Economizers

The flue gases, having passed through the main boiler and the
superheater, will still be hot. The energy in these flue gases
can be used to improve the thermal efficiency of the boiler. To
achieve this the flue gases are passed through an economizer.

The economizer is a heat exchanger through which the

feedwater is pumped. The feedwater thus arrives in the boiler at
a higher temperature than would be the case if no economizer
was fitted. Less energy is then required to raise the steam.
Alternatively, if the same quantity of energy is supplied, then
Fig. 8.1: A shell boiler with an economizer
more steam is raised. This results in a higher efficiency. In broad
terms a 10°C increase in feedwater temperature will give an
efficiency improvement of 2%.

Because the economizer is on the high-pressure side of the feedpump, feedwater temperatures in
excess of 100°C are possible. The boiler water level controls should be of the 'modulating' type,
(i.e. not 'on-off') to ensure a continuous flow of feedwater through the heat exchanger.

The heat exchanger should not be so large that:

o The flue gases are cooled below their dew point, as the resulting liquor may be acidic and
corrosive.
o The feedwater boils in the heat exchanger.

Superheaters
Whatever type of boiler is used, steam will leave
the water at its surface and pass into the steam
space. Steam formed above the water surface in a
shell boiler is always saturated and cannot become
superheated in the boiler shell, as it is constantly in
contact with the water surface.
If superheated steam is required, the saturated steam
must pass through a superheater. This is simply a
heat exchanger where additional heat is added to the
saturated steam.
Fig. 3.4.4 A water tube boiler with a superheater

In water-tube boilers, the superheater may be an

additional pendant suspended in the furnace area where the hot gases will provide the degree of
superheat required (see Figure 3.4.4). In other cases, for example in CHP schemes where the gas
turbine exhaust gases are relatively cool, a separately fired superheater may be needed to provide
the additional heat.
If accurate control of the degree of superheat is required, as would be the case if the steam is to be
used to drive turbines, then an attemperator (desuperheater) is fitted. This is a device installed
after the superheater, which injects water into the superheated steam to reduce its temperature.
Boiler Fittings and Mountings

An overview of the necessary fittings, accessories and controls for a boiler from nameplates and
safety valves to gauge glasses and level controls.

A number of items must be fitted to steam boilers, all with the objective of improving:

o Operation.

o Efficiency.

o Safety.

Boiler name-plate

In the latter half of the 19th century explosions of steam boilers were commonplace. As a
consequence of this, a company was formed in Manchester with the objective of reducing the
number of explosions by subjecting steam boilers to independent examination. This company
was, in fact, the beginning of today's Safety Federation (SAFed), the body whose approval is
required for boiler controls and fittings in the UK.

Fig. 3.7.1
Boiler name-plate

After a comparatively short period, only eight out of the 11 000 boilers examined exploded. This
compared to 260 steam boiler explosions in boilers not examined by the scheme. This success led
to the Boiler Explosions Act (1882) which included a requirement for a boiler name-plate. An
example of a boiler name-plate is shown in Figure 3.7.1.

The serial number and model number uniquely identify the boiler and are used when ordering
spares from the manufacturer and in the main boiler log book.

The output figure quoted for a boiler may be expressed in several ways, as discussed in previous
Tutorials within this Block.

Safety valves

An important boiler fitting is the safety valve. Its function is to protect the boiler shell from over
pressure and subsequent explosion. In the UK:

In Europe, matters relating to the suitability of safety valves for steam boilers are governed by the
European standard EN 12953. In the US and some other parts of the world, such matters are
covered by ASME standards.

Many different types of safety valves are fitted to steam boiler plant, but generally they must all
meet the following criteria:

 The total discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be at least equal to the 'from and
at 100°C' capacity of the boiler. If the 'from and at' evaporation is used to size the safety
valve, the safety valve capacity will always be higher than the actual maximum
evaporative boiler capacity.

 The full rated discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be achieved within 110% of
the boiler design pressure.

