximum draw depth prior to
wrinkling/tearing were recorded for comparing with simulation readings. The param-
eter optimization methods were applied for different applications by various researchers
[6–13] using Taguchi techniques. It was concluded that Sheet Hydro-Forming
(SHF) and Thermo Hydro-Forming (THF) processes can achieve more than 100% deep
drawing with the AA5754 aluminum sheet. Lazarescu et al. [14] were conducted
experiments and finite element simulations for investigating the influence of constant
and time variable blank holder force on punch force. The thickness distribution of
cylindrical and square cups produced in the deep drawing was investigated. The
experimental and numerical results shows that the use of variable BHF, instead of a
constant BHF reduces the punch force considerably. In analyzing the sheet forming
operation, the local strains that are very near to the failure zone were treated as critical
points. Prasad et al. [15] measured the critical strains and compared with the standard
FLD. As the blank is deformed during stamping process, the strains occur both on the
surface of the sheet (major and minor strain) as well as in thickness (thinning strain)
direction. In deep drawing process it was essentially assumed that the thickness
variation in through-thickness direction was negligible in comparison to planar
directions [16].
Experimental and Simulation Study in Deep Drawing 535
The design and fabrication of deep drawing tool setup requires a background knowl-
edge of blank size used, size of the cup produced and process/tool parameter selected.
The tool setup shown in Fig. 1 consists of various components such as die, punch and
blank holder. The design particulars of tool used were as shown in Table 1. The blank
holding was done by means of spring loaded mechanism. The setting of correct
blankholder force was applied by proper tightening of the nut to compresses the helical
spring. The blankholder force was calculated using the Eq. 1.
Fig. 1. Deep Drawing tool setup (a) Physical model, (b) CAD model
Fb ¼ Si dl n ð1Þ
where
Fb = Blankholder force,
Si = Spring index,
dl = Change in length of the spring,
n = No. of springs used
The different sizes of blanks from AA6111 aluminum alloy were prepared by laser
cutting. The different sizes of the blanks prepared from 100 mm to 170 mm with
10 mm increment in diameter [8] were 100 mm, 110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm, 140 mm,
150 mm, 160 mm and 170 mm. The maximum size of the blank prepared was about
15–20% more than the critical size of the blank.
The deep draw tests were conducted to check the quality of each cup produced. It
was observed that the cups were drawn successfully for the blank sizes of 100 mm,
110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm and 140 mm diameter and shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
and 8. The punch load vs. punch displacement recordings were shown in Fig. 9 and it
confirms that the punch load was minimum at the beginning of the draw and gradually
increases to a maximum and then again falls to a minimum at the end of the process as
shown in Fig. 9. The simulation tests were also conducted for the same experimental
tests. A 3D modeling software CATIA was used for the design of deep drawing model
and PAM-STAMP finite element simulation software package was used for analysis.
Fig. 2. FLD diagram for the cup drawn with 100 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 3. FLD diagram for the cup drawn with 110 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Experimental and Simulation Study in Deep Drawing 537
Fig. 4. FLD diagram and cup drawn with 120 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 5. FLD diagram and cup drawn with 130 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 6. FLD diagram and cup drawn with 140 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 7. FLD diagram and cup drawn with 150 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
538 A. C. Sekhara Reddy et al.
Fig. 8. The FLD diagram and cup drawn with 160 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 9. Punch load vs. punch displacement curves for different blanks
The blanks of 100 mm, 110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm, 140 mm, 150 mm 160 and
170 mm were tested and the simulated results are shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.
In both experimental and simulation tests, the blank diameters of 100 mm, 110 mm,
120 mm, 130 mm and 140 mm were drawn successfully and from 150 mm onwards
the cups drawn were failed due to wrinkling and/or fracture.
3 Experimental Comparison
When experimental results were compared with the simulation results, in terms of
deformation and stress distribution, they are very well matching. It was observed from
the FLD diagram that the induced strains in the cups produced using 100 mm,
110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm and 140 mm blanks are well below the critical limit. But in
the case of cups drawn using 150 mm, 160 mm and 170 mm blanks were found that
the induced strains are above the critical limit strains and the produced cups were failed
due to wrinkles and/ or cracks.
4 Results
The Fig. 2 shows the cup experimentally drawn and the simulation results for 100 mm
blank. The maximum punch load is 9.08 kN. Similarly from Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
shows that the maximum punch load for 120 mm, 130 mm, 140 mm, 150 mm, 160 mm
and 170 mm are 12.04 kN, 13.91 kN, 15.57 kN, 18.5 kN, 19.78 kN, 19.78 kN and
19,78 kN respectively. The formed cups along with the FLD diagrams were shown. The
Fig. 9 shows the relation between punch load vs. punch depth and the Fig. 10 shows the
maximum punch load for each draw with different blank diameters. It can be readily
inferred from the Fig. 10 that, the maximum punch load is linearly proportional to blank
size up to successful results and remains constant for failed cups.
Hence, the results confirm that the maximum punch load is linear up to the critical
size of the blank that can be drawn successfully. From the Fig. 11, it can be observed
that the critical size of the blank is the intersection of the fracture limit load line and the
successfully drawn load line and it was found to be 146.6 mm. The Limiting Drawing
Ratio (LDR) is the ratio of highest value of blank diameter to the punch diameter which
can be drawn without failure. The LDR was calculated as 146.6 mm/80 mm = 1.8325,
where 146.6 mm is the highest drawn blank diameter obtained from the graph and
80 mm is the punch diameter.
540 A. C. Sekhara Reddy et al.
5 Conclusions
The experimental deep drawing process was studied with different blank diameters and
also FEM analysis for comparison. The following conclusions were drawn from the
current study.
1. FEM results were very close match to the experimental results.
2. The maximum punch load drawn was linearly proportional to blank diameter up to
critical diameters and remains constant thereafter.
3. The critical diameter was found from the current study for AA6111 alloy was
146.6 mm.
4. The Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) obtained was 1.8325.
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and thickness distribution in deep drawing of axisymmetric components. Int J Eng 2
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(LDR) in deep drawing by rapid determination method. Int J Curr Eng Technol 4(2):757–
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5. Pourboghrat F, Venkatesan S, Carsley JE (2013) LDR and hydro forming limit for deep
drawing of AA5754 aluminum sheet. J Manuf Process 15(4):600–615
Experimental and Simulation Study in Deep Drawing 541
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production by Candida sp.: parameter optimization using Taguchi approach. Process
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influencing formability of titanium alloy by using over all evaluation criteria and new matrix
model based on Taguchi method. Trans Indian Inst Metals 67(5):721–730
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parameters of alpha–beta-processed titanium alloy at elevated temperature. Proc Inst Mech
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roughness of EN 19 & SS 420 steels in wire-EDM using Taguchi method. Int J Eng Sci
Technol 4(11):4603–4614
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material removal rate of P20 die-tool steel in wire-EDM using multiple regression analysis.
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forming limit and failure analyses of inconel 718 sheets for fabrication of aerospace
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16. Zareh B, Gorji AH, Bakhshi M, Nourouzi S (2013) Study on the effect of forming parameters
in sheet hydrodynamic deep drawing using fem-based Taguchi method. Int J Adv Des
Manuf Technol 87–99
Free Vibration Analysis of Pre-stressed
Membrane Using Element Free Galerkin
Method
1 Introduction
Thin membranes are widely used in various applications in aerospace, mechani-
cal and civil engineering industry. Major application of membranes include sun-
shields, solar sails, antennae, parachutes, balloons etc. Its light weight and low
space requirement, so that it can be folded and deployed whenever needed, makes
it suitable for various aerospace applications. In most of these applications, mem-
brane elements are used with pre-tensioning to take transverse loads, shear loads
or vibratory loads and to have sufficient smoothness and flatness. Moreover,
there are a number of musical instruments, especially percussion instruments,
whose performance depends on the vibration of stretched membranes. A study
on vibration of initially stretched or pre-stressed membrane is thus very impor-
tant as these structural elements are open to vibratory loads.
In the present work, for modeling, membrane theory with small bending stiffness
is considered [2]. An isotropic, non-homogeneous, elastic, thin membranes with
in-plane load is considered for analysis. Kirchoff’s thin plate theory assumptions
are used to get the mathematical model for the same.
544 K. R. Unnikrishnan et al.
For the thin plate described above, energy balance equation [16] can be
written as,
∂w 2 ∂ 2 w
1 1 ∂ 2 w 2 ∂ 2 w 2
ρh dxdy = D ++2(1 − ν)
2 A ∂t 2 A ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y
2 2 2 ∂w 2
∂ w∂ w 1 ∂w
− 2 2
dxdy + Fx + Fy dxdy,
∂x ∂y 2 A ∂x ∂y
(1)
where ∂w∂t is the time derivative of displacement vector. Fx and Fy are in plane
loads in x and y direction. h is thickness of plate, ρ is mass density per unit area
of the plate material in N/m2 .
D is the flexural rigidity given by,
Eh3
D= , (2)
12(1 − ν 2 )
3 EFGM Formulation
In EFGM, the function approximation is done using MLS [11]. Unknown field
variable wh (x) can be given as,
m
h
w (x) = pi (x)ai (x) = pT (x)a(x). (3)
i=1
where W is the weight function define over a for rectangular support domain
n is the number of nodes inside domain of influence and θx , θy are rotation
in x, y direction respectively. By minimizing the L2 norm respect to unknown
coefficients aj and representing the set of equations obtained in matrix form as,
where K is modified stiffness matrix, Kgx , Kgy are modified geometric stiffness
matrices, and M is modified mass matrix respectively, given by,
K = Λ−T Kf ΛT
Kgx = Λ−T Kgx ΛT
(11)
Kgy = Λ−T Kgy ΛT
M = Λ−T MΛT ,
where Kf is stiffness matrix and Kgx and Kgy are geometric stiffness matrices
and M is the mass matrix, which can be found using shape function N similar to
that in FEM [10]. The sign of geometric stiffness terms in the equation depends
upon the direction of in-plane loads. The terms will be positive for stretching
and negative for compression. Consequently, the essential boundary conditions
can also be imposed simply by following FEM methodology.
4 Model Description
For the current study, a bi-axially pre-stressed homogeneous square membrane
of size 0.2 m × 0.2 m is considered. Thickness of membrane is taken as 0.1 mm.
The material for the study is assumed to be Kevlar-reinforced Kapton foil, which
is mainly is used in antenna for satellite applications. The material properties
are as given in Table 1. Simply supported boundary conditions are applied on
all the sides. 10 N/m2 load is applied on both x and y direction.
Parameter Membrane
Density (ρ) 790 kg/m3
Young’s Modulus (E) 11.9 × 109 N/m2
Poisson’s ratio (ν) 0.3
elements, S8R, S8R5 are used for analysis in order to do a comparative study
[9]. For comparison, discretization in EFGM is done with regularly distributed
nodes, similar to that of linear element types (S4, S4R and S4R5) in FEM.
Figures 1, 2 and 3 shows the variation of frequencies obtained by EFGM and
FEM with number of nodes compared with analytical solutions. Three sets of
mode shapes (one lower 1st (m = n = 1), one intermediate 20th (m = n = 4)
and one higher 34th (m = n = 5)) and corresponding frequencies, are taken into
consideration for comparison. From Figs. 1, 2 and 3, the results obtained from
EFGM are found to be encouraging. It can be observed from mode 1 results
(Fig. 1) that, for initial modes, frequencies obtained from both EFGM and FEM
are closer to the analytical solution. Even with lower number of nodes, frequency
values obtained from EFGM and that from all the element types of FEM show
lower error.
For an intermediate mode with m = n = 4 (Fig. 2), FEM results with 4
noded linear elements (S4, S4R5, S4R), show variation from the analytical values.
However element type S8R, S8R5 and EFGM provide better results for higher
number of nodes. At lower number of nodes only EFGM and element type S8R5
show accurate results.
For the higher mode where m = n = 5 (Fig. 3), frequency values obtained
from FEM are showing considerable variation from the analytical results for less
number of nodes.
From Fig. 3 it is clear that, for higher modes, EFGM and element type S8R5
gives better accuracy than other element types in FEM. For lower number of
nodes, element type S8R5 also shows larger error, while EFGM shows very small
error value.
43
Analytical
EFGM
42.5 S4
S4R
S4R5
S8R5
42 S8R
Frequency
41.5
41
40.5
40
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Number of nodes
255
Analytical
EFGM
250
S4
S4R
245 S4R5
S8R5
S8R
240
Frequency
235
230
225
220
215
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Number of nodes
400
Analytical
EFGM
S4
S4R
S4R5
S8R5
350 S8R
Frequency
300
250
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Number of nodes
5 Conclusion
The current paper discusses the use of EFGM, a meshless method, for free vibra-
tion of pre-stressed membranes. Classical plate formulation with three degrees of
freedom per node is considered for study. The results obtained from EFGM are
compared with the analytical solution and are found to be matching. Moreover,
the results are also compared with that of FEM with different types of elements
available, to show the mesh dependency of the problem under consideration.
Quadrilateral element types are considered for comparative purposes. From the
result it is found that EFGM is providing accurate result even in higher frequency
modes, with less number of nodes. However, in FEM frequencies obtained are
highly sensitive to the mesh size regardless of element types in FEM and shows
slower rate of convergence for higher modes when compared to EFGM.
References
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in air. In: Proceedings of the 43rd structures, structural dynamics, and materials
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ming. Springer, Heidelberg
Xylitol Based Phase Change Material
with Graphene Nano Platelets as Fillers
for Thermal Energy Management
Abstract. Graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) with few layers were prepared via
expanded graphite derived from exfoliation and, then solution-phase exfoliation.
GNPs consist of 7–12 distinguishable graphene layers and possess lateral sizes
in the range of 2–6 l. An attempt was made to exploit the thermal properties of
GNP as filler to ameliorate thermo physical properties of xylitol. Such ultrathin
2-D structured GNP could able to increase thermal conductivity by 38% with the
addition of low concentration associated with a reasonable enthalpy of fusion.
Phase change materials find application in a medium temperature range such as
thermal energy storage of solar energy, direct contact heat storage in heat
exchangers, thermal energy storage in spacecraft systems, cooling of engines
and compact electronic appliances.
1 Introduction
and TESDs based on thermo-chemical heat storage. Generally, the phase change
materials (PCMs) can be categorized based on the materials taken into consideration
are; solid-solid, solid-liquid and liquid-liquid. The comparison of the various combi-
nations of PCM base on the above-mentioned classifications was mentioned in work
reported by Khan, Huang et al. [2, 3]. The working mechanism of the ‘solid-liquid’
PCM was reported in detail by Mohamed et al. [4]. Another classification on the basis
of the nature of the materials used to design the PCMs i.e. ‘organic PCMs (o-PCMs),
‘inorganic PCMs (Io-PCMs) and ‘eutectic PCMs (e-PCMs) was mentioned in work
compiled by Milián et al. [5]. The Io-PCMs employ materials like salts, salt hydrates,
metals, and alloys to entrap thermal energy while the o-PCMs mostly comprise of
paraffin and non-paraffin wax base materials. The Io-PCMs have an upper edge as
compared to o-PCMs due to their better thermal conductivity. However, the o-PCMs
are preferred over them due to their better chemical properties such as non-corrosive
compatibility with the encapsulating containers. The e-PCMs are studied to record the
combined properties of the o-PCMs and Io-PCMs in varying proportions depending on
the target application. Various reports have summarized the pros and cons of the three
above mentioned PCMs i.e. o-PCMs, Io-PCMs and e-PCM [5–8].
Certain aspects must be given considerations prior to the selection of PCM such as
temperature range of phase shift, change in volume during phase change, unwavering
chemical, and thermal properties. The excellent thermal conductivity and high latent
heat of absorption and also should be viable in terms of economics and ergonomics.
Owing to the low thermal conducting property of most of the PCMs, filler materials are
added to improve the desired characteristics. Various aspects of enhancing thermal
conductivity were briefed by Karaipekli et al. [9]. This process involves primarily
doping of additives with high thermal conducting ability into the PCM matrix. Even
though, various kinds of additives have been studied for PCM, certain metallic addi-
tives considered to be best owing to their inherent good thermal conducting behavior.
Silver and copper nanoparticles were studied as fillers in PCM [10]. Nurten et al. [11]
performed PCM based studies using metal oxide (Fe3O4) and carried out the analysis
using ‘DISCO’ approach. A number of other metal oxides like SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3,
ZnO etc. have also been widely exploited for their possible incorporation into PCM as
fillers.
As an alternative to metal additives, carbon materials were widely studied for their
inherent high thermal conductivity by Wang et al. [12]. Ling et al. [13] reported
improvement in PCMs using expanded graphite as filler material. Xu et al. [14] used
exfoliated graphite (EG) as filler material in D-mannitol (polyol) for improved PCM
properties to be used in solar cells heat recovery systems. Nano graphite [15], graphene
[16], and carbon fibers [20] are the other carbon nanomaterials which have been
exploited for enhancement of PCMs. [17] carried out a comparative in-depth analysis
of EG and graphene as filler in PCMs. Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) with beeswax
exhibited excellent improved thermal properties [18] and carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
[19]. Li et al. [15] performed a study involving the effect of the morphology of the
additives on the properties of PCMs using 4 types of carbon structures i.e. single-
walled nanotubes (SWNT), multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT), C60, and graphene.
Apart from numerous studies using metal particles, metallic oxides and carbon mate-
rials, materials like Boron nitride (hBN) have also been tried to enhance properties of
Xylitol Based Phase Change Material with GNPs as Fillers 553
e-PCM Su et al. [20]. Heat transfer augmentations using conductive powders using
metal particles [21] and use of gelling agents to provide a proper dispersion of the
metallic fillers and a stable PCM during the operation were described in studies by [22].
Herein, few-layer graphene nanoplatelets were prepared from a rapid microwave
exfoliated graphite to develop a phase change materials based composite to ameliorate
thermal conductivity.
2 Experimental
Figure 1 shows the morphology and microstructure of exfoliated graphite and GNP. It
clearly indicated that exfoliated graphite possesses a huge amount of open pores with
sheets attached at the wedges. Such pores were filled with a solvent and fragmented
into sheets via solution-phase exfoliation using high energy sonication-assisted
delamination. Figure 1a shows stacked sheet-like structures, each separable flake
consisting of ‘n’ number of layers. The shear-mixing with iso-propanol as fraternizing
agent further reduces the number of layers in the stacking by high speed induced
cleavage of the worm-like structures which are further subjected to high-frequency
probe sonication to achieve ultra-fine stacked GNPs. From the SEM images, it is
evidently seen that the GNPs were having a layered structure as depicted in Fig. 1b.
Fig. 1. Morphology and microstructure: SEM of MEG (a), GNPs (b), TEM of GNP (c) and
SAED pattern of GNP (d)
small peak adjacent to (002) plane was observed around 28.3° corresponding to the
strain induced due to high energy fragmentation. Figure 2b presents the typical Raman
characteristics of GNP. The G peak and 2D peaks are predominant as compared to D
signature. Such 2D band was an indication for the formation of a 2-D structured layered
material with multi-layers of graphene.
Fig. 3. Thermal diffusivity (a) and Thermal conductivity (b) of PCM composites.
The decrease in thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of xylitol and PCM
composite was illustrated in Fig. 3a and b, respectively. Furthermore, a reasonably
good increase in thermal conductivity was noticed with the addition of GNP. The
crystalline GNP could able to increase the phonon movement by reducing the thermal
resistance at the interface of the filler-matrix. 2-D structured GNP allows faster phonon
transport to improve the thermal conductivity of PCM composite materials.
556 P. K. Varadaraj et al.
Figure 4 shows the thermal stability and dimensional stability of the PCM com-
posite. The addition of GNP to xylitol drastically increased the thermal stability as
depicted in Fig. 4a. The GNP increases thermal delay effect as they are very much
stable to temperature as the comparison to xylitol. The thermal delay phenomenon
exhibited by carbonaceous GNP lead to decreasing the onset temperature of oxidation
of composites. In TG plot, a noticeable small hump around 85–90 °C describes to the
melting temperature of xylitol. The dimensional changes were occurred due to an
increase in temperature for Xylitol and its composite material as shown in Fig. 4b.
Fig. 4. Thermal stability (a) and dimensional stability (b) of PCM composite
The good thermal conductivity of GNP translated into a rapid increase in tem-
perature of composites materials. Thus, the composite material was prone to melt faster
as compared to xylitol and exhibited poor dimensional stability. However, a good
increase in thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and increased thermal stability
make them an ideal candidate for usage in various thermal energy storage appliances.
4 Summary
References
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2. Khan Z, Khan Z, Ghafoor A (2016) A review of performance enhancement of PCM based
latent heat storage system within the context of materials, thermal stability and compatibility.
Energy Convers Manag 115:132–158
3. Huang X, Alva G, Jia Y, Fang G (2017) Morphological characterization and applications of
phase change materials in thermal energy storage: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 72
(April 2016):128–145
4. Mohamed SA et al (2017) A review on current status and challenges of inorganic phase
change materials for thermal energy storage systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 70
(December):1072–1089
5. Milián YE, Gutiérrez A, Grágeda M, Ushak S (2017) A review on encapsulation techniques
for inorganic phase change materials and the influence on their thermophysical properties.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 73(June 2016):983–999
6. Ma G et al (2016) Binary eutectic mixtures of stearicacid-n-butyramide/n-octanamide as phase
change materials for low temperature solar heat storage. Appl Therm Eng 111:1052–1059
7. Mohamed NH, Soliman FS, El Maghraby H, Moustfa YM (2016) Thermal conductivity
enhancement of treated petroleum waxes, as phase change material, by a nano alumina:
energy storage. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 70:1052–1058
8. Gunasekara SN, Martin V, Chiu JN (2017) Phase equilibrium in the design of phase change
materials for thermal energy storage: state-of-the-art. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 73
(February):558–581
9. Karaipekli A, Biçer A, Sarı A, Veer V (2017) Thermal characteristics of expanded
perlite/paraffin composite phase change material with enhanced thermal conductivity using
carbon nanotubes. Energy Convers Manag 134:373–381
10. Al RM, Sharif M, Khodadadi JM (2017) Experimental determination of temperature-
dependent thermal conductivity of solid eicosane-based silver nanostructure-enhanced phase
change materials for thermal energy storage. Int J Heat Mass Transf 107:697–711
11. Nurten Ş, Fois M, Paksoy H (2015) Improving thermal conductivity phase change materials
—a study of paraffin nanomagnetite composites. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 137:61–67
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materials based on polyethylene glycol/porous carbon composite: the influence of the pore
structure of the carbon materials. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 105:21–26
13. Ling Z, Chen J, Xu T, Fang X, Gao X, Zhang Z (2014) Thermal conductivity of an organic
phase change material/expanded graphite composite across the phase change temperature
range and a novel thermal conductivity model. Energy Convers Manag 102:202–208
14. Xu T, Chen Q, Huang G, Zhang Z, Gao X, Lu S (2016) Preparation and thermal energy
storage properties of D-Mannitol/expanded graphite composite phase change material. Sol
Energy Mater Sol Cells 155:141–146
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iridium (III) complexes. J Electroanal Chem 702:25–30
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nanoplatelets composite with remarkable thermal conductivity as a novel shape-stabilized
phase change material. Appl Therm Eng 61(2):633–640
17. Liu X, Rao Z (2017) Experimental study on the thermal performance of graphene and
exfoliated graphite sheet for thermal energy storage phase change material. Thermochim
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18. Luanto A, Mahlia TMI (2016) Storage for building applications. Appl Therm Eng 112:
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65:67–123
Orbital Volume Analysis of Midfacial
Fractures Using Additive
Manufacturing Technologies
1 Introduction
A person can be distinguished with his facial features. The bones that are mainly
involved in shaping the face are the maxilla, mandible, nasal and zygomatic. “The
midface is defined as the facial skeleton below the frontozygomatic, the frontomaxillary
and the frontonasal suture lines” [1]. “Figure 1 illustrates Representation of Midface”
[2]. Some causes for Midfacial fractures are Vehicle Accidents, Domestic Violence,
Sports related accidents, Accidents happened at workplace, War, Bomb blasts etc.,
Additive Manufacturing also known as 3D printing can be defined as producing a three-
dimensional product by successive addition of layers from a CAD model. In Biomedical
field AM is used with the help of which surgeons and doctors can plan and perform
complex surgeries. “The management of midfacial fractures that includes treatment of
The objective of this paper is to present the Orbital Volume and Percentage of
Restoration by comparing the results of Unfractured orbit to the Fractured orbit before
operation and Fractured orbit after operation on Pre-operative and Post-operative 3D
Printed Medical Models.
2 Problem Definition
Post-Operative conditions. Figure 2(a) and (b) shows the generated 3D CAD Model of
Pre-Operative and Post-Operative condition with the required ROI. The obtained 3D
CAD model was saved in .STL format.
Fig. 2. Generated 3D CAD model of (a) Pre-operative and (b) Post-operative condition
Fig. 3. Importing the .STL file of (a) Pre-operative medical model (b) Post-operative medical
model into Flashprint software
leveled. The machine was left idle until the extruder reached to a temperature of 225 °C
after which, the PLA wire was loaded into the extruder. The time taken to 3D Print the
Pre-Operative Medical Model was 24 h 23 min. The same process was followed to
build the Post-operative Medical Model. The time taken to 3D the Post-Operative
Medical Model was 11 h 37 min. After the Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Medical
Models are 3D Printed, the platform tray was pulled out and the models were removed
from the platform. The support structures were removed with the help of tweezers.
Figure 4(a) and (b) illustrates 3D Printed Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Medical
Models.
tabulated in Tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Figures 6(a), (b), 7(a), (b) and 8(a),
(b) illustrates measuring the distance between Mo – ZfS, SoF – IoF on Unfractured
orbit, Fractured orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after operation respectively.
Fig. 6. Measuring the distance between (a) Mo – ZfS and (b) SoF – IoF on the Unfractured orbit.
Table 1. Distance between Mo - ZfS and SoF - IoF for Unfractured orbit
Sl. Distance between Mo – Distance between SoF – Average Average
no. ZfS in “mm” IoF in “mm” distance distance
Observed dimensions Observed dimensions between between
01 02 03 01 02 03 Mo – ZfS SoF – IoF
in “mm” in “mm”
01. 39.36 39.38 39.38 28.33 28.31 28.33 39.38 28.33
Fig. 7. Measuring the distance between (a) Mo – ZfS and (b) SoF – IoF on the Fractured orbit
before operation.
564 L. Siva Rama Krishna et al.
Table 2. Distance between Mo - ZfS and SoF - IoF for Fractured orbit before operation
Sl. Distance between Mo – Distance between SoF – Average Average
no. ZfS in “mm” IoF in “mm” distance distance
Observed dimensions Observed dimensions between between
01 02 03 01 02 03 Mo – ZfS SoF – IoF
in “mm” in “mm”
01. 38.64 38.64 38.62 39.84 39.86 39.85 38.64 39.85
Fig. 8. Measuring the distance between (a) Mo – ZfS and (b) SoF – IoF on the Fractured orbit
after operation.
Table 3. Distance between Mo - ZfS and SoF - IoF for Fractured orbit after operation
Sl. no. Distance between Mo – Distance between SoF – Average Average
ZfS in “mm” IoF in “mm” distance distance
Observed dimensions Observed dimensions between between
01 02 03 01 02 03 Mo – ZfS SoF – IoF
in “mm” in “mm”
01. 38.73 38.75 38.74 29.67 29.69 29.71 38.75 29.69
The average distances between Mo - ZfS, SoF - IoF for UnFractured Orbit are found to
be 39.38 mm and 28.33 mm respectively, 38.64 mm and 39.85 mm for Fractured orbit
before operation and 40.57 mm and 32.88 mm for Fractured orbit after operation.
lwh
Volume of a pyramid with rectangular base ¼ ð1Þ
3
Here,
l = length = Distance between Mo – ZfS
w = width = Distance between SoF – IoF
h = height = Depth from the top of the Orbital rib to the Orbital Apex.
Orbital Volume Analysis of Midfacial Fractures Using AM Technologies 565
Orbital volume of the Unfractured orbit, Fractured orbit before operation and the
Fractured orbit after operation was obtained by substituting the values tabulated in
Tables 1, 2 and 3 in Eq. 1.
Table 4. Orbital volume of UnFractured orbit and Fractured orbit before operation
Sl. no. UnFractured orbital Fractured orbit volume before Difference in
volume in “cc” [A] operation in “cc” [B] “cc” [B]-[A]
01. 21.04 29.04 8.00
The orbital volumes of UnFractured orbit and Fractured orbit after operation are
compared and the results are tabulated in Table 5.
Table 5. Orbital volume of UnFractured orbit and Fractured orbit after operation
Sl. no. UnFractured orbital Fractured orbit volume after Difference in
volume in “cc” [A] operation in “cc” [C] “cc” [C]-[A]
01. 21.04 21.69 0.65
The orbital volumes of Fractured orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after
operation are compared and the results are tabulated in Table 6.
