CHEMICAL BONDING

PREPARED BY: MARIA ELENA A. DELA LUNA, MSTBIO

 WHY FORM CHEMICAL BONDS?

• The basic answer is that atoms are trying to reach the most stable (lowest-energy) state that they can.
Many atoms become stable when their valence shell is filled with electrons or when they satisfy the
octet rule (by having eight valence electrons). If atoms don’t have this arrangement, they’ll “want” to
reach it by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons via bonds.
• How do atoms combine? Typically they bind together or attract each other in such a way that they lose
their identities as elements and adopt a new identity as a compound. These forces of attraction, which
is a physical phenomenon of chemical substances are called chemical bonds.
• But how do atoms join together? Ultimately, it all comes down to electron in the outermost shell
called valence electrons which are involved in chemical bonding. The valence of an element is the
number of electrons the elements share, gain or lose when it forms compounds with other elements.
CHEMICAL BONDING

• A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions, and molecules that enables
the formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic
force of attraction between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the
sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds. The strength of chemical bonds varies
considerably; there are "strong bonds" or "primary bonds" such as covalent, ionic
and metallic bonds, and "weak bonds" or "secondary bonds" such as dipole-dipole
interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
• Chemical bonds are forces of attraction that ties atoms together.
 1. IONIC BOND

• Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type of chemical
bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become
a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively
charged anion. Ionic bonds require an electron donor, often a metal, and an electron acceptor, a
nonmetal.
• This exchange of valence electrons allows ions to achieve electron configurations that mimic those of
the noble gases, satisfying the octet rule. The octet rule states that an atom is most stable when there
are eight electrons in its valence shell. Atoms with less than eight electrons tend to satisfy the duet
rule, having two electrons in their valence shell. By satisfying the duet rule or the octet rule, ions are
more stable.
• Ionic compounds are
always neutral, no net
charge is present. The
ratio in which positive
and negative ions
combine is the ratio
that achieves charge
neutrality for the
resulting compound.
2.COVALENT BONDS

• Covalent bonds are characterized by the sharing of

electrons between two or more atoms. These bonds
mostly occur between nonmetals or between two of
the same (or similar) elements. Two atoms with similar
electronegativity will not exchange an electron from
their outermost shell; the atoms instead share electrons
so that their valence electron shell is filled.
• Covalent bonds hold atoms
together because the
attraction between the
positively charged nuclei and
the negatively charged shared
electrons is greater than the
repulsions between the nuclei
themselves. This attraction
makes the molecules stable.
The strength of a covalent
bond is determined by the
energy required to break it,
that is, the energy necessary
to separate the bonded
atoms.
TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS
A covalent bond can be classified by the number of shared electrons, the polarity of bonds,
and the coordination of the atoms.
BASED ON THE NUMBER OF SHARED
ELECTRON PAIRS
• there are three types of covalent bonds
A. SINGLE COVALENT
BOND
When one pair of electrons, or two
electrons, are shared between the
atoms, it is known as a single
covalent bond or merely a single
bond
B. DOUBLE COVALENT
BOND
When two pairs of electrons, or four
electrons, are shared between the
atoms, it is known as a double covalent
bond or double bond.
C. TRIPLE COVALENT
BOND
When three pairs of electrons, or six
electrons, are shared between the
atoms, it is known as a triple
covalent bond or triple bond.
BASED ON THE POLARITY OF THE BOND
AND THE COORDINATION OF THE
ATOMS
1. POLAR COVALENT BOND

• A covalent bond is likely to be polar when the atoms sharing the electrons have a significant
difference in their electronegativities, i.e., between 0.1 to 2. As a result, the bonded pair is
attracted toward the more electronegative atom making that atom slightly negative, and the
other atom becomes slightly positive.
• Examples:
• Water H2O,
• Trichloromethane (Chloroform)CHCl3,
• Methanol CH3OH,
• Hydrogen Chloride HCl
• Nitrogen Trihydride (Ammonia) NH3
The covalent bond is likely to be polar when
the electrons are unequally shared. The
skewness arises due to the difference in the
electronegativities of the two atoms.
Electronegativity is a measure of the
tendency of an atom to attract a bonding
pair of electrons. It is measured using a scale
known as the Pauling scale and ranges from
0.7 to 4. The following table explains the
type of chemical bond formed due to this
electronegativity difference [1-10].
2. NON POLAR COVALENT BOND