 The minimum inlet bore of a safety valve connected to a boiler shall be 20 mm.

 The maximum set pressure of the safety valve shall be the design (or maximum
permissible working pressure) of the boiler.

 There must be an adequate margin between the normal operating pressure of the boiler
and the set pressure of the safety valve.

Safety valve regulations (UK)

Fig. 3.7.2
Boiler safety valve

A boiler shall be fitted with at least one safety valve sized for the rated output of the boiler -
Refer to EN 12953 for details.

The discharge pipework from the safety valve must be unobstructed and drained at the base to
prevent the accumulation of condensate. It is good practice to ensure that the discharge pipework
is kept as short as possible with the minimum number of bends, so that the allowable
backpressure indicated by the valve manufacturer is not exceeded. 

It will be quite normal for the internal diameter of the discharge pipework to be more than the
internal diameter of the safety valve outlet connection, but under no circumstances should it be
less.

Boiler stop valves

 Fig. 3.7.3
Boiler stop valve

A steam boiler must be fitted with a stop valve (also known as a crown valve) which isolates the
steam boiler and its pressure from the process or plant. It is generally an angle pattern globe valve
of the screw-down variety. Figure 3.7.3 shows a typical stop valve of this type.

In the past, these valves have often been manufactured from cast iron, with steel and bronze being
used for higher pressure applications. In the UK, BS 2790 (eventually to be replaced with EN
12953) states that cast iron valves are no longer permitted for this application on steam boilers.
Nodular or spheroidal graphite (SG) iron should not be confused with grey cast iron as it has
mechanical properties approaching those of steel. For this reason many boilermakers use SG iron
valves as standard.

The stop valve is not designed as a throttling valve, and should be fully open or closed. It should
always be opened slowly to prevent any sudden rise in downstream pressure and associated
waterhammer, and to help restrict the fall in boiler pressure and any possible associated priming.

To comply with UK regulations, the valve should be of the 'rising handwheel' type. This allows
the boiler operator to easily see the valve position, even from floor level. The valve shown is
fitted with an indicator that makes this even easier for the operator.

On multi-boiler applications an additional isolating valve should be fitted, in series with the
crown valve. At least one of these valves should be lockable in the closed position. The additional
valve is generally a globe valve of the screw-down, non-return type which prevents one boiler
pressurising another. Alternatively, it is possible to use a screw-down valve, with a disc check
valve sandwiched between the flanges of the crown valve and itself.

Feedwater check valves

The feedwater check valve (as shown in Figures 3.7.4 and 3.7.5) is installed in the boiler
feedwater line between the feedpump and boiler. A boiler feed stop valve is fitted at the boiler
shell.

The check valve includes a spring equivalent to the head of water in the elevated feedtank when
there is no pressure in the boiler. This prevents the boiler being flooded by the static head from
the boiler feedtank.
 Fig. 3.7.4
Boiler check valve

Under normal steaming conditions the check valve operates in a conventional manner to stop
return flow from the boiler entering the feedline when the feedpump is not running. When the
feedpump is running, its pressure overcomes the spring to feed the boiler as normal.

Because a good seal is required, and the temperatures involved are relatively low (usually less
than 100°C) a check valve with a EPDM (Ethylene Propylene) soft seat is generally the best
option.

Fig. 3.7.5
Location of feed check valve

Boiler water quality control

The maintenance of water quality is essential to the safe and efficient operation of a steam boiler.
The measurement and control of the various parameters is a complex topic, which is also covered
by a number of regulations. It is therefore covered in detail later in this Block. The objective of
the next few Sections is simply to identify the fittings to be seen on a boiler.

TDS control

This controls the amount of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the boiler water, and is sometimes
also referred to as 'continuous blowdown'. The boiler connection is typically DN15 or 20. The
system may be manual or automatic. Whatever system is used, the TDS in a sample of boiler
water is compared with a set point; if the TDS level is too high, a quantity of boiler water is
released to be replaced by feedwater with a much lower TDS level. This has the effect of diluting
the water in the boiler, and reducing the TDS level.