Table 6. Orbital volume of Fractured orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after operation
Sl. no. Fractured orbit volume before Fractured orbit volume after Difference in
operation in “cc” [B] operation in “cc” [C] “cc” [B]-[C]
01. 29.04 21.69 7.35
The percentage restoration for UnFractured, Fractured before operation and Frac-
tured after operation are tabulated in Table 7.
566 L. Siva Rama Krishna et al.
½D ½E
Percentage of Restoration ¼ 100 ð2Þ
½D
3 Conclusions
Additive Manufacturing in Biomedical field is one of the most rapidly advancing areas
where engineers and doctors are contributing to the future of human health. From the
above results it is concluded that the Orbital volume of the UnFractured orbit, Fractured
orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after operation is found to be 21.04 cc,
29.04 cc and 21.69 cc respectively. Also, the percentage of orbital volume restoration
before and after operation is found to be 91.88% which is a good sign of restoration.
Hence, 3D printed medical models can be used to evaluate the orbital volume during
Midfacial fractures.
Acknowledgement. The Authors would like to thank UGC, South Eastern Regional Office,
Hyderabad, as this research is carried out as a part of UGC Minor Research Project titled
“Assessment of Dimensional Accuracy of Facial (Zygomatic) bone fractures reduction using
Additive Manufacturing: a Randomized Control Study” Proposal No. 1204, Letter No. F. No: 4-
4/2015-16/MRP/UGC-SERO, Dt. Oct 2016 sanctioned to Dr. L. Siva Rama Krishna.
References
1. AOCMF Classification Midface (Level 1 and 2), AO Surgery reference, pp 1–13
2. Aktop S, Gonul O, Satilmis T, Garip H, Goker K (2013) Management of midfacial fractures.
INTECH, pp 415–446
3. Siva Rama Krishna L, Vemulakonda BS, Potturi A (2018) Evaluation of zygomatic complex
fractures based on three point fixation technique using additive manufacturing. Int J Sci Res
Sci Technol 4(2):1092–1100
4. Chang PS-H, Parker TH, Patrick CW, Miller MJ (2003) The accuracy of stereolithography in
planning craniofacial bone replacement. J Craniofac Surg 14(2):164–170
5. Dincă LL, Banu A, Vișan A (2017) Additive manufacturing in maxillofacial reconstruction.
In: MATEC web of conferences, vol 137, pp 1–6
Orbital Volume Analysis of Midfacial Fractures Using AM Technologies 567
6. Buckingham ED, Glasgold R, Kontis T, Smith SP Jr, Dolev Y, Fitzgerald R, Lam SM,
Williams EF, Pollei TR, Kunz C (2015) Volume management of the middle third-
lowerorbit/midface. Fac Plast Surg 31(1/2015):55–69 Issue Theme: Management of Facial
Volume
7. Hwang WJ, Lee DH, Choi W, Hwang JH, Kim KS, Lee SY (2017) Analysis of orbital volume
measurements following reduction and internal fixation using absorbable mesh plates and
screws for patients with orbital floor blowout fractures. J Craniofac Surg 28(7):1–6
8. Dave TV, Gaur G, Chowdary N, Joshi D (2018) Customized 3D printing: a novel approach to
migrated orbital implant. Saudi J Ophthalmol 32(4):330–333
Parametric Optimization During Wire EDM
Taper Cutting on AISI D2 Steel Using
Desirability Function
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
Taper cutting in WEDM is one of the important operations which is regularly used in
mold making industry. Angle accuracy often presents a challenge to the machine
operator while attempting to wire EDM taper angles and several factors within the
EDM process affect angle accuracy. Sarkar et al. [3] “focused on investigation of wire
electrical discharge machining of c-titanium aluminide alloy aimed to select the opti-
mum cutting condition with an appropriate wire offset setting in order to get the desired
surface finish and dimensional accuracy. The optimum parametric setting for different
machining situations has been synthesized. By using Pareto optimization algorithm, 20
Pareto-optimal solutions were searched out from the set of all 243 outputs”. Sanchez
et al. [1] “used new approach to the prediction of angular error in wire-EDM taper-
cutting. A systematic analysis of the influence of process parameters on angular error is
carried out using Design of Experiments (DoE) techniques. They measured the most
affecting parameter on the angular error and the optimum value of each parameter
results in low angular error, and more precise taper cuts”. Rao and Pawar [4] “made a
study to select the optimum of process parameters of wire electrical discharge
machining on Hybrid MMC of 15 wt% Al2O3 and SiC. The objective considered is
maximization of machining speed subject to the surface roughness constraint. They
found that the pulse on time was the most significant parameter contributing to the
MRR and the optimum value of process parameters for the predicted optimum value of
MRR (15.82 mm3/min) is pulse on time (16 ms), pulse off time (2 ms) and pulse
current (6 A)”.
Shandilya et al. [5] “carried a study to optimize the process parameters during
machining of SiCp/6061 Al metal matrix composite (MMC) by wire electrical dis-
charge machining (WEDM) using response surface methodology (RSM). Results
showed that voltage and wire feed rate are highly significant parameters and pulse-off
time is less significant. Pulse-on time has insignificant effect on kerf”. Selvakumar et al.
[6] “conducted experimental analysis to aim for selecting the most optimal machining
parameter combination for wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) of 5083
aluminum alloy. The optimal machining parameters for maximum cutting speed and
minimum surface roughness were found. Results revealed that the CS was independent
on wire tension and Ra was independent on pulse-off time and wire tension”. Lodhia
and Agarwal [7] “attempted to optimize the machining conditions for surface rough-
ness of WEDM of AISI D3 Steel and it was observed that the discharge current was the
most influential factors on the surface roughness”. Gaikwad and Jatti [8] “focused on
optimization of EDM process parameters for maximization of material removal rate
while machining of NiTi alloy. Gap current, pulse on time, pulse off time, work piece
electrical conductivity, and tool conductivity were considered as process variables. The
optimized material removal rate obtained was 7.0806 mm3/min”. Padhiet al. [9] “op-
timized the cutting rate (CR), surface roughness (Ra) and dimensional deviation
(DD) in wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) of EN-31 steel taking various
input parameters such as pulse-on-time, pulse-off-time, wire tension, spark gap, set
voltage and servo feed and obtained a single parameter setting that can decrease Ra and
DD and increase CR simultaneously”. Majumder et al. [10] “predicted and compared
570 K. L. Uday Kiran et al.
few WEDM machinability aspects like surface roughness and micro-hardness of alloy
using general regression neural network model. Five machining parameter pulse-on
time (TON), discharge current (I), wire feed (WF), wire tension (WT) and flushing
pressure (FP) were taken as machining input for the experiments. The parametric
combination, TON = 12 ls, I = 10 A, WT = 12 N, WS = 150 mm/s. and FP = 8 Bar,
were found to yield the preferred results”. The present work is focused on to study the
effect of parameters such as taper angle, wire feed and wire tension on cutting time,
angular error and surface roughness to obtain optimum values of each variable that
achieve optimum cutting conditions through multi objective optimization.
3 Experimentation
Cutting time is displayed digitally on the machine display, angular error is mea-
sured in degrees or minutes and seconds using Coordinate Measuring Machine
(CMM) of model metris LKV 8.7.6 and Surface tester SJ-301 is used to measure the
surface roughness values. Full factorial design of two levels requires conducting 20
experiments including 6 central runs, 8 factorial runs, and 6 axial runs composing a
central composite design is used to design the experiments.
The different levels of process parameters are listed in Table 2 and the constant
process parameters considered for machining are Ton = 120 µs, Toff = 55 µs, WP =
10 Pa, SV = 20 V, and Work piece thickness is 40 mm. The experimental plan and
measured responses are given in Table 3.
Parametric Optimization During Wire EDM Taper Cutting on AISI D2 Steel 571
4 Analysis
Response surface regression analysis is performed using Stat-Ease Design Expert soft
ware to study the effect of the input parameters individually and together on responses
such as cutting time, angular error and surface roughness. For three responses sum of
squares is calculated to select the polynomial equation of the higher order that relates
the response to the variables and analysis of variance (ANOVA) is conducted to
estimate the model significance and the most affecting parameter on the responses.
572 K. L. Uday Kiran et al.
The final regression equation of the cutting time in terms of actual values is given as:
c time c time
14.29 14.29
10.06 10.06
13.9 12
X1 = A: T angle X1 = B: W feed
X2 = B: W feed X2 = C: W tension
12.875 11.625
Coded Factor Coded Factor
C: W tension = 0.000 A: T angle = 0.000
11.85 11.25
c time
c time
10.825 10.875
9.8 10.5
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Interaction effect of input parameters on cutting time (a) taper angle-wire feed plane,
(b) taper angle-wire tension plane and (c) wire feed-wire tension plane
A error A error
0.676 0.676
0.0928 0.0928
0.58 0.59
X1 = A: T angle X1 = A: T angle
X2 = B: W feed X2 = C: W tension
0.4125 0.4375
Coded Factor Coded Factor
C: W tension = 0.000 B: W feed = 0.000
0.245 0.285
A error
A error
0.0775 0.1325
-0.09 -0.02
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Interaction effect of process parameters on angular error (a) taper angle-wire feed plane
and (b) taper angle-wire tension plane
SR SR
4.42 4.42
2.12 2.12
4.3 4.1
X1 = A: T angle X1 = B: W feed
X2 = B: W feed X2 = C: W tension
3.75 3.6
Actual Factor Actual Factor
C: W tension = 8.00 A: T angle = 9.00
3.2 3.1
SR
SR
2.65 2.6
2.1 2.1
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Interaction effect of machining parameters on SR (a) taper angle-wire feed plane and
(b) wire feed-wire tension plane
The effect of wire feed and wire tension on SR is shown in Fig. 4(b). At low wire
feed values from 4 to 5 mm/min and low wire tension from 7 to 8 g SR value is slightly
reduced. At high wire feed (5 to 6 mm/min) and tension (8 to 9 g) SR value is
increased.
Parametric Optimization During Wire EDM Taper Cutting on AISI D2 Steel 575
The optimization is done in the form of desirability (di) [2], which involves calculating
(Ri) the response values of (cutting time, angular error and surface roughness) using the
final regression equation for each. Each Ri is then transformed to the corresponding
desirability value (di) using Eq. (4). Then all the three di values are gathered into a
desirability of the level of parameters (D) using Eq. (5).
Ri Rmin r
di ¼ ð Þ ð4Þ
Rmax Rmin
Where di: value of the desirability of the individual responses Ri, r: represents how
important is to hit the target value and =1, Rmin is the minimum and Rmax is the
maximum values of CT, AE, and SR of the whole experiments.
7 Conclusions
Based on the response surface regression analysis to determine the optimum input
parameters and multi objective optimization performed using desirability function the
following conclusions are obtained
576 K. L. Uday Kiran et al.
1. Taper angle was found as the most significant parameter effecting machining time,
angular error and surface roughness.
2. Wire tension in the chosen range (6 to 11 g) has no significant on cutting time and
surface roughness. At low wire tension the angular error was decreased and at
higher wire tension the angular error was increased while machining at constant
taper angle and wire feed.
3. Increasing wire feed resulted in increase in cutting time. At low wire feed values
angular error and surface roughness values were decreased, but at high feed values
angular error and surface roughness values were increased.
4. Results show that the optimal combination of process parameters are taper angle 6°,
wire feed 5.624 mm/min and wire tension 7.886 g respectively achieving desir-
ability value of 0.976 with response values as cutting time 10.06 min, angular error
0.061° and surface roughness 2.282 lm.
References
1. Sanchez J et al (2008) Experimental and numerical study of angular error in wire-EDM
taper-cutting. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 48(12–13):1420–1428
2. Derringer G, Suich R (1980) Simultaneous optimization of several response variables. J Qual
Technol 12(4):214–219
3. Sarkar S, Mitra S, Bhattacharyya B (2005) Parametric analysis and optimization of wire
electrical discharge machining of c-titanium aluminide alloy. J Mater Process Technol 159
(3):286–294
4. Rao R, Pawar P (2009) Modelling and optimization of process parameters of wire electrical
discharge machining. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B: J Eng Manuf 223(11):1431–1440
5. Shandilya P, Jain P, Jain N (2012) Parametric optimization during wire electrical discharge
machining using response surface methodology. Proc Eng 38:2371–2377
6. Selvakumar G et al (2014) Experimental investigation and multi-objective optimization of
wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) of 5083 aluminum alloy. Trans Nonferrous
Met Soc China 24(2):373–379
7. Lodhi BK, Agarwal S (2014) Optimization of machining parameters in WEDM of AISI D3
Steel using Taguchi Technique. Proc CIRP 14:194–199
8. Gaikwad V, Jatti VS (2018) Optimization of material removal rate during electrical
discharge machining of cryo-treated NiTi alloys using Taguchi’s method. J King Saud Univ-
Eng Sci 30(3):266–272
9. Padhi P et al (2016) Multi-objective optimization of wire electrical discharge machining
(WEDM) process parameters using weighted sum genetic algorithm approach. J Adv Manuf
Syst 15(02):85–100
10. Majumder H, Maity K (2018) Prediction and optimization of surface roughness and micro-
hardness using GRNN and MOORA-fuzzy-a MCDM approach for nitinol in WEDM.
Measurement 118:1–13
Extraction of Coordinate Points
for the Numerical Simulation of Single Point
Incremental Forming Using Microsoft Excel
Abstract. The aim of the present paper is to define tool-path in CAM package
and extract the coordinate points from G-code for numerical simulation of
Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF). The Truncated Cone, Truncated
Pyramid, and Hyperbola were the parts used to define the tool-path in Master-
cam environment. The G-code created from the Truncated Cone and Truncated
Pyramid were the samples in the extraction of X, Y, and Z coordinate points.
Extraction of the coordinate points was conducted by using Microsoft Excel
commands. The paper shows that Excel commands can automatically extract
coordinate points from a huge table of alphanumeric mixed string data. Finally,
the extracted coordinate points were defined for the Numerical Simulation of
SPIF and that works successfully.
1 Introduction
Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) is a dieless sheet metal forming process.
Because of its low initial investment cost, the method is suitable for small batch and
prototyping [1–3].
In the numerical simulation of SPIF, toolpath definition is the primary procedure.
A CAM package with the feature for the tool-path definition of SPIF has not been
introduced. So, CAM systems used in machining have been using as one of the
methods to define the toolpath for the investigations in SPIF.
Efforts were made to extract coordinate points from CAM package for the
Numerical Simulation of SPIF. In simple cases, the tool path point coordinates can be
manually processed by means of simple spreadsheets [4, 5]. Python was used to
generate the ordered file from the part program generated using the CAM package. This
ordered file was given as input to MATLAB to generate position vs time data [3]. The
recent trial was shown by [6], a software tool was used a CNC file in G-code format to
reveal the interpolation point coordinates of the tool motions and the positioning time
in a specific ANSYS format.
In this paper, a method is introduced to extract the coordinate points from a mixed
string G-code. The approach uses excel commands to extract the coordinate points.
2 Method
The flow chart (Fig. 1) depicted the process that was used to define the tool-path. It also
describes the method used to extract the coordinate points from a mixed alphanumeric
string of G-code.
G-Code Generation
Fig. 1. Flow chart for the toolpath definition and extraction of G-code
3 Part Modeling
Three varieties of shapes namely the Truncated Cone, Truncated Pyramid and
Hyperbola have chosen. The dimensions used in the part modeling of the chosen parts
are described in Fig. 2. The wall angle used to define the truncated Pyramid is 60°. To
define the hyperbola the wall angle is varied from 30° to 80°.
4 Toolpath Strategy
Two types of tool-path strategies are commonly used in SPIF. The contour or profile
and the spiral or helical tool-path strategies. In this study the profile tool-path was used.
Fig. 2. Parameters in the part modeling of sample parts (a) Truncated Cone (b) Truncated
Pyramid (c) Hyperbola
Mastercam version 2017 was the CAM package used. To generate the tool-path a
SolidWorks Part file was imported to Mastercam 2017 version. Then, introducing the
imported file to the surface finish contour was conducted. The parameters used to create
the contour finish tool-path are given in Table 1. Spindle speed is set to be zero because
the tool will not be rotating due to a specific contact area with the sheet. Figure 3
depicted the toolpath created by using Mastercam 2017 version and simulated in
“SIMCO edit” software.
Fig. 3. Toolpath definition for the sample parts (a) Truncated Cone (b) Truncated Pyramid
(c) Hyperbola
The part program generated using the CAM package cannot be given as input for the
tool path in numerical simulation software. For numerical simulation the tool path
should be defined in terms of position vs time, velocity vs time or acceleration vs
time [3].
In this study, Microsoft Excel approach was used to extract the coordinate points
from a mixed alphanumeric string that make up the G-code. Figure 4 illustrates pro-
cedures in the Excel approach that was used to extract the X, Y and Z coordinate
points.
Extraction of Coordinate Points for the Numerical Simulation 581
Table 2. Sample G-code for the Truncated Cone and Truncated Pyramid
G-Code for Cone G-code for Pyramid
% %
O0000 (CONE) O0000 (PYRAMID)
N100 G21 N100 G21
N102 G0 G17 G40 G49 G80 G90 N102 G0 G17 G40 G49 G80 G90
N104 T1 M6 N104 T137 M6
N110 Z4.8 N112 G1 Z-.2 F1000.
N112 G1 Z-.2 F1000. N114 X48.768
N114 X-33.113 Y-35.79 N116 Y48.769
N116 X-32.573 Y-36.291 N118 X-48.766
N118 X-30.96 Y-37.682 N120 Y-48.767
N120 X-29.186 Y-39.066 N122 X-47.155 Y-47.156
The CNC program usually begins with a program number or similar identification,
followed by sequenced blocks of instructions in a logical order. The program ends with
a stop code or a program termination symbol, such as the percent sign [7].
From the G-code sample given in Table 2, CNC programming Preparatory Func-
tions (G codes) and Miscellaneous Functions (M-codes) have found at the beginning
and end of the NC file. Between the two functions, mixed strings of coordinate points
have existed.
The extraction of coordinate points was primarily commenced by removing the
Preparatory Functions, Miscellaneous Functions, and block numbers. To remove block
numbers, use “remove block numbers” option on the NC file itself or introduce the NC
file to “SIMCO edit” software and remove block numbers that way. Table 3 depicts the
sample mixed string after exclusion of the G-codes, M-codes and block numbers from
the NC-file for the Truncated Cone and Pyramid.
After the preparation of the mixed string based on the aforementioned procedure as
depicted in Table 3, the Excel commands given in Table 4 were used to extract the
coordinate points for the Truncated Cone from a mixed alphanumeric string.
582 Z. Yeshiwas and A. Krishnaiah
Extraction Command
Left of “Y” Iferror(Left(Text,Search("Y", Text)-1),"")
X-Coordinate points Iferror(Right(Text, Len(Text)- Search("X", Text) - Len("X") + 1),"")
Y-Coordinate Points Iferror(Right(Text, Len(Text)- Search("Y", Text) - Len("Y") + 1),"")
Find Z Iferror(Right(Text, Len(Text)- Search("Z", Text) - Len("Z") + 1),"")
Repeat Z Go To Special” dialog box or VBA code
To repeat “Z” value until a new “Z” value is seen in Excel; firstly select the column
range, Go to Special box, select Blank option, and then OK. After that enter an equal
sign, up arrow, Ctrl + Enter keys simultaneously.
Another optional method can be using VBA code. The following VBA code can
also use to repeat the cell values until a new value is seen [8].
Sub FillDown()
Dim xRng As Range
Dim xRows As Long, xCols As Long
Dim xRow As Integer, xCol As Integer
Set xRng = Selection
xCols = xRng.Columns.CountLarge
xRows = xRng.Rows.CountLarge
For xCol = 1 To xCols
For xRow = 1 To xRows - 1
If xRng.Cells(xRow, xCol) <> "" Then
xRng.Cells(xRow, xCol) = xRng.Cells(xRow,
xCol).Value
If xRng.Cells(xRow + 1, xCol) = "" Then
xRng.Cells(xRow + 1, xCol) =
xRng.Cells(xRow, xCol).Value
End If
End If
Next xRow
Next xCol
End Sub
Extraction of Coordinate Points for the Numerical Simulation 583
In our case we can use this code to repeat the values of “Z” until new values of “Z”
is seen. To accomplish this, Select the column range, open the Microsoft Visual Basic
for Applications window, Insert, Module. Then copy and paste the below VBA code
into the Module window.
The sample toolpath extracted in Fig. 5 is for a Truncated Cone. The alphanumeric
setup of the mixed string for the Truncated Cone and for the Hyperbola was the same.
However, the alphanumeric setup for Truncated Pyramid was different from the
aforementioned two sample parts. Based on this, the Truncated Cone and Pyramid were
taken to test the extraction.
When it comes to extracting part of a mixed alphanumeric string for Truncated
Pyramid, one of the three Substring functions (Left, Right and Mid) was applied to
quickly handle the first task. After the first extraction by using the Left function, the
same commands in Table 4 were used to extract the coordinate points. In Fig. 6,
sample mixed string coordinate points for Truncated Pyramid depicted in Table 3 were
extracted by using the proposed method.
584 Z. Yeshiwas and A. Krishnaiah
The forming time is the estimated time required to complete the forming process. The
Numerical Simulation in Abaqus required amplitude vs time data to define the toolpath
in SPIF. Estimation of the forming time is possible by relating the feed rate and the
total forming distance or the total distance the tool completed in forming the
part. Equation 2 was used to estimate the forming time.
For face milling and slab milling, the time Tm required to mill a workpiece of
length L is given by Eq. 1.
Tm ¼ L þ A=f r ð1Þ
Tf ¼ L=f r ð2Þ
Dt ¼ Tf =N ð3Þ
Fig. 7. The feed and total distance covered by the forming tool
7 Numerical Simulation
The coordinate points were extracted and used as an input for the numerical simulation
of SPIF and work successfully. In the simulation, the amplitude vs time data extracted
by using the Excel approach is given as input to Abaqus software to simulate the SPIF.
The blank is fixed along its four edges and defined as a deformable body and meshed
with shell elements. The tool is defined as a rigid body. Truncated cone in Fig. 3(a) was
chosen for numerical simulation. The deformed shape after the simulation is shown in
Fig. 8.
8 Conclusion
Manual extraction coordinate point from a huge table of alphanumeric mixed string
data is tricky. The proposed method can automatically generate the coordinate points
from a huge table of alphanumeric mixed string data for the numerical simulation of
586 Z. Yeshiwas and A. Krishnaiah
SPIF with less effort and time. Besides this, a better agreement can achieve between the
numerical simulation and experimental investigations because of the same coordinate
points.
To use the Excel commands in the extraction of coordinate points there is a need for
exclusion of the G-codes, M-codes and block numbers from the NC-file. In this study,
the commands were not tested for a very complex part.
References
1. Martins PAF, Kwiatkowski L, Franzen V, Tekkaya AEE, Kleiner M (2009) Single point
incremental forming of polymers. CIRP Ann - Manuf Technol 58:229–232
2. Kim YH, Park JJ (2002) Effect of process parameters on formability in incremental forming of
sheet metal. J Mater Process Technol 131:42–46
3. Suresh K, Khan A, Regalla SP (2013) Tool path definition for numerical simulation of single
point incremental forming. Procedia Eng 64:536–545
4. Senthil R, Gnanavelbabu A (2014) Numerical analysis on formability of Az61A magnesium
alloy by incremental forming. Procedia Eng 97:1975–1982
5. Sigvant M, Pilthammar J (2018) Finite element simulation and experimental verification of
incremental sheet metal forming. In: IOP conference series (2018)
6. Oancea D (2018) Integrating a new software tool used for tool path generation in the
numerical simulation of incremental forming processes. J Mech Eng 64:643–651
7. Smid P (2007) CNC programming handbook. Industrial, New York
8. Tips and Tricks. https://www.extendoffice.com
A Review on Wire Arc Additive
Manufacturing (WAAM) Fabricated
Components of Ti6AL4V and Steels
1 Introduction
cost of metal powders. In the case of steels Selective Laser Melting (SLM) deposits
0.1 kg/h, Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) will be capable to deposit 1 kg/h, whereas
WAAM process deposits as high as 5–6 kg/h [1]. On the contrary Wire feed Additive
Manufacturing has much higher metal deposition rate, potentially no limitations on the
part size and near net shape component manufacturing, and these benefits tremendously
boosted the growth of the Wire feed additive manufacturing in the manufacturing
sector. Based on the energy source the Wire feed AM is categorized in to three
processes, Arc based, Laser based, and Electron beam based. Among the three above
processes Wire Arc based Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) [2–4] is highly energy
efficient, relatively very low equipment cost and high rate of metal deposition is
attained however with relatively inferior dimensional accuracy and surface roughness,
this is acceptable as always a minor post machining is due for WAAM fabricated
components before putting them in to use. WAAM process utilizes electric arc as
source of heat and filler wire is fed at a predetermined feed speed, due to intense heat
wire is melted and deposited on to the substrate or on to the earlier deposited layer.
WAAM Schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 1. Currently based on utilized heat source
there are three categories of WAAM processes: Gas Tungsten Arc based welding
(GTAW) [5], Gas Metal based Arc Welding (GMAW) [3], and Plasma Arc based
welding [6], the metal deposition rate in GMAW is 2–3 times more than compared to
GTAW or PAW [7]. The main difference is that GTAW requires exclusive separate
filler wire, adding few more process parameters compared to GMAW and thus
increasing the complexity to that of GMAW. Majorly WAAM process is driven by
Industrial robots systems or CNC gantries. In WAAM the building strategy comprises
of depositing a series of multiple weld beads layer by layer to form 3D component.
When compared with regular traditional manufacturing, WAAM process fabrication,
can significantly cuts the fabrication phase by 40–60%, and even the post machining
time would get reduced drastically by 15–20% based on dimensions of fabricated
components [3–8]. Latest developments in WAAM have proved that a saving of 78%
in raw material can be possible while fabricating landing gear ribs component used in
aircraft through WAAM process [4, 9]. WAAM process is especially best suited to the
expensive materials like Titanium which is very difficult to machine as it is chemically
very reactive and has a tendency to get weld with cutting tool. Titanium is very widely
used in aerospace industry due to its high specific strength, excellent corrosion resis-
tance, and retaining of tensile and creep properties even at high temperatures. Partic-
ularly with Titanium due to its conventional machining issues, there is always a need
for more efficient and cost effective way method of component manufacturing with
reduced buy-to-fly ratio. This paper investigates WAAM fabricated components of
various metals for their microstructural evolution and the mechanical properties, also
studies the current research in the WAAM processes related to Titanium and its alloys,
steel and its alloys. The literature study covers the simulation studies related to
reducing the heat accumulation, optimal parameters selection, grain refinement pro-
cesses, overcoming the residual stresses of the components, improving the grain
structure through machine hammer peening.
A Review on Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Fabricated Components 589
2 Literature Survey
Mereddy et al. [10] in their research added silicon to the Titanium components man-
ufactured by wire arc additive manufacturing to refine b grains. It is observed that as
the silicon content is increased the grain size would become smaller Fig. 3; however
the columnar growth of the grains could not be prevented. The employed method is
TIG based wire arc additive manufacturing and the process deposited the commercially
pure Titanium beads of Titanium with 200 mm length and 10 mm width on TI6AL4 V
substrate, the process parameters used are indicated in Table 1 and the experimental set
up used for this is shown in Fig. 2. Initial layer was deposited without silicon paint
whereas the subsequent layers were deposited by applying the specially prepared sil-
icon paints on the previous bead. Two paints are prepared by using a silicon powder
mixed alcohol gel with 25 wt% silicon (called as low silicon paint) and 40 wt% silicon
(called as high silicon paint). The average sample composition of wire feeds stock, low
silicon paint, high silica paint; sample without silicon paint is indicated in the Table 2.
The size of the silicon selected is in the order of less than 1 µm diameter the gel is of
type which gets evaporated quickly as soon as you apply on the weld bead layer, and
the silicon particles contained in the gel will get adhered to the applied layer. Exposure
of the samples to the atmosphere is prevented by trailing shielding gas trailing par-
ticularly designed for the experiment. The specific shielding gas design prevents the
oxidation of the sample.
Fig. 3. Prior-b grain microstructure of WAAM fabricated Titanium component with (a) 0.04%
Silicon, (b) 0.19% Silicon, (c) 0.75% Silicon [10].
prepared samples do not have significant variations even though the samples were
prepared with different parameters. The samples were tested for their microstructures
and observed that sample wall structure produced is divided in to 3 regions in the build
direction viz. lower region predominantly by ferritic with pearlite bands, middle zone
dominated by ferrite equiaxed grains and the bainitic upper zone. The variation in the
microstructure is due to different thermal history of deposited layers. Lower region
experiences less thermal shock as it is in touch with cold substrate, middle region is
affected by lower thermal shock and the upper region is exposes to higher thermal
shock. Due to the changes in the microstructures the Vickers micro hardness numbers
differs for these three regions Fig. 4, and also the average grain size varies in these
regions Table 3.
