Unit VI: CHEMICAL BONDING

When two atoms of same or different elements approach each other, the energy of the
combination of the atoms becomes less than the sum of the energies of the two separate
atoms at a large distance. We say that the two atoms have combined or a bond is formed
between the two. The bond is called a chemical bond. Thus a chemical bond may be
visualised as an effect that leads to the decrease in the energy. The combination of
atoms leads to the formation of a molecule that has distinct properties different from that
of the constituent atoms.

A question arises, “ How do atoms achieve the decrease in energy to form the bond”. The
answer lies in the electron configuration. The noble gases do not react
with other elements to form compounds due to their stable electron configuration
with eight electrons (two in case of helium) in their outermost shells. The formation of a
bond between two atoms may be visualised in terms of their acquiring stable electron
configurations. That is when two atoms (other than that of noble gases) combine they will
do so in such a way that they attain an electron configuration of the nearest noble gas.
The stable electron configuration of the noble gases can be achieved in a number of ways; by
losing, gaining or sharing of electrons.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain how elements bond with different elements for them to become stable.
2. Discuss the important Theories on Chemical Bonding and their implications.
3. Discuss the different types of chemical bonding.
4. Define ionic bond and cite some examples.
5. List the characteristics of ionic compounds.
6. Define covalent bond and cite some examples.
7. List the characteristics of covalent compounds.
8. Write Lewis Electron Dot Structures of some simple molecules.

COURSE MATERIALS

LESSON 18: Important Theories on Chemical Bonding

Albrecht Kössel and Gilbert Lewis were the first to explain the formation of chemical bonds
successfully in the year 1916. They explained chemical bonding on the basis of the inertness of
noble gases.

Lewis Theory of Chemical Bonding

 An atom can be viewed as a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the nucleus plus the
inner electrons) and the outer shell.
 The outer shell can accommodate a maximum of eight electrons only.
 The eight electrons present in the outer shell occupy the corners of a cube which
surround the ‘Kernel’.
 The atoms having octet configuration, i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell, thus
symbolize a stable configuration.
  Atoms can achieve this stable configuration by forming chemical bonds with other
atoms. This chemical bond can be formed either by gaining or losing an electron(s)
(NaCl, MgCl2) or in some cases due to the sharing of an electron (F2).
 Only the electrons present in the outer shell, also known as the valence electrons take
part in the formation of chemical bonds. Gilbert Lewis used specific notations better
known as Lewis symbols to represent these valence electrons.
 Generally, the valency of an element is either equal to the number of dots in the
corresponding Lewis symbol or 8 minus the number of dots (or valence electrons).

Lewis symbols for lithium (1 electron), oxygen (6 electrons), neon (8 electrons) are given below:

Here, the number of dots that surround the respective symbol represents the number of valence
electrons in that atom.

Kossel’s theory of Chemical Bonding

 Noble gases separate the highly electronegative halogens and the highly electropositive
alkali metals.
 Halogens can form negatively charged ions by gaining an electron. Whereas alkali
metals can form positively charged ions by losing an electron.
 These negatively charged ions and positively charged ions have a noble gas
configuration that is 8 electrons in the outermost shell. The general electronic
configuration of noble gases (except helium) is given by ns 2np6.
 As unlike charges attract each other these unlike charged particles are held together by
a strong force of electrostatic attraction existing between them. For example, MgCl2, the
magnesium ion, and chlorine ions are held together by force of electrostatic attraction.
This kind of chemical bonding existing between two unlike charged particles is known as
an electrovalent bond.

Explanation of Kossel Lewis Approach

In 1916 Kossel and Lewis succeeded in giving a successful explanation based upon the
concept of an electron configuration of noble gases about why atoms combine to form
molecules. Atoms of noble gases have little or no tendency to combine with each other or with
atoms of other elements. This means that these atoms must be having stable electronic
configurations.
Due to the stable configuration, the noble gas atoms neither have any tendency to gain or lose
electrons and, therefore, their combining capacity or valency is zero. They are so inert that they
even do not form diatomic molecules and exist as monoatomic gaseous atoms.
LESSON 19: Types of Chemical Bonds
When substances participate in chemical bonding and yield compounds, the stability of the
resulting compound can be gauged by the type of chemical bonds it contains.
The type of chemical bonds formed vary in strength and properties. There are 2 primary types of
chemical bonds which are formed by atoms or molecules to yield compounds. These types of
chemical bonds include:

 Ionic Bonds
 Covalent Bonds
o Polar Covalent Bonds

These types of bonds in chemical bonding are formed from the loss, gain, or sharing of
electrons between two atoms/molecules.
Electrovalent or Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding which involves a transfer of electrons from one atom
or molecule to another. Here, an atom loses an electron which is in turn gained by another
atom. When such an electron transfer takes place, one of the atoms develops a negative charge
and is now called the anion.
The other atom develops a positive charge and is called the cation. The ionic bond gains
strength from the difference in charge between the two atoms, i.e. the greater the charge
disparity between the cation and the anion, the stronger the ionic bond. Electrostatic attraction
between the individual ion is a rather weak attraction. In the crystal structure formed, however,
each ion is surrounded by several charged ions that makes bonding force quite strong. This
happens primarily for the bonding between a metal and a non-metal. Examples are NaCl, CaCl2,
KI etc.

Types of Chemical Bonds – Ionic bonding

Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond indicates the sharing of electrons between atoms. Compounds that contain
carbon (also called organic compounds) commonly exhibit this type of chemical bonding.
The pair of electrons which are shared by the two atoms now extend around the nuclei of
atoms, leading to the creation of a molecule. When 2 atoms are being joined together by a
covalent bond with different electronegativities, the electrons will be attracted more toward
the atom with the higher electronegativity.This usually involves non-metals.

Covalent Bonding

Polar Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds can either be Polar or Non-Polar in nature. In Polar Covalent chemical
bonding, electrons are shared unequally since the more electronegative atom pulls the
electron pair closer to itself and away from the less electronegative atom. Water is an
example of such a polar molecule.
A difference in charge arises in different areas of the atom due to the uneven spacing of
the electrons between the atoms. One end of the molecule tends to be partially positively
charged and the other end tends to be partially negatively charged.
LESSON 20: Writing Lewis Structures
In the process of suggesting the process of chemical bonding Lewis provided a very convenient
way of representing bonding in simple molecules. This is called Lewis electron-dot structures
or simply Lewis structures or LEDS. In Lewis structure each element is represented by a
Lewis symbol. This symbol consists of the normal chemical symbol of the element surrounded
by number of dots representing the electrons in the valence shell. Since the electrons are
represented by dots, these are called electron-dot structures. The Lewis symbols of some
elements are as:

Steps to Drawing the Lewis structures of Ionic Compounds:

1. Determine the valence electrons of each element based on the element’s group number
in the periodic table.
2. Draw by literally transferring the electron from the cation to anion as follow:
Examples:
1. Write the LEDS of NaBr:.
Na is in group 1 so it has 1 valence electron while Br is in group 7 so it has 7 valence electrons.
Na will give off its 1 valence electron to Br with 7, to become stable. Its LEDS can be written as:
 2. Write the LEDS of CaCl2:
Ca is in group so it has 2 valence electrons as shown while Cl is in group 7 so it has 7. As
indicated by CaCl2, 1 atom of Ca will give off its 2 excess electrons to 2 atoms of Cl to become
stable:

Use the above techniques to verify the following:

Steps to Drawing a Lewis Structure for Covalent Compounds

1. Pick a central atom. Start your structure by picking a central atom and writing its
element symbol. This will be the atom with the lowest electronegativity. Sometimes it's
difficult to know which atom is the least electronegative, but you can use the periodic
table trends to help you out. Electronegativity typically increases as you move from left
to right across the periodic table and decreases as you move down the table from top to
bottom. You can consult a table of electronegativities, but be aware different tables may
give you slightly different values, since electronegativity is calculated. Once you've
selected the central atom, write it down and connect the other atoms to it with a single
bond. (You may change these bonds to double or triple bonds as you progress.)
2. Count electrons. Lewis electron dot structures show the valence electrons for each
atom. You don't need to worry about the total number of electrons, only those in the
outer shells. The octet rule states that atoms with eight electrons in their outer shells are
stable. Note that the number of valence electrons is equal to the element’s group
number in the periodic table of elements. When a charged molecule is given, add
corresponding electrons for anion and subtract electrons for cations.
 3. Place electrons around atoms. Once you have determined how many electrons to
draw around each atom, you can begin placing them on the structure. Start by placing
one pair of dots for each pair of valence electrons. Once the lone pairs are placed, you
may find that some atoms, particularly the central atom, don't have a complete octet of
electrons. This indicates there are double or possibly triple bonds. Remember, it takes a
pair of electrons to form a bond. Once the electrons have been placed, put brackets
around the entire structure. If there's a charge on the molecule, write it as a superscript
on the upper right, outside of the bracket.