On a manually controlled TDS system, the boiler water would be sampled every shift.

A typical automatic TDS control system is shown in Figure 3.7.6

 Fig. 3.7.6
Typical automatic TDS control system

Bottom blowdown

This ejects the sludge or sediment from the bottom of the boiler. The control is a large (usually
DN25 to DN50) key operated valve. This valve might normally be opened for a period of about 5
seconds, once per shift.

Figure 3.7.7 illustrates a key operated manual bottom blowdown valve whereas Figure 3.7.8
illustrates an automated bottom blowdown valve and its typical position in a blowdown system.

Fig. 3.7.7
Key operated manual bottom blowdown valve

Fig. 3.7.8
Typical position for an automated bottom blowdown valve

Pressure gauge

All boilers must be fitted with at least one pressure indicator.

The usual type is a simple pressure gauge constructed to EN 12953.

The dial should be at least 150 mm in diameter and of the Bourdon tube type, it should be marked
to indicate the normal working pressure and the maximum permissible working pressure / design
pressure.

Pressure gauges are connected to the steam space of the boiler and usually have a ring type
siphon tube which fills with condensed steam and protects the dial mechanism from high
temperatures.

Pressure gauges may be fitted to other pressure containers such as blowdown vessels, and will
usually have smaller dials as shown in Figure 3.7.9.

Fig. 3.7.9
Typical pressure gauge with ring siphon

Gauge glasses and fittings

All steam boilers are fitted with at least one water level indicator, but those with a rating of 100
kW or more should be fitted with two indicators. The indicators are usually referred to as gauge
glasses complying with EN 12953.

Fig. 3.7.10
Gauge glass and fittings

A gauge glass shows the current level of water in the boiler, regardless of the boiler's operating
conditions. Gauge glasses should be installed so that their lowest reading will show the water
level at 50 mm above the point where overheating will occur. They should also be fitted with a
protector around them, but this should not hinder visibility of the water level. Figure 3.7.10 shows
a typical gauge glass.

Gauge glasses are prone to damage from a number of sources, such as corrosion from the
chemicals in boiler water, and erosion during blowdown, particularly at the steam end. Any sign
of corrosion or erosion indicates that a new glass is required.

When testing the gauge glass steam connection, the water cock should be closed. When testing
the gauge glass water connections, the steam cock pipe should be closed.

To test a gauge glass, the following procedure should be followed:

 Close the water cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.

 Close the drain cock and open the water cock.

Water should return to its normal working level relatively quickly. If this does not
happen, then a blockage in the water cock could be the reason, and remedial action
should be taken as soon as possible.

 Close the steam cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.

 Close the drain cock and open the steam cock.

If the water does not return to its normal working level relatively quickly, a blockage may
exist in the steam cock. Remedial action should be taken as soon as possible.

The authorised attendant should systematically test the water gauges at least once each day and
should be provided with suitable protection for the face and hands, as a safeguard against
scalding in the event of glass breakage.

Note: that all handles for the gauge glass cocks should point downwards when in the running
condition.

Gauge glass guards

The gauge glass guard should be kept clean. When the guard is being cleaned in place, or
removed for cleaning, the gauge should be temporarily shut-off.

Make sure there is a satisfactory water level before shutting off the gauge and take care not to
touch or knock the gauge glass. After cleaning, and when the guard has been replaced, the gauge
should be tested and the cocks set in the correct position.

Maintenance

The gauge glass should be thoroughly overhauled at each annual survey. Lack of maintenance
can result in hardening of packing and seizure of cocks. If a cock handle becomes bent or
distorted special care is necessary to ensure that the cock is set full open. A damaged fitting
should be renewed or repaired immediately. Gauge glasses often become discoloured due to
water conditions; they also become thin and worn due to erosion. Glasses, therefore, should be
renewed at regular intervals.
A stock of spare glasses and cone packing should always be available in the boiler house.
Remember:

 If steam passes are choked a false high water level may be given in the gauge glass. After
the gauge has been tested a false high water level may still be indicated.