The higher thermal shock of upper zone reflect in bainitic structure and hence
higher hardness is noticed, The middle zone experiences a slow cooling rate when
compared to the upper zone and also experiences annealing softening effect. The
thermal gradient of middle zone is lesser than the lower zone and hence the hardness
value of middle zone is below when compared to upper and lower zones.
Fig. 4. Values of Vickers micro hardness in the three different regions of samples [11]
Table 3. Average grain size values in three different regions of WAAM fabricated sample [11]
Region of the sample Average mean grain
size (in µm)
Lower region of the sample (size of grain) 17.80
Middle region of the sample (size of grain) 22.10
Upper region of the sample (size of the length of laths) 32.50
and LENS are the two Additive manufacturing processes used for producing two AM
sample components. Authors [12] conducted hardness test on all the three samples to
obtain initial information on wrought, LENS and WAAM fabricated samples before the
cutting force analysis is investigated and the results of hardness test are indicated in the
Table 4, which shows that, hardness of additively manufactured components (LENS &
WAAM) is very high compared to wrought sample and in accordance with this the
fabricated AM sample components (LENS & WAAM) indicated a significant increase
in the Milling cutting forces. The study concluded that machinability of AM compo-
nents is reduced and hence author recommended to use different cutting parameters for
AM manufactured components.
Heat accumulation is the main concern/issue on WAAM process and this signifi-
cantly elevates the work piece temperature and this in turn affects the product.
Montevecchi et al. [13], adopted a jet impingement procedure which avoids the
excessive accumulation of heat in the work piece and enhance the convective heat
transfer from work piece to the surroundings. A proposed air jet cooling system is shown
in the below Fig. 5 and the parts of proposed system are 1- Torch, 2- Work piece
Deposited material, 3- Air hose 4- Work piece substrate. Simulation studies were
conducted in this study with Finite Element analysis to evaluate the effectiveness and the
results of study indicated the proposed jet impingement significantly reduced the heat
accumulation.
Heat accumulation is a core issue in the wire arc additive manufacturing and
influences the mechanical properties of the fabricated component. Binato et al. [14]
conducted experiments Fig. 6, and investigated the heat accumulation effects on the
A Review on Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Fabricated Components 593
Fig. 10. Cross-sectional Hardness of different heat treated samples (WQ -Water Quenching,
AC- Air Cooling, FC-Furnace cooling) [15]
Fig. 11. Tensile strength of different heat-treated samples (WQ-Water Quenching, AC- Air
Cooling, FC-Furnace cooling) [15]
Fig. 12. Weight loss of different heat treated samples (WQ-Water Quenching, AC- Air Cooling,
FC-Furnace cooling) [15]
596 P. Satish Kumar et al.
acetone mixed CaF2 paint is prepared and is applied by brush manually on substrate or
previously deposited layer till the paint thickness is clearly visible, once the acetone is
fully evaporated the subsequent layer is deposited. Two components were fabricated in
this experiment one with applying CaF2 (modified sample) and another one without
CaF2 (unmodified sample) paint. Macro/microstructure features of samples revealed that
unmodified component developed oxidation layer and bulged (due to Marangoni effect)
compared to modified component, and in the modified sample, it is noticed few pores
inside the sample due to contamination while processing CaF2 layer. Samples for
mechanical testing were taken in the build direction and the results demonstrated that
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) for modified component increased by 12%, when
compared with unmodified sample, Table 5 indicates the experimental values of Ulti-
mate tensile strength (UTS), reduction in cross sectional area of the sample and Elon-
gation of sample; however elongation and reduction in cross sectional area of the
modified component significantly reduced when compared with unmodified one.
Tabernero [1] has studied the main three types welding processes that comes under
WAAM technology namely PAW (Plasma Arc Welding), Fronius CMT (Cold Metal
Transfer), TopTIG, in terms of suitability of the process for the materials and obtained
the mechanical properties. Test samples were taken in bead direction side and bead
vertical overlapping side as shown in Fig. 13 and various combinations of materials
with shielding gas compositions are indicated in Table 6. The experimental results
indicate that irrespective of welding technology the WAAM technology superior
quality components can be obtained with metal deposition rates ranging up to 5 kg/h in
case of stainless steels, and 2.5 kg/h in case of Ti6Al4V alloy, outcomes of mechanical
tests proves that even though WAAM technology accomplishes the mechanical
properties still it is required to select the specific welding technology based on the
material and specific requirement. Cold Metal Process (CMT) process, achieves
maximum deposition rate for stainless steels but components shows significant ani-
sotropy in mechanical properties, however in case of Ti6Al4V alloy the intrinsic low
heat requires essentially the use of gas mixtures for better aspect ratio for overlapping.
TopTIG process achieves best properties for stainless steels and indicates consistent
behavior; in case of Ti6Al4V alloy the lower energy needs active gas mix mixture for
better deposition. PAW process achieves moderate deposition rates for stainless steels
and also decent properties in both longitudinal as well as transverse directions, in case
of Ti6Al4V alloy with PAW proves to be perfect deposition rate and mechanical
properties.
Hönnige et al. [17], in this paper proposed and evaluated effective novel technique
Machine Hammer Peening (MHP) instead of Inter pass rolling technique normally used
cold working. Inter pass rolling is constrained only to simple and regular features with
A Review on Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Fabricated Components 597
Table 6. Shielding gas compositions and metal deposition rates used in experiment [1]
Materials Processes used Protecting gas mixture Metal deposition
used rate
AISI 316L Cold metal 25% CO2/75% Argon 1.5 kg/h
transfer
Plasma arc 5% H2/95% Argon 1.5 kg/h
welding
TopTIG 100% Argon 1.5 kg/h
Ti6Al4V Cold metal 100% Ar 50% He/50% Argon 2.5 kg/h
transfer 100% He
Plasma arc 100% Argon 1.5 kg/h
welding
TopTIG 70% He/30% Argon 1.0 kg/h
Fig. 13. Tensile test specimens taken from WAAM fabricated thick wall component [1].
regular geometries and it is cumbersome, whereas the proposed MHP is relatively easy
and can be operated by robots. MHP employs an indenter which impacts fabricated
component with a specified frequency. Main use of MHP is for surface smoothing, to
induce compressive residual stresses and for surface hardening. The experimental set
up used for vertical inter-pass peening and side inter-pass peening is indicated in the
Fig. 14, and in Fig. 15 displays the peening patterns. In this experiment Ti6Al4V
sample blocks were fabricated with 14 layers with a layer thickness of 1.1 mm and a
layer width of 5.8 mm. Leaving the first 10 layers the peening operation is done on the
top 4 layers, test results of the samples taken from the peened and un-peened surfaces
indicates that, hardness is considerably increased in the zone effected by peening, and
Fig. 14. Set up of (a) vertical inter-pass peening and (b) Inter-pass side peening [17]
598 P. Satish Kumar et al.
peened zone also witnessed the compressive residual stress and these are shown in the
Fig. 16. Maximum peened depth in the experiment appears to be 2 mm from the
surface. Results of the experiment concluded that MHP is good technique for grain
refinement as shown in Fig. 17.
Fig. 15. Peening Line outline and Peening field outline [17]
Fig. 17. Microstructure before inter-pass and after inter-pass peening steps for 4th layer [17].
(a) Vertical peening control (b) vertical inter-pass peened (c) side peening control (d) side inter-
pass peened
A Review on Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Fabricated Components 599
3 Conclusions
• Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is the best alternative for subtractive
manufacturing especially bulky components/structures with reasonable complexity,
and for higher cost materials, WAAM should be the best option due to the sig-
nificant cost reduction in buy to fly ratio.
• A comprehensive review of literature articles associated to WAAM fabricated
components presented, analyzing their microstructure evolution, metallurgical dis-
closures, and acquired mechanical properties.
• For good mechanical properties of the WAAM fabricated components inter pass
temperature should be maintained below 200 °C.
• WAAM technology can achieve the desired microstructure in the build direction of
the component by controlling the cooling rate of the deposited layer with different
series of cooling media like water, brine, oil or forced convection.
• Refinement of the grain structure for the WAAM fabricated titanium alloys can be
done effectively by adding silicon to the deposition layers, silicon added would
significantly reduce the average grain size of prior b grains, however it cannot
prevent the columnar grain formation.
• Review of simulated studies of heat accumulation reduction in WAAM, grain
refinement and heat treatments, open up the future scope of research specific
WAAM processes.
• WAAM primarily fabricating medium to large scale metallic components/structures
involve, interactions between material compositions, high thermal exposures, and
process parameters which decide the microstructural evolution of the component
thus dictate the mechanical properties of components.
• The major WAAM process issues related to heat accumulation, residual stresses,
and complex thermal history are the areas in which more research is being focused
in order to minimize the ill effects of these and to fabricate the components with
enhanced mechanical properties with controlled microstructure properties.
• Currently more research is being conducted to fabricate the functionally graded
components through controlled microstructure of the fabricating components.
References
1. Taberneroa I, Paskual A, Álvarezb P, Suárezc A (2018) Study on arc welding processes for
high deposition rate additive manufacturing. Procedia CIRP 68:358–362
2. Almeida PS, Williams S (2010) Innovative process model of Ti–6Al–4V additive layer
manufacturing using cold metal transfer (CMT). In: Proceedings of the twenty-first annual
international solid freeform fabrication symposium. University of Texas, Austin
3. Ding J, Colegrove P, Mehnen J, Ganguly S, Sequeira PM, Wang F et al (2011)
Thermomechanical analysis of wire and arc additive layer manufacturing process on large
multi-layer parts. Comput Mater Sci 50:3315–3322
4. Wang F, Williams S, Rush M (2011) Morphology investigation on direct current pulsed gas
tungsten arc welded additive layer manufactured Ti6Al4V alloy. Int J Adv Manuf Technol
57:597–603
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5. Dickens P, Pridham M, Cobb R, Gibson I, Dixon G (1992) Rapid prototyping using 3-D
welding. In: DTIC document
6. Spencer J, Dickens P, Wykes C (1998) Rapid prototyping of metal parts by three-
dimensional welding. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B J Eng Manuf 212:175–182
7. Wu B, Pan Z, Ding D, Cuiuri D, Li H, Xu J, Norrish J (2018) A review of the wire arc
additive manufacturing of metals: properties, defects and quality improvement. J Manuf
Process 35:127–139
8. Reduce costs and increase output with robotic welding. https://www.scottautomation.com/
applications/metal-fabrication/welding/
9. Williams SW, Martina F, Addison AC, Ding J, Pardal G, Colegrove P (2016) Wire + arc
additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Technol 32:641–647
10. Mereddy S, Bermingham MJ, StJohn DH, Dargusch MS (2017) Grain refinement of wire arc
additively manufactured titanium by the addition of silicon. J Alloys Compd 695:2097–2103
11. Liberini M, Astarita A, Campatelli G, Scippa A, Montevecchi F, Venturini G, Durante M,
Boccarusso L, Minutolo FMC, Squillace A (2017) Selection of optimal process parameters
for wire arc additive manufacturing. Procedia CIRP 62:470–474
12. Montevecchi F, Grossi N, Takagi H, Scippa A, Sasahara H, Campatelli G (2016) Cutting
forces analysis in additive manufactured AISI H13 alloy. Procedia CIRP 46:476–479
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2018.06.004
14. Wu B, Pan Z, Ding D, Cuiuri D, Li H (2018) Effects of heat accumulation on microstructure
and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V alloy deposited by wire arc additive manufacturing.
Addit Manuf. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.08.004
15. El-Hadad S, Nady M, Khalifa W, Shash A (2017) Influence of heat treatment conditions on
the mechanical properties of Ti–6Al–4V alloy. Can Metall Q. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00084433.2017.1412557
16. Yin B, Ma H, Wang J, Fang K, Zhao H, Liu Y (2017) Effect of CaF2 addition on
macro/microstructures and mechanical properties of wire and arc additive manufactured
Ti-6Al-4V components. Mater Lett 190:64–66
17. Hönnige JR, Colegrove P, Williams S (2017) Improvement of microstructure and
mechanical properties of Wire + Arc Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V with Machine
Hammer Peening. Procedia Eng 216:8–17
18. Xiong J, Lei Y, Chen H, Zhang G (2017) Fabrication of inclined thin-walled parts in multi-
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Towards Modeling of Polymer Injection
Molding Process – Approaches for Evaluation
of the Processing Conditions, Control Factors
and Optimization
1 Introduction
control factors are critically evaluated. The numerical modeling approaches towards
injection molding are presented in Sect. 3. In Sect. 4, approaches for characterization
of residual stresses and energy analysis is depicted. It is anticipated that the paper
would yield a new direction and recommendations could be derived for intense
research in the area of polymer injection molding.
Cavity factors
Energy
Material factors required to Equipment factors
produce a
part
The factors controlling the energy required to generate a part using injection
molding is presented in Fig. 1. The cavity factors are obtained from the cavity control
signals whereas the control factors related to the material is obtained from the polymer
manufacturer’s datasheet. In ref. [9], three factors were selected to depict the injection
molding cavity, they are: average cavity temperature during injection, average cavity
pressure during injection and average cavity temperature during ejection. The factors
associated with injection molding machine are temperature of the polymer melt during
injection, efficiency of machine, shot size and power required. The geometrical
dimensions of the part as well as the mold also influence the energy requirements. The
controllable factors are volume of the part, fraction of part volume used for gating,
number of cavities, total cycle time and maximum flow rate. In [9], two positions of
injection mounding configuration are selected, and variation of the control factors
specifically at these two positions are evaluated. The results show cavity pressure
variations at the selected locations. The geometrical controllable factors associated with
injection molding are included in [4]. Considering a cross-section of the geometry, the
604 V. Pattali et al.
part height, fillet radii at sections and draft angle are controlled in order to achieve the
optimum Von mises stress. Similarly, aiming to minimize the occurrence of defects
during injection molding, control factors governing the thermal deformations on the
part are selected as cooling time, thermal expansion coefficient, poisson’s ratio,
Young’s modulus and mold temperature [2], in addition to the regular factors injection
speed, packing pressure and injection time. A two-level factorial design was estab-
lished. All possible variations of the factors are included, and the results of average
deformation of a specimen including the effect of thermal and flow effects are shown in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. The average deformation of the specimen with processing conditions [2]
Fig. 4. A comparison of predicted polymer melt flow advancement with experimental results,
a. three- dimensional model, b. experimental result [1]
Numerical methods are also used to elucidate the effect of parameters on the quality
of parts which is directly influenced by the extent of mold filling [8]. Mould temper-
ature and injection speed are found to be the significant parameters. The flow front
expansion, profile of the injection velocity and filling time are selected and the three-
dimensional numerical simulation analysis was carried out. The injection molded
profile, flow front advancements and viscosity shear rate were observed using the
a. b.
developed numerical model [5]. The meshed three-dimensional simulated model and
simulation parameters are presented in Fig. 5a and b respectively.
In the work, the deviation between model and experimental results was within 5%
for the system pressure and within 3% for system temperature respectively at the
selected processing conditions. In a similar work, the key processes involving filling of
the mould, cooling and packing phases was numerically modeled [7] (Fig. 6).
Energy consumption during the injection molding is measured with the help of energy
loggers. The approach is to monitor the energy consumption under normal process
input settings [9, 12]. The type of material and the configuration of the machine
indicated significant changes in the consumption of energy during the injection
molding [10, 11]. The results indicate that plasticizing phase is the most energy
demanding phase. In general, the electrical injection molding machines show a better
Fig. 7. The variation in the energy data obtained from energy logger [9]
Towards Modeling of Polymer Injection Molding Process 607
Fig. 8. Numerical modeling of injection molding of thermoplastic a. Sectional view of the mold,
b. stress distribution of molding material, c. stress distribution of mold
As evident from the stress distribution of the mold, all the mold surfaces are
characterized with the effect of residual stresses. This could be attributed to challenges
in mould cooling. The aspects controlling the cooling include thermal conductivity of
608 V. Pattali et al.
mould material, surface area of cooling channels, flow rate of cooling fluid and number
of cooling channels in order to minimize thermal gradients which is the prime factor
causing residual stresses.
5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the Principal, Head of the Department,
Mechanical Engineering, all faculty, staff and students of Government College of Engineering
Kannur, Kerala, India.
References
1. Tutar M, Karakus A (2010) Computational study of the effect of governing parameters on a
polymer injection molding process for single-cavity and multicavity mold systems. J Manuf
Sci Eng 132:011001-1–011001-12
2. Chang E, Shin S, Chung H (2013) Identification of controlling parameters on thermal
deformation of mobile device by injection molding process. J Manuf Sci Eng 135:011008-1–
011008-9
3. Panahi AK, Mianajiy H, Miandoabchi E, Fareed MH (2013) Optimization of the powder
injection molding process parameters using the sequential simplex algorithm and sensitivity
analysis. J Manuf Sci Eng 135:011006-1–011006-7
4. Zafosnik B, Bozic U, Florjanic B (2015) Modelling of an analytic equation for predicting
maximum stress in an injections moulded undercut geometry during ejection. Int J Precis
Eng Manuf 16:2499–2507
Towards Modeling of Polymer Injection Molding Process 609
5. Rusdi MS, Abdullah MZ, Mahmud AS, Khor CY, Aziz MSA, Ariff ZM, Abdullah MK
(2016) Numerical investigation on the effect of pressure and temperature on the melt filling
during injection molding process. Arab J Sci Eng 41:1907–1919
6. Kim B, Min J (2017) Residual stress distributions and their influence on post-manufacturing
deformation of injection-molded plastic parts. J Mater Process Technol 245:215–226
7. Ou H, Sahli M, Barriere T, Gelin JC (2017) Multiphysics modeling and experimental
investigations of the filling and curing phases of bi-injection moulding of thermoplastic
polymer/liquid silicone rubbers. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 92:3871–3882
8. Surace R, Bellantone V, Trotta G, Fassi I (2017) Replicating capability investigation of
micro features in injection moulding process. J Manuf Process 28:351–361
9. Valencia AS, Loste J (2018) Characterizing energy consumption in injection molding: model
versus logger. J Manuf Sci Eng 140:031013-1–031013-10
10. Elduque A, Elduque D, Claveria I, Javierre C (2018) Influence of material and injection
molding machine’s selection on the electricity consumption and environmental impact of the
injection molding process: an experimental approach. Int J Precis Eng Manuf – Green
Technol 5:13–28
11. Lan X, Li C, Yang L, Xue C (2018) Deformation analysis and improvement method of the
Ni-P mold core in the injection molding process. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 99:2659–2668
12. Masato D, Sorgato M, Babenko M, Whiteside B, Lucchetta G (2018) Thin-wall injection
molding of polystyrene parts with coated and uncoated cavities. Mater Des 141:286–295
13. Wu K, Wan L, Zhang H, Yang D (2018) Numerical simulation of the injection molding
process of short fiber composites by an integrated particle approach. Int J Adv Manuf
Technol 97:3479–3491
Design of Sequential Electro-Pneumatic System
1 Introduction
For multi actuator applications we need to develop control circuit to understand the
sequence of actuation at various signal inputs by switches or by sensors. Multi actuator
applications with three double acting cylinders A, B, and C. In the below graph x axis
shows the activation sequence of cylinders and y axis shows the position of the
cylinder.
612 N. Mutyam et al.
0 represents the
retracted position
1 represents the
extended position
Functional Diagram
Sequence of operations:
Sequence of operations
S. no Quantity Component
1 3 Double acting cylinder
2 6 Read sensors
3 3 5/2 solenoid valves
4 4 FRL unit
5 1 Start switch
6 4 Change over relays
7 1 24V SMPS
Design of Sequential Electro-Pneumatic System 613
R1,R2,R3,R4 Relays
All the components are connected using PU pipe and all the solenoid valves have
their own FRL unit to regulate the air flow. When the start button is pressed, it checks the
initial condition of the cylinder and R1 relay will be activated. After R1 relay gets on it
gives signal to the Solenoid A+ and B+. the cylinders A and B gets extended to clamp the
workpiece. After clamping the workpiece relay R2 gets activated and the cylinder C will
gets extended the speed of the extension is controlled by the FRL unit. When the cylinder
C reached to C+ position it retracts back. While retracting the piston moves upwards and
reach to the C- position the relay R3 gets activated. When R3 is on the piston the cylinders
A and B get retracted and de clamps the workpiece. The process we will be stopped.
614 N. Mutyam et al.
3 Calculations
The diameter of dill bit is 10 mm, cutting speed 1200RPM and feed is 1 mm/rev.
General force required to drill a hole is 2000N. Diameter of the cylinder is 23 mm.
The pressure required to be maintained in the cylinder is 4.8 Mpa (approx. 5 Mpa).
d2
F ¼ Pp
4
4F
P¼
pd 2
2000 4
P¼
p ð0:023Þ2
P ¼ 4:8Mpa:
4 Conclusion
The manual controlled machine is transformed into automatic machine through the use
of various pneumatic devices as discussed. The outcomes indicate the operation time is
saved. Thus, the output might be more and even the human intervention is minimized,
such that number of machines can be handled by a single operator. We can demonstrate
that any manually operated system can be converted into automatic machines with the
aid of the use of those devices. But to achieve this one need to have full knowledge on
the devices that are being used. By doing this old machines can be changed and made
automatic by which the initial cost to purchase a new automated machine.
References
1. Świder J, Wszołek G, Carvalho W (2005) Programmable controller designed for electrop-
neumatic systems. J Mater Process Technol 164:1459–1465
2. Gill KJS, Kumar R, Kumar S (2015) Designing and fabrication of electro-pneumatic trainer
kit. In: International conference of advance research and innovation, ICARI 2015
3. Kumar A, Baig MAA, Lathe R. Automation of a drilling machine using pneumatic devices
4. Chivu C. Simulation of double acting pneumatic cylinder control
5. Salloom MY, Hussein HS, Abbas R (2015) Performance of PLC controlled pneumatic
elevator. Int Res J Eng Technol (IRJET) 02:457–464
6. Figliolini G, Rea P (2004) Design and test of pneumatic systems for production automation.
In: Proceedings of the Canadian engineering education association (CEEA)
Factors Influencing Hydrodynamic Entry
Length in Helical Coils
Abstract. Friction factor in the entrance region is higher than in fully devel-
oped flow and is essential in accounting for pressure drop. Due to geometry of
helical coils, centrifugal force destroys the symmetry of velocity profile and the
maximum velocity is shifted towards outer side. Turbulent flow in helical coil is
numerically studied for different orientations of the coil. System parameters such
as coil diameter, pipe diameter, pitch, pressure, flow etc. are varied and the
change in entry length is observed. It is found that orientation, pressure and
density of fluid has no effect on the developing region while geometrical
changes and flow influence the hydrodynamic entry length.
1 Introduction
Helical coils are widely used in process industries, nuclear power, organic Rankine
cycle applications and concentrated solar power industry. The geometry introduces coil
diameter D, pitch p in addition to tube diameter d. Due to complexity of geometry, flow
in helical pipes differs from straight pipes. Majority of numerical work in literature has
been carried out by considering fully developed region for solutions.
for fully developed, steady turbulent flow to study the effect of curvature and torsion.
Saffari et al. [8] numerically simulated turbulent flow with SST k-x model for pre-
dicting the entry length in helical coils for flows with void fraction values less than 0.1.
Piazza and Ciofalo [9] used k-e, SST k-x and RSM-x models for turbulent flow and
heat transfer prediction and compared the results with fully resolved direct numerical
simulations. The results have shown that SST k-x and RSM-x models predicted friction
factor and heat transfer coefficient accurately. The velocity and temperature profiles
have been well predicted by second order RSM-x model.
Based on the results of [9], RSM-x model is used for simulation in current study to
account for the entry length. In addition to the work carried out [8], the range of
parameters is extended and comparison based on curvature and pitch ratios is presented
with quantitative criteria for determining fully developed region.
2 CFD Modeling
2.1 Geometry and Meshing
The typical geometry and mesh of the helical pipes used for the purpose of study is
shown in Fig. 1(a). Each coil has 10 turns. Hexahedral cells are used for meshing. The
velocity profile is taken at the horizontal section of the pipe cross-section as shown in
Fig. 1(b). The non-dimensional velocity profile ðu=umax Þ is compared against radius
ðr=RÞ with value of ‘1’ representing the inner side and ‘1’ outer side of pipe, where
R is radius of pipe.
Coil axis
Pipe c/s Top
Outer
side
Inner
side
Bottom
Coil axis
The geometry parameters are pipe diameter d, coil diameter D and pitch p repre-
sented in terms of curvature ratio d ¼ d=D and pitch ratio k ¼ p=D. The various
geometries used for study are shown in Table 1. The values chosen are to include the
618 R. Prattipati et al.
most commonly available commercial coils [10] and to show the effect of non
dimensional geometrical parameters.
ui ¼ ui þ u0i : ð1Þ
@ui
¼ 0: ð2Þ
@xi
@ 0 0 @
qui uj þ quk u0i u0j ¼ Pij þ Fij þ Gij þ Dij;T þ Dij;m þ Uij 2ij : ð3Þ
@t @t
where the right hand terms represent stress production, rotation production, buoyancy
production, turbulent diffusion, molecular diffusion, pressure strain and viscous dissi-
pation respectively. Due to close coupling of equations, complex flows can be com-
puted with this model. The closures for the equations have further modeling [11].
2.3 Validation
After checking the grid independent results, a suitable grid is chosen. The friction
factor and heat transfer agreement is found with correlations in literature. The friction
factor is compared with the correlation given by Ito [12]
pffiffiffi
f ¼ 0:304 Re0:25 þ 0:029 d: ð4Þ
Factors Influencing Hydrodynamic Entry Length in Helical Coils 619
The heat transfer is compared with relation given by Pethukov [13]. The equation
predicted heat transfer accurately for curved pipes also when used with Eq. 4 [9].
ðf =8ÞRePr
Nu ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð5Þ
1:07 þ 12:7 ðf =8ÞðPr2=3 1Þ
The criteria for consideration of flow to be fully developed is discussed. The non
dimensional velocity profile is plotted along the horizontal of the pipe cross section at
regular intervals of 90° turn of the coil. The comparison for various angles is given in
Fig. 2. The velocity profile shows that the maximum velocity is towards the outer side
of the pipe due to centrifugal force caused by the curvature of coil. The difference in the
profiles between consecutive sections is imperceptible after section at 270° turn of coil.
For quantitative analysis the error between two successive velocity profiles is calcu-
lated as shown in Fig. 3. The velocity profile is taken to be fully developed when the
error reaches below 1%. For this condition, it can be seen that the value is reached
between 540° and 630° turn of the coil. Through this procedure, the fully developed
velocity profile can be said to be reached around 540° turn or one and half turn of the
coil. The total length of the helical coil is calculated for the fully developed length
L and the L=d ratio is presented in the current analysis. For the case shown in Fig. 2,
the L=d for fully developed flow is around 60.
(a) Velocity profile at different angles (b) Error for successive profiles
the same length for both cases except for the inner side of the pipe cross-section in the
error graph. This caused a change for considering the entry length for the variation in
pitch ratio.
4 Conclusions
This paper presents a preliminary investigation into determining the entrance length in
helical coil. By utilizing RSM - x turbulent model which gives accurate profiles, the
effect of helical coil geometry are investigated through non-dimensional parameters.
While it is found that entry length could be a function of geometry, inlet velocity
definitely influences the entrance region. However, more investigations with extended
range of parameters are needed along with smaller intervals of analysis for a definitive
conclusion.
References
1. Dean WR (1927) Note on the motion of fluid in a curved pipe. Lond Edinb Dublin Philos
Mag J Sci 4:208–223
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Formability Analysis on the Gas Formed
Aluminum Coated Magnesium Alloys
in Conical Dies
1 Introduction
Severe Plastic Deformation (SPD) is a type of bulk forming process that induces very
large plastic strain on a SP material that produces nano level ultra-fine grained metal
[1]. Superplasticity is exceptional ductility that certain metals exhibit when deformed
under a set of conditions. SPF is a SPD technique used in sheet metal forming to
produce precise and complex components out of materials that possess superplastic
characteristic in a certain temperature range. The ductility of SP materials in tensile
loading usually ranges from 200 to 5000% elongation, is reported [2]. The essential
requirements of superplasticity are fine grain size material, relatively high temperature,
and a controlled strain rate. Superplastic forming is a sheet metal forming technique in
which near net shape forming is obtained by the application of inert gas pressure on
special metal alloys called superplastic metals. The sheets are held in an airtight die at
specific temperature conditions and inert gas pressure is applied at homologous tem-
peratures to obtain large deformation without fracture [3].
