Theme 2.

FORCES AND MOMENTA COMING INTO ACTION

IN GAS TURBINE ENGINE

2.1. Types of loads acting upon gas turbine engine structural elements.
2.2. Axial gas forces coming into action in gas turbine engines. Formation of
thrust in gas turbine engines of manifold types.
2.3. Determination of axial gas force acting on impeller of gas turbine engine
centrifugal compressor.
2.4. Torques coming into action in gas turbine engines. Balance of torques in
gas turbine engines of manifold types.

Literature: [1], p. 36–47; [2], p. 39–52; [3], p. 37–55; [4], p. 55–57, 258–262.

2.1. Types of loads acting upon gas turbine engine structural elements

2.1.1. Classification of loads

Various loads, caused by engine operation and aircraft flight about a curvilinear
trajectory, act on the GTE details and units.
By their origin loads can be of the following types:
– gas loads;
– mass (inertial) forces and momenta;
– internal efforts in the GTE structural elements, caused by limitation of
temperature movements that lead to thermal stresses;
– efforts, caused by mechanical effect of engine devices. They are friction
forces, contact efforts in bearings, toothings, splines, junctions of blade roots with
discs, etc. Such efforts are minor, as they are the result of the forenamed forces and
momenta.
By their direction, forces in the GTE are divided into:
– axial forces acting along an engine axis (positive forces act in the same
direction the aircraft flies, while negative forces are opposite to flight direction);
– circumferential forces acting along the tangent to a circle of the given radius
in the direction of rotation (a positive direction) or in the opposite direction (a
negative direction);
– radial forces acting along the radius (for rotor – from the center to periphery
and for casing details their back action is possible, for example, when shell is
subjected to overpressure);
– transversal loads, perpendicular to engine axes, which do not coincide with
radial, for example, forces acting on a casing in attachment fittings of the engine to an
aircraft.
According to the engine design, forces in the GTE are divided into:
– internal (made), which are equilibrated inside the engine structural elements,
causing their deformation of a certain character;
– external (free) forces and momenta, which are summed up in engine
structural elements and transmitted over the casing to attachment fittings. The most
important force is the engine thrust, that is total axial force, acting on a casing. For

67
some types of engines, for example TPEs, free forces are the circumferential forces
causing a free torque on engine casing, which is transmitted to attachment fittings.
According to the character of effort changes in time, the forces in the GTE are
divided into:
– fixed or static loads. These forces don’t change in time. They are, for
example, gas loads, which affect the GTE devices during its operation at steady-state
ratings (maximum, maximum continuous and cruise). The static loads influence long-
term static strength of engine details;
– non-stationary.
Depending on the speed of their change (frequency of loading) these loads are
subdivided into:
– loads with slow change (low-frequency loading), coming into action when
engine is started, shut-down or the engine rating is changed. The frequencies of these
loads make a tenth or hundredth part of Hz. This variety of non-stationary loads
causes the low-cycle fatigue damages of the GTE details (the detail can work before
it is destructed within the range of cycle numbers 104... 5104 under the low-cycle
loading);
– non-stationary high-frequency loads (with kilohertz range frequencies) are
called dynamic loads. They result from unbalanced state of a rotor and irregularity of
parameters of a propulsive mass in GTE air-gas channel. The dynamic loads cause
high-cycle fatigue damages in materials of GTE details (range of cycle numbers
before destruction of a detail makes 107...108). They are taken into consideration
when high-cycle fatigue of details is computed. They are reduced to a minimum due
to application of different structurally-technological measures in the process of engine
design development.
Active loads in the GTE details cause tensile deformations (compressive
strains), flexural and torsional strains, as well as shearing and crushing stresses.

2.1.2. Gas loads

Gas loads are connected with operation of GTE as a heat machine. They result
from the affect of a gas flow on all engine devices. The force formation in the GTE
air-gas channel is of a particular interest.
Gas loads can be axial, circumferential, and radial, depending on their
direction.
The axial gas force acting on the engine air-gas channel element (Fig. 2.1) is
equal to:
PAX=PGS+PGD  ,
where PGS is a gas-static (active) component, N; PGD is a gas-dynamic (jet)
component, N.
The force PGS is determined by the difference of the static loads:
PGS  p 2 F2 - p1 F1  [ p 2 ( D22 - d 22 ) - p1 ( D12 - d12 )] / 4 ,
where p1, p2 are the channel inlet and outlet gas pressures, respectively, Pa; F1, F2 are
the cross-sectional areas of the channel inlet and outlet, respectively, m2; D, d are the
diameters, m (see Fig. 2.1).
The force PGD is determined by momentum change of a gas flow in an air-gas
channel:
PGD = G g (c 2 a - c1a ) ,

68
where Gg is a mass gas flow rate, kg/s; c1a, c2a are the axial components of a gas
absolute speeds in the channel inlet and outlet, respectively, m/s.

