Math Tutor Drawing Lewis Structures

Drawing Lewis dot structures can help you understand how structures for covalently bonded atoms are written, the dots
valence electrons participate in bonding. Dots are placed may be placed as needed to show the electrons shared in each
around the symbol of an element to represent the element’s bond. Most atoms bond in a way that gives them a stable octet
valence electrons. For example, carbon has four valence . of s and p electrons in the highest energy level. So whenever
electrons, and its Lewis dot structure is usually written as . C. .. possible, dots should be arranged in a way that represents a
An atom of fluorine has seven valence electrons. Fluorine’s stable octet around each atom.
..
Lewis dot structure can be written as : F. :. When Lewis

Problem-Solving TIPS
• Hydrogen is an exception to the octet rule, because hydrogen has only one electron and becomes stable
with two electrons.
• Some elements, such as boron, can bond without achieving an octet, because they have three or fewer
electrons to share.

Sample Problem

Draw the Lewis dot structure for a molecule of sulfur dichloride, SCl2.

First, write the electron-dot notation for each. . atom. ..

     .
: Cl
.:
  : Cl
.:
  :S
 . :
Next, determine the total number of valence electrons in the atoms.

S 1 × 6e- = 6e-

2Cl 2 × 7e- = 14e-

Total e- = 20e-

Arrange the atoms to form a skeleton structure for the molecule, and place electron pairs between atoms
to represent covalent bonds. You can predict the arrangement of atoms by figuring out how many covalent
bonds each atom must form in order to achieve a stable octet. Each chlorine atom, which has 7 valence
electrons, must form a single covalent bond. Sulfur, which has 6 valence electrons, must form two covalent
bonds. The only possible structure is Cl-S-Cl.

Finally, insert dots representing the remaining electrons (16 in this case), in order to give each
atom an octet. ..   ..
  ..  
: Cl
. . : . 
  S. :  
.. :
Cl

1. Draw the electron-dot notations for a silicon atom and a strontium atom.
2. Draw Lewis structures for hydrogen sulfide, H2S, and formic acid, HCO2H.

204 Chapter 6
 BIG IDEA Atoms form chemical bonds by

CHAPTER 6 Summary sharing or transferring electrons.

SECTION 1 Introduction to Chemical Bonding KEY TERMS

• Most atoms are chemically bonded to other atoms. The three chemical bond nonpolar-covalent
major types of chemical bonding are ionic, covalent, and ionic bonding bond
metallic. polar
covalent bonding
• In general, atoms of metals bond ionically with atoms of non- polar-covalent bond
metals, atoms of metals bond metallically with each other, and
atoms of nonmetals bond covalently with each other.

SECTION 2 Covalent Bonding and Molecular KEY TERMS

Compounds
• Atoms in molecules are joined by covalent bonds. In a covalent molecule Lewis structure
bond, two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. molecular compound structural formula
• The octet rule states that many chemical compounds tend to chemical formula single bond
form bonds so that each atom shares or has eight electrons in
molecular formula multiple bond
its highest occupied energy level.
bond energy resonance
• Bonding within many molecules and ions can be indicated by a
Lewis structure. Molecules or ions that cannot be correctly electron-dot notation
represented by a single Lewis structure are represented by
resonance structures.

SECTION 3 Ionic Bonding and Ionic KEY TERMS

Compounds
• An ionic compound is a three-dimensional network of positive ionic compound
and negative ions mutually attracted to one another. formula unit
• Ionic compounds tend to be harder and more brittle and have lattice energy
higher boiling points than materials containing only covalently
polyatomic ion
bonded atoms.

SECTION 4 Metallic Bonding KEY TERMS

• The “electron sea” formed in metallic bonding gives metals their metallic bonding
properties of high electrical and thermal conductivity, malleabil- malleability
ity, ductility, and luster.
ductility

SECTION 5 Molecular Geometry KEY TERMS

• VSEPR theory is used to predict the shapes of molecules based VSEPR theory
on the fact that electron pairs strongly repel each other. hybridization
• Hybridization theory is used to predict the shapes of molecules, hybrid orbitals
based on the fact that orbitals within an atom can mix to form
dipole
orbitals of equal energy.
hydrogen bonding
• Intermolecular forces include dipole-dipole forces and London
dispersion forces. Hydrogen bonding is a special case of London dispersion
forces
dipole-dipole forces.