The growth of superplastic materials has provided new opportunities for producing
complex near net shape components by superplastic forming methods in a single step
that are not possible with conventional material. The usage of finite element tools in the
analysis of superplastic forming operations and have made the analysis closer to
practical situations. The ductility of a SP material varies substantially with strain rate
[4]. The strain rate sensitivity exponent (m), the key factor related to the forming nature
of the sheet metal is the rate of change of plastic flow stress with strain rate. The total
elongation of the SP material is affected by fracture and the strain-rate sensitivity. The
influence of the strain rate sensitivity on the material ductility could be comprehended
better through the diffuse neck growth and its mechanics. The elongation at neck slows
with increasing value of m, a stabilizing effect of the strain-rate sensitivity of flow
stress. The elongation of the superplastic alloy rises and falls rapidly over a relatively
short temperature range. The formability outside the limits of this temperature span is
modest in the range of conventional material behaviour. The parameter used to measure
the superplastic formability is the tensile elongation at the optimal superplastic tem-
perature and strain rate [5].
The high strain-rate-sensitive property that real components experience during
forming produces significant variations in strain rate during forming [6]. Hence the
tensile elongation or formability is measured as a function of strain rate. Strain-rate
sensitivity is the dominant parameter in superplastic forming in a great many super-
plastic alloys, a significant amount of hardening can occur as a function of strain, even
at a constant strain rate. At higher strain rates, strain hardening is associated with
dislocation cell formation in the classical manner, and grain growth is not observed [7].
The temperature at which the gas pressure in applied to start the forming process is as
important variable in SPF as the strain rate. The primary reason for localized and
uneven thinning of SPF component thinning is the variation in temperature of the die
during SPF. The characterization of the SPF materials and its behaviour includes fixing
the optimum superplastic forming temperature, flow stress sensitivity and the elonga-
tion temperature [8].
Severe strain localization is observed due to local hot spots that results due to
temperature sensitivity. When strain localization and necking are the dominant modes
of failure, it is observed that the percentage of tensile elongation is a function of the
strain rate sensitivity index that could be predicted. However, when fracture intervenes,
the strain rate sensitivity index fails to provide sufficient quantitative characterization,
although within the same alloy system it provides a qualitative comparison. Fracture is,
therefore, an important consideration in most superplastic materials of engineering
application and is preceded by internal cavitation. Superplastic materials that exhibit
cavitation at inclusions, triple points and second-phase particles generally fail by the
interlinking of growing cavities. Due to the process nature, material behaviour and
relationships between the parameters that the techniques used are not well defined
quantitatively.
626 J. Kandasamy and M. Ranjith Kumar
Fig. 1. Solid model of the die and lid, sheet metal workpiece (Aluminum coated on Magnesium)
3 Theoretical Modelling
The strain rate sensitivity index m is conventionally characterized from a uniaxial test.
In SPF, during the sheet forming, multi-axial stress conditions exists in practice. Hence
a theoretical model becomes necessary for the use of the uniaxial test parameters for the
actual practical condition. During the forming process in a cone die, the sheet under-
goes two phases of forming viz., a free forming phase with the initial die radius of a0
until the radius of the curvature of the deformed membrane becomes q0 (tangential to
die surface) and the incremental free forming into the conical die for a very small
duration of time and in a large number of steps. The Fig. 2 shows the two phases of the
forming during SPF process in a conical die. The height of the dome can be measured
by LVDT but in the current method when the sheet is down to height (h) it is displacing
the air below the membrane in to the inverted measuring jar which is a measure of
volume behind the formed membrane. The volume of air displaced from the die cavity
could be calculated from the Mukerjee’s [1] Eq. (1). The calculated arc length,
thickness, displaced air for stage 1 and stage 2 is shown in Tables 7 and 8 respectively.
The corresponding graphs, change of height in liquid column Vs Depth of form, Arc
length Vs Sheet thickness, Depth of form Vs Expunge volume of Gas, Depth of form
Vs Depth of Form are shown in Figs. 3, 4 and 5 respectively.
628 J. Kandasamy and M. Ranjith Kumar
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
p p
ve ¼ l sin a a20 þ a0 ða0 l cos aÞ þ ða0 l cos aÞ2 þ q q2 b20 2q þ q2 b20 ð1Þ
3 3
Table 7. Stage 1
Volume Height of
Height Volume of Varying ao Area of
of displaced Thickness ti deformed liquid in Strain Arc length
S.No of form form value freeform
air Burette
cm cm3 cm3 cm cm2 mm cm cm
1 0.03 0.01 117.28 0.37 0.43 1.99 9.33 -0.01 0.74
2 0.05 0.02 117.26 0.51 0.82 1.98 9.33 -0.01 1.02
3 0.08 0.05 117.24 0.62 1.21 1.97 9.33 -0.02 1.25
4 0.10 0.08 117.20 0.71 1.61 1.96 9.33 -0.02 1.44
- - - - - - - - - -
87 2.18 56.88 60.40 3.88 62.20 1.52 4.81 -0.27 9.31
88 2.20 58.45 58.83 3.91 63.26 1.52 4.68 -0.28 9.39
89 2.23 60.19 57.19 3.95 64.42 1.52 4.54 -0.27 9.47
90 2.25 61.82 55.47 3.97 65.49 1.51 4.41 -0.28 9.55
Table 8. Stage 2
S.No Heig Radiu Volum Volume Radius Hei ght of Height Area of Heigh Area Total Thick Stra
in Arc
ht of s of e of of of free deformed of frustum t of of area ness t length
form form form expunge form liquid (h) frustu free free Ai
(H) Bo d air dome m from form
cm cm cm3 cm3 cm cm cm cm² cm cm² cm² mm cm
1 2.27 3.9 63.34 54.27 4.62 0.66 0.2 2.23 2.25 63.1 65.40 1.54 -0.28 9.57
2 2.28 3.79 64.52 52.76 4.32 0.65 0.36 10.07 1.94 57.2 67.29 1.49 -0.29 9.63
3 2.30 3.70 66.10 51.85 4.27 0.63 0.53 14.72 1.80 53.0 67.76 1.48 -0.30 8.95
4 2.33 3.62 67.33 49.96 4.18 0.62 0.66 18.23 1.69 50.0 68.33 1.47 -0.31 8.51
5 2.35 3.55 68.51 48.78 4.10 0.60 0.77 21.15 1.60 47.7 68.87 1.46 -0.31 8.25
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
183 6.80 0.07 116.08 1.20 0.08 0.01 6.81 100.50 0.00 0.02 100.5 1.00 -0.69 0.2
184 6.82 0.05 116.08 1.20 0.06 0.01 6.83 100.51 0.00 0.01 100.5 1.00 -0.69 0.14
185 6.85 0.04 116.08 1.20 0.05 0.01 6.86 100.52 0.00 0.01 100.5 1.00 -0.69 0.11
Formability Analysis on the Gas Formed Aluminum Coated Magnesium Alloys 629
4 Computational Analysis
MSC MARC MENTAT is a nonlinear implicit finite element analysis software package
used to numerically simulate the forming nature of complex materials, its practical
interactions during large ductile deformations and strains in all dimensions. Automatic
remeshing to analyze sheets undergoing large distortions, and crack propagation during
Fig. 7. Process pressure (lb/in2) - time curve Fig. 8. Arc length (inch) - thickness of ele-
ment (computationally)
5 Experimental Investigations
The split type closed conical die made up of die steel is place in a indigenously built
split furnace shown in Fig. 9. The magnesium sheet coated with aluminum alloy for
1 l thickness by electrolysis is placed in between the dies. Air tight joint is obtained
between the top and bottom sides of the sheet by the interlocking the grooves in the
upper and lower dies. The temperature is maintained at 570 °C, the superplastic range
of Magnesium alloys. Argon gas at constant pressure is passed through the upper die
and forces the sheet to form with constant stain rate. The air will be displaced from the
lower side of the die to a burette to measure the depth of form of the sheet. The
formability of the sheet could be found with respect to time. The Pressure-Time graph
obtained from numerical results facilitates the time required for forming. The formed
component is shown in Fig. 10. One quarter of the component is cut in WEDM for
measuring the thickness variation of the component. The measured variation is plotted
in the graph shown in Fig. 11.
632 J. Kandasamy and M. Ranjith Kumar
Fig. 9. Exper- Fig. 10. Formed component and its section for thickness measurement
imental set up
for SPF
The forming time obtained from MSC MARC MENTAT is 2500 s with the maximum
pressure being 0.1 MPa. The thickness of the sheet varies from 1.35 mm at an arc
length of 80 mm to 0.075 mm at an arc length of 0 i.e., at the bottom of the die (Vertex
of the cone). The geometrically calculated and computationally simulated sheet
thickness graphs indicate better control of strain rate distribution over the entire
deformed surface. This has led to maximum stretching of the surface at the processed
temperature. This could be substantiated by the basic theory of grain boundary sliding
that takes place in fine grained superplastic materials. The stress induced during
forming drives the material to cause the plastic deformation and subsequently the rate
of strain. The formation time depends on the pressure applied to the argon gas. The rate
Formability Analysis on the Gas Formed Aluminum Coated Magnesium Alloys 633
7 Conclusions
References
1. Dutta A, Mukherjee AK (1992) Superplastic forming: an analytical approach. Mater Sci
Eng A 157:9–13
2. Vulcan M, Siegert K, Banabic D (2004) The influence of pulsating strain rates on the
superplastic deformation behaviour of Al-Alloy AA583 investigated by means of cone test.
Mater Sci Forum 447–448:139–144
3. Langdon TG (1991) The physics of superplastic deformation. Mater Sci Eng A 137:1–11
634 J. Kandasamy and M. Ranjith Kumar
4. Madarapu A, Dutta A, Hussain MM, Kandasamy J (2017) Gas blow forming of AZ31
magnesium alloy in box shaped dies. Int J Curr Eng Sci Res 4
5. Kandasamy J, Narsimha Rao SV, Lokeshwari M (2015) Finite element analysis of
superplastic forming of titanium alloys. South Asian J Eng Technol 2
6. Ceschini L, Afrikantov A (1992) Superplastic forming (SPF) of materials and SPF combined
with diffusion bonding: technological and design aspect. Metall Sci Technol 10
7. Deshmukh PV (2003) Study of superplastic forming process using finite element analysis.
Master’s thesis, Paper 367. University of Kentucky
8. Azushima A, Kopp R, Korhonen A, Yang DY, Micari F, Lahti GD, Groche P, Yanagimoto J,
Tsuji N, Rosochowski A, Yanagida A (2008) Severe plastic deformation (SPD) processes for
metals. CIRP Ann-Manuf Technol 57:716–735
9. (2006) ASM handbook, metalworking: sheet forming, vol 14B
10. (2006) ASM handbook, properties and selection: nonferrous alloys and special-purpose
materials, vol 2
11. (2006) ASM handbook, properties and selection: irons steels and high-performance alloys,
vol 1
12. (2016) MSC MARC MENTAT, vol C
Investigation of Back Rake Angle
on Machining of Al 6061 and Development
of Regression Model for Resultant Force
1 Introduction
The machining is the one most commonly employed operation in experimental work on
metal cutting to produce symmetric shape parts by a single point cutting tool.
Machining forces may affect the work piece deformation and dimensional accuracy and
also type of chips generated during machining operation. Many researchers have
investigated on machining phenomena and simulating with development of mathe-
matical model or CAE model. The basic machining factors like cutting speed, feed,
depth of cut are widely consider for investigation by many authors and optimized
factors are generated from various mathematical or statistical methods. The authors of
this paper have considered back rake angle as one of the input factor apart from regular
said machining factors. A Taguchi-DOE approach is used to carry out experimentation
and a regression model is developed using Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection
Operator to understand the effect of the process parameters on the output parameter i.e.,
resultant machining force (RMF). The following table shows optimum values of
alloying elements in weight percentage (Table 1).
Taguchi - DOE is a philosophy which develops least number of experiment trails that
must be executed based on number of input parameters in the form of orthogonal array.
Taguchi’s process design consists of the following steps.
• Experiment Planning.
– Identification of output-response, side effects and modes of failure.
– Identification of uncontrollable noise factors and conditions for testing.
– Identification of the quality requirement to be monitored and the objective
function to be examined.
– Identification of the control parameters and their process levels.
– Formulation of the Design matrix for experimentation.
– Compose the orthogonal array (OA).
• Execution of the Experimental Trials.
• Process the experimental data to determine the optimum levels, and predict the
product/process response under these conditions.
The following process parameters and levels are considered in the present paper.
• Identifying the process factors and their levels
Process parameter Process level 1 Process level 2 Process level 3
Spindle speed (rpm) 414 483 640
Tool feed (mm/rev) 0.061 0.121 0.243
Radial depth of cut (mm) 0.5 0.6 0.9
Back rake angle (°) 10 15 20
The relevant OA for the present study is L9 array. Hence, a total 9 experimental
trials are to be performed as shown in Table 2.
Investigation of Back Rake Angle on Machining of Al 6061 637
Table 2. L9 OA
Trial No. Spindle speed Tool feed Radial depth of cut Back rake angle
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 2
3 1 3 3 3
4 2 1 2 3
5 2 2 3 1
6 2 3 1 2
7 3 1 3 2
8 3 2 1 3
9 3 3 2 1
3 Experimentation
4 Design Matrix
The experiment was carried out in accordance to the following design matrix (Table 3):
The following observations were made during the experimentation. Three force
dynamometer is used for experimentation. Cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to
the direction of tool feed for the turning operation. The machining forces are identified
using a pizo-electric dynamometer for the 9trails and the observations are recorded in
Table 4 (Fig. 6).
30
20
10
0
Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
An equation with the right fit is paramount for regression analysis. The ‘right fit’
can be understood by plotting the learning and the training curves for the training data
by changing the regularization parameter and the degree of the polynomial.
Investigation of Back Rake Angle on Machining of Al 6061 641
Here,
Y = Resultant Machining Force,
P1 = Spindle speed, P2 = Tool Feed, P3 = Radial Depth of Cut, P4 = Back Rake
Angle (Table 7).
6 Conclusions
References
1. Gajanana S, Suresh Kumar Reddy, B, Krishnaiah A (2017) Linear model for turning Al6061
using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso). Int J Eng Sci Invent 6(7)
2. Gajanana S, Chakradhar D, SaiAlok Reddy N (2016) Optimization of process parameters in
hot machining of 15-5 PH stainless steel using Taguchi method. Int J Eng Sci Inven Res Dev
3(3)
3. Gajanana S, Ravi Kumar B, Ravi Tej P. Udayani K (2014) Simulation of cutting forces in end
milling and optimization of machining parameters. Int J Eng Technol Res (IJETR) 2(6) (2014)
4. Rao S, Samant P, Kadampatta A, Shenoy R (2013) An overview of Taguchi method:
evolution, concept and interdisciplinary applications. Int J Sci Eng Res 4:621–626
5. Foster WT (2000) Basic Taguchi design of experiments: national association of industrial
technology conference, Pittsburgh
644 B. Suresh Kumar Reddy et al.
6. Tibshirani R (1996) Regression shrinkage and selection via the Lasso. J Roy Stat Soc Ser B
(Methodol) 58(1):267–288
7. Drozda TJ (1983) Tool and manufacturing engineers handbook machining, vol 1. Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, Southfield, pp 3–6
8. Kaufman JG, Rooy EL (2004) Aluminium alloy and casting: properties, processes and
applications. ASM International, Materials Park
Machining Characteristics of Electro
Discharge Machining on NIMONIC 80A
by Response Surface Methodology
1 Introduction
NIMONIC 80A is a nickel based alloy. It plays a vital role in preparing gas turbine
components, aerospace engine components (viz., blades, rings and discs), automobile
exhaust valves, die-cast inserts and core, nuclear boiler tube supports and bolts. The
metal is a high temperature low creep and high performance super alloy. This super
alloy contains the properties those are high strength and low thermal diffusivity; had a
solid hardness; keep the temperature strength and can be very complicated to
machining. So, machining of the super alloy becomes more difficult using conventional
methods [1, 2]. To overcome these inferences, unconventional machining methods are
become an attractive choice.
Electro discharge machining is one of the best choice for machining high strength
alloys. It can be machined easily with irrespective to their hardness of any conductive
material. Erosion takes place between the two electrodes by cyclic sparks. Bhaumik
et al. [3] “investigated the effect of input parameters with different type of electrodes
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 645–652, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_76
646 G. Vishnu Pramod Teja et al.
such as Copper, Brass and Zinc on surface roughness, radial overcut, surface crack
density and recast layer during EDM of Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium alloy. They concluded
that copper electrode gives an excellent surface finish, smallest overcut, uniform white
layer and higher surface crack density compared to the other electrodes”. Muthukumar
et al. [4] “studied ROC during electrical discharge machining (EDM) of Incoloy 800
super alloy with copper electrode. Current, pulse ON time, pulse OFF time and voltage
are considered as machining parameters. ANOVA results show that radial overcut
increases with the increasing the current and voltage”. Sinha et al. [5] “investigated
through their experiments with different input parameters such as current, voltage and
pulse ON time for the electrical discharge machining process on Incoloy 800HT and
studied with two machining characteristics such as Material removal rate (MRR) and
Tool wear rate (TWR). The result shows that current is the most significant factor for
both material removal rate and tool wear rate”.
It is understood that a few research work has been presented on EDM of NIMONIC
80A. Hence, this paper is focused on electro discharge machining of NIMONIC 80A
by varying input factors namely Current, Pulse ON time (Ton) and Pulse OFF time
(Toff) using Box Behnken Design of RSM and MRR, TWR and ROC were investi-
gated. And also optimization was carried out to enrich MRR and reduce the TWR and
ROC.
2.1 Materials
In this work, NIMONIC 80A alloy and copper was chosen as work material and
electrode material respectively and chemical composition of NIMONIC 80A is shown
in Table 1. NIMONIC 80A pieces were cut into sizes of 15 15 6 mm3, whereas
the electrode was made into Ø10 mm 50 mm length. Machining time for each
experiment was maintained as 10 min. Experiments were conducted on ARD
ARTM30D Die-sink EDM using Commercial grade “EDM oil”. The experimental
arrangement and EDM machined samples are shown in Fig. 1.
Wb Wa
MRR ¼ gm/min ð1Þ
t
Wtb Wta
TWR ¼ gm/min ð2Þ
t
Whereas Wb, Wa are the weight of the Nimonic 80A before and after machining
correspondingly.
Wtb, Wta are the weight of the copper electrode before and after machining cor-
respondingly, t = time of machining (min).
Digital Vernier Caliper was used for the measurement of Radial overcut (ROC).
ROC is calculated as half the difference of diameter of the machined cavity made by the
electrode diameter.
The regression equation has been developed by Design Expert Software. It is used to
assess the influence of the input factors on MRR, TWR and ROC. To validate the
correctness and suitability of fitness of the model, ANOVA is conducted. It is extre-
mely important for the data examination. The model sufficiency examination consists
of significant test and lack of fitness test.
for arrangement and adjusted ANOVA for MRR. The Table 4 shows the results of the
reduced ANOVA for MRR.
Obtained Regression equation for the MRR is shown below.
1
¼ 32:40230 5:19928 CURRENT
SQUARE ROOTðMRRÞ
þ 0:006579 Ton 0:016653 Toff 0:000315 CURRENT Ton
0:000032 Ton Toff þ 0:209462 CURRENT2 þ 0:000335 Toff 2
ð3Þ
Influence of Machining Parameters Such as Current (A), Ton and Toff on MRR
The influence of current on MRR at constant Ton (600 µs) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in
the Fig. 2. It shows that MRR increases with increasing the current. Spark discharge is
increased with increase in the input energy i.e. current. Hence, melting and vaporisation
of the metal takes place. Hence, increase in MRR is observed. The effect of Ton on
MRR at constant current (15 A) and Toff (90 µs) is shown in the Fig. 3. It shows that
MRR increases with increase in Pulse ON time. This is to be happened due to the fact
that rise in Ton, spark per input energy increases; it results in high-level erosion on the
work piece. Hence, results in the increase of MRR. The effect of Toff on MRR at
constant current (9A) and Ton (600 µs) is plotted in the Fig. 4. It shows that MRR
decreases with increase in Pulse OFF time. This can happen due to fact that increase in
Toff causes the reduced plasma channel, which reduces the positive ions on the work
surface, results in decreased MRR.
(gm/min)
MRR
0.3
MRR
0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Current (A) 100 300 500 700 900
Ton (μs)
0.06
0.04
0.02
10 30 50 70 90
Toff (μs)
Influence of Machining Parameters Such as Current (A), Ton and Toff on TWR
The effect of current on TWR at constant Ton (600 µs) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in the
Fig. 5 and increase in the TWR was observed with increase in the Current. With
increase in the current, sparks (discharges) will be more, which results into more
melting and vaporization of tool material. The effect of Ton on TWR at constant current
(9 A) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in Fig. 6. It shows no variation of TWR with increase
in Ton. This may be due to deposition of carbon on the tool, which results no variation
on the TWR. The effect of Toff on MRR at constant current (9 A) and Ton (600 µs) is
shown in the Fig. 7 and it was observed that, TWR slightly increases with the increase
in the pulse OFF time. Pulse OFF time directly connects to the flushing time. If the
Pulse OFF time is more means flushing time is also more. During the flushing, debris as
well as loosely connected material to the electrode cleared between the inter electrode
gap and may result in increase in the TWR.
(gm/min)
0.002
TWR
TWR
0.0015
0.0015
0.001 0.001
0.0005 0.0005
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 100 300 500 700 900
Current (A) Ton (μs)
0.003
TWR
0.002
0.001
0
10 30 50 70 90
Toff (μs)
Influence of Machining Parameters Such as Current (A), Ton and Toff on ROC
The effect of current on ROC at constant Ton (600 µs) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in the
Fig. 8 and it shows that overcut increases with increase in current. Increase in the
current (A), discharge energy increases, which will remove the high quantity of metal
on the work piece resulting higher overcut. The effect of Ton on ROC at constant
current (9 A) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in the Fig. 9 and also the effect of Toff on MRR
at constant current (9 A) and Ton (600 µs) is shown in the Fig. 10. ROC was decreased
in the both the cases.
(mm)
ROC
ROC
0.6 0.46
0.1 0.44
1 3 5 7 9 111315 100 300 500 700 900
Current (A) Ton (μs)
0.45
0.42
10 30 50 70 90
Toff (μs)
3.4 Optimization
Optimization was performed using desirability function in Design Expert software. The
optimized parameters are taken as highest value of MRR (0.002 gm/min) and lowest
value of TWR (0.001 gm/min) and ROC (0.004 mm) respectively at 3 A Current,
900 µs Pulse ON time and 51 µs Pulse OFF time with the desirability value 0.988. In
652 G. Vishnu Pramod Teja et al.
order to confirm this optimization levels, two confirmation experiments were conducted
and checked the confidence levels. Hence, this model can be used for predication of
MRR, TWR and ROC at 95% level of confidence.
4 Conclusions
The following conclusions were made as per the experimental study findings:
1. From ANOVA, current was found as most significant parameter for MRR, TWR
and ROC.
2. MRR increases when there is an increase in the Current and Ton and reverse process
was observed for Toff.
3. TWR increases with increase in the Current and no variation of tool wear rate was
observed with increase in the Ton.
4. ROC increases when there is an increase in the Current. Minimum Radial Overcut
was observed at minimum values of Current, maximum values of Ton and Toff.
5. The levels of optimized parameters are at 3 A Current, 900 µs Pulse ON Time and
52 µs Pulse OFF Time with the desirable value of 0.988.
References
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review. J Mater Process Technol 86:1–16
2. Goswami A, Kumar J (2014) Investigation of surface integrity, material removal rate and wire
wear ratio for WEDM of Nimonic 80A alloy using GRA and Taguchi method. Eng Sci
Technol Int J 17:173–184
3. Bhamuik M, Maity K (2018) Effect of electrode materials on different EDM aspects of
titanium alloy. Silicon 11:187–196
4. Muthukumar V, Rajesh N, Venkatasamy R, Sureshbau A, Senthilkumar N (2014)
Mathematical modelling for radial overcut on electrical discharge machining of Incoloy
800 by response surface methodology. Proc Mater Sci 6:1674–1682
5. Sinha S, Ballav R, Kumar A (2017) Investigation of material removal rate and tool wear rate
on electrical discharge machining of Incoloy 800HT by using response surface methodology.
Mater Today Proc 4:10603–10606
6. Singh N, Routara BC, Das D (2018) Study of machining characteristics of Inconel 601 in
EDM using RSM. Mater Today Proc 5:3438–3439
Laser Machining of Polymer Materials –
Experimental Investigations - Process
Challenges and Strategies
1 Introduction
Laser machining processes have been widely applied in industries for manufacturing of
electronics, automotive, biomedical, aerospace and electro-mechanical parts. The
applications of polymeric materials in these industries are numerous such as production
of tool, mold and other devices for micromachining applications wherein the materials
are removed in the form of thin layers. Polymeric processing technology is positioned
in the current production settings in the high-volume, low-cost systems. Laser
machining processes have the exceptional advantages of non-contact cutting, high
cutting speeds and machined surface quality for polymer machining. Laser cutting of
polymers is controlled by thermal processing comprising of heating, melting and
evaporation. Hence, it is essential to develop laser machining as a mass production
technology; however, there are several challenges for improvement of the process.
Similarly, the right strategies for laser cutting of polymers are to be developed for
optimization of the process.
Few research investigations were carried out in the past in the area of laser
machining of polymers. Experimental methods to calculate the energy distribution in
laser cutting was proposed in [1]. The energy losses, dispersion characteristics and
selection. Therefore, in this work, challenges in the laser processing are revealed and
strategies for optimum machining are evolved. The thermal fluctuations during laser
cutting causes inadequate control of energy dissipation, temperature gradients [9] and
therefore, leading to formation of bulges [5]. However, during some machining con-
ditions, an enhancement of thermal energy is anticipated [15]. Therefore, a systematic
selection of parameters and the impact on experimental work is necessary.
In Sect. 2, laser cutting parameters are studied. The decisive features of experi-
mental works are highlighted to gain a direction for future work in Sect. 3. The results
yielding a key impact are analyzed following a comparative study in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5,
conclusions derived are summarized.
In laser machining, the energy of the beam is directed towards the workpiece in a
controlled manner. The laser source and fundamental wavelength plays an important
role in controlling the energy for the material removal action. Table 1 shows a sum-
mary of key parameters used in selected experimental studies.
The laser controllable parameters such as pulse frequency, pulse energy, laser
power, laser speed and air pressure are significantly influencing the efficiency, surface
roughness and dimensions of components produced using laser cutting processes.
Fig. 1. Set-up for process parameter control in laser machining of polycarbonate [15]
The research contributions in the area of laser machining are generally feasibility
studies or analytical modeling involving development of equations describing thermal
removal of polymer material. It has always been a challenge to correlate dimensional
inaccuracy during laser cutting with the laser processing conditions [5].
In the experimental studies on laser machining, tests are carried out by controlling
the parameters, as detailed in Sect. 3. In order to develop empirical models based on
experimental data, the response variables chosen are size of the heat affected zone,
surface roughness and machined cavity dimensions; Fig. 2a–c shows photographs of
specimens machined using laser cutting. Polypropylene is one of the lightest thermo-
plastic materials. The applications of these materials include use as a structural plastic
and as a fiber. Polypropylene is characterized by high stiffness, good strength even in
comparatively high temperatures, good abrasion resistance, excellent elastic properties
and a hard glossy surface, see Fig. 2a. Polycarbonates (see Fig. 2b) are transparent
material with excellent toughness, good heat resistance, high impact resistance, high
stiffness, good dimension stability and good electrical properties. Polymethyl
methacrylate is characterized by excellent hardness, stiffness, good tensile strength,
high impact resistance and widely used for optical applications, Fig. 2c. PMMA has the
highest surface hardness of all common thermoplastics.
Laser Machining of Polymer Materials – Experimental Investigations 657
Fig. 2. a–c Photographs of specimens of different engineering plastic materials generated using
CO2 laser cutting, a. polypropelyne, b. polycarbonate and c. polymethyl methacrylate [3]
First pass:
Line energy Ef
Laser power Pf
Machined
feature:
X-Y table: Width: W
offset ratio Depth: D
Quality index: Q
Second pass:
Line energy Es
Laser power Ps
Fig. 3. Two-pass laser fabrication strategy; laser machining inputs (first pass, X–Y table and
second pass) and process outputs (micro-channel) [17]
Micro-channels were generated on polycarbonate sheets using CO2 lasers [13]. It was
observed that there was considerable variation in the width of micro-channel with
process parameters. The laser power and laser cutting speed directly influences the
error on the width. A geometric model representing predicted shape is schematically
presented in Fig. 4a, whereas the actual shape of the cut micro-channel is shown in
658 R. K. Vishnulal et al.
Fig. 4b. The width of the micro-channel was optimized and a SEM micrograph of the
channel at optimum process input settings is shown in Fig. 4c. The process mecha-
nisms included melting, decomposition and vaporization of the polycarbonate material.