Fig. 2.1. Design scheme for determination of gas forces acting on the engine air-gas channel
element

The total axial force acting on the air-gas channel element (see Fig. 2.1) is
equal to:
PAX = [ p 2 ( D22 - d 22 ) - p1 ( D12 - d12 )] / 4 + G g (c 2 а - c1а ).
The circumferential gas forces are determined by momentum change of a gas
flow in a circumferential direction, i.e. the circumferential gas forces are gas-dynamic
forces:
PU = G g (c 2u - c1u ),
where c1u, c2u are the circumferential component values of the gas absolute speeds in
the channel inlet and outlet, respectively, m/s (see Fig. 2.1).
The radial gas forces appear from the difference between gas static pressures
in air-gas channel and in external (subscript ex) or internal (subscript in) cavities of
the engine.
The resultant radial force that acts on a ring casing (Fig. 2.2) is equal to:
PR  ( pin  pex1 )dL  ( pin  pex 2 ) DL  L[( pin  pex1 )d  ( pin  pex 2 ) D ] ,
where L is an axial length of a channel, m.
The radial gas forces are internal forces. They are balanced in the engine
structural elements and cause tensile or compression, and in some cases bending of
the casings. The most dangerous case is a compression of a thin-walled casing that
may cause a rigidity loss. The rigidity of such casings must be calculated and
necessary sufficient rigidity (stability) reserve is provided.
Unlike the radial forces, the axial and circumferential gas forces can be both
internal and free.

69
 Fig. 2.2. Resultant radial force that acts on a ring casing

2.1.3. Mass (inertial) forces and momenta

The mass (inertial) forces are caused by any acceleration. So, an engine
weight is determined by the formula
Geng = M eng g ,
where Meng is a mass of engine, kg; g is a gravitational acceleration, m/s2.
The inertial force comes into action during accelerated headway of an aircraft
or in flight about a curvilinear trajectory, which is determined from the equation
PJ = M eng j ,
where j is a linear acceleration in case of an acceleration or deceleration, or
centripetal acceleration at aircraft flight about a curvilinear trajectory (turn, gliding,
taxing, etc.), m/s2. Pj is a centrifugal force, directed along a radius of trajectory
curvature, N.
op
Applying a factor of operational overload n max = j / g , we get:
op
PJ = M eng g n max .
The factor of operational overload equals nopmax=3…4 for civil aviation
airplanes.
The gyroscopic torque MG acts on an engine rotor during an aircraft flight
about a curvilinear trajectory. It is caused by the Coriolis inertial forces and is equal
to:
M G = J P  sin ,
where  is an angular velocity of rotor rotation, s–1;  is an angular velocity of
aircraft rotation during flight about a curvilinear trajectory, s–1;  is an angle between
vectors ω and  ; JP is a mass polar inertial moment of a rotor, kgm, which is
determined by an integral
J P   r 2 dV
V
or approximately by sum
i
J P   mi ri2 ,

70
where V is a rotor volume, m3;  is a material density, kg/m3; ri is a radius of
elementary volume dV arrangement, m; mi is a mass of i-th rotor element located at
the radius ri, kg.
The torque MG direction depends on trajectory shape. The gyroscopic torque
acts in a horizontal plane during a leaving steep glide (Fig. 2.3, a), trying to turn a
rotor counterclockwise, when viewed from above.
The gyroscopic torque MG acts in a vertical plane when turning or taxing
(Fig. 2.3, b).

a b
Fig. 2.3. Gyroscopic torque actions in horizontal plane (a) and in vertical plane (b)

The centrifugal forces act on the rotor structural elements during engine rotor
rotation. They are caused by a centrifugal acceleration, which is not equal to zero
even during uniform rotation.
The centrifugal forces PC are internal (made) in an ideally balanced rotor. They
make the rotor elements tension and are not transmitted to the casing.
For example, PC of a blade is equal to:
PC  mb  2 RCM ,
where mb is a blade mass, kg;  is an angular velocity of rotor rotation, s –1; RCM is a
radius of the blade mass centrе, m (Fig. 2.4).

2.1.4. Temperature stresses

The temperature stresses appear because of limitation of a temperature
movement of the engine structural elements or their separate parts. The limitations of
temperature movements take place in two situations:
– when a detail is heated or cooled irregularly;
– when external load connections are superposed on a heated structural
element.