• When the electronegativity difference between the atoms is zero, then electrons are equally
shared between the atoms. In this case, the covalent bond is nonpolar.
• Examples:
• Dihydrogen (Molecular Hydrogen) H2,
• Molecular Oxygen (Dioxygen) O2,
• Dinitrogen (Molecular Nitrogen) N2,
• Carbon Dioxide CO2
• Methane CH4
In a nonpolar covalent bond,
electrons are equally shared. This
phenomenon happens when there
is no difference in the
electronegativities of the two
atoms. That is, to say, identical pairs
of atoms form a nonpolar covalent
bond
3. COORDINATE COVALENT BOND OR DATIVE
COVALENT BOND

• In this type of covalent bond, the shared pair of electrons comes from one of the atoms. This
kind of bond is typically observed in the bonding of metal ions to ligands.
• Examples:
• Boron Triflouride BF3
• Dialuminum Hexachloride Al2Cl6,
• Nitric Acid HNO3,
• Carbon Monoxide CO,
• Hydronium H3O+,
• Ammonium Ion NH4+
It is a type of covalent bond in which the
shared pair of electrons comes from one
of the atoms. The atoms are held together
because both of the nuclei attract the
electron pair. Once the covalent bond is
formed, it is impossible to distinguish the
origin of the electrons. This kind of bond is
typically observed in the bonding of metal
ions to ligands. However, nonmetals can
also participate in this bonding. The
reaction between Lewis acid and base is a
coordinate covalent bond.
3. METALLIC BOND

• A metallic bond is a type of chemical bond in which a ‘cloud’ of free moving valence
electrons is bonded to the positively charged ions in a metal. It can be described as the
sharing of free electrons among a lattice of positively charged metal ions. The structure of
metallic bonds is entirely different from that of ionic and covalent bonds. Metal is the only
substance that contains a metallic bond
The electrons are detached from the atoms
and delocalized throughout the metal, i.e., they
move freely. However, the interactions
between the ions and electrons are still
prevalent. These interactions give rise to a
binding force that holds the metallic crystal
together. This force is the basis of a metallic
bond
LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE (LEDS)

• A Lewis Structure is a very simplified representation of the valence shell electrons in a

molecule. It is used to show how the electrons are arranged around individual atoms in a
molecule. Electrons are shown as "dots" or for bonding electrons as a line between the
two atoms. The goal is to obtain the "best" electron configuration, i.e. the octet rule and
formal charges need to be satisfied.
• The representation of molecules in Lewis electron dot structure or just a Lewis
structure is in honour of the American chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis.
• Lewis structures represent molecules using element symbols, lines for bonds, and dots
for lone pairs.
OCTET RULE

• The tendency of main group atoms to form enough bonds to obtain eight valence electrons is
known as the octet rule.
• The number of bonds that an atom can form can often be predicted from the number of electrons
needed to reach an octet (eight valence electrons); this is especially true of the nonmetals of the
second period of the periodic table (C, N, O, and F). For example, each atom of a group 14 element
has four electrons in its outermost shell and therefore requires four more electrons to reach an
octet. These four electrons can be gained by forming four covalent bonds, as illustrated here for
carbon in CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride) and silicon in SiH4 (silane). Because hydrogen only needs two
electrons to fill its valence shell, it is an exception to the octet rule and only needs to form one
bond. The transition elements and inner transition elements also do not follow the octet rule since
they have d and f electrons involved in their valence shells.
Carbon Dioxide
STEP BY STEP APPROACH IN WRITING LEWIS DOT
STRUCTURE
1. Determine the total number of valence electrons. Find the sum of valence electrons of
all atoms in the polyatomic ion or molecule. If it is an anion, add one electron for each
negative charge. If it is a cation, subtract one electron for each positive charge.
2. Write the chemical symbols of the atoms in the molecule in the order in which they are bonded
to one another, and then place a single covalent bond, involving two electrons, between each pair of
bonded atoms.