Examples:
1. Lewis formula for carbon monoxide, CO
Counting the total number of valence electrons of carbon and oxygen atoms:
C (2s 22p2 or in Gr. 4) + O (2s 22p4 or in Gr. 6) = 4 + 6 = 10 = 4(C) + 6(O) = 10 valence
electrons
The skeletal structure of carbon monoxide is written as CO. Drawing a single bond first ( each
bond can be counted as two electrons) between C and O and completing octet on O, the
remaining two electrons are lone pair on C.

This does not complete the octet of carbon, and hence we have a triple bond. Check that in
doing this, the total number of valence electrons is 10 and both elements obey octet rule.

Example 2: Lewis Structure of nitrite, NO 2–

Counting the total number of valence electrons of one nitrogen atom, two oxygen atoms and the
additional one negative charge (equal to one electron) since the molecule has a charge of -1.
Total Number of valence electrons is: N (2s 22p3) + 2O (2s 22p4) + 1 (negative charge) => 5+ 2(6)
+1= 18 electrons
The skeletal structure of nitrite ion is written as O-N-O being Nitrogen as the central atom.
Drawing only a single bond between nitrogen (O – N – O )and each oxygen atom and
distributing the remaining valence electrons will not obey octet rule, so instead, draw:
or

Using the above

techniques, you can verify the Lewis Electron Dot Structures of the ff:
Exercises:

A. Construct the LEDS of the ff.

1. Bromine
2. Aluminium chloride
3. Calcium fluoride
4. Carbon dioxide
5. Sulfate
6. Beryllium chloride
7. Sulfur difluoride
8. Potassium iodide
9. Hydrosulfuric acid
10. Hydrogen cyanide
 B. Research compounds that are exempted to octet rules. Discuss why this occur
and construct their electron dot structures.

For further discussions and practice problems, you may also visit:

https://byjus.com/jee/fajans-rule/, https://byjus.com/jee/vsepr-theory/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sk7W2VgbhOg
https://printableworksheets.in/worksheet/lewis-electron-dot-structure

References:

https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/313courseE/L5.pdf, https://byjus.com/jee/iit-jee-study-material/
https://www.thoughtco.com/lewstructures-or-electron-dot-structures-607566
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/348043877453273448/
UNIT VII: CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in fixed proportions. As
learned in the previous unit, elements bond to attain a more stable state. This chemical boding
can be ionic or covalent depending on the elements involved and the reaction that occurred. To
know more of this, it is likewise important to discuss chemical reactions.

Chemical reactions entails how specific elements or compounds we call reagents, react
resulting to a more complex or simpler substances known as products. There are known types
of chemical reactions where chemical products can already be predicted based on the given
reactants. This allows scientists to combine particular reactants to produce the desired chemical
outputs.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Read and write chemical compounds correctly.
2. Identify the type of chemical reaction that can take place given the reactants involved.
3. Predict the product in a given chemical reaction and come up with a balanced chemical
equation.

COURSE MATERIALS

LESSON 21: Naming and Writing Common Chemical Formulas.

The following are the methods devised to correctly name and write common chemical
formulas:

1. Metal + Single Nonmetal

To name: identify the metal first then the nonmetal ending with ide
To write: write the metal first with odxidation state then the non-metal. Use Criss cross
method as shown:
e.g. Na+ S2– Al3+ O 2–

Na 2 S Al2 O3

These are read as Sodium sulfide and Aluminum oxide respectively.

2. Metal + Polyatomic anion

Identify/write the metal first followed by the anion.

Example: Calcium Phosphate Ca2+ PO43- Ca3(PO4)2
Na2(SO4) Na SO42-
+
Sodium Sulfate

3. Transition Metal + Single Nonmetal or Polyatomic anion.

Identify/write the transition metal using either classical or stock system followed by the non-
metal. For classical system, the metal is named using its Latin name ending with either ous
or ic. For stock system, the metal is followed by the roman number corresponding its charge
Example: Cupric oxide (classical name) Cu2+ O2- Cu2O2 or CuO in simpler form. It can
also be named as Copper (II) oxide in stock system.
Fe(SO4) Fe2+ SO42- Ferrous sulfate or Iron (II) sulfate.

4. Nonmetal+ Nonmetal
# of Greek # of Greek
atoms prefix atoms prefix
If the compound is composed of two non-metals,
use the following prefix to quantify non-metal as 1 mono 6 hexa
implied by its subscript. The second non-metal 2 di 7 hepta
should end in ide. 3 tri 8 octa
Example: Cl2O5 2 chlorine 5 oxygen 4 tetra 9 nona
Dichlorine pentaoxide/pentoxide 5 penta 10 deca
CO2 1 carbon 2 oxygen
Carbon dioxide (mono is omitted only if it appears in the first non-metal)

5. Acids

 H+ and a single non-metal in aqueous solution- name hydro then the non-metal
ending in ic. Example: HCl Hydrochloric acid H2S Hydrosulfuric acid
 H and a polyatomic oxyanion in aqueous solution – polyatomic oxyanion ending with
+

ite; end it with ous acid, and ate; end it with ic acid.
Example:
H2CO3 H+ and carbonate Carbonic acid
H3PO3 H+ and phosphite Phosphorous acid
Exercises:

Name the following compounds

1) Na2CO3 _____________________________
2) NaOH _______________________________
3) HBr ________________________________
4) MgBr2 ______________________________
5) KCl ________________________________
6) N2S3 _______________________________
7) FeCl2 ______________________________
8) FeCl3 ______________________________
9) SiF4 _______________________________
10) Zn(OH)2 ____________________________
11) BeSO4 _____________________________
12) SO3 ________________________________
13) HClO3(aq) ____________________________
14) N2O3 ______________________________
15) Al2S3 ______________________________
16) PbO _______________________________
17) HBr(aq) ______________________________
18) Li3PO4 ______________________________
19) TiI4 _______________________________
20) Co3N2 ______________________________
21) Mg3P2 ______________________________
22) Ga(NO2)3 ____________________________
23) Ag2SO3 _____________________________
24) H2S(aq) ______________________________
25) NH4OH _____________________________
26) Al(CN)3 ______________________________
27) PCl3 _________________________
28) NO __________________________________
29) P4O10 ________________________________
30) H2SO4(aq) _____________________________

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds

1) copper (II) chloride _________________________

2) lithium acetate _____________________________
3) nitrous acid ________________________________
4) vanadium (III) selenide _______________________
5) sulfur hexachloride __________________________
6) manganese (IV) nitride _______________________
7) beryllium oxide _____________________________
8) chlorous acid _______________________________
9) sulfur dioxide _______________________________
10) sodium sulfate ______________________________
11) aluminum arsenide ___________________________
12) diboron pentoxide _________________________
13) potassium permanganate _______________________
14) chromium (VI) cyanide ________________________
15) hydrobromic acid ____________________________
16) tin (II) sulfite ______________________________
17) vanadium (V) fluoride _________________________
18) nitrogen tribromide __________________________
19) ammonium nitrate ____________________________
20) diphosphorus pentoxide ________________________

LESSON 22: Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substance are converted into new
substances having different physical and chemical properties.
Clues to a Chemical Reaction
 Color change
 Formation of a solid/precipitate
 Formation of a gas (bubbles)
 Heat and/or flame is produced or absorbed
Exothermic: refers to a reaction where energy (as heat) flows from the system (HOT)
Endothermic: refers to a reaction where energy (as heat) flows into system (COLD)

During chemical reactions:

Chemical reactions are represented by sentences known as chemical equations. The

substances on the left side of the chemical equation are called the reactants while the new
substances formed and placed at the right side of the equation are called products. The arrow
between these two indicates the direction of the chemical process happened and is read as
yields or produces.

Reactants  Products
Physical States and Symbols in a Reaction
In most cases, the physical state of the reactants and products should be reflected in the
chemical equations. The following symbols are helpful:
Symbol Meaning
(s) Solid
(l) Liquid
(g) Gas
(aq) Dissolved in water (aqueous solution)
(ppt) precipitate
yields
↔ reversible reaction
Δ, heat reactants are heated
Catalyst added to speed up a reaction

Just like in algebraic equations, these chemical equations should also be expressed in their
simplest form, that is the chemical equation should be balanced.