71
 Fig. 2.4. For determination of the centrifugal forces

During irregular heating of details (Fig. 2.5…2.6) their more heated parts tend
to extend more than their less heated parts, and cause a tensile of less heated parts.
The less heated parts of a detail limit a more heated parts extension, which results in
compressive temperature stresses in more heated parts.

Fig. 2.5. For determination of the disc temperature stresses

The temperature stresses will take place even at uniform heating owing to a
superposition of external connections on the heated engine structural element
(Fig. 2.7).
In case of uniform heating of a rigidly fixed rod with length L (see Fig.2.7), a
relative compressive strain takes place in it, which is equal to:
L
T  ,
L
which is determined as
T  T T ,

72
where T is a coefficient of a linear extension depending on temperature, K–1
(Fig. 2.8); T  is a temperature increment at heating, K.

Fig. 2.6. For determination of the blade temperature stresses

Fig. 2.7. For determination of a compressive strain

Fig. 2.8. T and ET dependence of temperature

The temperature compressive stresses for the case under consideration can be
determined as
T   ET T  T ET T ,
where ET is an elasticity modulus of a rod material, Pa, depending on temperature
(see Fig. 2.8).
We try to eliminate the temperature stresses, resulting from superposition of
external load connections. The hinged mobile connections of heated details with less
heated ones are applied. The details are specially cooled by air to avoid large
temperature movements and stresses if it is impossible.
2.1.5. Concept of dynamic loads
73
 The dynamic load frequencies vary from hundreds of Hz up to hundreds of
kHz. Such loads are called vibrational.
They are caused by a rotor’s dynamic unbalanced state, that causes inertial
forces of its unbalanced masses:
Pj unb  res 2 ,
where res is a residual rotor’s unbalance, res= (5...50)10-5 kgm;  is an angular
velocity of rotor rotation, s–1.
Besides, there are some more reasons for a dynamic load. The most important
reason is a non-uniformity of gas flow parameters in engine air-gas channel, for
example, gas flow velocity or pressure (Fig. 2.9).

Fig. 2.9. Gas flow velocity behind nozzle vanes

The highest levels of vibrational stresses take place under resonance of low
frequency oscillations, close to rotor rotation frequency. These resonant ratings
should be eliminated from engine ratings, or we should reduce detail oscillation
amplitudes with the help of damping.

2.2. Axial gas forces coming into action in gas turbine engines. Formation of
thrust in gas turbine engines of manifold types

2.2.1. Axial gas forces acting on the basic gas turbine engine units
The axial force acts on each engine unit (Fig. 2.10). This force is the sum of an
active and jet components. The direction of axial force is positive, if it coincides with
a thrust vector direction.
The axial force acting on the inlet is equal to:
[pci (Dci2  d ci2 )  pam Dam
2
 pFC (d ci2  d FC
2
)]
Pi   Ga (cci a  cam a ) ,
4
where Ga  is a mass air flow rate, kg/s. An external diameter of compressor air-gas
channel in some section is lettered D, and internal diameter is lettered d.

74
 Fig. 2.10. Scheme of axial forces acting on basic GTE units

An inlet axial force makes 30...40 % of engine take-off thrust R:

Pi = (0,3....0,4) R.
The axial force acting on the compressor air-gas channel is equal to:
[ pcd ( Dcd2  d cd2 )  pci ( Dci2  d ci2 )]
Pc. ch   Ga (ccd a  cci a ).
4
Put in a different way it looks like
Pc. ch  [c ( Dcd2  d cd2 )  ( Dci2  d ci2 )] pci  / 4  Ga ( ccd a  cci a ),
where c = pcd / pci.
The axial force acting on the compressor rotor wheel air-gas channel can be
precisely determined by summation of axial forces acting on all compressor rotor
wheels. Approximately it can be determined with the help of the compressor
reactivity mean degree c (for gas-static component) if the gas-dynamic component is
evenly distributed between the rotor and stator:
Pr .ch  {[c (c  1)  1]  [(Dcd2  d cd2 )  (Dci2  d ci2 )]}pci  / 4  0,5Ga (ccd a  cci a ),
where c= 0,7...0,75.
The axial force acting on the compressor stator is equal to:
Pc.st = Pc.ch – Pr .ch .
Numerically, it is equal to:
Рc.st = (0,75...1,00) R.
The axial force acting on the compressor rotor is determined by the total
Pc. r  Ðr .ch  [ pRC (d cd2  d RC
2
)  pFC (d ci2  d FC
2
)] / 4,
where pRC is pressure in the rear unloading compressor chamber, pRC=(1,5...2,0)pam;
pFC is pressure in the forward unloading compressor chamber, pFC  = (3...4)pci.
Numerically, the axial force of compressor rotor is equal to:
Pc.r = (3...4) R.
The axial force formed in engine combustion chamber is calculated from the
equation:
Pcc  [pti (Dti2  d ti2 )  pcd (Dcd2  d cd2 )  pFT (d ti2  d FT
2
)
 pRC (d cd2  d RC
2
)] / 4  Gg cti à  Ga ccd à .