Chapter Summary 205

 Review
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SECTION 1 SECTION 2

Introduction to Chemical Covalent Bonding and

Bonding Molecular Compounds
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
1. What is a chemical bond? 10. What is a molecule?

2. Identify and define the three major types of chemical 11. a. What determines bond length?
bonding. b. In general, how are bond energies and bond
lengths related?
3. What is the relationship between electronegativity
and the ionic character of a chemical bond? 12. Describe the general location of the electrons in a
covalent bond.
4. a. What is the meaning of the term polar as applied
to chemical bonding? 13. As applied to covalent bonding, what is meant by an
b. Distinguish between polar-covalent and unshared or lone pair of electrons?
nonpolar-covalent bonds.
14. Describe the octet rule in terms of noble-gas configu-
5. In general, what determines whether atoms will form rations and potential energy.
chemical bonds?
15. Determine the number of valence electrons in an
atom of each of the following elements:
PRACTICE PROBLEMS a. H
6. Determine the electronegativity difference, the b. F
probable bond type, and the more-electronegative c. Mg
atom with respect to bonds formed between the d. O
following pairs of atoms. (Hint: See Sample e. Al
Problem A.) f. N
a. H and I g. C
b. S and O
16. In a Lewis structure, which atom is usually the
c. K and Br
central atom?
d. Si and Cl
e. K and Cl 17. Distinguish between single, double, and triple
f. Se and S covalent bonds by defining each and providing an
g. C and H illustration of each type.

7. List the bonding pairs described in item 6 in order of 18. For Lewis structures, how is the need for multiple
increasing covalent character. bonds generally determined?

8. Use orbital notation to illustrate the bonding in each

of the following molecules:
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
a. chlorine, Cl2 19. Use Lewis valence electron dot structures to express
b. oxygen, O2 the arrangement of valence electrons present in one
c. hydrogen fluoride, HF atom of each of the following elements. (Hint: See
Sample Problem B.)
9. The lattice energy of sodium chloride, NaCl, is
a. Li e. C
-787.5 kJ/mol. The lattice energy of potassium
b. Ca f. P
chloride, KCl, is -715 kJ/mol. In which compound is
c. Cl g. Al
the bonding between ions stronger? Why?
d. O h. S

206 Chapter 6
 CHAPTER REVIEW

20. Use electron-dot structures to demonstrate the 28. a. In general, how do ionic and molecular
formation of ionic compounds involving the compounds compare in terms of melting points,
following elements: boiling points, and ease of vaporization?
a. Na and S b. What accounts for the observed differences in the
b. Ca and O properties of ionic and molecular compounds?
c. Al and S c. Cite three physical properties of ionic compounds.

21. Draw Lewis structures for each of the following 29. a. What is a polyatomic ion?
molecules. (Hint: See Sample Problem D.) b. Give two examples of polyatomic ions.
a. contains one C and four F atoms c. In what form do such ions often occur in nature?
b. contains two H and one Se atom
c. contains one N and three I atoms SECTION 4
d. contains one Si and four Br atoms
e. contains one C, one Cl, and three H atoms Metallic Bonding
22. Determine the type of hybrid orbitals formed by the REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
boron atom in a molecule of boron fluoride, BF3.
30. a. How do the properties of metals differ from those
23. Draw Lewis structures for each of the following of both ionic and molecular compounds?
molecules. Show resonance structures, if they exist. b. What specific property of metals accounts for their
a. O2 unusual electrical conductivity?
b. N2
31. What properties of metals contribute to their
c. CO
tendency to form metallic bonds?
d. SO2
32. a. What is metallic bonding?
24. Draw Lewis structures for each of the following
b. How can the strength of metallic bonding be
polyatomic ions. Show resonance structures, if they
measured?
exist.
a. OH-
b. H3C2O - SECTION 5
2
c. BrO -
3 Molecular Geometry
SECTION 3 REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS

Ionic Bonding and Ionic 33. a. How is the VSEPR theory used to classify
molecules?
Compounds b. What molecular geometry would be expected for
F2 and HF?
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
34. According to the VSEPR theory, what molecular
25. a. What is an ionic compound? geometries are associated with the following types
b. In what form do most ionic compounds occur? of molecules?
26. a. What is a formula unit? a. AB2
b. What are the components of one formula unit b. AB3
of CaF2? c. AB4
d. AB5
27. a. What is lattice energy? e. AB6
b. In general, what is the relationship between lattice
energy and the strength of ionic bonding? 35. Describe the role of each of the following in
predicting molecular geometries:
a. unshared electron pairs
b. double bonds

Chapter Review 207

CHAPTER REVIEW

36. a. What are hybrid orbitals? 47. On the basis of individual bond polarity and
b. What determines the number of hybrid orbitals orientation, determine whether each of the
produced by the hybridization of an atom? following molecules would be polar or nonpolar:
a. H2O
37. a. What are intermolecular forces? b. I2
b. In general, how do these forces compare in c. CF4
strength with those in ionic and metallic bonding? d. NH3
c. What types of molecules have the strongest e. CO2
intermolecular forces?
48. Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following
38. What is the relationship between electronegativity molecules, and then use the VSEPR theory to predict
and the polarity of a chemical bond? the molecular geometry of each:
39. a. What are dipole-dipole forces? a. SCl2
b. What determines the polarity of a molecule? b. PI3
c. Cl2O
40. a. What is meant by an induced dipole? d. NH2Cl
b. What is a consequence of this type of intermolecu- e. SiCl3Br
lar force? f. ONCl
41. a. What is hydrogen bonding? 49. Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following
b. What accounts for its extraordinary strength? polyatomic ions, and then use VSEPR theory to
determine the geometry of each:
42. What are London dispersion forces?
a. NO -3
b. NH +4
PRACTICE PROBLEMS c. SO 2-
4
43. According to the VSEPR theory, what molecular d. ClO -2
geometries are associated with the following types of

Mixed Review
molecules?
a. AB3E
b. AB2E2 REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
c. AB2E
50. Arrange the following pairs from strongest to weakest
44. Use hybridization to explain the bonding in attraction:
methane, CH4. a. polar molecule and polar molecule
45. For each of the following polar molecules, indicate b. nonpolar molecule and nonpolar molecule
the direction of the resulting dipole: c. polar molecule and ion
a. H-F d. ion and ion
b. H-Cl 51. Determine the geometry of the following molecules:
c. H-Br a. CCl4
d. H-I b. BeCl2
46. Determine whether each of the following bonds c. PH3
would be polar or nonpolar: 52. What types of atoms tend to form the following types
a. H-H of bonding?
b. H-O a. ionic
c. H-F b. covalent
d. Br-Br c. metallic
e. H-Cl
f. H-N