Balancing Chemical Equations

Note that in a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed, they just rearrange in
the process. This implies that the total number of atoms in the reactants should also be equal to
the total number of atoms in the product. Hence, a chemical equation should be balance for it
to represent the chemical reaction accurately.

Balancing Tips:
Inspect the number of atoms of each element in the reactants, match it with the products. If they
are not equal, multiply the element in the product by a numerical coefficient that will make them
equal.

Example: 2K(s) + 2 H2O(l)  H2(g) + 2KOH(aq)

2 H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Combustion Reactions
A combustion reaction is a reaction of a carbon-based compound (Hydrocarbon) with oxygen.

Carbon-based compound + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water

Example: C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g)  6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

2. Synthesis/Combination Reactions
Two or more substances combine to form a single more complex substance.

Element or compound + element or compound  compound

Example: Fe + S  FeS
H2O + SO3  H2SO4

3. Decomposition Reactions
One substance breaks down to form two or more simpler substances.

Compound  two or more elements or compounds

Six Types of Decomposition Reactions

Most decomposition reactions are endothermic, that is they are promoted by heat, light or
electricity.

a. Metallic carbonates, when heated, form metallic oxides and carbon dioxide.
Example: CuCO3  CuO + CO2
b. Metallic hydroxides, when heated, decompose into metallic oxides and water.
Example: 2Na(OH) Na2O + H2O
c. Metallic chlorates, when heated, decompose into metallic chlorides and oxygen.
Example: Ca(ClO3)2  CaCl2 + 3O2
d. Some acids, when heated, decompose into non-metallic oxides and water.
Example: H2CO3  H2O + CO2
H2SO4  H2O + SO3
e. Some oxides, when heated, decompose.
Example: 2PbO2  2PbO + O 2
f. An electric current produces some decomposition reactions. This process is known as
electrolysis.
Example: 2H2O + elec.  2H2 + O2
2NaCl + elec.  2Na + Cl2

4. Single Replacement Reactions

 A metal in a compound is replaced by a more active metal.
 A non-metal in a compound is replaced by a more active non-metal.
 Hydrogen in water is replaced by more active metal.
 Hydrogen in acids is replaced by more active metals.
Example: Fe + CuSO 4  FeSO4 + Cu
NaI + Cl2  NaCl + I2
Ca + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 + H2
Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2

5. Double Replacement Reactions

Two compounds react (usually in a water solution) to produce two new compounds.
Example: NaCl + AgNO 3  NaNO3 + AgCl(ppt)

Exercises:
A. Balance the following chemical reactions:
1. K(s) + H2O(l)  H2(g) + KOH(aq)
2. H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O(l)
3. NH3(g) + O2(g)  NO(g) + H2O(g)
4. SiO2(s) + HF(aq)  SiF4(g) + H2O(l)
5. KClO3  KCl + O2
 6. C2H5OH + O2  CO2 + H2O
7. Fe + H2O  Fe3O4 + H2
8. Cd(NO3)2 + H2S  CdS + HNO3
9. SnF4 + Cr(ClO3)3  Sn(ClO3)4 + CrF3
10. Al(OH)3 + H2SO4  Al2(SO4)3 + H2O

B. Convert the following to balanced chemical equations.

1. Solid mercury II oxide decomposes to produce liquid mercury metal and gaseous oxygen
2. Solid carbon reacts with gaseous oxygen to produce gaseous carbon dioxide
3. Solid zinc is added to an aqueous solution containing dissolved hydrogen chloride to
produce gaseous hydrogen that bubbles out of solution and zinc chloride that remains
dissolved in water
4. Ammonia (NH3) reacts with hydrogen chloride to form ammonium chloride.
5. When heated, calcium carbonate decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
6. Barium oxide reacts with water to form barium hydroxide
7. Zinc reacts with copper (II) nitrate to form zinc nitrate and copper.
8. When heated, calcium sulfite decomposes to form calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide.
9. Iron reacts with sulfuric acid to form iron (II) sulfate and hydrogen gas.
10. Manganese (II) iodide decomposes when exposed to light to form manganese and iodine.

C. For each of the following equations:

a) Identify the type of reaction.
b) Complete the equation with words.
c) Change the words into correct formulas.
d) Correctly balance the equation.

1) Aluminum + hydrochloric acid 

2) Sodium + chlorine 
3) Magnesium + zinc nitrate 
4) Mercury + oxygen 
5) Calcium hydroxide (heated) 
6) Zinc chloride + hydrogen sulfide 
7) Sodium sulfate + barium chloride 
8) Zinc carbonate (heated) 
9) Water (electrolyzed) 
10) Potassium chlorate (heated) 

Laboratory Works 5 and 6:

Chemical Reactions at Home.

Research on a certain home, food, beauty, medicinal, aesthetic or any commercial products that can
be improvised at home using easily available materials. Choose one, carry out and submit either
through written or video outputs using the following format:
I. Brief Description of the product.
II. Materials Used
III. Procedure (with pictures as proof of actual accomplishment)
IV. Discussion of Chemical bonds or chemical reactions/equations involved
Example products are: home made mayonnaise, home made ice scream, slime, home made
roof sealant etc.

For further discussions and practice problems, you may also visit:

https://www.wikihow.com/Balance-Chemical-Equations
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/naming-compounds/
https://sciencing.com/easy-fun-chemical-reaction-experiments-8500826.html
UNIT VIII: STOICHIOMETRY

It is a section in chemistry that considers relationships between the reactants and the products
in a chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data. Stoichiometry is based on the Law
of Conservation of mass which states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction. In any chemical reaction, the amount of matter present at the end of the reaction is the
same as the amount of matter present at the beginning, that is, the mass of the reactants equals
the mass of the products.

Studying stoichiometry allow us to determine the amount of the reactant we need to produce
targeted amount of the product and vice versa. This is turn will result to successful chemical
reactions yielding expected outputs. All chemical reactions you see in everyday life are product
of this study, from rusting of iron, producing alloys, production of household and industrial
products up to burning of fuel in successful rocket launching.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Compute for the corresponding mass and mole equivalents of the given reactants and
products.
2. Compute for percentage composition of the elements in a compound.
3. Find the empirical and molecular formula from percent composition of a compound.
4. Solve for the actual, theoretical and percent yield given a chemical reaction.
5. Determine the concentration of a given solution in terms of Molarity or molality.
6. Identify acid and base compounds and solve their Ph values.
7. Perform chemistry demonstrations showing acids and bases reactions.

COURSE MATERIALS:

LESSON 23: Mole to Mass Relationships and Related Quantities

The mass of a particular substance can be obtained from its number of moles (and vice versa)
using the concept of molar mass. Molar mass describes the ratio of the substance’s mass to
mole. It has a unit of g/mol. The molar mass of each element has been identified already and
reflected in the periodic table of elements. If instead of a single element, a compound is given,
its molar mass is given in terms of its Formula Weight (FW). If the atoms are chemically bonded,
Formula weight is also known as the Molecular Weight (MW).

Formula Weight (FW) = sum of all the masses of the atoms in 1mole of the compound.

Example: Table sugar is a common name for a sugar known as sucrose. It is a type of
disaccharide made from the combination of the monosaccharides gluc ose and fructose. Its
chemical formula is C 12H22O11. Find its FW.
Solution: C12H22O11 means for 1 mole of this compound there are 12 Carbon atoms, 22
Hydrogen atoms and 11 oxygen atoms, hence to get FW:

Carbon: 12 x 12 g/mol = 144 g/mol

Hydrogen: 22 x 1 g/mol = 22 g/mol
oxygen : 11 x 16 g/mol = 176 g/mol
C12H22O11 = 342 g/mol ; 342grams in 1 mole
Therefore the Formula weight of C12H22O11 is 342 g/mol

Molar Mass or Formula Weight can be used to determine mass to mole relationships. Study the
following examples:
1. How many grams are there in 1.5 mol of oxygen, O2?
Solution: since oxygen has 16 g/mol as indicated in the Periodic Table, formula weight of O 2
= 32g/mol
:
32𝑔
1.5𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 = 48𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
1𝑚𝑜𝑙

2. How many moles of carbon are there in 88 g of carbon dioxide?

Solution: Note that CO 2 has one atom of carbon and two oxygen, finding their total mass in one
mole of carbon dioxide:
carbon : 1 x 12 g/mol = 12 g/mol
oxygen : 2 x 16 g/mol = 32 g/mol
= 44 g/mol ; 44grams in 1 mole
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
So: 88 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 𝑥 = 2𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 𝑥 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
44 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

OR 88 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 𝑥 𝑥 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
44 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2

This method can also be applied in a chemical equation:

3. How many moles of O 2 is needed for the combustion of 8 mol of butane? How many
grams of carbon dioxide will be produced?