75
 Numerically, it is equal to:
Pcc = (1,5...2,0) R.
The axial force acting on the turbine rotor is calculated from the equation:
Pt . r  [ptd (Dtd2  d td2 )  pnd (Dnd2  d nd2 )  pFT (d nd2  d FT
2
)
 pRT d td2 ] / 4  Gg (ctd à  cnd à ).
Subscript nd corresponds to the section behind the nozzle diaphragm of first
turbine stage and subscripts FT, RT correspond to the chambers before and behind the
turbine, respectively.
Numerically, this force is equal to:
Pt . r  (2,75...3,75) R.
The axial force acting on the turbine stator is determined by the formula
Pt . st  [pnd (Dnd2  d nd2 )  pti (Dti2  d ti2 )] / 4  Gg (cnd à  cti à ).
Numerically, it is equal to:
Pt . st  (1,50...1,75)R .
The axial force formed in a jet nozzle is determined from the equation
Pjn  [ p jn D 2jn  ptd ( Dtd2  d td2 )  pRT DRT 2
] / 4  Gg ( c jn à  ctd à ).
Numerically, axial force acting on the jet nozzle is equal to:
Ðjn  (0,40...0,75)R.

2.2.2. Thrust formation in gas turbine engines of manifold types

The TJE thrust is equal to the algebraic sum of axial forces acting on the engine
rotor and stator(Fig. 2.11):
R  Peng .r  Peng . st ;
Peng . r  Pc. r  Pt . r  (0,2...0,3)R;
Peng . st  Pi  Pc. st  Pcc  Pt . st  Pjn  (0,7...0,8)R.
It is necessary to reduce the axial force acting on the TJE rotor as much as
possible to guarantee ball-bearing efficiency (it transmits this force to an engine
casing; Pbear.ax in Fig. 2.11, a, b). The compressor unloading chambers (forward FC
and rear RC) are created for this purpose. With their help a part of the rotor axial
force is redistributed to a casing.
The TFE thrust is also equal to the sum of the axial forces acting on the engine
rotors and its casings:
R = Peng .r + Peng .st .

76
 а

d
Рис. 2.11. .Balance of loads in TJE:
a – a scheme of TJE; b – diagram of axial forces on a rotor; c  – formation of thrust;
d  – diagrams of torques

As a rule, the TFEs have not fewer than two rotors (some engines have three
rotors). Part of the thrust acting on these rotors is larger than TJEs have. It depends on
bypass ratio. At small and moderate by-pass ratio (m=1,0...2,5):
Peng .r = (0,3...0,4) R;
Peng .st = (0,6...0,7) R.
At a larger engine bypass ratio (m=5...8) the axial forces acting on the engine
rotor and stator are equal to:
Peng .r = (0,5...0,6) R;
Peng .st = (0,4...0,5) R.
The total thrust of a power plant with TPE is equal to the sum of the axial
forces:
– a force acting on the shaft of a propeller, Pprop;
–  a force formed by the engine, Peng.
The TPE thrust is determined as
R  Pprop  Peng ,
where Peng force is determined in the same way as for the TJE and Pprop force is equal
to:
77
 N e  prop
Pprop  .
Vf
In this formula Ne is an effective power on the propeller shaft, W; prop is a propeller
efficiency; Vf is a flight speed, m/s.
Numerically, the components of the TPE thrust are equal to:
Pprop = (0,88...0,92) R;
Peng = (0,08...0,12) R.
These values are characteristic of TPFE.

2.3. Determination of axial gas force acting on impeller of gas turbine engine
centrifugal compressor

In some designs of gas turbine engines the centrifugal compressor is applied.

