Presented by:

Section : A
Group No. : 4
Sana Matloob Roll no. 27
Farwa Inam Roll no. 30
Eman Fatima Roll no. 32
Sehrish Munawar Roll no. 33
Soha Shehnaz Roll no. 34
Iqra Barqat Roll no. 35
Bela Ghumman Roll no. 36
Types of bonds bonding
and anti bonding
orbitals and its
applications
Types of Bonds:
Chemical bonds can be classified as:-

1. Ionic Bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Coordinate Covalent bond
4. Metallic bond
What is Chemical bond?

 Chemical bond is defined as:

“A force of attraction between atoms that holds them together in a substance”.
 In other words, During bond formation there is some force which holds the
atom together.
 The atoms achieve stability by attaining electronic configuration of inert
gases (He, Ne, Ar etc).
 Having 2 or 8 electrons in the valence shell is sign of stability.
 The valence electrons which are involved in chemical bonding are termed as
bonding electrons.
Ionic bond:

“Ionic bond is formed by complete transfer of electrons or electrons from an

atom with low ionization energy to another atom with high electron affinity”.
 In term of energy, The electropositive elements are at higher energy state
then electronegative elements.
 The energy difference will be responsible for transfer of electrons from a
higher energy state to lower energy states.
Example:

2Na+Cl2 2NaCl

11 Na = 1s22s22p63s1

17 Cl = 1s22s22p63s23p5

Na Na+ + 1e-

Cl + e- Cl- 349kjoulmol -1

Na+ lose one electron and gain the nearest inert gas configuration of Ne and
Chlorine gain one electron from Na to attain the nearest inert gas configuration
of Ar.
 If the difference of electronegativity between bonded atoms is 1.7 or more
than that then the bond is said to be ionic.
 NaCl has 72% ionic character.
Covalent bond:

“Bond is formed between two atoms by mutual sharing of electron.”

e.g;
 The formation of Hydrogen Chlorine and Nitrogen and Oxygen gases are
examples of Covalent bonds.
Types of Covalent Bond:

1. Single Covalent Bond

2. Double Covalent Bond
3. Triple covalent bond
Single Covalent bond:
“The bond formed when one electron is contributed by each bonded atom is
called Single Covalent Bond.”
 The single bond pair is indicated by a line between two atoms is the structure
of molecule.
 e.g;
H2, Cl2 and HCl.
Double Covalent Bond:
“The bond formed when each bonded atom contributes two electrons is called
Double Covalent Bond.”
 It creates two bond pairs.
 The bond pair is indicated by a double line between two atoms in the
structure of molecule.
 e.g;
O2 and C2H4
Triple Covalent Bond:
“The bond formed when each bonded atom contributes three electrons is called
Triple Covalent Bond.”
 It creates three bond pairs.
 The triple bond pair is indicated by three lines between two atoms in the
structure of molecule.
 e.g;
N2 and C2H2
Non-Polar Covalent Bond:
“The covalent bond formed between two similar or homo atoms in which shared
pair of electrons are attracted by both atoms equally is called Non-Polar
Covalent Bond.’
 e.g;
H2 and Cl2
Polar Covalent Bond:
“The covalent bond formed between two different types or hetro atoms in
which bond pair of electrons will not be attracted equally by the bonded atoms
is called polar covalent bond.”
 There will be unequal attraction for the bond pair of electrons between
atoms.
 e.g;
Water, Hydrogen fluoride and Hydrogen chloride.
Comparison of Ionic, Polar, and Non polar Bonding:
Sigma Bond:
“A sigma bond is a covalent bond which is formed by the head on overlap of two
atomic orbitals”.
 Sigma bonding can be a bonding interaction or an anti-bonding interaction.
 Bonding interaction results by the overlapping of two atomic orbitals in the
same phase whereas anti-bonding interaction occurs by the overlapping in
opposite phase.
Pi-Bond:
“ A Pi bond is a covalent bond which is formed by the side-to-side overlap of two
atomic orbitals”.
 Similar to sigma bonding, a pi bond can be bonding or anti bonding.
Theories of Covalent Bonding:

 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

 Valence bond Theory (VBT)
 Molecular orbital Theory (MOT)
VSEPR Theory
Postulates of VSEPR Theory
How to Apply The VSEPR Theory???
VSEPR Theory
VSEPR Theory( Molecular Shapes)
VSEPR Theory
Limitations of VESPR Theory
Valence Bond Theory