The micrographs indicate tapering in the cross-sectional view of the micro-channel.
Similarly, a design of experiments approach was used for laser cutting of injected
polycarbonate [15]. A lower laser power and a high cutting speed leads to an increase
in surface roughness, Fig. 6a–b shows the response surfaces of kerf walls.
The two-pass machining strategy in CO2 laser micromachining was found to be
highly efficient and cost-effective method for fabrication of features on polymethyl
methacrylate. Based on the laser settings, an empirical equation could be developed
between the line energies Es and Ef, see Fig. 7a–b for optimized conditions.
In order to improve the rate of machining, vibration frequencies in the range of 12–
24 Hz were applied. Though the effect of vibration was to enhance the rate of material,
it also caused an increase in formation of micro-cracks and size of heat affected zone.
Figure 8a–b shows that the workpiece vibration results in a non-uniform
penetration.
Laser Machining of Polymer Materials – Experimental Investigations 659
Fig. 6. a–b Response surfaces of surface roughness of kerf wall of polycarbonate samples, a.
with cutting speed and focal plane position, b. with cutting speed and laser power [15]
Fig. 7. a–b Cross-section of a groove fabricated by two-pass scanning strategy, laser powers,
Pf = 4 W, Ps = 4 W, energies, Es = 160 J/m, Ef = 106 J/m, a. measurement using optical
microscope, b. image of the groove [17]
Fig. 8. a–b Effect of low frequency vibrations in laser machining, a. micro-crack formation, b.
air entrapment (at 12 Hz frequency) [7]
660 R. K. Vishnulal et al.
This could be due to the fact that the periodicity of the depth variations is directly
related to the relative movement of the laser beam and the workpiece.
5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the Principal, Head of the Department
(Mechanical Engineering), all faculty, staff and students of Government College of Engineering
Kannur, Kerala, India.
References
1. Ng SL, Lum KCP (2000) CO2 laser cutting of MDF 2. Estimation of power distribution.
Opt. Laser Technol. 32:77–87
2. Jardini ALM, MacieL R, Scarparo MAF, Andrade SR, Moura LFM (2006) Improvement of
the spatial resolution of prototypes using infrared laser stereolithography on thermosensitive
resins. J Mater Process Technol 172:104–109
3. Choudhury IA, Shirley S (2010) Laser cutting of polymeric materials: an experimental
investigation. Opt Laser Technol 42:503–508
4. Eltawahni HA, Olabi AG, Benyounis KY (2010) Effect of process parameters and
optimization of CO2 laser cutting of ultra high-performance polyethylene. Mater Des
31:4029–4038
5. Li JM, Liu C, Zhu LY (2009) The formation and elimination of polymer bulges in CO2 laser
microfabrication. J Mater Process Technol 209:4814–4821
Laser Machining of Polymer Materials – Experimental Investigations 661
1 Introduction
2 Problem Statement
The aim of this work is to assess the dimensional accuracy of FDM 3D printing process
for reproducing Cadaver skull. For that a Cadaver skull is to be scanned to get an
output of. STL file. The STL file is then transferred to FDM 3D printing machine to 3D
print the skull. Then the distance between fixed landmarks are measured on Cadaver
skull and 3D printed skull using digital vernier callipers. The obtained results are
tabulated and evaluated to find out the dimensional accuracy.
3 Research Methodology
Fig. 3. Aha 3D printing machine. Fig. 4. Printing of skull on Aha 3D printing machine.
Fig. 5. Dimensions used to compare Cadaver and 3D printed skull for overall measurements by
group (*bilateral measure). AFM, anterior foramen magnum; AAl, anterior alveolus; ANS,
anterior nasal spine; In, inion; IoT, inferolateral orbit transition; IoF, infraorbital foramen; LFM,
left foramen magnum; LZsF, lateral zygomaticofrontal Suture; LPA, lateral piriform aperture;
Mo, Medial Orbit; Na, nasion; MP, mastoid process; PAI, posterior alveolus; Po, porion; PFM,
posterior foramen magnum; RMF, right foramen magnum; ZfS, zygomaticofrontal Suture; SoF,
supraorbital foramen; ZyP, zygomatic prominence.
666 L. Siva Rama Krishna et al.
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for skull base region
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at skull base region
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for orbital region
(Fig. 8).
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for midface region
(Fig. 9).
Fig. 10. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at carniofacial region
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for skull base region
(Fig. 11).
Fig. 11. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at skull base region
668 L. Siva Rama Krishna et al.
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for orbital region
(Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at orbital region
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for midface region
(Fig. 13).
Fig. 13. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at midface region
Table 1. Dimensional deviation between Cadaver and 3D printed skull of craniofacial region
Land marks Cadaver Fabricated Dimensional Percentage deviation
skull skull deviation between between land marks
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks (%) (A − B)/A * 100
(mm) (A − B)
Inion – Nasion 185.10 184.76 0.34 0.18
Inion - 167.12 166.96 0.16 0.10
Zygomatic
prominence
Inion – Porion 105.45 105.8 0.35 0.33
Porion - 66.4 66.21 0.19 0.29
Zygomatic
prominence
(continued)
Assessment of Dimensional Accuracy of Reproducibility of Cadaver Skull 669
Table 1. (continued)
Land marks Cadaver Fabricated Dimensional Percentage deviation
skull skull deviation between between land marks
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks (%) (A − B)/A * 100
(mm) (A − B)
Porion – 109.22 109.19 0.03 0.03
Nasion
Porion – 112.9 112.28 0.62 0.55
Anterior nasal
spine
Porion – 116.3 116.14 0.16 0.14
Anterior
alveolus
Nasion - 51.6 51.44 0.16 0.31
Anterior nasal
spine
Anterior nasal 8.53 8.62 0.09 1.06
spine -
Anterior
alveolus
Table 2. Dimensional deviation between Cadaver and 3D printed of mid face region
Land marks Cadaver Fabricated Dimensional Percentage deviation
skull skull deviation between between land marks
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks (%) (A − B)/
(mm) (A − B) A * 100
Nasion – lateral 52.63 52.43 0.2 0.38
zygomatic
frontal Suture
lateral 53.84 53.81 0.03 0.06
zygomatic
frontal Suture –
Nasion
Medial Orbit - 17.32 17.33 0.01 0.06
Medial Orbit
Nasion - 67.78 67.73 0.05 0.07
Zygomatic
prominence
Nasion - 67.77 67.20 0.57 0.84
Zygomatic
prominence
Zygomatic 106.72 107.47 0.75 0.70
prominence -
Zygomatic
prominence
Nasion - 61.34 60.07 1.27 2.07
Anterior nasal
spine
670 L. Siva Rama Krishna et al.
Table 3. Dimensional deviation between Cadaver and 3D printed skull of skull base region
Land marks Cadaver Fabricated Dimensional Percentage
skull skull deviation between deviation between
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks land marks (%)
(mm) (A − B) (A − B)/A * 100
Porion – Porion 117.45 116.88 0.57 0.49
Mastoid process - 100.64 99.55 1.09 1.08
Mastoid process
Anterior Foramen 31.17 30.87 0.3 0.96
magnum –
posterior
Foramen magnum
Left Foramen 27.23 27.53 0.31 1.14
magnum – Right
Foramen magnum
5 Conclusions
The aim of this project is to compare the dimensional accuracy of FDM 3D printed
skull with Cadaver skull. The displacement between fixed marks on skulls with respect
to four regions are measured and compared. The mean overall difference between FDM
3D printed skull and Cadaver skull is ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 mm and percentage error
is less than 1.6% for all regions. The maximum error in overall regions is 1.2 mm and
maximum percentage error of 2.1% is observed in midface region. The percentage error
in orbital and midface is higher than craniofacial and skull base regions. The maximum
errors observed in midface dimensions, which is subjected to less precision in mod-
elling, thin surfaces and small projections found in midface region. This errors occurs
due to insufficient support structures on thin areas and shrinkage, during data prepa-
ration and transfer. This problems can be reduced by enhancement of 3D printing
software’s, hardware and material.
Acknowledgements. The Authors would like to thank UGC, South Eastern Regional Office,
Hyderabad, as this research is carried out as a part of UGC Minor Research Project titled
“Assessment of Dimensional Accuracy of Facial (Zygomatic) bone fractures reduction using
Additive Manufacturing: a Randomized Control Study” Proposal No. 1204, Letter No. F. No:
4-4/2015-16/MRP/UGC-SERO, Dt. Oct 2016 sanctioned to Dr. L. Siva Rama Krishna.
References
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bone replacement. J Craniofac Surg 14(2):164–170
2. Siva Rama Krishna L, Vemulakonda BS, Potturi A (2018) Evaluation of zygomatic complex
fractures based on three point fixation technique using additive manufacturing. Int J Sci Res
Sci Technol 4(2):1092–1100
3. Smith EJ, Anstey JA, Venne G, Ellis RE (2013) Using additive manufacturing in accuracy
evaluation of reconstructions from computed tomography. Part H: J Eng Med 227(5):551–559
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6. Müller A, Krishnan KG, Uhl E, Mast G (2003) The application of rapid prototyping
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451
Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical
Properties of Friction Welded AISI 4140 Grade
Steel Pipes
Keywords: RQT PWHT FPDZ PDZ BM AISI 4140 low alloy steel
1 Introduction
AISI 4140 is a medium carbon low alloy steel also called as chromium-molybdenum
steel, is a well known commercial steel and most commonly used in the fabrication of
machinery parts, automobile & aircraft components and oil and gas transport pipe lines
due to its superior mechanical properties [1]. This class of steel is generally categorized
as quenched and tempered steels [2] as the tempering process results in increasing the
toughness while maintaining good tensile properties. Chuaiphan et al. [3] investigated
the influence of heat treatment on metallurgical and mechanical properties of low alloy
steel AISI 4140 grade for cane harvester cutter, by heating the steel to 850 °C holding
at that temperature for 30 min for homogenization, experimental result shows that
material exhibited martensitic and upper bainitic microstructure after quenching.
Chaouch et al. [4] has reported the affect of heat treatment on the mechanical
performance of AISI 4140 steel. The as-received steel was first austenised to 850 °C
for period of 30 min, oil quenching followed by tempering treatment by varying the
tempering temperature between 200 °C and 600 °C. As a result, formation tempered
martensite was observed. Subhash Chander et al. [5] evaluated the toughness of dis-
similar weld joints made out of AISI 4140 steel and AISI 304 grade steels and noticed
that the depletion of carbon occurs at weld interface on the low alloy steel AISI 4140
side. Celik et al. [6] studied, friction welded joint between AISI 4140 steel and AISI
1050 steel. They observed a martensite structure formation at the weld interface,
coupled with grain coarsening as the friction pressure increased.
With respect to studies on friction welding of pipes, Emre et al. [7] studied the
friction welding between N80 and 42CrMo4 steel pipes in post weld heat treated
condition and as-received condition. kimura et al. [8] reported friction welded dis-
similar joints made out of Al alloy 6061 and AC8A-Al cast alloy pipes, they noticed
that joint efficiency can be achieved by opportune friction time and forging pressures.
Palanivel et al. [9] observed that between laser welding and friction welding of Tita-
nium tubes, friction welds shows no clear evidence of formation HAZ. Sbalchiero et al.
[10] reported that friction welded cylinders are preferred compared to gas metal arc
welding.
From the literature review, it is noted that AISI 4140 was investigated mostly for
the influence of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties [3, 4]. Few
investigators reported friction welded joints of AISI 4140 but in dissimilar combination
with other steels mostly limited to rod joints [5, 6]. Literature is scanty [7–10] on the
friction welding of ferrous pipe sections where geometry can influence the properties.
The present work focuses on the comparative evaluation of friction welds in the as-
received condition and RQT condition of AISI 4140 low alloy steel pipes and provides
some insight into correlation between microstructures and mechanical properties for
drill rod applications in oil and gas industry.
2 Experimental Details
2.1 Base Materials
In the present study, the material used was AISI 4140 low alloy steel, in the form of
pipe with an external diameter 73 mm and wall thickness of 7.1 mm. The chemical
analysis of the selected steel was carried out using Oxford make spectrometer is given
below Table 1 and the mechanical properties of the AISI 4140 base material is given
below Table 2.
Fig. 1. Microstructure of base material Fig. 2. Microstructure of base material AISI 4140
AISI 4140 steel in as-received condition steel in RQT condition
The microstructure of the as-received low alloy steel AISI 4140 base metal consists
of acicular ferrite grains within the matrix of pearlite as shown in Fig. 1. The base
material microstructure in the RQT condition showed mostly tempered martensite and
acicular ferrite shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of tensile test specimen and the actual specimens
3.2 Hardness
The micro hardness distribution profiles across the weld interface in friction welded
joints in the as-received and RQT conditions are shown in Fig. 7. The hardness of
friction welded joint in the as-received condition showed 265 ± 5 Hv of hardness in
the base metal, 320 ± 5 Hv of hardness in the PDZ and maximum hardness of
350 ± 5 Hv in the FPDZ. The results indicates that hardness increases notably from
BM towards weld joint due to possible formation of fine grains resulted from hot plastic
deformation accompanied by dynamic recrytallization. In case of RQT friction welded
samples showed 370 ± 5 Hv of hardness in the base metal and 340 ± 5 Hv of
hardness in the PDZ and maximum hardness of 380 ± 5 Hv in the FPDZ. The
enhancing of hardness in the RQT welds is due to the formation of tempered martensite
as reported by Vardhan Lalam et al. [11] and Damodaran et al. [12].
Fig. 8. Tensile test graph of friction welded joints in as - received and RQT conditions
The results reveal that RQT welded joints shows a considerable increase in the
yield strength and the ultimate tensile strengths as compared to as-received welded
joints confirming the micro structural observations reported in the present work above.
Damodaran et al. [12] observed the strengthening precipitates formation and grain
refinement in RQT condition and attributed the same to the observed increase in the
strength. In the present work grain refinement was observed in the weld zone.
The fracture behavior of tensile tested as-received and RQT samples was analyzed
by SEM, which shown in Fig. 9. The morphology of the fracture surfaces of both the
samples exhibited predominantly dimple rupture indicating good ductility.
impact tests which were performed at room temperature. Welds exhibited impact
toughness of 12 J in case of as-received condition and 25 J in case of RQT condition
samples. XRD plots in Fig. 10, revealed the presence carbides in the weld zone in the
as received condition confirming decrease in the impact toughness.
Fig. 10. X-Ray diffraction plots of friction welded joints in as received and RQT condition
4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to convey their sincere thanks to Shri S. K. Madar
Saheb, Managing Director, Metal Forging industries, Cherlapally, Hyderabad for extending the
help in facilities for conducting the experimental trails on friction welding machine.
Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical Properties 681
References
1. Dewan MW, Liang J, Wahab MA, Okeil AM (2014) Effect of post-weld heat treatment and
electrolytic plasma processing on tungsten inert gas welded AISI 4140 alloy steel. Mater Des
54:6–13
2. Meysami AH, Ghasemzadeh R, Seyedein SH, Aboutalebi MR (2010) An investigation on
the microstructure and mechanical properties of direct-quenched and tempered AISI 4140
Steel. Mater Des 31:1570–1575
3. Chuaiphan W, Srijaroenpramong L, Pinpradub D (2013) The effects of heat treatment on
microstructure and mechanical properties of AISI 4140 for base cutter cane harvester. Adv
Mater Res 774–776:1059–1067
4. Chaouch D, Guessasma S, Sadok A (2012) Finite element simulation coupled to
optimization stochastic process to assess the effect of heat treatment on the mechanical
properties of 42CrMo4 steel. Mater Des 34:679–684
5. Subhash Chander G, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Tagore GRN (2013) Influence of process
parameters on impact toughness and hardness of dissimilar AISI 4140and AISI 304
continuous drive friction welds. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 64:1445–1457
6. Celik S, Ersozlu I (2009) Investigation of the mechanical properties and microstructure of
friction welded joints between AISI 4140 and AISI 1050 steels. Mater Des 30:970–976
7. Emre HE, Kaçar R (2015) Effect of post weld heat treatment process on microstructure and
mechanical properties of friction welded dissimilar drill pipe. Mater Res 18:503–508
8. Kimura M, Sakaguchi H, Kusaka M, Kaizu K, Takahashi T (2016) Joint properties of
friction welded joint between 6061 Al alloy pipe and Al-Si12CuNi (AC8A) Al cast alloy
pipe. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 86:2603–2614
9. Palanivel R, Dinaharan I, Laubscher RF (2019) A comparative study on microstructure and
mechanical properties between friction and laser beam welded titanium tubes. Int J Light
Electron Optics 177:102–111
10. Sbalchiero JA, Martinazzi D, Lemos GVB, Reguly A, Ramos FD (2018) Replacement of gas
metal arc welding by friction welding for joining tubes in the hydraulic cylinders industry.
Mater Res 21:1–8
11. Vardhan Lalam S, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Mohandas T, Kamaraj M, Murty BS (2009)
Continuous drive friction welding of Inconel 718 and EN24 dissimilar metal combination.
Mater Sci Technol 25:851–861
12. Damodaram R, Ganesh Sundara Raman S, Prasad Rao K (2014) Effect of post-weld heat
treatments on microstructure and mechanical properties of friction welded alloy 718 joints.
Mater Des 53:954–961
Effect of Aluminum Powder Suspended
Dielectric and Silver Coated Copper Electrode
on Electrical Discharge Machining
Characteristics of Inconel 718
1 Introduction
Due to increased demand for energy efficiency and compact mechanical components in
energy industries, aerospace, missile and medical industries has contributed to the
progress of swift evolution of very high temperature resistant materials, like Nickel
based super alloys. The properties that make Nickel based super alloys an extra
ordinarily suitable for elevated temperature applications are also root for its hardship of
machining [1]. Hence, there is great demand for advanced machining technologies to
cut these difficult-to-machine materials with ease and precision.
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) is a competitive option for machining Nickel
based super alloys as it is one of the thermal types of non-traditional machining
processes having capability to machine any electrically conductive materials into
desired shape with required dimensional accuracy irrespective of material’s mechanical
strength. In Powder Mixed EDM, the inclusion of well suited fine powdered particles to
the dielectric fluid leads to finer surface finish combined with improved MRR [2].
Sengottuvel et al. [3] investigated “the effects of various EDM input parameters as well
as the influence of different tool geometry on MRR, TWR and Surface Roughness on
machining of Inconel 718 material using copper electrode. ANOVA showed that the
current was the most influencing factor, followed by pulse on time and pulse off time.It was
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 682–689, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_80
Effect of Aluminum Powder Suspended Dielectric 683
also observed that the rectangular tool geometry provided better result.” To reduce the tool
wear rate, Karunakaran and Chandrasekaran [4] focused on “machine-ability studies on
EDM of Inconel 800 with Silver Coated Electrolyte Copper Electrode”. Jothimurugan
et al. [5] focused on comparing “performance of silver coated copper electrode with
conventionally used copper tool electrode using optimum proportionate kerosene-
servotherm and commercial grade EDM oil in ED Machining of Monel400. It is observed
that Ag coated copper electrode has 26.8% increased MRR and 25% decreased TWR
decrease than copper electrode.” Patel et al. [6] has done experiments of “aluminum oxide
powder mixed rotary electric discharge machining on Inconel 718 and observed that MRR
is mainly depends on peak current and duty cycle whereas TWR depends on Peak current,
slurry concentration. Finer surface roughness is observed at low range of peak current,
pulse on time and duty cycle whereas at high range of varying parameters rough surface
finish was evidenced.” Karunakaran and Chandrasekaran [7] studied the “influence of
process parameters in Powder mixed Electrical discharge machining of Inconel 800 with
copper electrode and silver coated copper electrode. Coated electrode has significantly
increased in material removal rate and tool wear rate. Only minor increment was observed
for surface roughness.” In order to study effect of different powder suspended dielectric
i.e., aluminum oxide, silicon carbide and graphite Mahendra and Deepak [8] conducted
Electric Discharge Machining experimentation on Inconel 718 and found that MRR
mainly depends on current and graphite powder suspended dielectric having high MRR as
well as less TWR.
From the literature it is observed that very less study was focused on combined
effect of powder suspended dielectric and coated electrode on Inconel 718. Hence this
study concentrated on assessing the performance of Silver coated copper electrode and
Aluminum powder suspended dielectric with conventional copper electrode and
commercial grade EDM oil by considering current and pulse on time as varying
parameters.
2 Research Methodology
2.4 Experimentation
The experiments were performed on ELECTRA make VM6040 model EDM machine
by varying current (6 A, 9 A and 12 A) and pulse on time (100 ls, 300 ls and 500 ls)
according to full factorial design. MRR and TWR are calculated using the Eqs. 1 and 2
respectively. Weights of works pieces (Inconel 718) and electrodes (copper and silver
coated copper) before and after machining are measured using Digital weighing
machine of precision 0.001 gm and machining time is kept constant as 15 min.
Wbm Wam
MRR = ð1Þ
t
Ebm Eam
TWR = ð2Þ
t
Where,
Wbm, Wam are weight of material before machining and after machining
correspondingly.
Ebm, Eam are weight of electrode before machining and after machining
correspondingly.
‘t’ is the time of machining.
Effect of Aluminum Powder Suspended Dielectric 685
The graphs were plotted between pulse on time (100 µs, 300 µs, and 500 µs) and
MRR for different experimental conditions and are shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. It is
evident from the graphs that, MRR increases with increase in pulse-on time. For low
pulse-on time, small amount of material was melted as the time of heating of the
workpiece was so small [9].
The graphs were plotted between current (6 A, 9 A and 12 A) and MRR for
different experimental conditions are shown in Figs. 4, 5 and 6 and it is interpreted that
MRR increases with increase in current. At low current, a little quantity of heat is
produced and major portion of it is taken by the surroundings resulting, the amount of
utilized energy for melting and vaporizing of the material is not so intense.
0.15 0.2
MRR (g/min)
0.16
MRR (g/min)
0.12
0.09 0.12
0.06 0.08
0.03 0.04
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TON (μs ) TON (μs )
0.15
MRR (g/min)
0.2
0.12
0.09
0.1 0.06
0.03
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 3 6 9 12 15
TON (μs ) CURRENT (A)
0.16
MRR (g/min)
0.12
0.08
0.04
0 0
3 6 9 12 15 3 6 9 12 15
CURRENT (A) CURRENT (A)
The graphs were plotted between pulse on time (100 µs, 300 µs, 500 µs) and TWR
for different experimental conditions and these are shown in Figs. 7, 8 and 9. From
these plots, it can be noticed that high pulse on time leads in increasing the TWR. As
TON is increased, electrode gets more time to absorb heat and erodes more material
from both electrode and work piece, this reason causes the TWR to increase.
The graphs were plotted between current (6A, 9A, 12A) vs TWR for different
experimental conditions are shown in Figs. 10, 11 and 12 and it indicates that TWR
increases with increase in current. As the spark energy is proportionate to the input
current, with increase in input current, spark energy intensifies between the inter
electrode gap. But at constant TON more spark energy is builds up which is utilized in
melting and evaporating the electrode material results in more tool wear.
0.004
0.05
0.002
0
0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 TON (μS )
TON (μs )
0.004
TWR (g/min)
0.006 0.003
0.004 0.002
0.002 0.001
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 3 6 9 12 15
TON (μs ) CURRENT (A)
0.008
TWR (g/min)
0.005 0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0
3 6 9 12 15
3 6 9 12 15
CURRENT (A) CURRENT (A)
Fig. 11. Current vs TWR at 300 ls Fig. 12. Current vs TWR at 500 ls
It is also depicted from Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 that overall TWR is low for
PEDM using Copper electrode and high for Electrical Discharge Machining using
Copper electrode.
4 Conclusions
• TWR was reduced by 44% for aluminium powder suspended dielectric and
uncoated copper electrode compared to without suspension of powder in dielectric
and uncoated electrode.
• Minimum TWR obtained was 0.001 g/min for aluminum PEDM using copper
electrode at 12 A of Peak Current and 100 ls of Pulse on time.
References
1. Zhe C, Johan M, Peng RL, Johansson S (2016) Surface integrity and fatigue performance of
Inconel 718 in wire electrical discharge machining. Procedia CIRP 45:307–310
2. Talla G, Gangopadhayay S, Biswas CK (2016) State of the art in powder-mixed electric
discharge machining: a review. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B: J Eng Manuf 231:2511–2526
3. Sengottuvel P, Satishkumar S, Dinakaran D (2013) Optimization of electrical discharge
machining process parameters using desirability approach and fuzzy modeling: international
conference on design and manufacturing. Procedia Eng 64:1069–1078
4. Karunakaran K, Chandrasekaran M (2017) Investigation of machine-ability of Inconel 800 in
EDM with coated electrode. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol
183, no 1, pp 012–014
5. Jothimurugan R, Amirthagadeswaran KS, Daniel J (2012) Performance of silver coated
copper tool with kerosene servotherm dielectric in EDM of Monel 400TM. J Appl Sci 12
(10):999–1005
6. Patel S, Thesiya D, Rajurkar A (2018) Aluminum powder mixed rotary electric discharge
machining (PMEDM) on Inconel 718. Aust J Mech Eng 16(1):21–30
7. Karunakaran K, Chandrasekaran M (2017) Influence of process parameters in n-PMEDM of
Inconel 800 with electrode and coated electrodes. In: MATEC web of conferences 95, Article
no. 02002
8. Mahendra GR, Deepak VM (2014) Study on effect of powder mixed dielectric in EDM of
Inconel 718. Int J Sci Res Publ 4(11):1–7 ISSN 2250-3153
9. Talla G, Gangopadhyay S, Biswas CK (2015) Effect of powder suspended dielectric on the
EDM characteristics of Inconel 625. J Mater Eng Perfomance 25:704–717
Investigation of the Process Parameters on Hot
Rolling of Al 7178-SiC Metal Matrix
1 Introduction
increasing temperature [5, 6]. The effect of rolling diameter increases and speed is
decreasing which result rolling parameters like roll pressure, effective stress and
effective strain were decreased [7, 8]. The effect temperature gradient on deformation
character is more than the initial temperature.. The deviation between width of specimen
is obtained by rolling at 1100 °C and 1200 °C. This observation is agreed based on
simulation results [9] Hot working of a Cu-Ni-Si alloy has been studied. Experiment of
hot compression deformation of temperature range 700 °C to 900 °C and strain rate
.001/s indicated that flow stress increased peak value and increase deformation time and
recrystallisation behaviour in the temperature zone of 750 °C to 800 °C [10]. Taguchi
method was applied to study the process parameters for optimization for increasing
quality of steel strip cold rolling process. The process parameter like as entry tension,
exit tension, rolling speed and bending pressure on performance characteristics as strip
thickness variation. It is revealed that best performance characteristics was obtained by
the exit tension in the cold rolling process, [11, 12].
2.1 Methodology
Optimized composition of Al 7178 is obtained by Taguchi approach from the design of
experiments. The Al 7178 is a metal matrix and SiC as reinforcement material pro-
duced with stir casting process as size 150 mm length, 50 mm width and 11 mm
thickness. The rectangular Shape of castings are machined as different dimensions and
fed to hot rolling machine and identify the loads for plastic deformation of Al 7178
metal matrix composites in the hot rolling process. Roll separating force can be cal-
culated (Fig. 1).
2.2 Objectives
3 Experimentation
3.1 Material
Present research work Al 7178 has been selected. The composition of Al 7178 alloy is
shown in the Table 1.
3.3 Machining
The specimens are properly machined using a Milling machine. Initially the job is fixed
to the holder Next the job is cut as per the dimensions (150 mm length and 50 widths).
Face milling operation is carried out on the upper face. On down face also face milling
is carried out to obtain different thickness as 5 mm, 7 mm and 9 mm.
200000
175000
Mean of Means
150000
125000
100000
75000
50000
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Fig. 3. Effect of process parameter with mean of S/N ratio for Roll force.
Figure shows that inlet thickness of plate is more effect on roll force, the level of
thickness increases with increasing roll force due to residual stresses increases, roller
speed and percentage of a thickness reduction are increase to level two and decrease.
Temperature is also more effective on roll force, the level of temperature increases with
increasing roll force because of density decreases (Table 5).
Investigation of the Process Parameters on Hot Rolling 695
From ANOVA table of signal to noise ratio, 95% confidence level the P value of
inlet thickness and temperature were less than 0.05 hence most significant on the roll
forces
Regression Equation
Model Summary
R-square value is 87.07% which is close to the 95% confident level, the experi-
mental values are validated. Because effect of unconditional parameters at yield and
least contribution of interactive effect of parameters which result is 87-07.