26  6 = 20

3. Add nonbonding electron pairs to the structure such that each atom bonded to the central atom
has an octet of electrons.

26  6 = 20 – 18 = 2
4. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom of the structure.

26  6 = 20  18 = 2  2 = 0

5. If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, then use one or more
pairs of nonbonding electrons on the atoms bonded to the central atom to form double or triple
bonds.
GEOMETRY AND POLARITY OF
STRUCTURES
POLARITY

• A state or a condition of an atom or a molecule having positive and also negative charges,
especially in case of magnetic or an electrical poles.”
BOND POLARITY VS MOLECULAR POLARITY

BOND POLARITY MOLECULAR POLARITY

• Bond polarity is a concept that explains • Molecular polarity is a concept that
the polarity of covalent bonds. explains the polarity of covalent
compounds.
• Bond polarity depends on the
electronegativity values of atoms • Molecular polarity depends mainly on
involved in bonding. the molecular geometry of the molecule.
• Bond polarity causes the formation of • Molecular polarity causes the formation
polar covalent bonds and nonpolar of polar covalent compounds and
covalent bonds. nonpolar covalent compounds.
 • H2O
• CF • A water molecule has a dipole moment due to the charge
• Here, C is less electronegative than F atom. separation. There, oxygen is more electronegative than
Therefore the bond electrons are more hydrogen atoms. Hence the bond electrons are more
attracted towards the F atom. Then, F atom attracted towards the oxygen atom. The molecular
obtains a partial negative charge whereas C geometry of water molecule is asymmetrical: trigonal planar.
atom gets a partial positive charge. Therefore, the water molecule shows molecular polarity.
POLAR VS NON POLAR MOLECULES

POLAR MOLECULES NON POLAR MOLECULES

• A polar molecule has a dipole, where part of • Nonpolar molecules form either when
the molecule has a partial positive charge and
electrons are equally shared between
part has a partial negative charge. A polar
molecule has an asymmetric shape, lone atoms in a molecule or when the
electron pair, or central atom bonded to other arrangement of electrons in a molecule
atoms with different electronegativity values. is symmetrical so that dipole charges
Usually, a polar molecule contains ionic or polar
covalent bonds.
cancel each other out.
EXAMPLES :
POLAR MOLECULES NON-POLAR MOLECULES
• Any of the noble gases: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe (Although,
• Water – H2O technically these are atoms and not molecules.)
• Ammonia – NH3 • Any of the homonuclear diatomic elements: H2, N2, O2,
• Sulfur dioxide – SO2 Cl2 (These are truly nonpolar molecules.)
• Hydrogen sulfide – H2S • Carbon dioxide – CO2
• Carbon monoxide – CO • Boron trifluoride – BF3
• Ozone – O3 • Benzene – C6H6
• Hydrofluoric acid – HF (and other molecules with • Carbon tetrachloride – CCl4
a single H) • Methane – CH4
• Ethanol – C2H6O (and other alcohols with an OH • Ethylene – C2H4
at one end)
• Hydrocarbon liquids, such as gasoline and toluene
• Sucrose – C12H22O11 (and other sugars with OH
groups) • Most organic molecules, with exceptions (like alcohols and
sugars)
INTERMOLECULAR FORCE OF ATTRACTION

• Intermolecular forces, also known as intermolecular interactions, are the electrostatic

forces of attraction between molecules in a compound. The intermolecular forces tend to
attract the molecules together, bring them closer, and make the compound stable.
• Intermolecular forces are important because they affect the compound’s physical
properties and characteristics like melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure, viscosity,
solubility, and enthalpy. When a substance goes from one state of matter to another, it
goes through a phase change. Intermolecular forces play a crucial role in this phase
transformation.
How to Determine Intermolecular Forces in
Compounds
• The polarity of the molecules helps to identify intermolecular forces. A molecule is said to be
polar if there is a significant electronegativity difference between the bonding atoms. As a
result, one atom will pull the shared electron pairs towards itself, making it partially negative
and the other atom partially positive. The distribution of charges in molecules results in a
dipole, which leads to strong intermolecular forces.
• On the other hand, atoms that do not have any electronegativity difference equally share the
electron pairs. The molecules are said to be nonpolar. They interact differently from the polar
molecules.
• By knowing whether a molecule is polar or nonpolar, one can find the type of intermolecular
force.
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES OF ATTRACTION