Solution: In solving mass or mole given a chemical reaction, the balanced chemical equation
should be written first:
2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 +10H2O

The chemical equation tells us that for every 2 mol of butane (C 4H10) 13 mol of O 2 is required.
So:
13𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑂2
8𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶4 𝐻10 𝑥 = 52 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐶4 𝐻10

Percent Composition

Percent composition by mass simply uses the concept of percentage. Percent is defined to be
part per hundred or a fraction of 100. To get the percentage composition by mass of a particular
element in a compound, just divide its mass present by the total mass of the compound then
multiplied by 100%.

Examples:
1. A gas contains 15 grams O 2 in 100 grams of compound. How many % O 2 are there in a
compound?
15g
Solution: % O2 = x 100 = 15%
100g
 2. Determine the % composition of the following:
a. sodium carbonate
Solution:
Formula or Molecular weight of Na2CO3:
Sodium : 2 x 23 g/mol = 46 g/mol
Carbon: 1 x 12 g/mol = 12 g/mol
oxygen : 3 x 16 g/mol = 48 g/mol
= 106 g/mol ; 106 grams in 1 mole

Percent composition of:

46g
Sodium : % Na = x 100% = 43.40%
106g
12g
Carbon : % C = x 100% = 11.32%
106g
48g
Oxygen : % O = x 100% = 45.28%
106g

3. Calculate the % metal in each of the following:

a. 0.45 g of metal combines with 0.32 g of oxygen
o.45g
Solution : % Metal = x 100% = 58.44%
0.77g

Empirical and Molecular Formula:

Empirical Formula (EF) – simplest formula of a compound

Molecular Formula (MF) – actual formula of a compound

Determination of Empirical and Molecular Formula :

1. Convert % composition of each element to grams (so100% compound will be converted

to 100g)
2. Convert this to mole by the element’s atomic mass.
3. Divide the answer in (2) by the smallest value obtained.
4. Write the simplest or empirical formula.
5. If molecular mass or approximate molar mass is known, determine what multiple of
empirical formula nearly gives the molecular number. Multiply the number of atoms of
each element in the EF by this multiple and write the molecular formula (MF).

Examples:
1. Determine the empirical formula of the compound containing 21.70% Na, 33.02% Cl and
45.28% O.

For Sodium (Na)

21.7% - 21.7 g

21.7 g x 1 mole = 0.9434 mol

23 grams
 For Chlorine (Cl)

33.02% - 33.02 g

33.02 g x 1 mole = 0.9314 mol

35.45 grams

For Oxygen (O)

45.28% - 45.28g

45.28 g x 1 mole = 2.83 mol

16 grams

Since the least value obtained is 0.9314mol, divide each number of moles by this value:

For Na: 0.9434 mol/0.9314 mol = 1

For Cl: 0.9314 mol/0.9314 mol = 1
For O: 2.83 mol / 0.9314 mol = 3

So there must be 3 oxygen atoms, 1 chlorine and 1 sodium atom. Hence the EF = NaClO 3

2. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound that contains 26.6% K, 35.4% Cr and
38% O.

For Potassium (K)

26.6% - 26.6 g

26.6 g x 1 mole = 0.6803 mol

39.1 grams

For Chromium (Cr)

35.4% - 35.4 g

35.4 g x 1 mole = 0.6808 mol

52 grams

For Oxygen (O)

38% - 38 g

38 g x 1 mole = 2.375 mol

16 grams

Since the least value obtained is 0.6803 mol, divide each number of moles by this value:
 For K: 0.6803 moll/0.6803 mol= 1
For Cl: 0.6808 mol/0.6803 mol= 1
For O: 2.375 mol / 0.6803mol= 3.49 = 3.5

Since there are 3.5moles of oxygen and empirical formulas are expressed in smallest integer
ratio, we must multiply everything by 2 to make the number of oxygen an integer (whole
number)
For K: 0.6803 moll/0.6808 mol= 1 x 2 = 2
For Cl: 0.6808 mol/0.6808 mol= 1 x 2= 2
For O: 2.375 mol / 0.6808 mol= 3.49 x 2 = 7

So there must be 7 oxygen atoms, 2 potassium and 2 chromium atoms. Hence the

EF = K2 Cr2 O7

3. Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of a compound with a molar mass of 70
g/mole and contains 85.6% carbon and 14.4% hydrogen.

For Carbon (C)

85.6% - 85.6 g

85.6 g x 1 mole = 7.1274 mol

12.01 grams

For Hydrogen (H)

14.4% - 14.4 g

14.4 g x 1 mole = 14.4 mol

1 grams

Since the least value obtained is 7.1274 mol, divide each number of moles by this value:

For C: 7.1274 moll/7.1274 mol = 1

For H: 14.4 mol/7.1274 mol = 2

So there must be 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 carbon atom. Hence the EF = CH2

This CH2 has molecular mass of: Carbon 12.01 g /mol x 1 mole = 12.01 grams and Hydrogen 1
g/mol x 2 moles = 2 grams a total of 14.01 grams per mole of CH2.

Next to get the Molecular Formula, divide the actual molar mass = 70 g/mol by the molar mass
of EF as follow:

70 g/mol / 14.01 grams per mole of CH2 = 5

This indicates that to achieve the given molar mass of 70g/mol, the EF should be multiplied by 5
yielding the Molecular Formula (MF) = C 5H10

Exercises:
1. Determine the empirical formula of sodium nitrite, a compound containing 33.32% Na,
20.30 % N and 46.38%% O which is used to preserve bacon and meat.

2. Nicotine contains 74.9% carbon, 8.7% hydrogen and 17.3 % nitrogen. Determine the
empirical and molecular formulas of nicotine with a molar mass of 162 g/mole.

LESSON 24: Limiting and Excess reagent

Limiting reagent is the reactant that will be used up completely after the reaction. Its amount is
just enough for the chemical reaction to occur. Excess reagent is the reactant left, once the
chemical reaction took place and the limiting reactant being used up.

To determine which one is the limiting and which one is the excess reagent, choose one
reactant between the given that is most likely to be the limiting, then compute for the amount of
2nd reactant it requires.

Example: The incandescent white of a fireworks display is caused by the reaction of

phosphorous with O 2 to give P4O10. If 2 moles of phosphorus reacted with 64g O 2, which one is
the limiting? How many of the excess is left?
4P + 5O2 P4O10

Since there are more moles of oxygen than phosphorus needed, it’s more likely that it should
weigh more than 64g; so 𝑂2 might be the limiting:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
64𝑔 𝑂2 𝑥 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
32𝑔 𝑂2

4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃
2𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 𝑥 = 1.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃
5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2

Since there are 2 moles of phosphorus available, and only 1.6 mol P is needed for the 64g O 2,
then, O2 is the limiting because there is enough of it, and phosphorus is the excess
reagent, with 0.4 mol left of this after the chemical reaction.

Another Example: Silicon nitride is a very hard, high-temperature-resistant ceramic used as a

component of turbine blades in jet engines. It is prepared according to the following equation:

3Si + 2N2 ⟶ Si3 N4

Which is the limiting reactant when 2.00 g of Si and 1.50 g of N2 react?

Solution: Aside from visual analysis of what might be the limiting reagent, you can solve for the
mass requirement of either of the reactants then compare as follow:
The mass of N2 needed to combine with Si is given by:

2.00 g Si × 1 mol Si = 0.0712 mol Si x 2 mol N2 = 0.04747 mol N2 x 28.09g N2 = 1.33 g N2

28.09 g Si 3 mol Si 1mol N2

Since 2.0 g of Si needed only 1.33g N2, and there are 1.5g N2 available, it means that there are
more than enough N2. After all 2.0 g of Si was used there will be 1.5g – 1.33g = 0.17 g N2 will be
left. Si is the limiting reagent, while N2 is the excess.