 If the water passages are choked an artificially high water level may be observed due to
steam condensing in the glass. After testing, the glass will tend to remain empty unless
the water level in the boiler is higher than the top connection, in which case water might
flow into the glass from this connection.

 Gauge glass levels must be treated with the utmost respect, as they are the only visual
indicator of water level conditions inside the boiler. Any water level perceived as
abnormal must be investigated as soon as it is observed, with immediate action taken to
shut down the boiler burner if necessary.

Water level controls

The maintenance of the correct water level in a steam boiler is essential to its safe and efficient
operation. The methods of sensing the water level, and the subsequent control of water level is a
complex topic that is covered by a number of regulations. The following few Sections will
provide a brief overview, and the topic will be discussed in much greater detail later.

External level control chambers

Level control chambers are fitted externally to boilers for the installation of level controls or
alarms, as shown in Figure 3.7.11.

Fig. 3.7.11
External level control chamber

The function of the level controls or alarms is checked daily using the sequencing purge valves.
With the handwheel turned fully anticlockwise the valve is in the 'normal working' position and a
back seating shuts off the drain connection. The handwheel dial may look similar to that shown in
Figure 3.7.12. Some handwheels have no dial, but rely on a mechanism for correct operation.
 Fig. 3.7.12
Purge valve handwheel

The following is a typical procedure that may be used to test the controls when the boiler is under
pressure, and the burner is firing:

 Slowly turn the handwheel clockwise until the indicating pointer is at the first 'pause'
position. The float chamber connection is baffled, the drain connection is opened, and the
water connection is blown through.

 Pause for 5 to 8 seconds.

 Slowly move the handwheel further clockwise to full travel. The water connection is
shut-off, the drain valve remains open, and the float chamber and steam connections are
blown through. The boiler controls should operate as for lowered water level in boiler i.e.
pump running and / or audible alarm sounding and burner cut-out. Alternatively if the
level control chamber is fitted with a second or extra low water alarm, the boiler should
lock-out.

 Pause for 5 to 8 seconds.

 Slowly turn the handwheel fully anticlockwise to shut-off against the back seating in the
'normal working' position.

Sequencing purge valves are provided by a number of different manufacturers. Each may differ in
operating procedure. It is essential that the manufacturer's instructions be followed regarding this
operation.

Internally mounted level controls

Level control systems with sensors (or probes) which fit inside the boiler shell (or steam drum)
are also available. These provide a higher degree of safety than those fitted externally. The level
alarm systems may also provide a self-checking function on system integrity.

Because they are mounted internally, they are not subject to the procedures required to blow
down external chambers. System operation is tested by an evaporation test to '1st low' position,
followed by blowing down to '2nd low' position.

Protection tubes are fitted to discourage the movement of water around the sensor.
 Fig. 3.7.13
Internally mounted level controls

Air vents and vacuum breakers

When a boiler is started from cold, the steam space is full of air. This air has no heat value, and
will adversely affect steam plant performance due to its effect of blanketing heat exchange
surfaces. The air can also give rise to corrosion in the condensate system, if not removed
adequately.

The air may be purged from the steam space using a simple cock; normally this would be left
open until a pressure of about 0.5 bar is showing on the pressure gauge. An alternative to the cock
is a balanced pressure air vent which not only relieves the boiler operator of the task of manually
purging air (and hence ensures that it is actually done), it is also much more accurate and will
vent gases which may accumulate in the boiler. Typical air vents are shown in Figure 3.7.14.

When a boiler is taken off-line, the steam in the steam space condenses and leaves a vacuum.
This vacuum causes pressure to be exerted on the boiler from the outside, and can result in boiler
inspection doors leaking, damage to the boiler flat plates and the danger of overfilling a shutdown
boiler. To avoid this, a vacuum breaker (see Figure 3.7.14) is required on the boiler shell.

Fig. 3.7.14
Typical air vents and vacuum breakers