It’s advisable to apply it as a final stage of TFE compressor with high values of
bypass ratio and pressure ratio. Let us consider the procedure of determination of
axial force acting on impeller of such stage.
To determine axial force acting on a unilateral (single-entry) closed impeller of
the centrifugal compressor (Fig. 2.12) we take two sections I-I and II-II. Let in
section I-I an axial velocity of air and air pressure be equal to с1а and р1, and in
section II-II absolute speed of air and pressure be equal to с2 and р2, respectively.
Let in an inlet of diameter D1 the pressure and velocity of air be constant on a
sectional area. If from both sides of impeller the pressure in the clearance between
casing wall and impeller disc we have the pressure varied from pressure р1 to
pressure р2, the force acting on an elementary ring-type area of the disc of width dr is
equal to (рr-pr)2rdr and the total axial force acting on impeller is equal to:
D2 / 2 D2 / 2

Pax  p1 ( D12  d 2 )   p r 2rdr  Ga c1a   p r 2rdr ,
4 d/2 D /2
1

where рr and pr are current values of pressure in a point in a clearance on the right
and the left of impeller which is at a distance r from an axis, m; Ga is air flow rate
passing through impeller, kg/s; D1 and d  are the external diameter of impeller inlet
and the compressor shaft diameter, respectively, m.

Fig. 2.12. Scheme for determination of axial force acting on a unilateral (single-entry)
closed impeller of centrifugal compressor

78
 Normally, if there are no special labyrinth seals on an impeller, the force Рax is
directed to inlet.
The value of axial force acting on impeller of the centrifugal compressor
depends on its design (opened, half-opened or closed impeller) and on the location of
a labyrinth seal. In Fig. 2.13 the unilateral half-opened impeller with a labyrinth seal
arranged on the rear side part of the disc, whose diameter can vary from d1 to d2 is
shown. The atmospheric pressure usually acts on a surface area of impeller, within
the limits of diameters d1 and d01.

Fig. 2.13. Half-opened unilateral impeller of the centrifugal compressor with a labyrinth
seal on the rear side part of the disc

The axial force acting on such impeller will be determined as an algebraic total
of forces acting on separate surface areas on the left and on the right:
Pax=Q1+Q2–Q3–Q4–Q5.
The force Q1 acts on a forward front surface area of the impeller, within the
limits of circumferences of diameters D1 and d0. Air pressure in impeller inlet being
р1 and axial velocity being с1а, this force is equal to:
 2
Q1  ( D1  d 02 )( p1  c12a ) ,
4
where  is density of air in impeller inlet.
The force Q2 appears because of air pressure action on a channel surface area
of impeller from the left within the limits of circumferences of diameters D1 and D2.
Having marked the pressure in impeller discharge as р2, it is possible to accept with
some known approximation, that for the current value of radius r the pressure varies
by the formula
p'r  p 2 (r / R2 ) 2 .
Then
R2
2p 2 3   2 D 
Q2  r dr  p 2  D2  D12 ( 1 ) 2  .
R22 R1 8  D2 
The force Q3 appears because of air pressure action on the rear side surface
area of impeller within the limits of circumferences of diameters d2 and D2. At a large

79
clearance between the impeller and casing wall we can assume that the pressure р2
acts on this surface area. In this case force Q3 is equal to
 2
Q3  p 2 ( D2  d 22 ) .
4
The force Q4 appears because of air pressure action on an impeller in a
labyrinth seal on the surface area within the limits of circumferences of diameters d2
and d1. Let in a labyrinth seal the pressure vary along the radius under the linear law
from p2 up to p1'. Having taken mean value of pressure, the value of force can be
calculated by the formula
1 
Q4  ( p 2  p1 ) (d 22  d12 ). .
2 4
The pressure p1' can be equal to atmospheric pressure рam, if the cavity, within
the limits of circumferences of diameters d1 and d01, is communicated with
atmosphere. If the air leaking through a labyrinth seal is used for cooling the turbine,
the pressure p1' will depend on hydraulic resistance of a channel that supplies cooling
air to the turbine, and pressure in cooling air discharge channel (in engine air-gas
channel or in atmosphere).
The force Q5 appears because of air pressure action on the rear surface area of
impeller, within the limits of circumferences of diameters d1 and d01. If this pressure
is equal to atmospheric pressure рam, the force Q5 can be calculated by the formula:
 2 2
Q5  p am (d1  d 01 ).
4
In TJEs with double (double-entry) impeller of centrifugal compressor
(Fig. 2.14) the air supply to the left-hand part of impeller, which is closer to inlet
duct, is more available, than to the right part of impeller. Air supply to the right part
of impeller is cluttered up with exit pipes of the compressor and combustion
chambers. Consequently, the pressures and axial velocities in impeller inlets on the
left and on the right are different and an axial force Рax appears, which at a
symmetrical impeller and identical air pressures and velocities should not act on the
impeller.

80
 Fig. 2.14. Scheme for determination of axial force acting on a
double impeller of centrifugal compressor

The value of axial force can be determined with the help of expression:
  2 2    D 
Pax  ( D12  d12 ) p1  (c1a   c1a  )  p 2  D22  D12 ( 1 ) 2  ,
4   8  D2 
where p1  p1  p1  is a pressure difference in impeller inlets on the left and on the
right; p 2  p 2   p 2   is a pressure difference in impeller discharges on the left and on
the right.
Diameters D1, D2 and d1 are shown in Fig. 2.14. The force Рax acts from left to
right, if air pressure in the right inlet is smaller.