5 Conclusions
1. Taguchi method was applied to optimization of process parameters are inlet
thickness, roll speed, percentage of reduction and temperature for roll force of Hot
rolling process of Al 7178. From the analysis optimized process parameters of inlet
thickness 5 mm, speed of roller 15 rpm, percentage of thickness 10% and roll
temperature 600 °C.
2. Predicated optimal value of roll force at 95% confidence level which has been
validated by the confirmation test.
3. Inlet thickness increases with increase roll force and temperature is increasing with
decrease roll force.
4. Regression equation has been developed for roll force.
References
1. Bagheripoor M, Bisadi H (2014) An investigation on the roll force and torque fluctuations
during hot strip rolling process. Prod Manuf Res 2(1):128–141
2. Backar AH, Suker DK, Elbenawy TA, Ghulman HA (2016) Optimal hot deformation
characterization of AA5083 aluminium alloy, no 03
3. Huang C, Deng H, Chen J, Hu X, Yang S (2011) Research on rolling force model in hot-
rolling process of aluminum alloys. Procedia Eng 16:745–754
4. Tripathi A, Medhavi A (2014) Finite element simulation of hot rolling for an aluminium
2024 plate. Int J Sci Res Publ 4(1):2250–3153
5. Xiao ZB, Huang YC, Liu Y (2016) Modeling of flow stress of 2026 al alloy under hot
compression. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2016:28–32
6. He C, Jiao Z, Wu D (2014) Plastic coefficient on-line calculation method for hot rolling. 18
(9):445–449
7. Studies on influence of roller diameter and roller speed on process parameters in hot, no 5,
pp 2–6
8. Simon P, Falkinger G, Scheiblhofer S (2017) Hot rolling simulation of aluminium alloys
using LS-Dyna
9. Demin D, Zakhariev I, Labutina T, Levikina A (2018) Numerical simulation laboratory hot
rolling process of a round bars in flat rolls, pp 380–385
10. Lei Q et al. Author’s personal copy Hot working behavior of a super high strength Cu – Ni –
Si alloy
11. Vaidya VA, Waghmare AC (2017) Open access Taguchi approach for optimization of
process parameters in improving quality of steel strip in single stand cold rolling mill. Am J
Eng Res (AJER) 9:216–225
12. Vaidya VA, Deshmukh B (2016) Application of Taguchi for optimization of process
parameters in improving thickness variation in single stand cold rolling mill 5(5):15–23
Sensitivity Study of the Parameters Affecting
Pressure Recovery in a Two Stage Jet Pipe
Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve
Abstract. Jet Pipe Electro Hydraulic Servo Valves are widely used in Aero-
space applications owing to their fast response and working fluid contamination
tolerance. Pressure recovery that is the pressure drop across the spool valve ends
is to be maximized to reduce the first stage losses. Recovery is affected by
various parameters such as jet pipe and receiver tube dimensions and their
relative positioning. This paper presents sensitivity study of these affecting
parameters using Taguchi method to appropriately decide the allowance man-
ufacturing tolerances for acceptable valve performance.
1 Introduction
The latest advent of machinery requires high frequency response and EHSV’s that are
fast responding direction control valves are used for closed looped control of such
machines. EHSV’s serve as an interface between electrical and hydraulic systems. High
power low speed hydraulic actuators are controlled by EHSV’s by converting low
power input into movement of spool. Hence, they can be used in applications such as
aircrafts, robotics, CNC machine tools etc.
A jet pipe EHSV as shown in Fig. 1, has torque motor and valve assemblies. There is a
mechanical feedback spring assembly to stabilize valve operation. When there is no
current input to the motor coils, the spool is in a stationary position due to the balancing
of the forces created by presence of equal pressures on both ends of chambers. When
current flows along the coil generating emf and in turn producing torque on jet pipe.
This torque rotates the jet pipe assembly directing the fluid jet to either of the receiver
holes producing higher pressure in the spool and chamber. This pressure difference
causes the spool to move to opposite direction to that of the jet pipe deflection.
Where Pi is pressure at Vena Contracta and qo is the density of working fluid. Where Pi
is the in-between pressure existing at the interface of jet pipe nozzle and receiver holes
and it depends on throttling of fluid and size of drain line orifice provided to pass this
fluid to tank.
Sensitivity Study of the Parameters Affecting Pressure Recovery 699
Dynamic pressures Pd1 and Pd2 are calculated using following equations
1 A1 1 A2
Pd1 ¼ q0 Vin2 n Pd2 ¼ q0 Vin2 n ð3Þ
2 Aj 2 Aj
The distributor loss coefficient (n) varies from 0.92 to 0.98. A1 and A2 are the covered
area of the receiver holes from the jet pipe nozzle area, Aj. Covered areas A1 and A2
vary based on the Jet Pipe Displacement. Analytical relations for calculation of A1 and
A2 as a function of jet pipe displacement, using geometry, are developed. Alternatively,
they can be obtained from solid model.
Pressure recovery is given by DP ¼ Pd ¼ jP1 P2 j.
4 Design of Experiments
Five levels for each of the five affecting factors were chosen so that the nominal values
along with deviations on either side of nominal values could be considered in the
sensitivity analysis. Now, since there are five parameters and it is decided to analyze
them at five levels, the smallest standard orthogonal array that matches with this
requirement is L25, which will give a test matrix of 25 different configurations with
700 M. Raju et al.
Larger the better characteristic is used due to the requirement to keep the pressure
difference at a maximum, for which case, S/N-Ratio is given by
X
S 1 n 1
Ratio ¼ 10 log10 i y2
ð4Þ
N n i
Taguchi’s response analysis was carried out for sensitivity study of major parameters
affecting pressure recovery. Taguchi’s Response analysis gives graphical representa-
tions of changes in performance characteristics (Pressure Differential, Pd) with the
variations in factor level. The curve gives a pictorial view of variation of each factor
and describes the effect when a parameter shifts from one level to another. This analysis
is aimed at determining the parameters that are very influential in Analysis carried out
for sensitivity of major parameters affecting pressure recovery and is presented in the
Table 3.
Sensitivity Study of the Parameters Affecting Pressure Recovery 701
Analysis is carried out for supply (Ps) 210 bar, density of fluid 780 kg/m3(qo) and
distributor loss coefficient is 0.94(n). Differential pressure has been calculated using
mathematical model by varying combinations obtained from orthogonal array. Signal
to Noise ratio curves of various affecting parameters for different levels are shown in
Fig. 2. Signal to Noise ratio is calculated and rank is given in the decreasing order for
affecting parameters on differential pressure, that is as expected, jet deflection being a
control parameter for spool movement, has the maximum degree of influence. Jet
deflection ! Nozzle Diameter ! Web thickness ! Offset distance ! Receiver
Diameter.
702 M. Raju et al.
6 Conclusions
Sensitivity analysis of parameter using the Taguchi method shows that the parameters
in the decreasing order of their influence on the pressure recovery are Jet deflection,
Nozzle Diameter, Web thickness, Offset distance and Receiver diameter. This study
can be adopted to set the manufacturing level tolerances for the affecting parameters to
ensure pressure recovery as desired for the intended application.
References
1. Selection and performance criteria for electrohydraulic servo drives. Moog technical bulletin
122. Moog Inc. East Aurora
2. Performance estimation for electrohydraulic control system. Moog technical bulletin 126
Moog Inc. Control division, East Aurora
3. Merrit HE (1967) Hydraulic control systems. Wiley, Chichester
4. Maskrey RH, Thayer WJ. A brief history of electrohydraulic servomechanisms. Moog Inc.
Computational Modeling and Analysis
of Intake Taper Manifold of an Internal
Combustion Engine
Abstract. The intake manifold is a key part of an i.c engine to feed the input
air. It maybe a casting or fabricated of relatively light material. The air passes
through the passage and enters into cylinder, due to bent cross-section the
velocity of intake air is optimum. In order to improve the velocity of air entering
in to cylinder chamber, it is proposed that the helical intake manifold with
different pitches and taper at exit in the place of existing manifold, due to this the
swirl motion generated in the intake helical manifold leads to increase the
velocity of air which is entering into cylinder such that it may help to increase
the combustion efficiency of the engine.
1 Introduction
The prime function of the manifold is to equally distribute the combustion mixture (or
simply air in an exceedingly direct injection engine) to every intake port within the
cylinder head(s). Even distribution is vital to optimize the potency and performance of
the engine.
The design of the intake port and valve configuration of an internal combustion
engine plays an important dual role in modern high-speed engines. One task is to
provide good breathing characteristics to maximize the amount of trapped fresh air
charge, which has direct impact on the torque and power output of the engine. In
directly injected engines, diesels or spark ignited stratified-charge engines, the intake
system has the additional task of providing a desired in-cylinder flow pattern to control
the combustion process. Usually, this flow pattern is a swirling motion around the
cylinder axis and its objective is to achieve a controlled mixing of fuel and air for a
rapid, complete combustion, maximum air utilization and low emissions. In homoge-
neous charge lean burn engines, the additional task of the inlet system is to provide a
high-speed air motion and turbulence, ensuring a rapid burn essential to complete
combustion of a lean charge and tosuppression of detonation [1–3].
One way to find the optimum intake configuration for a given engine is to run a
series of engine experiments over a large vary of operative conditions with variety of
different intake designs, and choose the most effective among them. This is essentially
an attempt and error approach that, besides being very time consuming and expensive,
does not provides a clear image of why one intake system produces a much better in-
engine result than another one. due to that, it’s a standard practice to incorporate within
the development method steady-state bench tests of the intake flow, and these are used,
in one kind or another, to identify an initial design for a minimum of forty years. Actual
engine experiments are used only as the final trimming and proof step [4].
The bench tests typically include measurements of the rate of flow through the
valve as a perform of lift for a given pressure drop across the port/valve system and
measurements of swirl produced. The steady-state coefficients obtained are generally
used as a vital input to thermodynamic (global) models of the engine operating cycle.
These models will, for example, serve very competently during a computer opti-
mization of the cam profiles to be used with the given port/valve combination, but their
utility goes well beyond that [3, 4].
The helical port provides a better swirl at lower end medium valve lifts, but the directed
ports are capable of producing higher swirl at massive valve lifts - and these opposing
trends tend to equalize the ultimate integrated swirl levels developed by the two port
types. Current high swirl ports typically mix some of the features of both the directional
and also the helical ports [5, 6].
2 Literature Survey
Author Remarks
Yan [3] Through the CFD analysis results, the proposed temperature reconstruction
method was justified
Chauvin [7] The accurate results will give rise to addition of intake manifold
temperatures will largely affect the control of the in-cylinder parameters
Ammann [8] Diesel engine manifold gas temperature variations could cover a large
range with a bandwidth of up to ten Hertz throughout the transient
processes as high-pressure loop exhaust gas recirculation and turbo-
charging systems with variable geometry turbines are utilized
Kar [9] From the temperature detector aspect, the thermocouple measurements
were proved to be cheap, fairly accurate, and robust in several engineering
applications. However, the price for strength of the production
thermocouples is their worse performances below quick transient operative
conditions. Thus, the measured temperatures need to be reconstructed in
several applications
Wang [11] Therefore, rapid and accurate solutions for temperature
measurements/reconstructions are necessary
Zimmerschied Typically, such detector transient responses will be modeled as certain first-
[12] order dynamic systems, and also the time-constants within the systems
don’t seem to be negligible significantly once the particular temperatures
have quick dynamics. for example, the specified temperature bandwidth for
advanced engine control is often tens or maybe hundreds of times of that
for the thermocouples
The intake manifold is created in the software creo2.0 with help of helical sweep
operation. The models are drafted and listed below with various pitches and taper for
the best velocity identified in simulation (Figs. 1 and 2).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 1. (a) intake manifold with pitch 30 mm (b) intake manifold with pitch 40 mm (c) intake
manifold with pitch 50 mm (d) intake manifold with pitch 60 mm
The step, File is created in the creo2.0 for the all models which are developed. Theses
models are imported to the Ansys 18.2 to identify the velocity for the helical intake
manifold (Figs. 3, 4 and Table 1).
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. (a) imported feature from the creo2.0 (b) meshed body
Fig. 4. Inlet and outlet conditions for the helical intake manifold.
708 T. Sreedhar et al.
From the inlet the filtered air is entered and it will pass through the helical intake
manifold and exit and outlet mentioned in the above figure. The velocity of air is
increased due to swirl motion which will happens in helical intake manifold.
From above Fig. 5 we can say that as the number of Iterations increasing energy
increases (Fig. 6).
Computational Modeling and Analysis of Intake Taper Manifold 709
Fig. 7. Pressure difference (PSI) for the intake manifold without taper angles.
From above figure, results we clearly observe that there is change in velocity from
inlet to the cylinder chamber. At exit of the manifold, there is a huge increment of
velocity with the taper angle (convergent nozzle). This may help to increase the thermal
efficiency (Fig. 7).
Fig. 8. Velocity difference (m/s) for the intake manifold without taper angles.
From above figure, we observe the pressure variation from inlet to outlet in different
pitches of the manifold and the maximum pressure is at the pith of 40 mm. if the pitch
of the manifold increases continuously at certain point it may goes little bending with
respect to this no change of velocity into the cylinder. If the pitch is minimum that is
solid spring this case also, we can’t say the maximum values obtain (Fig. 8).
710 T. Sreedhar et al.
Fig. 9. Mass flow rate inside manifold (kg/s) for the intake manifold without taper angles.
From above figure, there is change in velocity from inlet to engine cylinder in
different pitches of the manifold and maximum velocity is at the pitch of 40 mm. if the
pitch increases velocity increases to avoid that manifold is in the shape of helical
(Fig. 9).
Fig. 10. Velocity of intake manifold with pitch 40 mm and different taper angles.
From above figure, we observe that as increasing the pitch leads to reduction in
mass flow rate. To increase the mass flow rate, manifold the manifold is in the shape of
helical (Fig. 10).
Computational Modeling and Analysis of Intake Taper Manifold 711
From the above figure, CFD simulation is conducted for different taper angles are
included to this 40 mm pitch intake manifold and identified that velocity is increased a lot
i.e., more than 90% of velocity increment and still increment for the higher taper angle.
5 Conclusion
Following conclusions have been drawn from the above simulation analysis:
• The velocity of the intake manifold for the various pitches is observed that there is a
high velocity for the 40 mm pitch compare to others.
• Different taper angles are included to this 40 mm pitch intake manifold and iden-
tified that velocity is increased a lot i.e., more than 90% of velocity increment and
still increment for the higher taper angle.
• To get better combustion efficiency this helical intake manifold with taper angle is
proposed
References
1. Payri F, Benajes J, Margot X, Gil A (2004) CFD modeling of the in-cylinder flow in direct-
injection Diesel engines. Comput Fluids 33(8):995–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compfluid.2003.09.003
2. Uzkan T, Borgnakke C, Morel T (1983) Characterization of flow produced by a high-swirl
inlet port. SAE Paper 830266
3. Yan F, Wang J (2012) Pressure-based transient intake manifold temperature reconstruction
in Diesel engines. Control Eng Pract 20(5):531–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conengprac.
2012.01.008
4. Chen A, Veshagh A, Wallace S (1998) Intake flow predictions of a transparent DI Diesel
engine. SAE 981020
5. Dent J, Derham J (1974) Air motion in a four-stroke direct injection Diesel engine. Proc
IMechE 188(21):269–280
6. Celik I, Yavuz I, Smirnov A (2001) Large eddy simulations of in-cylinder turbulence for
internal combustion engines: a review. Int J Engine Res 2(2):119–148. https://doi.org/10.
1243/1468087011545389
7. Chauvin J, Corde G, Petit N, Rouchon P (2007) Motion planning for experimental airpath
control of a diesel homogeneous charge-compression ignition engine. Control Eng Pract 16
(9):1081–1091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conengprac.2007.12.001
8. Ammann M, Fekete NP, Guzella L, Glattfelder AH (2003) Model-based control of the VGT
and EGR in a turbocharged common-rail Diesel engine: theory and passenger car
implementation. SAE Paper 2003-01-0357
9. Kar K, Roberts S, Stone R, Oldfield M, French B (2004) Instantaneous exhaust temperature
measurements using thermocouple compensation techniques. SAE Transactions
10. Wang J, Chadwell C (2008) On the advanced air-path control for multiple and alternative
combustion mode engines. SAEPaper2008-01-1730
11. Wang J (2008) Hybrid robust air-path control for Diesel engines operating conventional and
low temperature combustion modes. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol 16(6):1138–1151
12. Zimmerschied R, Isermann R (2010) Nonlinear time constant estimation and dynamic
compensation of temperature sensors. Control Eng Pract 18(3):300–310
Evaluation of Wear Rate of Different Liner
Materials Used in Bunkers and Silos Using Dry
Abrasion Wear Test
Abstract. One of the serious causes for materials failure is Wear. It affects the
reliability and lifetime of material leading to a number of economic losses. The
containers used for the storage of bulk solids are usually called Bins, Bunkers,
Silos or Tanks. Wearing of metal is one of major problems that occur during
material discharge from silos. To minimize damage of metal, liners are used
which are replaceable and prevents the equipment from material wear out.
Generally Stainless Steel 304 is being used as liner material for bunkers because
of its high strength, high corrosion resistance and high toughness. In this paper
we have considered UHMWPE and Cast Nylon as Liner materials because of
their high toughness, good wear resistance and low coefficient of friction. The
main objective of this paper is to evaluate the wear rate on different liner
materials like SS 304, Mild Steel, UHMWPE, and Cast Nylon using dry
abrasion tester by varying Load and Speed.
1 Introduction
In any operation involving particulate solids, successful storage flow and handling of
the bulk material is essential part of the overall plant design. Bins, Bunkers and Silos
are used extensively for the storage and transfer of bulk solids such as chemicals,
foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, cement, coal, polymer, and powdered metals. During
material discharge from bunkers or silos, they are subjected to wearing out of metal.
These are mainly due to friction between the bulk solids and bins while transferring
them to chutes. So by using Liner materials, the material damage can be minimized.
Polymers and their composites are being used in many applications, where abrasive
wear is considered to be the prime mode of failure. ASTM G 65 standard for abrasive
wear is widely used by industry to assist in selecting materials for abrasive wear
service. Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) is a tough plastic with
high wear resistance. The versatility has made it a popular plastic for a number of
industrial applications that require durability, low friction, and chemical resistance.
Cast Nylon is one of the most widely used thermoplastic resins which have high
strength, low friction and wear resistance makes it a superior engineering material.
Some Advantages of Polymer Composite Liner Materials When Compared to Con-
ventional Metal Liners are Low weight compared to metal liners, Easy to manufacture
at different sizes and shapes, Low coefficient of friction, Low wear rate, High impact
strength, Resistant to corrosion, Easy maintenance etc. “Performed experiments on
Tungsten carbide-based hard metals, chromium carbide based cermets and titanium
carbide based cermets using abrasive wear tester as per ASTM G65 and concluded that
hard metals had a higher relative wear resistance than that of cermets.” Kulu et al. [1].
“Conducted experiments as per ASTM G65 on new ceramic materials using a load of
222 N and a nominal sliding speed of 200 rpm. The total time for each test was 1200
cycles. Concluded that the ceramics that consisted of volcanic ashes exhibited a higher
abrasion resistance than materials that were combined with epoxy resin.” Vite Torres
et al. [2]. “Studied the abrasive wear performance of carbide composites, WC- hard
metals and TiC base cermets as per ASTM G65 standard and load applied was 3 N for
a testing time of 10 min using quartz sand as abrasive.” Klaasen et al. [3]. “Conducted
tests with a load of 100 N and a sand feed rate of 15 g/min for periods of 5, 10, 15 min
and wear rate was calculated using dry abrasion tester on DIN St-52 steel samples.”
Woldman et al. [4]. “Studied wear behaviour of the low alloy wear resistant steel
reinforced with (Ti, Mo) C particles under applied loads of 45 N and 130 N using
quartz sand as abrasive with sand flow rate of 300 g/min.” Huang et al. [5]. “Studied
that wear is one of the most common failures observed in many industrial applications
and the development of abrasion resistant materials is therefore advantageous both
from technical and economic points of view.” Pagounis [6]. “Alumina was used as
abrasive and the rotational speed of abrasive wheel was 235 rpm under a normal load
of 20 N to study wear of a series of cermets on the base of titanium and chromium
carbides” Pirso et al. [7]. “Studied wear performance of laser surface alloyed Alu-
minium AA1200 under load 9.8 N and duration of each wear test was 60 min and the
mass of the samples was recorded at 10 min intervals.” Mabhali [8].
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the wear rates of different coal bunker
liner materials such as SS304, Mild Steel, UHMWPE and Cast Nylon with the help of
dry abrasion tester using quartz sand as abrasive. Comparison was made in order to
suggest suitable liner material as wear rate is high on these materials.
2 Experimental Details
(a) Cast Nylon (b) UHMWPE (c) SS-304 (d) Mild Steel
Table 3 represents the wear rate calculated for each sample at different time
intervals.
From the results obtained, graph is plotted between wear rate and time intervals.
Figure 3 represents the Test specimen before and after experimentation.
(a) Cast Nylon (b) UHMWPE (c) SS-304 (d) Mild Steel
0.35
0.3
Figure 4 represents the graph between wear rate and time for different liner
materials. It is observed that UHMWPE and Cast nylon shows lesser wear rate when
compared with MS and SS 304. The wear rate decreased with increase in time. So,
UHMWPE and Cast Nylon are selected for carrying out further experiments i.e., by
using different speeds and different loads.
Table 5 represents the wear rate of UHMWPE and Cast Nylon at a constant speed
of 125 rpm with varying loads.
718 D. Venkateshwarlu et al.
0.8
Wear Rate (gms/min)
0.6
0.4
UHMWPE
0.2 CAST NYLON
0
5.3 5.8 6.3 6.8
Load (kg)
Figure 5 represents the graph between speeds and wear rate at a constant load of
4.8 kg with varying speeds. It is observed that UHMWPE shows more wear rate when
compared with Cast Nylon. It is also observed that wear rate decreased with increase in
speed on Cast Nylon and wear rate decreased for UHMWPE with increase in speed till
150 rpm after which it is found to be increased. This is because; both the materials have
low frictional properties.
Evaluation of Wear Rate of Different Liner Materials Used in Bunkers 719
0.6
Figure 6 represents the graph between loads and wear rate at a constant speed of
125 rpm with varying loads. It is observed that UHMWPE shows more wear rate as
compared with Cast Nylon. It is also observed that there is increase in wear rate with
increase in load on Cast Nylon and UHMWPE.
From the above results it is clearly observed that Cast Nylon shows less wear rate
when compared to UHMWPE. Hence Cast Nylon material is suggested as liner
material especially for coal bunkers.
4 Conclusions
In this research, an attempt has been made to determine the liner material which has
low wear rate by varying the process parameter values i.e., speed and load that are
influencing the wear rate. Comparing the results of wear rate, the material with low
wear rate is selected for optimization. After analyzing the results of experiments of dry
abrasive wear test of liner materials, the following conclusions are made:
1. At a constant load of 4.8 kg and constant speed of 125 RPM the wear rate
decreases with increase in time for a regular interval of 10 min, 20 min and 30 min
respectively for Liner materials i.e., MS, SS 304, UHMWPE and Cast Nylon. The
liner materials UHMWPE and Cast nylon has lesser wear rate as compared to MS
and SS 304 materials.
2. At a constant load of 4.8 kg with varying speeds i.e., from 130 RPM to 160 RPM
UHMWPE has 70.51% more wear rate when compared with Cast Nylon.
3. At a constant speed of 125 RPM with varying loads i.e., from 5.3 kg to 6.8 kg
UHMWPE has 67.80% more wear rate when compared with Cast Nylon.
4. Hence, Cast Nylon is suggested as a suitable liner material for coal bunker.
720 D. Venkateshwarlu et al.
References
1. Kulu P, Tarbe R, Vallikivi A (2005) Abrasive wear of powder materials and coatings. Mater
Sci 11(3):230–234
2. Vite-Torres M, Vite J, Laguna-Camacho JR, Castillo M, Marquina-Chávez A (2011)
Abrasive wear on ceramic materials obtained from solid residuals coming from mines. Sci
Direct Wear 271:1231–1236
3. Klaasen H, Kubarsepp J (2006) Abrasive wear performance of carbide composites. Sci Direct
Wear 261:520–526
4. Woldman M, van der Heide E, Schipper DJ, Tinga T, Masen MA (2012) Investigating the
influence of sand particle properties on abrasive wear behavior. Sci Direct Wear 294–
295:419–426
5. Huang L, Deng X, Jia Y, Li C, Wang Z (2018) Effects of using (Ti, Mo) C particles to reduce
the three-body abrasive wear of a low alloy steel. Sci Direct Wear 410–411:119–126
6. Pagounis E, Lindroos VK (1997) Development and performance of new hard and wear
resistant engineering materials. J Mater Eng Perform 6:749–756
7. Pirso J, Viljus M, Juhani K, Letunovitš S (2009) Two-body dry abrasive wear of cermets. Sci
Direct Wear 266:21–29
8. Mabhali LAB, Sacks N, Pityana S (2012) Three body abrasion of laser surface alloyed
Aluminium AA1200. Sci Direct Wear 290–291:1–9
Experimental Investigation on Maraging Steel
Metal Deposition Using DMLS Process
Abstract. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) process is one of the Additive
manufacturing technologies utilized to deposit metal powder by scanning of
high laser power to fabricate customized and complex parts which cannot be
produced by traditional manufacturing processes. During DMLS, powder is
fused by laser beam and forms a solid part layer-by-layer. The mechanical and
physical properties of parts fabricated by DMLS mainly depend on the process
parameters, properties of powder, scanning scheme, and the direction of
building. In this investigation hardness, surface roughness, tensile strength and
impact strength of Maraging steel were studied. These properties of different
samples were analyzed before and after heat treatment.
1 Introduction
The mostly used Maraging steels are low carbon content steels and high strength
materials having good weldability and dimension stability during heat treatment and
superior fracture toughness without losing its ductility. Due to this good features and
properties, maraging steels can be extensively used in aerospace, manufacturing,
prototyping, medical and tooling sectors. Additive Manufacturing is an automated and
layer based fabrication process to fabricate the 3-dimensional complexly arranged parts
with the required properties directly from the CAD model without using the tools [1].
“Direct metal laser sintering [2]” belongs to the Additive manufacturing process to
produce the parts from the metal powders i.e., Aluminium, inconel, etc. [2]. Maraging
steels can be used as a substitute to the medium carbon steel and high carbon steels,
because of not having some problems like high carbon content which boost or
encourages the corrosion and quench cracking and it may be caused to unpredicted
fracture. Owing to the low carbon presence in the maraging steel, the damage from the
quench cracking is reduced. Good corrosion resistance is provided by the high presence
of nickel and deficiency of carbides [3]. Maraging steels usually have good properties
and that are improved by the heat treatment, useful in many applications [4]. Energy
density is an influenced parameter to fabricate the parts with the required properties by
DMLS process [5]. There is a possibility to alter the density and porosity of the part
produced by DMLS technique, simply by modifying the energy density and the
depositing process parameters [6, 7]. The melting property and surface property are
influenced by the machining process parameters and also largely depends upon them
[8]. Due to the partial melting of powder particles, the pores are developed in the laser
deposited metals and it causes to failure of the parts [9]. The heat treatment temperature
should be between 460 °C and 510 °C for 3 to 8 h for maraging steel [10]. The effect
of deposition process parameters, various scanning schemes and different building
directions on mechanical properties have been investigated and the results were
observed [11, 12]. DMLS of maraging steel MS1grade is taken under investigation
regarding many aspects. The hardness, surface roughness and micro structure were
determined by selection of the best process parameters [13].
DMLS is a promising technology due to almost unlimited geometrical freedom
especially for tooling applications. It is possible to produce complex geometries with
internal cavities by DMLS. Therefore, DMLS of maraging steels can offer new
opportunities in tooling applications by fabricating the parts with almost full density.
The main aim of this study is to investigate the hardness, surface roughness, toughness
and tensile strength of maraging steel specimens produced by DMLS process.
2 Experimental Details
Maraging steel is in powder form was chosen as sintering material and its elemental
weight percentage is shown in Table 1. The scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of
maraging steel powder particles used in this study was depicted in Fig. 1. It can be
observed that the powder particles are in spherical shape and the size of the particles
varying between 3–60 µm.
The Direct Metal Laser Sintering machine was used to manufacture all test spec-
imens in the nitrogen purging atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2. The oxygen content is
maintained at low level by the gas to prevent the maraging steel powder from oxidation
during part fabrication. The DMLS machine is constructed with a build chamber of size
250 250 250 and 400 W fiber laser. The building platform was maintained at
40 °C to protect the fabricated samples from distortion due to uneven thermal
expansion at raised temperatures. By lowering the building platform, the layer thick-
ness of the powder is maintained constant at 40 µm. The mild steel rectangular bar is
used as the substrate material to sinter the maraging steel powder on it.