• The valence bond theory was proposed by Heitler and London to explain the
formation of covalent bond quantitatively using quantum mechanics.
• Later on, Linus pauling improved this Theory by introducing the concept of
hybridization.
• Valence bond theory assumes that all bonds are lacalized bonds formed
between two atoms by the donation of an electron from each atom.
Valence Bond Theory
Postulates of Valence Bond Theory

1)Overlapping:
Amongst Partially filled orbital.
2) Identity:
Overlapping orbitals retain their identity.
3)Opposite Spin:
Each orbital has electron spin opposite to other orbital.
4)Unpaired electrons: No. of unpaired electrons =No. of Bonds
5)Single and Multiple Bonds:
When No. of two unpaired electrons of each atom overlap then double bond will be formed and when No. of three
unpaired electrons of each atom overlap triple bond will be formed.
6)Symmetry:
Atoms overlap must have same symmetry on bond axis.
7)Energy;
Energy of overlap orbitals is lower than before overlapping.
Valence bond Theory

 There are two types of covalent bonds based on pattern of overlapping as

follows;
 σ-bond
A sigma bond is a covalent bond formed via linear overlap of two orbitals.
π-bond
A pi bond is a covalent bond formed via parallel overlap of two orbitals.
Applications of Valence Bond Theory
Applications of Valence band Theory
Failure of Valence bond Theory
VSEPR VERSUS VALENCE
BOND THEORY
Molecular Orbital Theory:

 Molecular Orbital Theory was put forward by R.S.Mulliken to explain the

nature of bonding in covalent compounds. He was awarded Nobel Prize for
chemistry in 1966.
 Molecular orbital (MO) theory is a method for describing the electronic
structure of molecules using quantum mechanics.
 Molecular Orbital theory predicts the placement of electrons in a molecule.
 Two or more atoms combine together to form Molecular orbitals.
 These combination or interaction of atomic orbitals can be bonding or anti-
bonding.
Postulates of MOT:

1. Molecular orbital theory asserts that atomic orbitals no longer hold significant
meaning after atoms form molecules. Molecular orbital theory holds electrons
reside in molecular orbitals that are distributed over the entire molecule.
2. Atomic orbitals of comparable energy and proper symmetry combine together
to form molecular orbitals. The total number of orbitals is conserved; the
number of molecular orbitals equals the number of original atomic orbitals.
3. When atomic orbitals interact, if added them it results in a bonding orbital
and if subtracted then an anti-bonding orbital is obtained. Anti-bonding
orbitals are denoted with an asterisk (*).
4. The movement of electrons in a molecular orbital is influenced by all the
nuclei of combining atoms.
Bonding Molecular Orbitals (BMO) and
Anti-Bonding Molecular Orbitals (ABMO):
1. BMO 1. ABMO
1. It is formed by the addition overlap of 1. It is formed by Subtraction overlap of
atomic orbitals. atomic orbital.

2. It may or may not have a node. 2. It always has a node in between the
nuclei of bonded atoms.
3. In this orbital electron density is more in 3. In this orbital electron density is less in
between the nuclei. Electrons in this between nuclei. Electron in
orbital lead to attraction between this orbital lead to repulsion between
atoms. atoms.
4. Its energy is less than the energy of the 4. Its energy is more than the energy of
atomic orbitals. the atomic orbitals.
MO Diagram:
Why MOT is more important than VBT?