2.4. Torques coming into action in gas turbine engines. Balance of torques
in gas turbine engines of manifold types

2.4.1. Torques in turbine and compressor

The torques in the turbine and compressor rotor wheels come into action owing
to summation of circumferential components of gas forces, which act on the rotor
blades (Fig. 2.15). The turbine rotor wheel torque has a positive sign, because it
performs a useful work of engine rotor rotation. The compressor rotor wheel torque
has a negative sign, because this is resistance torque.
The circumferential force acting on the turbine rotor wheel is equal to:
Pu  Gg (c1u  c2 u ) .
Turbine rotor wheel torque is calculated from the equation
M rw  Pu Rmean  Gg (c2u  c1u ) Rmean
The multistage turbine rotor torque is equal to:

81
 ZТ
M t .r   M rw.i
i 1
where ZT is the number of turbine stages.

Fig. 2.15. For determination of turbine rotor wheel torque

Torque, acting on the turbine rotor, can be calculated if the turbine power Nt
and angular velocity of rotor rotation  are known:
Nt
M t .r = ;

N t = G g Lt ,
where Lt is a specific expansion work of gas in the turbine, J/kg.
The compressor rotor torque is determined in a similar way. All components
will have signs opposite to turbine torque’s.

2.4.2. Torque balance in gas turbine engines of manifold types

The TJE turbine rotor is loaded with torque (see Fig. 2.11, d), which is
transmitted to compressor rotor and accessory drive:
M t .r   M c.r  M dr ,
where Mdr=(0,01...0,06)Mc.r is a torque, transmitted from turbine to accessory drives.
Hence, we can consider
M t .r   M c .r
As air and gas flow inlets and discharges in compressor and turbine units have
an axial direction, the compressor and turbine stators torques are equal to the torques
on their rotors, but are of opposite signs:
M c .st   M c.r ;
M t .st   M t .r .
For engine stator we get
M eng . st  M t . st  M c. st  0.

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 This equality is true if the torque is transmitted from engine casing to
attachment fittings only in one plane, and in the other plane attachment fittings will
not transmit the torque.
The torque balance on the TFE casing is of the same character as on the TJE
casing.
The turbine and compressor rotors torque difference of the TPE with propeller
reduction gear is equal to:
M t . r  M c. r  M eng ,
where Meng is a free torque on the engine rotor, which is transmitted to the reduction
gear.
The torque is transmitted to a propeller from the reduction gear (Fig. 2.16). It is
equal to:
M prop = iM eng ,
where i is a reduction ratio, i = neng.r / nprop (i=10...12).

c
Рис. 2.16. Balance of torques in TPE:
a  – a scheme of TPE; b  – diagram of torques on a rotor; c – diagram of torques on a casings

This torque acts on the reduction gear casing:

M r  g .c  M prop  M eng  (i  1) M eng .
The torque appears on the TPE gas generator casing. It is equal to engine rotor
torque:
M t . st  M c . st  M eng ,

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because
M t .st   M t .r ; M c .st   M c .r .
Resultant torque mainly acts on the reduction gear casing (Mr-g.c). And main
engine attachment fittings, that perceive a torque, must be placed on a reduction gear
casing or on the front casing rigidly connected with it. Free torque is also transmitted
to these attachment fittings from gas generator casing. It is equal to Meng. Thus, main
attachment fittings will be loaded with torque Mattach., that acts on the propeller, but
has the opposite sign:
M attach.   M prop .
A reduction gear casing and attachment fittings on it are loaded with gas
generator free torque Meng in the TPE with coaxial propellers reduction gear.
In the GTE for a helicopter with the free turbine torque acts on the attachment
fittings. It is equal to free turbine rotor torque, but it has the opposite sign.

Questions for self-check

1. Analyze loads acting on the GTE structural elements.

2. Analyze formation of axial, circumferential and radial gas forces.
3. Explain the nature and calculation techniques of mass (inertial) loads and
momenta.
4. What causes dynamic loads acting on the engine details?
5. How are the gas loads calculated?
6. How are the gas loads acting on the GTE basic units calculated?
7. Explain the origin of a torques taking place in engine rotors and stators.