208 Chapter 6
 CHAPTER REVIEW

53. What happens to the energy level and stability of two 66. Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following
bonded atoms when they are separated and become polyatomic ions and determine their geometries:
individual atoms? a. NO -
2
b. NO -
3
54. Draw the three resonance structures for sulfur c. NH +
4
trioxide, SO3.
67. Why do most atoms tend to bond to other atoms?
55. a. How do ionic and covalent bonding differ?
b. How does an ionic compound differ from a
molecular compound? CRITICAL THINKING
c. How does an ionic compound differ from a metal?
68. Inferring Relationships The length of a bond varies
56. Write the electron-dot notation for each of the depending on the type of bond formed. Predict and
following elements: compare the lengths of the carbon-carbon bonds in
a. He the following molecules. Explain your answer. (Hint:
b. Cl See Figure 2.10)
c. O
H H H H
d. P    
e. B
H- C - C -H H- C = C -H H-C≡C-H
57. Write the structural formula for methanol, CH3OH.  
H H
58. How many K+ and S2- ions would be in one formula
C2H6 C2H4 C2H2
unit of the ionic compound formed by these ions?
69. Why does F generally form covalent bonds with great
59. Explain metallic bonding in terms of the sparsely
polarity?
populated outermost orbitals of metal atoms.
70. Explain what is wrong with the following Lewis
60. Explain the role of molecular geometry in
structures, and then correct each one.
determining molecular polarity.
..
a. H-H-.S.:
61. How does the energy level of a hybrid orbital
compare with the energy levels of the orbitals :O:
from which it was formed?  ..
b. H- C =O . . -H
62. Aluminum’s enthalpy of vaporization is 284 kJ/mol.
..
Beryllium’s enthalpy of vaporization is 224 kJ/mol. :Cl :
In which element is the bonding stronger between 
c.
atoms? N
63. Determine the electronegativity difference, the .. ..
probable bonding type, and the more-electronegative
: Cl
.. .. :
Cl
atom for each of the following pairs of atoms: 71. Ionic compounds tend to have higher boiling points
a. Zn and O than covalent substances do. Both ammonia, NH3, and
b. Br and I methane, CH4, are covalent compounds, yet the boiling
c. S and Cl point of ammonia is 130 °C higher than that of meth-
ane. What might account for this large difference?
64. Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following
molecules:
a. PCl3 USING THE HANDBOOK
b. CCl2F2
c. CH3NH2 72. Figure 4.1 shows a model for a body-centered cubic
crystal. Review the Properties tables for all of the
65. Draw the Lewis structure for BeCl2. (Hint: Beryllium metals in the Elements Handbook (Appendix A). What
atoms do not follow the octet rule.) metals exist in body-centered cubic structures?

Chapter Review 209

CHAPTER REVIEW

73. Group 14 of the Elements Handbook (Appendix A) 77. Searching for the perfect artificial sweetener—great
contains a discussion of semiconductors and the taste with no Calories—has been the focus of chemi-
band theory of metals. How does this model explain cal research for some time. Molecules such as
the electrical conductivity of metals? sucralose, aspartame, and saccharine owe their
sweetness to their size and shape. One theory holds
that any sweetener must have three sites that fit into
RESEARCH AND WRITING the proper taste buds on the tongue. This theory is
appropriately known as the triangle theory. Research
74. Prepare a report on the work of Linus Pauling. artificial sweeteners to develop a model to show how
a. Discuss his work on the nature of the chemical the triangle theory operates.
bond.
b. Linus Pauling was an advocate of the use of
vitamin C as a preventative for colds. Evaluate ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Pauling’s claims. Determine if there is any scien-
tific evidence that indicates whether vitamin C 78. Devise a set of criteria that will allow you to classify
helps prevent colds. the following substances as ionic or non-ionic:
CaCO3, Cu, H2O, NaBr, and C (graphite). Show your
75. Covalently bonded solids, such as silicon, an element criteria to your instructor.
used in computer components, are harder than pure
metals. Research theories that explain the hardness of 79. Performance Assessment Identify 10 common
covalently bonded solids and their usefulness in the substances in and around your home, and indicate
computer industry. Present your findings to the class. whether you would expect these substances to
contain ionic, covalent, or metallic bonds.
76. Natural rubber consists of long chains of carbon and
hydrogen atoms covalently bonded together. When
Charles Goodyear accidentally dropped a mixture of
sulfur and rubber on a hot stove, the energy from the
stove joined these chains together to make vulca-
nized rubber (named for Vulcan, the Roman god of
fire). The carbon-hydrogen chains in vulcanized
rubber are held together by two sulfur atoms that
form covalent bonds between the chains. These
covalent bonds are commonly called disulfide
bridges. Explore other molecules that have such
disulfide bridges. Present your findings to the class.

210 Chapter 6