If you happen to start solving for N2, the same result will be obtained:

The mass of Si needed to combine with N2 is given by:

1.50 g N2 × 1 mol N2 = 0.0535 mol N2 x 3 mol Si = 0.08025 mol Si x 28.09 g Si = 2.25 g Si

28.02 g N2 2 mol N2 1 mol Si

Since 1.5g N2 needed 2.25g Si and there are only 2g of Si available, then Si is limited and N2 is
in excess amount. Si is the limiting reagent, while N2 is the excess.

LESSON 25: Percent Yield

In a chemical experiment, it is expected not to get 100% of the theoretical yield. However, it is
still important to note the percent yield since it implies the success of the experiment. Actual
yield should still be close to the theoretical. Percent Yields tells you the ratio of the actual gained
to the expected gained in a chemical reaction. In symbol:

% yield = (Actual yield/theoretical yield) x 100%

Example: In the neutralization reaction of the base and acid reactants:

Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2H2O

What is the percent yield if only 70g of water was actually obtained after the reaction of calcium
hydroxide to 4 mol HCl?

If 4 mol of HCl was used, the theoretical yield should be:

2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 18𝑔
4𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑥 = 4𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂𝑥 = 72𝑔
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Using the formula for percent yield:

% yield = (Actual yield/theoretical yield) x 100%

= (70 g/ 72 g) x 100% = 97.22 %

Another Example: Upon reaction of 1.274 g of copper sulfate with excess zinc metal, copper
metal was obtained according to the equation:

CuSO4+ Zn ⟶ Cu+ ZnSO 4

How many grams of Cu was actually obtained if 98% yield was observed?

Solution: The provided information identifies copper sulfate as the limiting reactant, and so the
theoretical yield is found by :

1.274 g CuSO4 × 1 mol CuSO 4 × 1 mol Cu × 63.55 g Cu = 0.5072 g Cu

159.62 g CuSO 4 1 mol CuSO 4 1 mol Cu

Using this theoretical yield and the provided value for the percent yield, the actual yield is
calculated to be
percent yield = actual yield x 100% so:
theoretical yield

actual yield = percent yield x theoretical yield = (98 % x 0.5072 g)/ 100% = 0.4971 g
100 %

LESSON 26: Units of Concentration

There are several different ways to quantitatively describe the concentration of a solution. First,
Molarity, as a useful way to describe solution concentrations for reactions that are carried out in
solution. Second Molality, when the solvent is expressed in terms of mass instead of volume.
These concepts can be extended to acids and bases when we want to determine the
concentration of Hydronium and Hydroxide ions leading to pH and pOH computations.

Molarity and Molality Computations:

Molarity (M) = moles of solute / L of Solution

Molality (m) = moles of solute / kg of Solvent

Examples:
1. Calculate the Molarity of 34 grams of silver nitrate, AgNO 3, that is dissolved in water for a
final volume of 500 mL.
Solution:

Given: Since Molarity is moles of solute / L of Solution, then we need to convert 34 g of AgNO 3
to its corresponding number of moles and 500 mL to L so computing first for the total molecular
mass:

Ag = 1mol x 108 g/mol = 108 g

N = 1mol x 14.0 g/mol = 14 g
O3 = 3 mol x 16.0g/mol = 48.0 g
1 mol AgNO3 = 170 g

34 grams x 1 mol = 0.2 mol

170 g
500 mL x 1L = 0.5 L
1000 mL
 Molarity = 0.2 mol = 0.4 mol/L = 0.4 M
0.5 L

2. Commercial vinegar is essentially a solution of acetic acid in water. A bottle of vinegar has
3.78 g of acetic acid per 100.0 g of solution. Assume that the density of the solution is 1.00
g/mL. Find its molarity.

The molarity is the number of moles of acetic acid per liter of solution. So we need to find the
number of moles of acetic acid first, that is:

3.78g CH3CO2H x 1 mol = 0.0629 mol

60.05g
While the volume of the solution can be obtained by:
Volume = mass / density = 100.0g solution / (1.00g/mL) = 100mL = 0.1L
So:
Molarity of CH3CO2H = moles CH3CO2H / liter solution
=0.0629 mol CH3CO2H / (0.1L)
= 0.629 M CH3CO2H

3. What mass of glucose (C 6H12O6) must be dissolved in 200g of ethanol (C 2H5OH) to

make a 1.5 m solution?

Solution: since molality = mole of solute /kg of solvent we need to convert 200g of ethanol
(being the solvent) to kg then compute for the number of moles of the solute as follow
200g of ethanol = 0.2 kg

Cross multiplying: Molality = mole of solute

kg of solvent
Mole of solute = molality x kg of solvent
Mole of solute = 1.5 mol/kg x 0.2 kg
Mole of solute = 3.333 mol
Convert this mole to mass by molecular mass of glucose being the solute:

C6 = 6 mol x 12g/mol = 72 g
H12 = 12 mol x 1 g/mol = 12 g
O6 = 6 mol x 16 g/mol = 96 g
1 mol C6H12O6 =180 g

3.333mol C6H12O6 x 180 g = 600 g

1 mol
4. Vodka is essentially a solution of pure ethanol in water. Typical vodka is sold as “80
proof,” which means that it contains 40.0% ethanol by volume. The density of pure
ethanol is 0.789 g/mL at 20°C. If we assume that the volume of the solution is the sum of
the volumes of the components (which is not strictly correct), calculate the molality of the
ethanol in 80-proof vodka.
Solution: The key to this problem is to use the density of pure ethanol to determine the mass of
ethanol (CH3CH2OH), abbreviated as ETOH, in a given volume of solution then find the number
of moles as follow:
Basis: 100 mL solution (Vodka)
volume of ethanol = 40% by vol (100mL) = 0.40 (100mL) = 40 mL

(40.0mL)x (0.789g/mL) = 31.6g ETOH x 1mol = 0.686mol CH3CH2OH

46 g
The volume of ethanol will thus be 40.0% of 100.0 mL, or 40.0 mL ethanol, and the volume of
water will be 60.0% of 100.0 mL, or 60.0 mL water. This corresponds to 60g or 0.060kg by
density of water 1g/ml. So to get molality:

(0.686mol EtOH) / (0.060 kgH2O) = 11.4 mol ETOH / kg H2O = 11.4m or 11.4 molal

pH and pOH Computations

To calculate the pH of an aqueous solution you need to know the concentration of the
hydronium ion in moles per liter or the molarity of the acid . The pH is then calculated using the
expression:

pH = - log [H+ concentration]

In the same manner, to calculate the pOH of a solution you also need to know the concentration
of the hydroxide ion in moles per liter or the molarity of the base. The pOH is then calculated
using the expression:

pOH = - log [OH- concentration]

pH + pOH = 14

Examples:

1. Find the pH of a 0.0025 M HCl solution. The HCl is a strong acid and is 100% ionized in
water. The hydronium ion concentration is 0.0025 M. Thus:

pH = - log (0.0025) = - ( - 2.60) = 2.60

2. What is the pOH of a solution that has a hydroxide ion concentration of 4.82 x 10-5 M?

pOH = - log [4.82 x 10-5] = - ( - 4.32) = 4.32

3. Determine the pH of a 0.0034 M HNO 3 solution.

pH = -log(0.0034) = 2.47

4) Determine the pOH of a 0.0034 M HNO 3 solution.

Note that the given compound is an acid but you are asked to find its pOH, to find such, solve
first its pH then solve pOH using 14 – pH (since 14 is the sum of pH and pOH):
pH = -log[H+] = -log(0.0034) = 2.47
pOH = 14 – pH = 14 – 2.47 = 11.53
5) Determine the pH of a 4.3 x 10-4 M NaOH solution.
Note that the given compound is a base but you are asked to find its pH, to find such, solve first
its pOH then solve pH using 14 – pOH (since 14 is the sum of pH and pOH):
pOH = -log(4.3 x 10-4) = 3.37
pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 3.37 = 10.63

6) If a solution is created by adding water to 2.3 x 10-4 moles of NaOH and 4.5 x 10-6 moles
of HBr until the final volume is 1 L, what is the pH of this solution?
Solution: Since a chemical reaction will took place, set up the chemical equation first, noting
that it’s an acid base reaction so neutralization will occur:
NaOH + HBr NaBr + H2O

Next, you must first figure out how much acid or base is left over after it neutralizes. Since the
amount of base is larger than the amount of acid, there will be more base than acid. Since 1
mole of NaOH is to 1 mol of HBr the amount of base left is 2.3 x 10-4 – 4.5 x 10-6 = 2.26 x 10-4
moles-making the concentration basic.
Since there is one L of solution, the molarity of the base is 2.26 x 10-4 M. Then:

pOH, = –log of 2.26 x 10-4 = 3.65.

pH = 14 – 3.65 = 10.35.