Vocabulary
1. aircraft flight about a curvilinear trajectory – політ ПС по криволінійній
траєкторії – полет ВС по криволинейной траектории;
2. gas loads – газові навантаження – газовые нагрузки;
3. mass (inertial) forces and momenta – масові (інерційні) сили і моменти –
массовые (инерционные) силы и моменты;
4. internal efforts – внутрішні зусилля – внутренние усилия;
5. thermal stresses – термічні напруження – термические напряжения;
6. friction forces, contact efforts in bearings, toothings, splines, junctions of blade
roots with discs – сили тертя, контактні зусилля в підшипниках, зубчастих
зачепленнях, шліцьових з’єднаннях, з’єднаннях хвостовиків лопаток з
дисками – силы трения, контактные усилия в подшипниках, зубчатых
зацеплениях, шлицевых соединениях, в соединениях хвостовиков рабочих
лопаток с дисками;
7. axial forces – осьові сили – осевые силы;
8. circumferential forces – колові сили – окружные силы;
9. radial forces – радіальні сили – радиальные силы;
10.transversal loads – поперечні навантаження – поперечные нагрузки;
11.а casing – корпус, обшивання, картер – корпус, обшивка, картер;

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12.attachment fittings – вузли підвіски (двигуна до літального апарату) – узлы
подвески (двигателя к летательному аппарату);
13.internal (made) forсes – внутрішні (замкнуті) сили – внутренние (замкнутые)
силы;
14.external (free) forces and momenta – зовнішні (вільні) сили та моменти –
внешние (свободные) силы и моменты;
15.fixed or static loads – стаціонарні або статичні навантаження – стационарные
или статические нагрузки;
16.steady-state ratings (maximum, maximum continuous and cruise) – усталені
режими (максимальний, максимальний довготривалий, кпейсерський) –
установившиеся режимы (максимальный, максимальный продолжительный
и крейсерский);
17.long-term static strength – тривала статична міцність – длительная статическая
прочность;
18.non-stationary loads – нестаціонарні навантаження – нестационарные
нагрузки;
19.frequency of loading – частота навантаження – частота нагружения;
20.engine is started, shut-down – двигун запускається, виключається – двигатель
запускается, выключается;
21.low-cycle fatigue damages – пошкодження мало циклової втоми –
повреждения малоцикловой усталости;
22.low-cycle loading – мало циклове навантаження – малоцикловое нагружение;
23.high-frequency loads – високочастотні навантаження – высокочастотные
нагрузки;
24.dynamic loads – динамічні навантаження – динамические нагрузки;
25.a propulsive mass (working body) – робоче тіло – рабочее тело;
26.high-cycle fatigue damages – пошкодження багатоциклової втоми –
повреждения многоцикловой усталости;
27.high-cycle fatigue – багатоциклова втома – многоцикловая усталость;
28.tensile deformations (compressive strains), flexural and torsional strains, shearing
and crushing stresses – деформації розтягнення (стискання), деформації згину
і кручення, напруження зрізу і зминання – деформации растяжения
(сжатия), изгибные деформации и кручения, напряжения среза и смятия;
29.a gas-static (active) component – газостатична (активна) складова –
газостатическая (активная) составляющая;
30.a gas-dynamic (jet) component – газодинамічна (реактивна) складова –
газодинамическая (реактивная) составляющая;
31.momentum (moment of momentum, angular momentum) – момент кількості
руху – момент количества движения;
32.internal cavities – внутрішні порожнини – внутренние полости;
33.bending – згин – изгиб;
34.a thin-walled casing – тонкостінні корпуси (оболонки) – тонкостенные
корпуса (оболочки);
35.sufficient rigidity (stability) reserve – достатній запас жорсткості (стійкості) –
достаточный запас жесткости (устойчивости);