A compound may have more than one type of intermolecular force, but only one of them will be
dominant. All intermolecular forces are known as van der Waals forces, which can be
classified as follows.
1. DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES

• Dipole-dipole forces, also known as dipole-dipole interactions, are the electrostatic

forces between two permanent polar molecules. Generally, the positive end of one
molecule is attracted to the negative end of another molecule. As a result, the two
molecules come closer, adding to the stability of the substance. This interaction is
different from a regular ionic or covalent bond since there is no transfer or sharing of
electrons.
• Example:Hydrogen (H2), iodine monochloride (ICl), acetone (CH3)2O, hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), difluoromethane (CH2F2), chloroform (CHCl3), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and
phosphine (PH3)
Dipole-dipole interaction arises due to the
uneven distribution of electrons in a molecule.
The electrons congregate at one end of the
molecule. Thus, the molecule acquires a partially
negative charge at one end and a partial positive
charge at the other end, thus making them polar.
Two polar molecules with opposite charges will
naturally attract one another.
Hydrogen chloride (HCl): HCl has a
permanent dipole. The hydrogen atom has a
partial positive charge, and the chlorine atom
has a partially negative charge. When two HCl
molecules are brought closer, the positive H of
one molecule attracts the negative Cl of
another molecule and forms a bond.

Water (H2O): In H2O, two hydrogen (H)

atoms are bonded to an oxygen (O) atom. As a
result, the O-H bond acquires a permanent
dipole. The hydrogen is partially positive, and
the oxygen is partially negative. Therefore, H
from one molecule will attract the O from
another molecule resulting in a dipole-dipole
force.
2. LONDON DISPERSION FORCES

• They occur in nonpolar molecules held together by weak electrostatic forces arising
from the motion of electrons. When electrons move around a neutral molecule, they
cluster at one end resulting in a dispersion of charges. As a result, a temporary dipole is
created that results in weak and feeble interactions with other molecules. This type of
force is observed in condensed phases like solid and liquid. London dispersion force is
the weakest intermolecular force.
• Examples: Chlorine (Cl2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), hexane (C6H6), silane (SiH4), hydrogen cyanide
(HCN), phosphine (PH3), carbon disulfide (CS2), and ethane (CH3CH3
3. HYDROGEN BONDING

• This is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs specifically between a

hydrogen atom bonded to either an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom. The partially
positive end of hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative end of the oxygen, nitrogen,
or fluorine of another molecule. Hydrogen bonding is a relatively strong force of
attraction between molecules, and considerable energy is required to break hydrogen
bonds. This explains the exceptionally high boiling points and melting points of
compounds like water, H2O and Hydrogen Flouride HF
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

• The specific three dimensional arrangement of atoms in molecules is referred to

as molecular geometry
• Molecular geometry is the 3-dimensional shape that a molecule occupies in space. It is
determined by the central atom and the surrounding atoms and electron pairs. The
approximate shape of most molecules can be predicted using the Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) model, which depicts electrons in bonds and lone pairs as
“electron groups” that repel one another and stay as far apart as possible.
VSEPR MODEL
(VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION)
• The valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory states that electron
pairs repel each other whether or not they are in bond pairs or in lone pairs. Thus,
electron pairs will spread themselves as far from each other as possible to minimize
repulsion.VSEPR focuses not only on electron pairs, but it also focus on electron groups
as a whole. An electron group can be an electron pair, a lone pair, a single unpaired
electron, a double bond or a triple bond on the center atom. Using the VSEPR theory, the
electron bond pairs and lone pairs on the center atom will help us predict the shape of a
molecule.
ELECTRON PAIR GEOMETRY
2 ELECTRON GROUP
3 ELECTRON GROUPS
4 ELECTRON GROUPS
5 ELECTRON GROUP
6 ELECTRON GROUP
MOLECULES AND IONS

• Particles can be atoms, molecules or ions.

• Atoms are single neutral particles.
• Molecules are neutral particles made of two or
more atoms bonded together.
• An ion is a positively or negatively charged
particle.
THANK YOU!