Exercises:

A. Determine the mass in grams of each of the following:

a. 1.35 mol Fe
b. 24.5 mol O
c. 0.876 mol Ca
d. 1.25 mol Ca3(PO4)2
B. Calculate the number of moles of each compound:
a. 21.5 g CaCO 3
b. 1.56 g NH3
c. 16.8 g Sr(NO 3)2
d. 6.98 g Na2CrO4
C. Answer the following:
1. Chlorine is used by textile manufacturers to bleach cloth. Excess chlorine is destroyed by its
reaction with sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3:
Na2S2O3(aq) + 4Cl2(g) + 5H2O(aq) yields 2NaHSO4(aq) + 8HCl(aq) or
Na2S2O3(aq) + 4Cl2(g) + 5H2O(aq) → 2NaHSO4(aq) + 8HCl(aq)

a. How many moles of Na2S2O3 are needed to react with 0.12mol of Cl2?
b. How many moles of HCl can form from 0.12mol of Cl2?
c. How many moles of H2O are required for the reaction of 0.12mol of Cl2?
d. How many moles of H2O react if 0.24mol HCl is formed?

2. In dilute nitric acid, HNO 3, copper metal dissolves according to the following equation:
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) → 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(aq)
How many grams of HNO 3 are needed to dissolve 11.45g of Cu?

3. The reaction of powdered aluminum and iron(II)oxide,

2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(l)
produces so much heat the iron that forms is molten. Because of this, railroads use the reaction
to provide molten steel to weld steel rails together when laying track. Suppose that in one batch
of reactants 4.20mol Al was mixed with 1.75mol Fe2O3.
a. Which reactant, if either, was the limiting reactant?
b. Calculate the mass of iron (in grams) that can be formed from this mixture of reactants.
4. Silver nitrate, AgNO 3, reacts with iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, to give silver chloride, AgCl,
and iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3. A solution containing 18.0g AgNO 3 was mixed with a
solution containing 32.4g FeCl3. How many grams of which reactant remains after the
reaction is over?
5. Barium sulfate, BaSO 4, is made by the following reaction:
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
An experiment was begun with 75.00g of Ba(NO 3)2 and an excess of Na2SO4. After collecting
and drying the product, 63.45g BaSO 4 was obtained. Calculate the theoretical yield and percent
yield of BaSO 4.
6. Aluminum sulfate can be made by the following reaction:
2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6HCl(aq)
It is quite soluble in water, so to isolate it the solution has to be evaporated to dryness. This
drives off the volatile HCl, but the residual solid has to be treated to a little
off all the water. In one experiment, 25.0g of AlCl3 was mixed with 30.0g H2SO4. Eventually,
28.46g of pure Al2(SO4)3 was isolated. Calculate the percent yield.
7. We need 850.0 mL of a 0.45 M solution of NaHCO 3. How much NaHCO 3 do we weigh?

Laboratory Works 7

Home based pH Indicators.

Purple cabbage juice is a popular natural pH indicator that changes color upon addition of acid
or bases. The reason for this color change is the anthocyanin, the reason why red cabbage
juice is purple, a pigment often found in flowers, fruits, and leaves. In fact, it is the cause of
many of the reds, blues, purples, and oranges we see around us everywhere. So if red cabbage
is not available you can try other materials found to have anthocyanin like onions, beets, purple
yams and the like.

Materials:

Red Cabbage or any alternative material

Vinegar
Shampoo
Soap diluted in water
Lemonade
Sprite
Choices of acids and bases may vary depending on availability as long as you come up with five
liquids
Procedure:
1. Soak red cabbage or any alternative material on hot water for a couple of minute. Smash
red cabbage on it and extract the juice. You should be getting purple colored juice. If
alternative material is used, you can get lighter purple color juice. Divide this amount in
five transparent containers.
2. Using your chosen acid and base liquids, pour each acid or base on each purple juice.
Pour an amount enough to change the color of the purple juice. Observe the color
change and fill out the table below:

LIQUID COLOR CHANGE ACID or BASE

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Guide questions:
1. What is the color change for acids? For bases?
2. Why do you think the purple juice changes color upon addition of acid or base?
3. What significant application can we learn from the activity?

For further discussions and practice problems, you may also visit:

chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book

https://www.thoughtco.com/poh-calculations-quick-review-606090

https://www.dummies.com/education/science/chemistry/calculate-limiting-reagents-excess-
reagents-and-products-in-chemical-reactions/
:
UNIT IX: GASES

A gas is a state of matter with no defined shape or

volume. Gases have their own unique behavior depending on a
variety of variables, such as temperature, pressure, and volume.
The particles that make up a gas can range from individual
atoms to complex molecules. Some Gases assume the shape
and volume of their container, lower densities than their solid or
liquid phases, are more easily compressed than their solid or
liquid phases and can mix completely and evenly when confined
to the same volume. While each gas is different, all gases act in a
similar matter. This unit highlights the concepts and laws dealing
with the chemistry of gases.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit,

you should be able to:
1. Discuss the nature of gases.
2. Discuss the behaviour of gases taking into account
fundamental gas laws.
3. Solve for unknown quantities involving gas laws.
4. Perform chemistry demonstrations showing the different gas
properties.

COURSE MATERIALS:

LESSON 27: Quantities necessary to describe Gases

Pressure

Pressure is a measure of the amount of force per unit area.

The pressure of a gas is the amount of force the gas exerts on a
surface within its volume. Gases with high pressure exert more
force than gas with low pressure. The SI unit of pressure is the
pascal (Symbol Pa). The pascal is equal to the force of 1 newton
per square meter. This unit is not very useful when dealing with
gases in real world conditions, but it is a standard that can be
measured and reproduced. Many other pressure units have
developed over time, mostly dealing with the gas we're most
familiar with: air. The problem with air, the pressure isn't constant.
Air pressure depends on the altitude above sea-level and many
other factors. Surrounding pressure increases as you travel
deeper the earth and it decreases as you travel higher in the
atmosphere. Many units for pressure were originally based on an
average air pressure at sea-level, but have become standardized.

Temperature

Temperature is a property of matter related to the amount of

energy of the component particles.
Several temperature scales have been developed to measure this
amount of energy, but the SI standard scale is the Kelvin
temperature scale. Two other common temperature scales are
the Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C) scales.
The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale and used in
nearly all gas calculations. It is important when working with gas
problems to convert the temperature readings to Kelvin.
Conversion formulas between temperature scales:

K = °C + 273.15
°C = 5/9(°F - 32)
°F = 9/5°C + 32

STP - Standard Temperature and Pressure

STP means standard temperature and pressure. It refers to the

conditions at 1 atmosphere of pressure at 273 K (0 °C). STP is
commonly used in calculations involved with the density of gases
or in other cases involving standard state conditions.
At STP, a mole of an ideal gas will occupy a volume of 22.4 L.
Mass-Volume Relationship

If you are given the mass of a particular substance and required

to solve for the volume of a specified gas, convert mass of the
given substance to the number of moles of the specified gas
using molecular weight and the mole ratio given in the balance
chemical equation. After which solve for the volume using the fact
that 1 mol corresponds to 22.4 L

Example:
1. How many liters of carbon dioxide can be obtained by
heating 500 grams of calcium carbonate?

Solutions:
CaCO3 CO2 + CaO

Convert 500g CaCO3 to mole of CO2 by the molecular

weight of CaCO3 and their mole relationships as specified in the
balanced chemical reaction:

MW CaCO3 = 40 g (Ca) + 12 g (C) + 16 g x3 (O3) = 100 g/mol

1 mol CaCO3 1 mol CO2
500g CaCO3 x x = 5mol CO2
100 g CaCO3 1mol CaCO3

Convert this mole to volume:

22.4L
5mol x = 112 L
1mol

Volume-Volume Relationship

If you are given the volume of a particular gas and required to

solve again for the volume of a another gas, convert this volume
to mole of the given substance then to the number of moles of
the 2nd gas using molecular weight and the mole ratio given in the
balance chemical equation. Finally solve for the volume of the 2 nd
gas using the fact that 1 mol corresponds to 22.4 L

Examples:
1. How many liters of oxygen are needed to burn completely 50
liters of acetylene, C2H2?
Solution: 2C2H2+ 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O

Convert first the volume to number of moles of the given

gas:

1mol
50L C2 H2 x = 2.23 mol
22.4L
Convert this moles to the number of moles of the 2 nd gas
using the ratio specified in the balanced chemical reaction:

5 mol O2
2.23 mol C2 H2 x = 5.58molO2
2 mol C2 H2
Finally, convert to volume:

22.4L
5.58mol x = 124.88 L
1mol
OR
5 𝐿 𝑂2
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 = 50 𝐿 𝐶2 𝐻2 ∗ = 125 𝐿 𝑂2
2 𝐿 𝐶2 𝐻2

Exercises:
1. What mass of aluminum is required to produce 3 grams of
hydrogen according to the following equation:
Aluminum + sulfuric acid → Aluminum sulfate + hydrogen

2. Find the volume of hydrogen evolved when 100 grams of

zinc is dissolved inn hydrochloric acid.
 3. Find the volume of oxygen used when burning 25 liters of
methane, CH4.