 Molecular Orbital Theory is superior over the Valence Bond Theory as it

explains the mixing of orbitals when forming a molecule and also give us
information with regard to point group and symmetry of the molecule
whereas VBT are based on the Lewis concept whereby the atoms are only
localized to two atoms not the molecule.
 Molecular Orbital Theory tells us that how no bond is formed between noble
gases. It also tells about observed paramagnetic behavior of O2 it also tells us
that molecule is a set of molecular orbital formed by overlap of atomic
orbitals. On the other hand, valence bond theory does not give such answers.
Difference of MOT and VBT:
VBT MOT
1. Atomic orbitals are mono-centric. 1. Molecular orbitals are polycentric.
2. Atoms, which are involved in the bond 2. Atomic orbitals, which form molecular
Formation, maintain their individual nature.orbitals, don't retain their individual nature.
3. VBT has simplicity and convenience. 3. MOT is some what complex, especially
molecules contain more than two atoms.
4. Resulting Molecular Orbital is obtained 4. Formation of the Molecular Orbitals is
by the combination of the two wave based on the LCAO approximation method.
functions of two unpaired electrons. Atomic orbitals corresponding of the
Valence Shell of two only takes part in the
formation of Molecular Orbitals.
5. In VBT some of the valence electrons are 5. MOT method shows that all the
indicated as unshared and uninvolved in the electrons of the valence shells of the atoms
formation of molecule. of a molecule take part in the bonding.
6. VBT failed to explain the paramagnetic 6. MOT successfully explain the
behavior of oxygen. paramagnetic behavior of the oxygen.
Coordinate Covalent Bond:
“A covalent bond in which both the electrons are donated by one of the atoms is
called a Coordinate Covalent Bond”.
 The atom which donates the electron pair is called the “Donor” and the
species are called “Nucleophiles”.
 The atom which accepts them for bond formation is called the “Acceptor”
and the species are called “Electrophiles”.
 The atoms must be electron-pair donor or electron-pair acceptors for
formation of this bond. The electron pair donor are called Lewis bases. The
electron-pair acceptors are called Lewis acids. Thus there is Lewis acid-base
reactions. It forms coordinate covalent bonds between acid and base.
 For example, the reaction of NH3 (Lewis base) and proton H+ (Lewis acid) form
NH4+
Representation of Coordinate Covalent
Bond:
 Coordinate covalent bond is generally represented by an arrow.

 Head of an arrow pointing toward acceptor atom.

 Line used to represent a Covalent Bond.
 (+) for the donor and (-) for acceptor.
Condition for the formation of
Coordinate Covalent Bond:
 The donor atom to have an unshared pair of electrons (lone pair of electrons)
i.e; it should be an electron rich species.
 The acceptor atom must have the ability of holding that pair of electrons i.e;
It should be an electron deficient species.
 A lewis base in a coordination compound is called ligand . Most ligands are
anions or substances containing non-bonding valence electron pairs. There are
several known different ligands. The most commonly used ligands are NH 3,H2O
molecules, halide ions (F-,Cl-, Br-,I-) and OH- ions.
 The most common acceptors are electron deficient molecules like BF 3, BCl3,
AlF3, GaCl3 or transition metals having partially or incompletely filled d
orbitals. There is presence of unfilled d and f orbitals in transition metals.
Therefore, these are sort of electrons. Therefore, they act as lewis acids.
Formation of Coordinate Covalent Bond:
 Example:
Formation of Ammonium chloride:
In the formation of Ammonium Chloride, from ammonia (NH3) and
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) molecules, the nitrogen atom of ammonia acts as donor
of an electron pair and hydrogen ion (H+) of hydrogen chloride acts as an
acceptor to form NH4Cl as follows:
Characteristics of Coordinate Covalent
Bond:

 There melting and boiling points are higher than purely covalent compound
but lower than ionic compounds.
 They are sparingly soluble in polar solvents like water but readily soluble in
non-polar (organic) solvents.
 Like covalent compound, they are also poor conductors of electricity. Their
solutions or fused states also do not conduct.
Metallic Bond:

“The bond produced due to the combination of electrostatic force of attraction

between the electrons and the positive nuclei of metal atoms is called Metallic
Bond.”
 Metals are the substances consisting of positively charged ions, fixed in a
crystal lattice with negatively charged electrons moving freely through the
crystal.
 Free electrons act as the cohesive force which hold the metal atoms together
and form a metallic bond.
The elements of periodic table that can
form metallic bonds:
 We know that, metals and non metals chemically combine with each other
through ionic bonding, while non metallic elements chemically combine by
means of covalent bonding.
 However in metallic substances such as in iron, gold, silver, copper, zinc,
sodium, potassium, there exist an unusual kind of bonding called “Metallic
Bonding”.
 Metallic bonding occur in the elemental states of metals of group IA, IIA, and
IIIA.
 This sort of bonding is also present in all transition metals including
lanthanides and actinides in their solid crystalline state.
Formation of Metallic Bond:
 Metals are shiny, ductile and malleable in nature. They are good conductors
of heat and electricity.
 X-rays analysis of metallic crystals show that the metal structures are the
giant structures similar to non-metal covalent structures such as diamond and
ionic giant structures such as sodium chloride.
 As the structures are similar, differences in properties must be due to
different sort of bonding which may be called “Metallic Bonding”.
 As all atoms in a metal are identical, no transference of electron from one
atom to another take place. Hence electrostatic bond formation is
impossible.
Strength of Metallic Bond:
 The strength of metallic bond varies considerably among different metals
since the mobile electrons are responsible for the bonding in metals, it is not
surprising that moving from sodium (one outer shell electron) through
magnesium (two outer shell electrons) to aluminum (three outer shell
electrons) the bonding gets gradually stronger.
 Due to the same reason, it is much stronger in iron than in sodium or
potassium.
Bonding in Metals can be explained by these theories:
Electron pool Theory:

 The theory that illustrates the nature of metallic bonding is known as

“Electron Pool Theory”, which is also known as “Drude Lorentz Theory”.
 According to this theory each atom of the metal crystal loses all valence
electrons in which positively charged metal ions are held together by
electrostatic attraction of pool electrons and positive ions.
 In metallic crystals, two type of forces exist which are responsible for
formation of metallic bonding.
 A force of attraction exists between pool electrons and positive ions.
Drawbacks of Electron Pool Theory:

 It is observed experimentally that there is decrease in electrical and theremal

conductivity with increase in temperature. It is opposite to electron gas
theory.
 There is very small paramagnetic behavior of metals. The free gaseous
electrons cannot explain it.
 Electron gas model cannot explain specific heat of metals.
Bloch-Sommerfeld Theory:

Sommerfeld in 1928 and Bloch Proposed this theory. It has following main
features:
 Metal consist of atomic cores. These cores are arranged in closely packed
structures. Loosely bound electrons can be removed from neutral metal
atoms. These are called valence electrons.
 The positive cores have a region of negative potential within a metal. The
potential is assumed to be zero within the metal. But it is very high outside
the metal.
 Electrons are confined to interior of the metal due to high potential outside.
They obey all requirements of quantum mechanics.
Drawbacks of Bloch-Sommerfeld Theory:

Bloch-Sommerfeld concept explains most of characteristic properties of metals.

But it has certain drawbacks:
 Some of properties of metals are not fully explained by this theory.
 This theory gives the concept of uniform potential everywhere in the metal. It
is not realistic.
 Many properties of metals can be explained if there are variations in
potential. But it is not allowed in this theory.
Band Theory:
 Molecular orbital theory of metals is commonly called Band Theory.
 According to this theory, electrons present in completely filled energy levels
are taken as localized.
 They can move through out the metals.Atoms in metals do not affect
properties of these valence electrons.It gives metal their characteristic
properties.
 Two atomic orbitals overlap to form two molecular orbitals. One in bonding
orbital. The other Isanti-bonding orbital.
 Repulsive forces also exist between positively charged ions. The metal ions
are held at a distance where attractive and repulsive forces balance each
others effect.
Characteristic Properties of metals:
 Elastic conductivity:-
Metals are good conductors of electricity. This due to the fact that the mobile
electrons are free to move through the vacant space between metal ions. Applied
voltage cause the electrons to be displaced in a given direction.
 Heat conductivity:-
Metals are also good conductors of heat as well. If the metals are heated, the
mobile electrons in the area of the ‘Sea of electrons’ easily absorb heat energy and
increase their vibrational motion. Thus the mobility of the electrons allows heat
transfer.
 Ductile and Malleable:-
Metals can be easily drawn into wires or forced to be pressed into sheets. This can
also be explained on the basis of mobile electrons.
 Metallic luster:-
Metals are shiny in appearance, which is due to the fact that the mobile electrons
readily absorb light falling upon them and move to higher energy level. When they fall
back to their original position they emit radiations, this causes metallic luster.
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 https://
www.topperlearning.com/answer/write-the-posulates-of-the-molecular-orbital-theory/tgopwpp
 https://
socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-difference-between-bonding-and-anti-bonding-molecular-orbital
 https://www.quora.com/Why-is-the-MOT-superior-than-VBT
 https://guidancecorner.com/difference-between-vbt-and-mot/
 Zia-ur-Rehman Amjad “Inorganic Chemistry” ed.2016-2017