Experimental Investigation on Maraging Steel Metal Deposition 723
Fig. 1. SEM of maraging steel powder Fig. 2. DMLS machine (model – EOSINT
M280/400 W)
In order to bring down the cost of experimentation and to fabricate the test spec-
imens, experiments were conducted by using the Taguchi design of experiments. In the
present investigation laser power, laser scan speed and hatch spacing have been used as
process parameters for achieving mechanical properties of maraging steel. The
depositing process parameters and their levels for each parameter are shown in Table 2.
Taguchi L25 orthogonal array has been used to fabricate the parts, which is shown
in Table 3. The cubic shaped specimens of size 10 10 10 mm were fabricated
with 0° orientation as shown in Fig. 3. Rockwell hardness tester and surface roughness
tester were used to determine the hardness and surface roughness of the specimens
respectively.
The minimum and maximum hardness of the specimens is found to be 28.63 HRC
and 37.83 HRC for the samples 5 and 7 respectively as shown in Table 3. The observed
best depositing process parameters are laser power: 260 W, laser scanning speed:
850 mm/sec and Hatch spacing: 0.12 mm. The hardness of the as-fabricated Maraging
steel parts at the best process parameters are 37.83 HRC. The hardness was improved
by applying heat treatment for 6 h at 490 °C. After heat treatment, the hardness was
increased from 37.83 HRC to 55.33 HRC due to precipitated-phase strengthening. In
this study, four tensile test specimens and four impact test specimens are prepared by
using the above best process parameters as shown in Fig. 4.
724 D. Apparao and M. V. Jagannadha Raju
The wire cut EDM machine was used to separate the tensile and impact test
specimens from the substrate as shown is Fig. 5. The produced DMLS specimens were
subjected to sandblasting operation to dispose of the loosely attached powder to the
specimen’s walls. Two tensile test specimens and two impact test specimens were then
subjected to heat treatment while the remaining specimens were kept as non-heat
treated specimens or as-fabricated specimens to distinguish.
Fig. 5. Wire cut EDM machine to separate the specimens from the substrate
The ASM Handbook recommended that the heat treatment temperature should be
between 460 °C and 510 °C for 3 to 8 h for maraging steel. In this study the heat
treatment was done in the argon inert muffle furnace at a temperature of 490 °C for the
duration of 6 h As a result, the hardness was increased due to the precipitation of
intermetallics during heat treatment.
3 Mechanical Properties
3.1 Tensile Tests
To characterize the mechanical behavior of materials, the tensile test is an essential test
to be conducted. The specimens were produced in accordance with ASTM E-8 standard
as shown in Fig. 6. An Instron 8801 machine was used to conduct the tensile tests as
shown in Fig. 7.
Four specimens, produced with the best process parameters, were tested. Two
specimens are in as-built condition and the other two specimens are heat treated. The
tensile specimens before and after tensile testing are shown in Fig. 8. The standard
impact test specimen size is 100 10 4 mm. The specimens (2 non-heat treated and
2 heat treated) are prepared by using DMLS machine by using the depositing process
parameters as obtained above those gave more hardness and good surface finish. The
tensile properties for as-fabricated and heat treated test specimens were shown in
Table 4.
Table 4. Tensile properties of as-fabricated and heat treated DMLS maraging steel samples
Maximum Load at Load at UTS Tensile stress at Tensile strain at
load (KN) break 2% strain (Mpa) yield (offset yield offset 0.2%
(KN) (KN) 0.2%) (Mpa) (mm/mm)
As 29.23 19.42 16.13 1217.93 478.48 0.01088
fabricated
specimen 1
Heat 52.69 50.50 16.88 2195.42 469 0.00942
treated
specimen 1
As 30.33 20.50 17.05 1263.67 518.37 0.01079
fabricated
specimen 2
Heat 52.23 50.00 22.55 2176.12 751.20 0.01404
treated
specimen 2
From the above table, it is observed that the mean value of tensile strength of the
two as-fabricated specimens is 1240.8 Mpa and the mean value of tensile strength of
the two heat treated specimens is 2185.77 Mpa. The heat treated specimens have more
ultimate tensile strength compared to as-fabricated specimens. The ultimate tensile
strength was increased by 43.2% and the percentage elongation was decreased from
15% to 6% due to the heat treatment of the maraging steel. The Ultimate tensile
Strength for the as-fabricated and heat treated specimens is plotted in Fig. 9. It shows
an increase in Ultimate tensile strength after application of heat treatment. Heat
treatment of the DMLS produced maraging steel was done at 490 °C for 6 h.
2500
UlƟmate Tensile Strength
2000
1500
(MPa)
1000
500
0
as fabricated Heat treated
Specimen type
It is revealed from the Table 5, the average value of the actual energy absorbed for
as-fabricated specimens is 34 J and for heat treated specimens is 4 J. Impact strength of
the as fabricated specimen = 34/100 = 0.34 J/mm2 (Energy absorbed/Area). Impact
strength of the heat treated specimen = 04/100 = 0.04 J/mm2 (Energy absorbed/Area).
It is observed from the above Table 4 that the actual energy absorbed by the heat
treated specimens was reduced to 4 J from 34 J. The impact strength of the heat treated
specimen is reduced to 0.04 J/mm2 from 0.34 J/mm2.
The absorbed energies in the impact test for the specimens produced by DMLS
process are plotted in the Fig. 12. It was observed that the absorbed energy is decreased
for the heat treated specimen.
Experimental Investigation on Maraging Steel Metal Deposition 729
Table 5. Energy absorbed for as-fabricated and heat treated DMLS maraging steel specimens
Energy Frictional air Actual energy
absorbed resistance absorbed
As fabricated specimen 1 40 J 6J 34 J
As fabricated specimen 2 40 J 6J 34 J
Heat treated specimen 1 10 J 6J 4J
Heat treated specimen 2 10 J 6J 4J
Due to the application of heat treatment, the toughness is reduced and the hardness
is increased. When the heat treatment is applied to the DMLS produced maraging steel
specimens, Titanium and Aluminium combined oxides are formed in the martensite
matrix.
40
Absorbed Energy (J)
30
20
10
0
As fabricated Heat treated
Specimen type
4 Conclusions
In the present work High strength maraging steel is deposited by Direct Metal Laser
Sintering process. Taguchi design of experimentation was applied to determine the best
depositing process parameters for fabricating the parts.
• The best depositing process parameters which observed were, laser power: 260 W,
laser scanning speed: 850 mm/sec and Hatching space: 0.12 mm.
• The maximum hardness, minimum surface roughness can be observed at the best
process parameters.
• The hardness of the as-fabricated Maraging steel parts was improved by applying
heat treatment due to precipitated-phase strengthening.
• The surface roughness of the as- fabricated specimen was reduced by sandblasting
operation.
• From the tensile tests, it is observed that the heat treated specimens have more
ultimate tensile strength compared to as-fabricated specimens.
730 D. Apparao and M. V. Jagannadha Raju
• From the impact tests, it is observed that the actual energy absorbed by the heat
treated specimens was reduced when compared to as-fabricated specimens. The
toughness is decreased when heat treatment is applied. Less energy is required to
break the specimen due to the formation of intermetallic precipitates.
References
1. Gao W, Zhang Y, Ramanujan D, Ramani K, Chen Y, Williams CB, Wang CCL, Shin YC,
Zhang S, Zavattieri PD (2015) The status, challenges, and future of additive manufacturing
in engineering. Comput-Aided Des 69:65–89
2. Cabrini M, Lorenzi S, Pastore T, Pellegrini S, Manfredi D, Fino P, Biamino S, Badini C
(2016) Evaluation of corrosion resistance of Al–10Si–Mg alloy obtained by means of Direct
Metal Laser Sintering. J Mater Process Technol 231:326–335
3. Stanford M, Kibble K, Lindop M, Mynors D, Durnall C (2008) An investigation into fully
melting a maraging steel using direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). Steel Res Int 79(2):847–
852 Special Edition Metal Forming Conference
4. EOS maraging steel MS1 data sheet (2007) MaragingSteel_MS1_Material_data_sheet_04-
07_en.doc
5. Thijs L, Verhaeghe F, Craeghs T, Humbeeck JV, Kruth JP (2010) A study of the
microstructural evolution during selective laser melting of Ti–6Al–4 V. Acta Meter 58
(9):3303–3312
6. Sun J, Yang Y, Wang D (2013) Parametric optimization of selective laser melting for
forming Ti6Al4V samples by Taguchi method. Opt Laser Technol 49:118–124
7. Kumar MN et al (2017) Experimental investigation on influence of process parameters in
selective laser sintering on roundness using Taguchi method. Int J Mech Prod Eng Res Dev
(IJMPERD) 7(6):45–52
8. Shamsaei N, Yadollahi A, Bian L, Thompson SM (2015) An overview of Direct Laser
Deposition for additive manufacturing; part II: mechanical behavior, process parameter
optimization and control. Addit Manufact 8:12–35
9. Gu D, Shen Y (2008) Processing conditions and microstructural features of porous 316L
stainless steel components by DMLS. Appl Surf Sci 255:1880–1887
10. ASM handbook, volume 4 Heat Treating (1991). ASM International the Materials
Information Company, United States of America, pp 528–548. ISBN 0-87170-379-3
11. Manfredi D, Calignano F, Krishnan M, Canali R, Ambrosio EP, Atzeni E (2013) From
powders to dense metal parts: Characterization of a commercial AlSiMg alloy processed
through direct metal laser sintering. Mater (Basel) 6(3):856–869
12. Krishnan M, Atzeni E, Canali R, Manfredi D, Calignano F, Ambrosio EP, Iuliano L (2014)
On the effect of process parameters on properties of AlSi10 Mg parts produced by DMLS.
Rapid Prototyp J 20(6):449–458
13. Apparao D, Jagannadha Raju MV (2018) Experimental investigation on hardness,
microstructure and surface roughness of maraging steel parts produced by direct metal
laser sintering technique. Int J Mech Prod Eng Res Dev (IJMPERD) 8(2):629–636
Intra-ply Damage Modeling of Low-Velocity
Impact on Composite Laminates
Abstract. This paper deals with the intra-ply damage modeling of graphite/
epoxy composite laminates subjected to the low-velocity impact loads. In this
work, a cross ply laminate of dimensions 80 80 2.1 mm with stacking
sequence [0/90/0/90/0] is subjected to impact by a rigid impactor of mass
6.5 kgs. The finite element simulation carried out using perfectly elastic, 3-D
Hashin damage and 3-D Damage meso-level (3-D DML) models. Fiber and
matrix failure modes are considered in both the damage models. User subroutine
(VUMAT) was implemented for damage models and analysis was carried on
ABAQUSTM software. The force and displacement-time response are computed
at 5J and 10J of impact energies. The effect of damage models on force and
displacement-time response with change in impact energy are presented.
Comparing the maximum forces and displacement-time response, 3-D DML
model shows close agreement, whereas the 3-D Hashin model underpredicts the
maximum force and overpredicts the maximum displacement with the literature.
1 Introduction
and proposed a progressive damage law that considers the weibull distribution of the
composite strength in the damage model. Also, accounted for the nonlinear shear
behavior of the composites along with a simple model that considers the irreversible
strain due to the damage. The damage model was implemented in the user material
subroutine (VUMAT) of the ABAQUS/explicit program to compare the test results.
Qiu et al. [5] have simulated three composite laminate groups. Hashin damage model
used to study the effect of stacking sequence, impact energy, indenter shape and, plate
shape on the response of composites under low-speed drop-weight impact. Jagtap et al.
[6] have presented a finite element simulation of low-velocity impact damage of
composite laminates using MAT59 in LS-DYNA, based on maximum stress-based
criteria and investigated the force response of composite laminate at various impact
energies and boundary conditions. Lubineau and Ladeveze [7] presented a 3-D meso-
level damage model (3-D DML) to account for diffuse damage in composite laminates.
Nie, [8] have implemented VUMAT subroutine in ABAQUSTM software to model the
failure in triaxially braided composites for dynamic impact analysis.
The current paper presents the damage modeling of graphite/epoxy composite
laminate subjected to the low-velocity impact loads and compares the perfectly elastic,
3-D Hashin and 3-D DML models. Their effect on force and displacement-time
response of the composite laminates also analyzed at 5J and 10J impact loads.
2 Damage Modeling
The fiber tension and compression, matrix tension and compression failure based
on 3-D Hashin’s failure criteria considered are as follows:
Fiber Tensile Failure Mode ðr11 [ 0Þ:
2 2 2
FIft ¼ Fr1T
11
þ Fr121S þ rF132s
1 ð2:1Þ
; If FIft [ 1
dft ¼ FIft
0; If FIft 1:
2
r11 1
; If FIfc [ 1
FIfc ¼ ; dfc ¼ FIfc ð2:2Þ
F1C 0; If FIfc 1:
Note that the matrix tensile and compression failures combined in a single equation
Eq. 2.3. In the above Eqs. 2.1 to 2.3, rij are the stress components in ij direction, FIft ,
FIfc and FIm are the failure indices, dft, dfc, dmt and dmc are current damage variables
with the range of [0, 1] and F1T, F1C, F2T, F2C, F1S, and F2S are the ultimate failure
strength in different pure failure modes. The material considered as linearly elastic
before satisfying any of the failure criteria after which the respective damage variable
takes the form as the inverse of failure index to avoid singularities in constitutive law.
The damaged constitutive stiffness matrix constants given by:
0
C11 ¼
1 df C110; C22 ¼ 1 df ð1 dm
ÞC22 ;
0
C33 ¼ 1 df ð1
dm ÞC33 ; C 12 ¼ C21 ¼ 1 df ð1
dm ÞC12 0
0
C13 ¼ C31 ¼ 1 d f ð1 d
m ÞC13 ; C23 ¼ C32 ¼ 1 df ð1 dm ÞC23
0
ð3Þ
G12 ¼ 1 df
ð1 Smt dmt Þð1 Smc dmc ÞG012
G23 ¼ 1 df
ð1 Smt dmt Þð1 Smc dmc ÞG023
G13 ¼ 1 df ð1 Smt dmt Þð1 Smc dmc ÞG013
Where, the loss factors Smt = 0.9 and Smc = 0.5 to control the loss of shear stiffness
due to matrix tensile and compressive failure respectively [8]. Also, df and dc are the
global fiber and matrix damage variables given by Eq. 4.
ð5Þ
734 Y. Sharath Chandra Mouli et al.
2 m012 m012
3
1
6 E10 ð1df Þ E10 ð1df Þ E10 ð1df Þ 7
6 m012 m023 7
Here; ½S is defined as ½S ¼ 6 0 1 7 ð6Þ
6 E1 ð1df Þ E20 ð1\r22 [ þ d2 Þ E20 7
4 m0 m023
5
12 1
E10 ð1df Þ E20 E20 ð1\r33 [ þ d2 Þ
1 d2
ð1 d23 Þ ¼ m0
ð7Þ
1 1 þ23m0 d2
23
Fiber Rupture and Diffuse Degradation: The associated thermodynamic forces for
fiber rupture, transverse and shear failure are obtained using Eq. 5 as given by Eq. 8.
The damage evolution law for the fiber rupture retains the brittle law.
• df ¼ 0 if Ydf YFT and Ydf YFC
• If Ydf [ YFT and r11 [ 0; then df ¼ 0:9, i.e., failure in tension
• If Ydf [ YFC and r11 \0; then df ¼ 0:9, i.e., failure in compression
The coupled thermodynamic force Y h associated with diffuse damage and, the
corresponding damage evolution law are given in Eqs. 9 and 10.
analysis, mesh size equal to 0.7 0.7 0.4 mm as shown in Fig. 1(b), C3D8R
elements associated with the VUMAT, were used.
Fig. 1. Finite element simulation. (a) Quarter model for impact analysis (b). Mesh mode
General contact between the impactor and the target plate created with the tan-
gential penalty coefficient of 0.3 and normal contact as a hard contact. The composite
plate subjected to 5J and 10J impact energies. The force-time and displacement-time
plots computed from the analysis.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrates the damage incurred due to 5J impact load on composite
laminate using Hashin 3-D and 3-D DML damage models respectively.
736 Y. Sharath Chandra Mouli et al.
Fig. 2. Hashin damage model at 5J Impact. (a) Fiber tension failure (b) Fiber compression
failure (c) Matrix tension failure and (d) Matrix compression failure
Fig. 3. 3-D DML model at 5J Impact. (a) Fiber damage (b) Transverse damage (c) Shear
damage.
predicting the maximum displacement satisfactorily whereas the 3-D Hashin model
failed to be consistent. Similarly, From the Fig. 5 and Table 3, it can be observed that
for the maximum force, perfectly elastic model overpredicts, the 3-D Hashin damage
model underpredicts. The 3-D DML though overpredicted, showed a satisfactory
agreement with the experimental values.
computed and respective maximum force and displacement values compared with the
literature [4]. The following are the observations from present work.
i. The perfectly elastic model is an ideal case with no damage in the material which
shows no significant displacement and overpredicts force with the time.
ii. For maximum displacement, the 3-D Hashin model overpredicted but with less
error than that of 3-D DML at 5J but failed to be consistent at 10J Impact.
iii. For maximum force computation 3-D DML model resulting in closer values
compared to the experimental values in the literature than 3-D Hashin model.
The variation of results of the simulation results with experiments attributed due to
the following reasons: Firstly, the 3-D Hashin criteria model implemented was a
sudden failure model with no progressive degradation. Secondly, 3-D DML model was
only the diffused damage with no transverse cracking and finally, inter-ply failure not
included in the analysis. In the future, we propose to implement an energy-based
diffuse damage accompanied by the stress-based progressive damage model and suit-
able inter-ply damage model.
References
1. Abrate S (1991) Impact on laminated composite materials. Appl Mech Rev 44:155–190
2. Bogenfeld R, Kreikemeier J, Wille T (2018) Review and benchmark study on the analysis of
low-velocity impact on composite laminates. Eng Failure Anal 86:72–99
3. Donadon MV, Iannucci L, Falzon BG, Hodgkinson JM, de Almeida SFM (2008) A
progressive failure model for composite laminates subjected to low velocity impact damage.
Comput Struct 86:1232–1252
4. Kim EH, Rim MS, Lee I, Hwang TK (2013) Composite damage model based on continuum
damage mechanics and low velocity impact analysis of composite plates. Compos Struct
95:123–134
5. Qiu A, Fu K, Lin W, Zhao C, Tang Y (2014) Modelling low-speed drop-weight impact on
composite laminates. J Mater Des 60:520–531
6. Jagtap KR, Ghorpade SY, Lal A, Singh BN (2017) Finite element simulation of low velocity
impact damage in composite laminates. Mater Today: Proc 4:2464–2469
7. Lubineau G, Ladevèze P (2008) Construction of a micromechanics-based intralaminar
mesomodel, and illustrations in ABAQUS/Standard. Comput Mater Sci 43:137–145
8. Nie Z (2014) Advanced mesomechanical modeling of triaxially braided composites for
dynamic impact analysis with failure
Static and Fatigue Analysis of Leaf Spring
with EPDM Rubber Sandwiched Between
the Steel Leaves
1 Introduction
Modelling and assembly of present and new leaf springs done in order to facilitate the
static and fatigue analysis using finite element method based software.
Fig. 1. Isometric view of present leaf spring Fig. 2. Isometric view of new leaf spring
Static and Fatigue Analysis of Leaf Spring 741
3 Analysis
Static and Fatigue analysis [8–10] performed using Static Structural and Static Struc-
tural Fatigue Analysis modules of Finite Element Method based software.
Load Calculation
Gross Vehicle Weight of Truck = 3130 kg, Acceleration due to Gravity = 9.81 m/s,
Total Weight = 3130 * 9.81 = 30,705.3N, Number of Leaf Springs = 4,
Weight on each Leaf Spring = 7676.325N,
A force of 7676.325N is acted in the positive Z axis (C).
Fig. 5. (a) Total Deformation, (b) Equivalent Strain, (c) Equivalent Stress, (d) Strain Energy
744 R. Naresh et al.
Fig. 6. (a) Total Deformation, (b) Equivalent Strain, (c) Equivalent Stress, (d) Strain Energy
Static and Fatigue Analysis of Leaf Spring 745
4 Results Comparison
5 Conclusions
In this paper, a comparison of both the static and fatigue analysis results of present leaf
spring made up of 51CrV4 spring steel and new leaf spring made by placing four
EPDM rubbers in between the 51CrV4 leaves. The following conclusions made from
the above-obtained results. They are
• In case of static analysis, it can be noticed from Table 4 that the maximum values of
total deformation, Equivalent strain, and strain energy corresponding to new leaf
spring are higher than the present leaf spring.
• As literature states leaf springs provide greater deflection that is they have greater
resilience and shock absorbing capacity. Hence obtained new leaf spring static
analysis results are apparent.
• In the case of fatigue analysis, however due to the inclusion of low strength rubber
as compared to steel, the minimum life and factor of safety of a new leaf spring are
less than the present leaf spring which can be noticed from Table 5.
References
1. Kabanur B, Patil PS (2017) Improve the design of leaf spring by reducing the frictional
stress. Int J Eng Technol 04(08):1363–1370
2. Kim YS, Hwang ES, Jeon ES (2019) Optimization of shape design of grommet through
analysis of physical properties of EPDM materials. Appl Sci 9:133
3. Idrees M, Rajendra Prasad VBS (2018) Response of rubber based engine mounts with SBR
as the core rubber. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol 455
Static and Fatigue Analysis of Leaf Spring 747
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
Dhar [1] explains “the cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen jet in the surface finish, the
cutting temperature, the tool wear, and the dimensional variation when turning the
AISI-4037 steel with a combined speed and feed through Cemented coated carbide
insert. The results were compared with dry machining and machining by means of
soluble oil as a coolant”.
Khare [2] investigated “the process of cryogenic turning, in which the process
parameters that influence the machining performance are optimized and modeled. In
their work, the delays in the parameters, namely the cutting speed, the feed rate, the
depth of cut and the rake angle, are optimized for minimum surface roughness of the
AISI 4340 steel surface”.
Devillez et al. [3] discussed “the processing of heat-resistant super alloys used in
the aerospace industry and classified as difficult to machine materials. The consumption
of cooling lubricant in the machining is thus very important. The basic orthogonal
cutting process was selected, the components of the cutting and feeding forces were
measured and the ratio of the cutting forces was computed. This relationship proves to
be a remarkable indicator of tool wear.
Lalwani et al. [4] examined “the result of the cutting parameters (cutting speed,
feed rate and depth of cut) with the cutting forces (feed force, cutting force and shear
force) and the surface roughness of the MDN250 solid steel surface with a coated
ceramic tool. The experiments were performed on the basis of the response surface
methodology and a sequential approach using a central composite design”.
Ashvin et al. [5] investigated “the influence of the main parameters of turning as
feed rate, the radius of the tool tip, cutting speed and depth of cut on the surface
roughness of the machining of AISI 410 Steel. Based on the above parameters, a
mathematical model was developed for the prediction of surface roughness. The
influence of these parameters on the surface roughness was investigated by means of
the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) method.
Therefore, the main intention of this study is to develop predictive models by
Response Surface Method (RSM) for tool wear and surface roughness and analysis of
effects of machining parameters i.e., cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut for tool
wear rate during turning of 202 stainless steel using TiAlN + TiN and TiAlN coated
Tungsten carbide tool.
Two stainless steel rods of grade 202 with 42 mm diameter and 350 mm length are
employed in the experimentation. The tool chosen consists of two tungsten carbide
tools coated using Physical Vapour Deposition. One tool bit is composed of
TiAlN + TiN (titanium nitride and aluminum + titanium nitride) layer and the other
with TiAlN (titanium aluminum nitride). The turning process was performed in
SMART TURN, as shown in Fig. 1, in dry machining state. The surface roughness was
evaluated by the surface roughness tester, TALYSURF model (Fig. 2). The Minitab 18
software was used to design the experiments. Subsequently, the experimentation was
carried out using both the tool bits.
750 N. Thallapalli et al.
Fig. 1. CNC turning machine and cutting tool bits used for experimentation
Table 2. Experimental values obtain for the surface roughness and tool wear rate using
TiAIN + TiN coated Tungsten carbide tool
Sl (m/min) (mm/rev) (mm) (micrometer) Regression (gm/min) Regression
no Cutting Feed Depth Surface equation Tool wear equation
speed of cut roughness Ra values rate values
1 150 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.00022 0.00019
2 150 0.15 0.6 10 1.1 0.00080 0.00095
3 150 0.2 0.8 1.6 1.5 0.00164 0.00174
4 200 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.00085 0.00076
5 200 0.15 0.8 10 1.0 0.00184 0.00172
6 200 0.2 0.4 1.8 1.8 0.00207 0.00200
7 250 0.1 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.00103 0.00130
8 250 0.15 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.00121 0.00168
9 250 0.2 0.6 1.6 1.5 0.00270 0.00267
It has been examined that the speed feed is the most effective factor, with the
highest percentage of contribution (28.03%) compared to other process parameters.
The other most effective parameters are: feed depth of cut and speed depth of cut
and the percentage of contribution are 8.44% and 23.33%, respectively. From Table 4
of the ANOVA, it indicates that cutting speed is the important factor, with highest
percentage of contribution (30.62%) compared to other process parameters. The other
most important factors are the depth of cut and cutting speed feed and the percentage
contribution are 18.32% and 10.81% respectively.
Surface Roughness ¼ 1:53 0:0087 Cutting Speed þ 13:33 Feed 4:33 Depth of Cut 0:000013 Cutting Speed
Cutting Speed 0:0000 Cutting Speed Feed + 0:02000 Cutting Speed Depth of Cut:
Tool Wear Rate ¼ 0:00028 0:000017 Cutting speed 0:0047 Feed þ 0:00507 Depth of cut
þ 0:000155 Cutting speed Feed 0:000001 Cutting speed Depth of cut
0:0200 Feed Depth of cut:
752 N. Thallapalli et al.
Fig. 3. Normal probability and main effect plots for the surface roughness
Fig. 4. Normal probability and main effect plots for the surface roughness
Modelling of Surface Roughness and Tool Wear 753
assumed to be a straight line. The main effect graph on the tool wear rate increases with
increase in cutting speed. Same goes for the feed and depth of cut increases the tool
wear rate. It was observed that tool wear rate increases with the increasing speed
(Table 6).
Experimental Results Obtained with TiAlN Tool Bit
The percentage contribution of each input factor, as well as its interaction and quadratic
expression, is presented in Table 7. It was examined that the cutting speed feed is
the most efficient process parameter with a percentage contribution of 28.03% repre-
senting the highest percentage of the process. Analysis results of ANOVA for tool wear
rate and surface roughness are shown below. Other mainly effective parameters are
depth of cut x feed and Cutting speed Depth of cut and the percentage of contri-
bution are 8.44% and 23.33% respectively. From the ANOVA Table 7 has been
examined that the cutting speed is effective process parameter with highest percentage
of contribution of 31.62% than the other two process parameter. The other most
effective significant parameters are depth of cut and cutting speed feed and the
percentage of contribution are 19.32% and 11.81% respectively.
Table 5. Results obtain for file surface roughness and tool wear rate using TiAIN coated tool
bit.
Sl (m/min) (mm/rev) (mm) (micrometer) Regression (gm/min) Regression
no Cutting Feed Depth Surface equation Tool wear equation
speed of cut roughness Ra, value rate value
1 ISO 0.1 0.4 10 0.9 0.00028 0.00039
2 150 0.15 0.6 1.2 1.3 0.00086 0.00010
3 150 0.2 0.8 1.8 1.8 0.00170 0.00174
4 200 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.00094 0.00089
5 200 0.15 0.8 1.2 1.1 0.00196 0.00185
6 200 0.2 0.4 2 l.8 0.00222 0.00212
7 250 0.1 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.00113 0.00126
8 250 0.15 0.4 1.0 1.0 0.00129 0.00123
9 250 0.2 0.6 1.8 1.7 0.00285 0.00261
Surface roughness ¼ 1:73 - 0:0087 Cutting Speed þ 13:33 feed 4:33 depth of cut 0:000013 Cutting Speed
Cutting Speed - 0:0000 Cutting Speed feed þ 0:02000 Cutting Speed depth of cut
Fig. 5. Normal probability and Main effect plots for the Surface roughness
Fig. 7. Normal probability and Main effect plots for Tool wear rate
Confirmation Test
The optimal values obtained were included in the above model to confirm the results
obtained because it is b est model attained. The experiment was conducted by optimal
values of cutting speed, feed rate and cutting depth of Tables 2 and 5 and responses
were presente.
As can be seen from Table 8, the model calculated Ra value for TiAlN and
TiAlN + TiN coated tool bits is 1.207 and 1.189 lm. The ra value of 1,230 lm and
1,215 lm is obtained from the experiment. When calculating error, the acceptable
result is 2.3% and 3.7% respectively. The experiments are therefore validated.