LESSON 28: Gas Laws

Boyle's Gas Law

Boyle's gas law states the volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure when the temperature is held
constant.
P = k/V
where:
P = pressure
k = constant
V = volume
For initial and Final Pressures: P1 = k/V1 and P2 = k/V2 since k =
k, you can easily see that Boyle's law can also be expressed as:
P1 V1 = P2 V2
where P1 and P2 are the initial and final pressures V1 and V2 are
the initial and final volumes.
As volume increases, pressure decreases or as volume
decreases, pressure will increase.
Examples:
1. If I have 5.6 liters of gas in a piston at a pressure of 1.5 atm
and compress the gas until its volume is 4.8 L, what will the
new pressure inside the piston be?
P1 V1 = P2 V2
(1.5 atm)(5.6 L) = (x)(4.8 L)
x = 1.8 atm

2. 15 L of air to a balloon is added at sea level (1.0 atm). If I

take the balloon with me to Denver, where the air pressure is
0.85 atm, what will the new volume of the balloon be?
P1V1 = P2V2
 (1.0 atm)(15 L) = (0.85 atm)(x)
x = 18 L

3. I’ve got a car with an internal volume of 12,000 L. If I drive

my car into the river and it implodes, what will be the volume
of the gas when the pressure goes from 1.0 atm to 1.4 atm?
P1V1 = P2V2
(1.0 atm)(12,000 L) = (1.4 atm)(x)
x = 8600 L

Charles' Gas Law

Charles' gas law states the volume of a gas is proportional to its
absolute temperature when pressure is held constant.
V = kT
where:
V = volume
k = constant
T = absolute temperature
Following same derivations for Boyle’s Law, Charles' law can also
be expressed as:
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

where V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes, T1 and T2 are
the initial and final absolute temperatures
Examples:
1. If pressure is held constant and the temperature increases, the
volume of the gas will increase. As the gas cools, the volume will
decrease. If I have 45 liters of helium in a balloon at 25 ⁰C (298 K)
and increase the temperature of the balloon to 55 ⁰C (328 K),
what will the new volume of the balloon be?
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
45L x

298K 328K
x  50 L
2. Calcium carbonate decomposes at 1200 ⁰C to form carbon
dioxide and calcium oxide. If 25 liters of carbon dioxide are
collected at 1200 ⁰C, what will the volume of this gas be after it
cools to 25 ⁰C?
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
25 L x

1473K 298 K
x  5.1L
3. I have 130 liters of gas in a piston at a temperature of 250 ⁰C.
If I cool the gas until the volume decreases to 85 liters, what will
temperature of the gas be?
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
130 𝐿 85 𝐿
=
523 𝐾 𝑥
𝑥 = 341. 96𝐾 𝑜𝑟 342 𝐾
= 68.96 ⁰C or 69 ⁰C

Guy-Lussac's Gas Law

Guy-Lussac's gas law states the pressure of a gas is proportional

to its absolute temperature when the volume is held constant.
P = kT
where
P = pressure
k = constant
T = absolute temperature
Guy-Lussac's law can also be expressed as
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2

where P1 and P2 are the initial and final pressures, T1 and T2 are
the initial and final absolute temperatures. If the temperature
increases, the pressure of the gas will increase if the volume is
held constant. As the gas cools, the pressure will decrease.

Examples:
 1. The pressure of a gas in a cylinder when it is heated to a
temperature of 250K is 1.5 atm. What was the initial
temperature of the gas if its initial pressure was 1 atm.
P1T2 = P2T1
Therefore, T1 = (P1T2)/P1 = (1*250)/(1.5) = 166.66 Kelvin.

2. At a temperature of 300 K, the pressure of the gas in a

deodorant can is 3 atm. Calculate the pressure of the gas
when it is heated to 900 K.
P1T2 = P2T1
Therefore, final pressure (P2) = (P1T2)/T1 = (3 atm*900K)/300K =
9 atm.

Combined Gas Law

This gas law takes into consideration the relationship between

Pressure, Volume and Temperature of the gas under initial and
final conditions. In summary:
(P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2
or
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

Examples:
1. A toy balloon has an internal pressure of 1.05 atm and a
volume of 5.0 L. If the temperature where the balloon is
released is 20 ⁰C, what will happen to the volume when the
balloon rises to an altitude where the pressure is 0.65 atm
and the temperature is –15 ⁰C?
(P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2
(1.05 atm)(5.0 L)/(293 K) = (0.65 atm)(x )/(258 K)
x = 7.11 L
 2. A small research submarine with a volume of 1.2 x 10 5 L has
an internal pressure of 1.0 atm and an internal temperature
of 15 ⁰C. If the submarine descends to a depth where the
pressure is 150 atm and the temperature is 3 ⁰C, what will
the volume of the gas inside be if the hull of the submarine
breaks?
(P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2
5
(1.0 atm)(1.2 x 10 L)/(288 K) = (150 atm)(x )/(276 K)
x = 767 L

3. People who are angry sometimes say that they feel as if

they’ll explode. If a calm person with a lung capacity of 3.5
liters and a body temperature of 36 ⁰C gets angry, what will
the volume of the person’s lungs be if their temperature rises
to 39 ⁰C. Based on this, do you think it’s likely they will
explode? (assuming constant pressure)
(P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2
(3.5 L)/(309 K) = (x )/(312 K)
x = 3.5*312/309
x = 3.53L

Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law, is a combination of all the variables in the

previous gas laws. The ideal gas law is expressed by the formula
PV = nRT
where
P = pressure
V = volume
n = number of moles of gas
R = ideal gas constant
T = absolute temperature
The value of R depends on the units of pressure, volume and
temperature.

R = 0.0821 liter·atm/mol·K (P = atm, V = L and T = K)

R = 8.3145 J/mol·K (Pressure x Volume is energy, T = K)
R = 8.2057 m3·atm/mol·K (P = atm, V = cubic meters and T = K)
R = 62.3637 L·Torr/mol·K or L·mmHg/mol·K (P = torr or mmHg, V
= L and T = K)
The ideal gas law works well for gases under normal conditions.
Unfavorable conditions include high pressures and very low
temperatures.

Since enough examples are provided above, try solving the

following by sticking to the formula ⁰C

Examples:

1. How many moles of gas does it take to occupy 120 liters at a

pressure of 2.3 atmospheres and a temperature of 340 K? Ans:
9.89 mol
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝐿−𝑎𝑡𝑚
2.3 atm (120L) = 𝑛 (0.0821 ) (340𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙−𝐾
n = 9.887 mol or 9.89 mol

2. If I have a 50 liter container that holds 45 moles of gas at a

temperature of 200 0 C, what is the pressure inside the container?
Ans: 34.9atm
3. It is not safe to put aerosol canisters in a campfire, because the
pressure inside the canisters gets very high and they can
explode. If I have a 1.0 liter canister that holds 2 moles of gas,
and the campfire temperature is 1400 0 C, what is the pressure
inside the canister?Ans: 274.5atm
4. How many moles of gas are in a 30 liter scuba canister if the
temperature of the canister is 300 K and the pressure is 200
atmospheres? Ans: 243.7 mol
5. I have a balloon that can hold 100 liters of air. If I blow up this
balloon with 3 moles of oxygen gas at a pressure of 1
atmosphere, what is the temperature of the balloon?
Ans: 406.2K

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

Dalton's law states the total pressure of a mixture of gases is

equal to the sum of all the individual pressures of the component
gases alone.

Ptotal = PGas 1 + PGas 2 + PGas 3 + ...

𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + ⋯ ….