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36.a gravitational acceleration – прискорення вільного падіння – ускорение
свободного падения;
37.accelerated headway of an aircraft – прискорений поступальний рух ПС –
прискоренное поступательное движение ВС;
38.a linear acceleration – лінійне прискорення – линейное ускорение;
39.deceleration – гальмування – торможение;
40.centripetal acceleration – доцентрове прискорення – центростремительное
ускорение;
41.turn, gliding, taxing – віраж (розворот), планерування, зарулювання (на
стоянку) – вираж (разворот), планирование, заруливание (на стоянку);
42.trajectory curvature – кривизна траєкторії – кривизна траектории;
43.a factor of operational overload – коефіцієнт експлуатаційного
перевантаження – коэффициент эксплуатационной перегрузки;
44.the Coriolis inertial forces – коріолісові сили інерції – кориолисовые силы
инерции;
45.an angular velocity of rotor rotation – кутова швидкість обертання ротора –
угловая скорость вращения ротора;
46.an angular velocity of aircraft rotation during flight about curvalinear trajectory –
кутова швидкість обертання ПС під час польоту по криволінійній
траєкторії – угловая скорость вращения ВС во время полета по
криволинейной траектории;
47.a mass polar inertial moment of a rotor – масовий полярний момент інерції
ротора – массовый полярный момент инерции ротора;
48.a material density – густина матеріалу – плотность материала;
49.a breaking steep glide – вихід з крутого планерування – выход из крутого
планирования;
50.uniform rotation – рівномірне обертання – равномерное вращение;
51.the blade mass centre (амер. center) – центр мас лопатки – центр масс лопатки;
52.limitation of a temperature movement – обмеження температурних
переміщень – ограничение температурных перемещений;
53.irregular heating – нерівномірне нагрівання – неравномерный нагрев;
54.compressive temperature stresses – температурні напруження стискання –
температурные напряжения сжатия;
55.a rigidly fixed rod – жорстко затиснений стрижень – жестко защемленный
стержень;
56.relative compressive strain – відносна деформація стискання – относительная
деформация сжатия;
57.a coefficient of a linear extension – коефіцієнт лінійного розширення –
коэффициент линейного расширения;
58.a temperature increment at heating – приріст температури при нагріванні –
приращение температуры при нагреве;
59.an elasticity modulus – модуль пружності – модуль упругости;
60.the hinged mobile connections – шарнірне рухоме з’єднання –
шарнирноподвижные соединения;
61.vibrational loads – вібраційні навантаження – вибрационные нагрузки;

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62.a rotor’s dynamic unbalanced state – динамічна незрівноваженість ротора –
динамияеская неуравновешенность ротора;
63.unbalanced masses – незрівноважені маси – неуравновешенные массы;
64.a residual rotor’s unbalance – залишковий дисбаланс ротора – остаточный
дисбаланс ротора;
65.nozzle (nozzle diaphragm) vanes – соплові лопатки – сопловые лопатки;
66.resonance – резонанс – резонанс;
67.resonant ratings – резонансні режими – резонансные режимы;
68.engine ratings – режими роботи двигуна – режимы работы двигателя;
69.damping – демпфірування – демпфирование;
70.rotor wheels – робочі колеса – рабочие колеса;
71.the compressor reactivity mean degree – середній ступінь реактивності
компресора – средняя степень реактивности компрессора;
72.rear unloading compressor chamber – задня розвантажувальна порожнина
компресора – задняя разгрузочная полость компрессора;
73.forward unloading compressor chamber – передня розвантажувальна
порожнина компресора – передняя разгрузочная полость компрессора;
74.the nozzle diaphragm – сопловий апарат – сопловой аппарат;
75.impeller – робоче колесо (відцентрового компресора), крильчатка (насоса) –
рабочее колесо (центробежного компрессора), крыльчатка (насоса);
76.a unilateral (single-entry) closed impeller – одностороннє (з одним входом)
робоче колесо (відцентрового компресора) – одностороннее (с одним
входом) закрытое рабочее колесо (центробежного компрессора);
77.absolute speed of air – абсолютна (повна) швидкість повітря – абсолютная
(полная) скорость воздуха;
78.impeller disc – диск робочого колеса (відцентрового компресора) – диск
рабочего колеса (центробежного компрессора);
79.labyrinth seals – лабіринтові ущільнення – лабиринтные уплотнения;
80.opened, half-opened or closed impeller – відкрите, напіввідкрите або закрите
робоче колесо (відцентрового компресора) – открытое, полуоткрытое и
закрытое рабочее колесо (центробежного компрессора);
81.hydraulic resistance – гідравлічний опір – гидравлическое сопротивление;
82.double (double-entry) impeller – двостороннє (з двома входами) робоче колесо
(відцентрового компресора) – двустороннее (с двумя входами) рабочее
колесо (центробежного компрессора);
83.exit pipes – вихідні патрубки (відцентрового компресора) – выходные
патрубки (центробежного компрессора);
84.a useful work – корисна робота – полезная работа;
85.resistance torque – момент опору обертанню – момент сопротивления
вращению;
86.multistage turbine rotor – багатоступінчастий ротор турбіни –
многоступенчатый ротор турбины;
87.a specific expansion work of gas in the turbine – питома робота розширення
газу в турбіні – удельная работа расширения газа в турбине;
88.accessory drive – приводи агрегатів – приводы агрегатов;

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89.a reduction ratio (gear-ratio) – передатне число (редуктора) – передаточное
число (редуктора);
90.the reduction gear casing – корпус редуктора – корпус редуктора;
91.front casing – лобовий картер (ТГД) – лобовой картер (ТВД).

88