5 Conclusions
Machining performed in this work to compare the performance in the turning of SS rod
using two coated tungsten carbide tool inserts:
1. Minimum surface roughness is achieved when turning stainless steel 202 using
TiAlN + TiN coated tool bits with low feed rate, high cutting speed, and large
cutting depth.
756 N. Thallapalli et al.
2. Cutting speed x Feed was observed to be the most efficient process parameter with a
contribution percentage greater than 28.03% compared to two other surface
roughness process parameters.
3. Cutting speed is efficient input factor with highest contribution percentage for the
tool wear rate of 30.62% compared to two other process parameters.
4. For tungsten carbide tool coated with TiAlN + TiN, the surface roughness
decreases at a constant rate with the speed, increases with the feed and decreases for
the cutting depth from 0.4 to 0.6 mm and then stays constant from 0.6 mm to
0.8 mm
5. Regression results have been found to predict surface roughness with 97.6%
accuracy for TiAlN + TiN coated tool and 96.2% accuracy for TiAlN coated tool
bit.
References
1. Dhar NR, Kamruzzaman M (2015) Cutting temperature, tool wear, surface roughness and
dimensional deviation in turning AISI-4037 steel under cryogenic condition. Int J Mach Tools
Manuf 47(5):754–759
2. Kharea SK, Agarwal S (2017) Optimization of machining parameters in turning of AISI 4340
steel under cryogenic condition using Taguchi technique. Proc. CIRP 63:610–614
3. Dhar NR, Kamruzzaman M, Ahmed M (2006) Effect of minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL) on tool wear and surface roughness in turning AISI-4340 steel. J Mater Process
Technol 172(2):299–304
4. Devillez A, Schneider F, Dominiak S, Dudzinski D, Larrouquere D (2007) Cutting forces and
wear in dry machining of Inconel 718 with coated carbide tools. Wear 262(8):931–942
5. Lalwani DI, Mehta NK, Jain PK (2008) Experimental investigations of cutting parameters
influence on cutting forces and surface roughness in finish hard turning of MDN250 steel.
J Mater Process Technol 206:177–179
6. Makadia AJ, Nanavati JI (2013) Optimizations of machining parameters for turning
operations based on response surface methodology. Measurement 46(4):1521–1529
7. Sarıkaya M, Güllü A (2014) Taguchi design and response surface methodology based
analysis of machining parameters in CNC turning under MQL. J Cleaner Prod 65:604–616
8. Asilturk I, Akkus H (2011) Determining the effect of cutting parameters on surface roughness
in hard turning using the Taguchi method. Measurement 44(9):1697–1704
Estimation of the Grain Size Number
and Microstructure Analysis of AA6061 Alloy
Flow Formed Tubes
Abstract. Flow forming process is a chipless metal forming process used for
the production of high accuracy axi-symmetrical cylindrical components. Dur-
ing this process there is an increase in tube length and decrease in thickness
without any change in internal diameter. Generally forming is performed with a
single roller or three rollers over a rotating mandrel and the present work is with
three roller setup. The work material is plastically deformed in the radial
direction by compression due the rollers and made to flow in an axial direction
and the thickness reduction is achieved with single pass. The AA6061 aluminum
alloy, usually used in defense components is considered for flow forming. The
mechanical properties of this alloy are dependent on the rate at which the alloy is
heated and quenched. Solution treatment has been carried out at 400 °C for 2 h
followed by quenching in water. Microstructure of the finished product has been
studied by using SEM and grain size is estimated for different reduction ratios
and stagger distance using the intercept method.
1 Introduction
Flow forming is the cold forming and chip less process in which cylindrical workpiece
is placed over a mandrel with the help of the rollers as shown in Fig. 1. It is classified
as forward and the backward flow forming operations. The forward operation is used
for forming a container or tube with one partially or fully closed end is shown in Fig. 2,
and the backward operation is for forming a tube with both ends fully open shown in
Fig. 3. In the forward operation, the metal flow and the rollers move in the same axial
direction of the mandrel, whereas, in the backward operation, the metal and the roller
move in opposite directions. In the present work the reverse forming technique is used.
Hayama [1] “analytically evaluated the power and load required in the flow forming
process and validated with his experimental work on aluminium”. Gur and Tirosh [2]
“pointed that Hayama has not considered the non-negligible portion of the power
consumption. These attempts paved the way to analyse this complicated process the-
oretically”. With one roller Mohebi and Akbarzadeh [3] “explained the local plastic
deformation of AA 6063 alloy during a flow forming process. They found that high
shear strains on both longitudinal and traverse directions of the preformed tube”.
Tubular preform of AISI 321 steel was studied by Razani et al. [4] “for the out-of
roundness using Taguchi’s approach”. Venkateshwarlu et al. [5] “reported the effect of
process parameters on mandrel speed, feed of roller and roller nose radius and also on
surface finish of formed cups”. “Surface roughness, diametral growth and forming load
were studied numerically and experimentally by Jafarzadeh et al. [6] and found that the
influence of feed rate as a major flow-forming process parameter on the quality of
AA7075 alloy”. Molladavoudi et al. [7] “experimentally examined the effects of
spinning accuracy, surface roughness, percentage of elongation, yield strength, and the
ultimate strength as a function of thickness reduction”.
Fig. 2. Forward flow forming process Fig. 3. Backward flow forming process
Abedini et al. [8] “reported the effect of roller geometry in addition to process
parameters on the roughness of flow formed tubes of commercial pure copper”. Xue
et al. [9] reported the effect of the stagger on flow formed parts and found it has a
bearing on the final quality of the products. Venkateshwarlu et al. [10] “analysed part
Estimation of the Grain Size Number and Microstructure Analysis of AA6061 759
accuracy of formed component using Design of Experiments technique to find the most
influence factors; axial stagger and percentage of reduction on thickness variation.
MINITAB software is used to find the regression equation”. The aim of the present
investigation is to study the microstructure of the finished product and to make an
estimate of the grain size.
2 Experimental Procedure
The forming operation was performed on a 3 roller CNC Flow Forming Machine
(Make: Leifeld; Model: ST 56-75 CNC) as shown in Fig. 4. The specifications of the
machine are given below.
Specifications of the Machine
Reduction of the wall thickness of the tube from the initial wall thickness to the
final thickness is achieved by the travel of the rollers with a prescribed feed rate. The
mechanism of flow forming is that it elongates the tube without changing the internal
diameter. Hence thickness reduction takes place, Flow forming needs comparatively
lower forming forces due to incremental and localized deformation. In the present work
intermediate annealing is not required during the process. Mandrel speed is considered
as 120 Rpm, which is measured with tacho meter.
Preform Specification
High mandrel speeds are not recommended due to the vibrations generated. Hence a
moderate speed of 120 rpm has been considered for all the experiments. Different feeds
of 0.3, 0.45 and 0.60 mm were adopted and different thickness reductions of 30%, 45%
and 60% were considered with different stagger, 10.5, 15.8 and 21.0 mm. All these
Estimation of the Grain Size Number and Microstructure Analysis of AA6061 761
combinations are chosen from an L9 orthogonal table. The experiments are aimed at the
role of the stagger of the rollers. The microstructural characterization was performed on
specimens from the longitudinal direction and axial direction on the flow formed tubes.
Optical microscopy was performed on samples. The samples were prepared by using
mechanical polishing technique and etching was done later. Nine samples with different
reductions are selected from the full factorial design have been studied microscopically
on ZEISS make NEOPHOT-32 and the magnification used for the study is 100. The
metallographic samples are polished with 200 µm Mesh/Grit size emery paper and
etched with 0.5% HF solution. The general microstructural characteristics of the pre-
form, before forming in the longitudinal direction the preform microstructure showing
uniformly distributed particles of Fe, Si and MgSi in the aluminium solid solution. The
following figures (magnification factor 100) 8, 9 and 10 are of 30% thickness
reduction and different feed ratios and stagger (Figs. 8, 9 and 10).
Fig. 8. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.3 Stagger 10.5 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.3 Stagger 10.5
The photographs suggest grain alignment and homogeneous grain formation. The
dots on the transverse direction of photos at stagger 15.8 and 21 mm are clearer and
suggest that these are impurities of Fe.
Fig. 9. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.3 Stagger 15.8 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.3 Stagger 15.8
Fig. 10. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.3 Stagger 21 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.3 Stagger 21
762 G. Venkateshwarlu et al.
The grain size has reduced with the increase of stagger. The hardness has bearing with
the grain size. If the grain size decreases strength in tension increases as per Hall-Petch
rule. The microstructures of various feed ratios and stagger for 45% thickness reduction
and both in longitudinal and transverse directions are shown in Figs. 11, 12 and 13.
Fig. 11. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.45 Stagger 10.5 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.45 Stagger 10.5
Fig. 12. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.45 Stagger 15.8 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.45 Stagger 15.8
The transverse direction microstructures for 45% thickness reduction show clearly
the homogenisation of grains and magnesium silicate as lines suggesting formation of
needle structure. The white patches at 10.5 mm stagger are magnesium and the
reduction of these patches can be seen in the 15.8 mm stagger.
Fig. 13. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.45 Stagger 21 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.45 Stagger 21
At feed ratio 0.45 and stagger 21 mm the black spots, which are impurities, are
clearly visible. Uniform grain size also can be visualised. For 60% thickness reduction
for different feed ratios and stagger are shown in the following figures.
Estimation of the Grain Size Number and Microstructure Analysis of AA6061 763
Fig. 14. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.6 Stagger 10.5 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.6 Stagger 10.5
At 60% reduction and 10.5 stagger patches of magnesium are visible in transverse
direction needles of silicate are easily noted. Silicate has influence on the hardness of
material. The micro structure for 15.8 and 21 are shown in the figures below (Fig. 16).
Stagger at 15.8 and 21 mm figures indicate the homogenisation and also the
Figs. 14 and 15, at 10.5 and 15.8 mm stagger the block spots are very clear which are
impurities. A close observation shows micro cracks which are in axial direction i.e., in
the direction of the roller movement.
Fig. 15. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.6 Stagger 15.8 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.6 Stagger 15.8
Fig. 16. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.6 Stagger 21 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.6 Stagger 21
3.2 Estimation of the Grain Size Number for Aluminum Alloy AA6061
Using the intercept method, the average grain size and ASTM grain size number is
estimated. With magnification factor 100, the following Figs. 17 and 18 are of 30%
thickness reduction and different feed ratios and stagger, using seven straight line
segments, each of which is 70 mm long have been constructed along longitudinal and
transverse directions; these lines are labeled “1” through “7” as shown in Table 2.
764 G. Venkateshwarlu et al.
Fig. 17. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.3 Stagger 10.5 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.3 Stagger 10.5
The average number of grain boundary crossings for these lines was 9.9. Therefore,
the average line length intersected is (70 mm/9.9) = 7.1 mm.
Hence, the average grain diameter d = (avg. line length interested/magnification)
= 7.1/100 = 7.1 10−2mm
Similarly for stagger 15.8 and 21 mm at reduction of 30% have been calculated and
results are tabulated in Table 3.
From these results it is concluded that 15.8 mm stagger has minimum grain size.
The average grain size number n is connected to the number of grains per square
cm N at a magnification of 100 giving to equation N = 2n −1. A square of 20 mm is
constructed on the photo micrograph. In this square directly the number of grains N is
measured directly and constructed squares are shown below on the microstructure.
Estimation of the Grain Size Number and Microstructure Analysis of AA6061 765
Fig. 18. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.3 Stagger 10.5 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.3 Stagger 10.5
The grain size number 4.2 is calculated using the equation. And the same procedure
is adopted to calculate the grain size number for 15.8 and 21.0 mm stagger and all these
calculated values are shown in Table 4.
Interestingly large grain size number is larger value for 15.8 mm stagger. This
suggests that the grain size is smaller. From the reference [11], the values for yield
strength are read directly and the readings are shown in Table 5.
The grain size for 45% reduction and 60% reduction can be calculated on the lines
of the procedure shown above and an optimal stagger can be arrived.
4 Conclusions
• Microstructure suggests the grain size has reduced. This indirectly show that the
yield strength increases. The line formation of silicate increases the hardness.
• ASTM grain size number is calculated. The grain size itself is calculated by
intercept method. If the grain number increases the grain size decreases. And also
the yield strength is read from the graph with the help of grain size.
• For 30% reduction the stagger 15.8 mm is ideal which can also be noted from the
grain size as well as the yield stress.
766 G. Venkateshwarlu et al.
References
1. Hayama M, Kudo H (1979) Analysis of diametral growth and working forces in tube
spinning. Bull JSME 22(167):776–784
2. Gur M, Trosh J (1982) Trans ASME. J Eng. Ind 104:17–22
3. Mohebbi MS, Akbarzadeh A (2010) Experimental study and FEM analysis of redundant
strains in flow forming of tubes. J Mater Process Technol 210:389–395
4. Razani N, Mollaei Dariani B, Jalali Aghchai A (2010) Hardness prediction of flow-formed
AISI 321 steel tube using response surface method. In: 11th Iranian conference on
manufacturing engineering, pp 19–21
5. Venkateshwarlu G, Ramesh Kumar K, Janardhan Reddy TA, Gopi G (2013) Experimental
investigation on spinning of aluminum alloy 19500 cup. Int J Eng Sci Innovative Technol
(IJESIT) 2(1):357–363
6. Jafarzadeh Hossein, Saneib Sina (2014) Numerical and experimental study of feed rates as a
process parameters in the flow Forming of AA7075 solid tubes Indian. J Sci Res 2(1):
151–159
7. Molladavoudi HR, Djavanroodi F (2010) Experimental study of thickness reduction effects
on mechanical properties and spinning accuracy of aluminum 7075-O, during flow forming.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol 59:949–957
8. Abedini A, Ahmadi SR, Doniavi A (2014) Roughness optimization of flow-formed tubes
using the Taguchi method. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 72:1009–1019
9. Xue K, Lu Y, Zhao X (1997) A Study of the rotational matching relationships amongst
technical parameters in stagger spinning. J Mater Process Technol 69:167–171
10. Venkateshwarlu G, Ramesh Kumar K, Janardhan Reddy TA (2016) Experimental study of
flow forming process parameters on thickness variation of aluminum alloy AA6061 tubes.
Int J Latest Res Eng Technol (IJLRET) 2:33–40 ISSN: 2454-5031
11. Jeong G, Park J, Nam S, Shin SE, Shin J, Bae D, Choi H (2015) Effect of grain size on the
mechanical properties of aluminium. Arch Metall Mater 60(2):1287–1291
12. Podder B, Banerjee P, Ramesh Kumar K, Hui NB (2018) Flow forming of thin-walled
precision shells. Sådhanå 43:208 Indian Academy of Sciences
Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil
Using a Heterogeneous Catalyst
Abbreviations
BD: Biodiesel
DF: Diesel fuel
AV: Acid value
MR: Molar ratio
TEFN: Transesterification
1 Introduction
Awareness about the depletion of fossil petroleum fuels and environment instability has
triggered the search for alternative renewable sources of energy. An energy resource
plays a crucial role in shaping the standard of economic system of a country. Hence, for
developing economies it’s of paramount importance to find suitable energy sources to
strengthen the energy economics as well as the energy security of the country [1–4]. In
this context, several renewable energy sources have been developed. Amongst all these
resources, energy obtained from biomass sources has proved promising. Especially, the
liquid fuel derived from vegetable seed oils has gained a lot of attention from the very
corners of the world. The liquid fuel has transformed over the times from direct use in
the diesel engine to present day transesterified diesel like fuel, commonly known as
‘biodiesel’ (BD). Soy in US, Rapeseed in Europe, and Palm in Malaysia and Indonesia
have established as potential feedstock for BD production [5]. However, for developing
countries these feedstocks are not suitable owing to the high cost and its use as food,
using such feedstock would result in starvation among the major population. Cost is the
main issue for which attention has been focused on non-edible tree oil based feedstock
for BD production. Out of various feedstocks available Jatropha has been promoted by
the Government of India owing to its abundance in the Indian states. Pertinent to the
production of BD from Jatropha oil, several research articles are available that studies
the acid value (AV) of the raw oil, pretreatment reaction, transesterification (TEFN)
and optimization of reaction parameters [6–9]. It is found from the literature that with
place the soil and atmosphere varies, and so as the AV of the oil, irrespective of the
plant type [10]. Hence, investigation is required and needs to be reported if the raw oil
collected from a feedstock grows in a different soil. In this study, the Jatropha seeds are
collected from Arunachal Pradesh, India. It was also observed that type of catalyst
contributes a lot in saving production cost of the BD. In this regard, calcium oxide
(CaO) is used for the production of BD for its low cost and easy availability [11, 12].
The aim of this study is to produce BD from Jatropha oil collected from Arunachal
Pradesh, using CaO as base catalyst and optimize several reaction parameters such as
molar ratio (MR), catalyst amount, reaction temperature, reaction time and reaction
speed. And, finally, to evaluate various physic-chemical properties of the prepared
biodiesel.
2.1 Materials
Jatropha seeds are collected from Arunachal Pradesh, India. Methanol, sulphuric acid,
CaO powder, anhydrous sodium sulfate and isopropyl alcohol are purchased from
Merck Pvt. Ltd., Maharashtra, India.
2.2 Methods
The seeds are decorticated in the Jatropha decorticator available in NERIST, Arunachal
Pradesh. Using mechanical screw press the seeds were expelled to get raw Jatropha oil.
At first the AV of the raw oil has been evaluated and checked if it can be directly
transesterified using base catalyst or pretreatment reaction using sulphuric acid is
required to reduce the AV and corresponding free fatty acid (FFA) level. A hot plate
and magnetic stirrer is used for biodiesel synthesis. The AV was checked at an interval
of 15 min for 1st stage acid esterification. The biodiesel yield was checked at an
interval of 20 min for 2nd stage CaO catalyzed transesterification. In the TEFN process,
at first, the MR and catalyst loading is optimized and then the optimum value was fixed
to optimize the reaction temperature, time and speed.
Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil Using a Heterogeneous Catalyst 769
As can be seen in Fig. 4 that with the increase in time the yield increases, however
attains a plateau at reaction time of 120 min. Hence, the optimal time of reaction for
TEFN is 120 min. The effect of reaction speed on yield is presented in Fig. 5. It is seen
that the reaction speed has phenomenal effect on BD yield. With the increase in speed
Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil Using a Heterogeneous Catalyst 771
the yield increases up to 800 rpm. At this speed a maximum yield of 92% is recorded.
Finally, from the initial and final AV of the oil, the conversion efficiency is obtained to
be 98.48%.
After the reaction completed, excess methanol was revered by distillation and the
catalyst CaO was recovered and stored for future use after drying in a hot air oven.
Finally, the properties of the prepared methyl ester are evaluated as per the ASTM
standard. It is observed that all the evaluated properties fall within the limits prescribed
by ASTM standards (refer Table 1).
4 Conclusions
BD has been prepared from Jatropha seed oil grows in Arunachal Pradesh, India.
Owing to high FFA value a sulphuric acid pretreatment step was developed. After
reducing the FFA value to less than 1.5% in 75 min, CaO catalyzed TEFN process was
carried out. The optimal values of parameters are: MR of oil to alcohol 1:09, catalyst
amount 2.5 wt%, reaction temperature 65 °C, reaction time 120 min, and reaction
speed 800 rpm. Excellent quality BD has been ensured from the evaluated physic-
chemical properties. It is also observed that the BD properties are comparable with
conventional DF and fall within the ASTM specified limits. Hence, it is recommended
to utilize the underutilized Jatropha feedstock available in Arunachal Pradesh, which
will boost power generation and collective growth of societies in the hilly areas of
Arunachal Pradesh, where grid based electricity supply is absent.
References
1. Dash SK, Lingfa P, Chavan SB (2018) An experimental investigation on the application
potential of heterogeneous catalyzed Nahar biodiesel and its diesel blends as diesel engine
fuels. Energy Sources Part A: Recovery Utilization Environ Effects 40:2923–2932
2. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2017) A review on production of biodiesel using catalyzed
transesterification. In: AIP conference proceedings, vol 1859, p 020100. https://doi.org/10.
1063/1.4990253
3. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) Performance evaluation of Nahar oil-diesel blends in a single
cylinder direct injection diesel engine. Int J Green Energy 15:400–405
Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil Using a Heterogeneous Catalyst 773
4. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) An overview of biodiesel production and its utilization in diesel
engines. In: IOP conference series: material science and engineering, vol 377, p 012006.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/377/1/012006
5. Mofijur M, Atabani AE, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Masum BM (2013) A study on the effects
of promising edible and non-edible biodiesel feedstocks on engine performance and
emissions production: a comparative evaluation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 23:391–404
6. Azam MM, Waris A, Nahar NM (2005) Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of
some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass Bioenerg 29:293–302
7. Chukwuezie OC, Nwaigwe KN, Asoegwu SN, Anyanwu EE (2014) Diesel engine
performance of Jatropha biodiesel: a review. Biofuels 5:415–430
8. Moser, BR (2009) Biodiesel production, properties, and feedstocks. In: Vitro Cellular
Development Biology-Plant, vol 45, pp 229–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-009-9204-z
9. Shahid EM, Jamal Y (2011) Production of biodiesel: a technical review. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 15:4732–4745
10. Naik M, Meher LC, Naik SN, Das LM (2008) Production of biodiesel from high free fatty
acid karanja (Pongamia pinnata) oil. Biomass Bioenerg 32:354–357
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heterogeneous base catalyzed technology: an efficient production of biodiesel fuels. J Renew
Sustain Energ, vol 7, no 032701, pp 1–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4919082
12. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) Production of biodiesel from high FFA non-edible Nahar oil and
optimization of yield. In: Advanced manufacturing and materials science, pp 431–439.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_44
13. Dash SK, Dash S, Lingfa P (2017) Comparative assessment of performance and emission
analysis of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel prepared from different sources. J Ind Pollut
Control 33(2):1114–1119
Effect of Compression Ratio and Injection
Timing on the Performance of a B20 Biodiesel
Blend Fueled Diesel Engine
Abstract. B20 biodiesel blend has already proved an optimal blend in terms of
power output. However, for reducing carbon footprint and improving energy
efficiency, it is necessary to adjust minor engine operating parameters. Jatropha
is being widely cultivated in India as suitable non-edible feedstock for biofuel
production. The present study deals with evaluating the brake thermal efficiency
of a diesel engine of power output 5.2 kW at constant speed 1500 rpm fueled
with B20 blend of Jatropha biodiesel by modifying the CR and IT of the engine.
It is observed that with increasing CR the BTE significantly increases irre-
spective of ITs. It is also seen that the combination of higher CR and retarded IT
offers best results for thermal efficiency.
Abbreviations
BD: Biodiesel
DF: Diesel fuel
DE: Diesel engine
JB: Jatropha biodiesel
1 Introduction
Growing awareness regarding the twin crisis (depletion of fossil petroleum fuels and
environment pollution) has triggered the search for alternative renewable sources of
energy. An energy resource plays a vital role in shaping the socio-economic structure
of a country. Amongst several non-conventional resources, energy obtained from
biomass sources has proved promising [1–4]. Especially, the liquid fuel derived from
vegetable seed oils has gained a lot of attention from the very corners of the world [5,
6]. However, for developing countries these feedstocks are not suitable owing to the
high cost and its use as food, using such feedstock would result in food versus fuel
crisis. Cost is the main factor which hinders the widespread use of biofuel. In this
regard, attention has been focused on various non-edible tree oil based feedstock for
BD production [7, 8]. Out of various feedstocks available Jatropha has been promoted
by the Government of India owing to its abundance in the Indian states [9]. In this
study, B20 JB blend is used in a diesel engine (DE). B20 BD diesel blend has already
established as a standard blend for DE. DE is made to run by standard hydrocarbon
based petroleum DF. As methyl ester prepared from Jatropha oil is a fuel from different
origin, slight adjustment in engine structure may improve the efficiency of the DE.
Researchers were significantly contributed in this field by adjusting various engine
operating parameters, such as compression ratio (CR), injection timing (IT), injection
pressure (IP) etc. [10–12]. This study aims at studying the brake thermal efficiency of a
diesel engine by simultaneously adjusting the CR and IT.
2.2 Methods
Owing to high FFA content in the Jatropha raw oil, a double stage (acid-base) trans-
esterification process was followed. Various physic-chemical properties were evaluated
as per ASTM D 6751 standard. B20 blend has been prepared by mixing 20% of JB in
80% conventional DF. The various important properties of the BD and B20 blend are
listed in Table 1. At first the engine was started by using DF to generate baseline
data. For generating the baseline data the engine was operated at standard CR17.5, IT
23 °CA bTDC and IP 210 bar. However, for B20/JME20 blend the engine was operated
at four different CRs (CR16, CR17, CR17.5 and CR18), three different ITs (advanced IT
25 °CA bTDC, standard IT 23 °CA bTDC and retarded IT 21 °CA bTDC). The CR was
modified by tilting the cylinder head. The engine was loaded from no load condition to
full load condition at an interval of 25%. The final data was calculated by replicating the
experiments thrice and taking the average of the three values.
the FFA value to less than 1.5% in 75 min, CaO catalyzed transesterification process
was carried out. The optimal values of parameters are: molar ratio 1:09, catalyst 2.5 wt
%, temperature 65 °C, time 120 min, and speed 800 rpm. With the optimum reaction
parameters a maximum yield and conversion efficiency was obtained to be 92% and
98.48% respectively.
Arunprasad et al. [14] claimed that the BTE increased for advancing the ITs up to 27 °
CA BTDC from standard IT 23 °CA BTDC, and decreases for further increase in IT
(29 °CA BTDC).
4 Conclusions
BD has been prepared from Jatropha oil using CaO as a solid base catalyst. The
prepared BD has been blended with conventional DF in a ratio of 1:5 to form B20
blend. The effect of simultaneous adjustment of CR and IT has been studied. The BTE
was seen to be higher for higher CR operation and lower for lower CR operation. From
the engine trial, it is suggested to go for a higher CR 18 and a retarded IT of 21 °CA
bTDC, which enhances the brake thermal efficiency significantly. However, more
research on this area is recommended by using other feedstocks on different engine
types.
References
1. Dash SK, Lingfa P, Chavan SB (2018) An experimental investigation on the application
potential of heterogeneous catalyzed Nahar biodiesel and its diesel blends as diesel engine
fuels. Energy Sources Part A: Recovery Utilization Environ Effects 40:2923–2932
2. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2017) A review on production of biodiesel using catalyzed
transesterification. In: AIP conference proceedings, vol 1859, p 020100. https://doi.org/10.
1063/1.4990253
3. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) Performance evaluation of Nahar oil-diesel blends in a single
cylinder direct injection diesel engine. Int J Green Energy 15:400–405
4. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) An overview of biodiesel production and its utilization in diesel
engines. In: IOP conference series: material science and engineering, vol 377, p 012006.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/377/1/012006
5. Mofijur M, Atabani AE, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Masum BM (2013) A study on the effects
of promising edible and non-edible biodiesel feedstocks on engine performance and
emissions production: a comparative evaluation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 23:391–404
6. Azam MM, Waris A, Nahar NM (2005) Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of
some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass Bioenerg 29:293–302
7. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) Production of biodiesel from high FFA non-edible Nahar oil and
optimization of yield. In: Advanced manufacturing and materials science, pp 431–439
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_44
8. Dash SK, Dash S, Lingfa P (2017) Comparative assessment of performance and emission
analysis of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel prepared from different sources. J Ind Pollut
Control 33:1114–1119
9. Chukwuezie OC, Nwaigwe KN, Asoegwu SN, Anyanwu EE (2014) Diesel engine
performance of Jatropha biodiesel: a review. Biofuels 5:415–430
10. Barik D, Murugan S (2014) Simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke in a dual fuel DI
diesel engine. Energy Convers Manag 84:217–226
11. Sharma A, Murugan S (2015) Potential for using a tyre pyrolysis oil-biodiesel blend in a
diesel engine at different compression ratios. Energy Convers Manag 93:289–297
Effect of Compression Ratio and Injection Timing 779
12. Debnath BK, Saha UK, Sahoo N (2012) Effect of compression ratio and injection timing on
the performance characteristics of a diesel engine running on palm oil methyl ester. Proc I
MechE Part A: J Power Energy 227:368–382
13. Banapurmath NR, Tewari PG, Hosmath RS (2009) Effect of biodiesel derived from Honge
oil and its blends with diesel when directly injected at different injection pressures and
injection timings in single cylinder water cooled compression ignition engine. Proc I MechE
Part A: J Power Energy 223:31–40
14. Arunprasad S, Balusamy T (2018) Experimental investigation on the performance and
emission characteristics of a diesel engine by varying the injection pressure and injection
timing using mixed biodiesel. Int J Green Energy 15:376–384
Author Index