The individual pressure of the component gas is known as the

partial pressure of the gas. Partial pressure is calculated by the
formula

𝑷𝒊 = 𝑿𝒊 𝑷𝑻
where:

Pi = partial pressure of the individual gas

Ptotal = total pressure
Xi = mole fraction of the individual gas
The mole fraction, Xi, is calculated by dividing the number of
moles of the individual gas by the total number of moles of the
mixed gas.

Examples:
1. A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas exerts a total
pressure of 1.5 atm on the walls of its container. If the partial
pressure of hydrogen is 1 atm, find the mole fraction of
oxygen in the mixture.
Given: Phydrogen = 1 atm, Ptotal = 1.5 atm
Applying Dalton’s law formula:
Ptotal = Phydrogen + Poxygen; Poxygen = 0.5 atm
Now, the mole fraction of oxygen; Xoxygen =
(Poxygen/Ptotal) = 0.5/1.5 = 0.33
𝑷𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑿𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑
𝑷𝑻 𝟏. 𝟓

Therefore, the mole fraction of oxygen in the mixture is 0.33

2. At a temperature of 300K, 30 litres of gas A kept under

pressure of 1 atm and 15 litres of gas B kept under pressure
of 2 atm is transferred into an empty 10L container.
Calculate the total pressure inside the container and the
partial pressures of gas A and gas B (Assume that A and B
are ideal gases).
From the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT

# of moles of gas A = (30L*1atm)/(0.08206 atm.L.mol-1.K-1 *

300K) = 1.22 mol
# of moles of gas B = (15*2atm)/(0.08206 atm.L.mol-1.K-1 *
300K) = 1.22 mol

Total number of moles in the gaseous mixture = 2.44 mol

Total pressure inside the 10L container = Ptot = nRT/V

 Ptot = (2.44mol*0.08206 atm.L.mol-1.K-
1*300K)/10L = 6.006 atm

Therefore, the total pressure inside the 10 litre container is

6.006 atm

Mole fraction of gas A = mole fraction of gas B = (1.22

mol/2.44 mol) = 0.5

Therefore, partial pressure of gas A = Therefore, partial

pressure of gas B = 0.5*6.006 = 3.003 atm
Thus, the partial pressures of gases A and B in the 10L
container are both equal to 3.003 atm.

Avogadro's Gas Law

Avogadro's law states the volume of a gas is directly proportional

to the number of moles of gas when pressure and temperature
remain constant. Basically: Gas has volume. Add more gas, gas
takes up more volume if pressure and temperature do not
change.
V = kn
where
V = volume, k = constant, n = number of moles
Avogadro's law can also be expressed as
Vi/ni = Vf/nf
where
Vi and Vf are initial and final volumes
ni and nf are initial and final number of moles

Examples:
1. One mole of helium gas fills up an empty balloon to a
volume of 1.5 litres. What would be the volume of the
balloon if an additional 2.5 moles of helium gas is added?
 (Assume that the temperature and the pressure are kept
constant)
Given,
The initial amount of helium (n1) = 1 mol
The initial volume of the balloon (V1) = 1.5 L
The final amount of helium (n2) = 1 mol + 2.5 mol = 3.5 mol
As per Avogadro’s law, V1/n1 = V2/n2
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
𝟏. 𝟓 𝑳 𝑽𝟐
=
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟓 𝑳
Therefore, the final volume of the balloon (V2) = (V1n2)/n1 =
(1.5L*3.5mol)/1mol = 5.25 L
The balloon would occupy a volume of 5.25 litres when it contains
3.5 moles of helium gas.

2. A tire containing 10 moles of air and occupying a volume of

40L loses half its volume due to a puncture. Considering that
the pressure and temperature remain constant, what would
be the amount of air in the deflated tire?
Given,
The initial amount of air (n1) = 10 mol
The initial volume of the tire (V1) = 40 L
The final volume of the tyre (V2) = 20 L
According to Avogadro’s law, the final amount of air in the tire
(n2) = (V2n1)/V1 = 5 moles.
The deflated tire would contain 5 moles of air.

Graham’s Law of Diffusion

If a gas is allowed to pass through a small opening, its rate of

passage (effusion) depends on the mass of molecules that is on
the molar mass or molecular mass. Heavy molecules move more
slowly than light molecules. In experimenting with gases in 1832,
Thomas Graham found that the comparative rates or speeds of
effusion/diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square
roots of their densities/molar mass or molecular mass.

1
𝑟∝
√𝑀
1
𝑟∝
√𝜌
𝒓𝟏 𝑴𝑴𝟐
=√
𝒓𝟐 𝑴𝑴𝟏

where:
r1 = rate of effusion/diffusion of Gas 1
r2 = rate of effusion/diffusion of Gas 2

r= d/t

MM1 = molar mass of Gas 1

MM2 = molar mass of Gas 2

Examples:
1. Compare the rates of diffusion of helium and sulfur dioxide
(SO2).
Solution: MMHe = 4 g/mol MMsulfur dioxide = 64 g/mol

r1 MM2 64g/mol
=√ = √ =4
r2 MM1 4g/mol

Thus rHe = 4 x rsulfur dioxide .

The diffusion rate of helium is four times that of SO 2

2. Helium is found to diffuse two times faster than X. What is

the molar mass of X?

Solution:
r1 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠
r2 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠

Since rHe = 2 rx , then r1 = 2 𝑟2

r1 MM2
=√
r2 MM1

2r2 MM2
=√
r2 MM1
2
MM2
(√ ) = (2)2
4 g/mol

MM2
=4
4g/mol

Molar mass of x = 16 g/mol

Exercises:
1. A bag of potato chips is packaged at sea level (1.00 atm)
and has a volume of 315 mL. If this bag of chips is
transported to Denver (0.775 atm), what will the new volume
of the bag be?
2. A Los Angeles class nuclear submarine has an internal
volume of eleven million liters at a pressure of 1.250 atm. If
a crewman were to open one of the hatches to the outside
ocean while it was underwater (pressure = 15.75 atm), what
be would the new volume of the air inside the submarine?
3. A child has a toy balloon with a volume of 1.80 liters. The
temperature of the balloon when it was filled was 20 0 C and
the pressure was 1.00 atm. If the child were to let go of the
balloon and it rose 3 kilometers into the sky where the
pressure is 0.667 atm and the temperature is -100 C, what
would the new volume of the balloon be?
4. If divers rise too quickly from a deep dive, they get a
condition called “the bends” which is caused by the
expansion of very small nitrogen bubbles in the blood due to
decreased pressure. If the initial volume of the bubbles in a
diver’s blood is 15 mL and the initial pressure is 12.75 atm,
what is the volume of the bubbles when the diver has
surfaced to 1.00 atm pressure?
5. What is the molecular weight of a gas weighing 7.8 g at 755
torr and 400C occupying a volume of 6 Liters.
6. Calculate the number of liters of Carbon dioxide measured at
STP that could be produced from the burning of 7.85g of
propane (C3H8).

7. A mixture of 2 mol H2 and 3 mol He exerts a total pressure

of 3 atm. What is the partial pressure of He?
8. O2 gas is collected in a pneumatic trough with a volume of
0.155 L until the height of the water inside the trough is
equal to the height of the water outside the trough. The
atmospheric pressure is 754 torr, and the temperature is 295
K. How many moles of oxygen are present in the trough? (At
295 K, the vapor pressure of water is 19.8 torr.)
9. What would be the volume occupied by 7.31 grams of CO 2
at 720 mm Hg at 27 °C?
 10. Calculate the density of the gas, SF 6 in grams per liter
at STP.

Laboratory Works 8

Research on the internet or on books simple activity where you

can demonstrate a particular gas law. Prepare written output that
contains the following:

I. Discussion of the chosen Law

II. Materials needed
III. Procedure (Attach actual pictures showing that you
perform the activity)
IV. Explanation of what happened in the activity/Conclusion
If video output is more accessible, you can send video
presentation of your activity online following the same format.

For further discussions and practice problems, you may also

visit:

https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/gas-laws-chemistry.html
https://www.sciencegeek.net/Chemistry/taters/Unit7GasLaws.htm

References:

https://byjus.com/chemistry/avogadros-law/
https://byjus.com/chemistry/daltons-law-of-partial-pressure/
https://byjus.com/chemistry/gay-lussacs-law/
https://www.thoughtco.com/anne-marie-helmenstine-ph-d-601916
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Palomar_College/PC%3A_CH
EM100_-
_Fundamentals_of_Chemistry/01%3A_The_Chemical_World/1.1
%3A_The_Scope_of_Chemistry